Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Chemistry

2014-02-19T02:43:16Z

HPadleckas: wording and link edits

'''Chemistry''' (The origin of the word is from the greek word ''chemeia'') is the study of [[Chemical structure|structure]] (inter-atomic [[Chemical bond|bonding]] in molecules), composition, and properties of matter, as well as [[Chemical reaction|reactions]] of [[chemical element]]s and [[Chemical compound|compounds]]. Along with [[physics]], chemistry is one of the [[physical science]]s. Chemistry is the modern counterpart to [[alchemy]]. Chemistry can be divided into several branches.

== Basic Concepts ==

Each Discipline of Chemistry has specific concepts that relate to it, however there are some concepts that are universal to the study of Chemistry, some of which are below:

=== Chemical Element ===

{{main|Element}}
An Element is a single type of [[atom]], and is defined by its [[Atomic Number]], or the number of protons present in the [[nucleus]] of the atom. All known elements are grouped together in the [[Periodic table of the elements]].

=== Atom ===

{{main|Atom}}
An atom is a particle of matter indivisible by chemical means [1] which form the building blocks of molecules.
In the atomic [[nucleus]] there are positively charged [[protons]] and electrically neutral [[neutrons]]. Spinning around the nucleus are negatively charged [[electrons]].

=== Molecule ===

{{main|Molecule}}
A molecule is an electronically neutral grouping of two or more atoms by [[covalent bond]]s. A molecule may contain more than one element, although this case is generally referred to as a [[compound]].

== Disciplines of Chemistry ==

* [[Organic chemistry]]- The study of chemical compounds containing [[carbon]]
* [[Inorganic chemistry]]- The study of [[inorganic compounds]]
* [[Physical chemistry]]- The application of [[Physics]] to chemical compounds and systems
* [[Analytical chemistry]]- The study and use of chemical analysis methods
* [[Biochemistry]]- The study of the chemical processes of life.
* [[Supramolecular chemistry]]- The study of non covalent bonding interactions between molecules

== Notable Chemists ==

* [[Antoine Lavoisier]]
* [[Dmitri Mendelelev]]
* [[Michael Faraday]]
* [[Linus Pauling]]
* [[Alfred Nobel]]
* [[Izaak Kolthoff]]
* [[Marie Curie]]
* [[Max Gergel]]

== See Also ==
*[[Chemistry terms]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Chemistry

2014-02-19T02:26:21Z

HPadleckas: /* Disciplines of Chemistry */ improved Analytical chemistry description

'''Chemistry''' (The origin of the word is from the greek word chemeia) is the study of structure, composition, and properties of matter, as well as the interactions of chemical elements and compounds. Along with [[physics]], chemistry is one of the physical sciences. Chemistry is the modern counterpart to [[alchemy]]. Chemistry be divided into several sub-branches.

== Basic Concepts ==

Each Discipline of Chemistry has specific concepts that relate to it, however there are some concepts that are universal to the study of Chemistry, some of which are below:

=== Element ===

{{main|Element}}
An Element is a single type of [[atom]], and is defined by its [[Atomic Number]], or the number of protons present in the [[nucleus]] of the atom. All known elements are grouped together in the [[Periodic table of the elements]].

=== Atom ===

{{main|Atom}}
An atom is a particle of matter indivisible by chemical means [1] which form the building blocks of molecules.
In the atomic [[nucleus]] there are positively charged [[protons]] and electrically neutral [[neutrons]]. Spinning around the nucleus are negatively charged [[electrons]].

=== Molecule ===

{{main|Molecule}}
A molecule is an electronically neutral grouping of two or more atoms by [[covalent bond]]s. A molecule may contain more than one element, although this case is generally referred to as a [[compound]].

== Disciplines of Chemistry ==

* [[Organic chemistry]]- The study of chemical compounds containing [[carbon]]
* [[Inorganic chemistry]]- The study of [[inorganic compounds]]
* [[Physical chemistry]]- The application of [[Physics]] to chemical compounds and systems
* [[Analytical chemistry]]- The study and use of chemical analysis methods
* [[Biochemistry]]- The study of the chemical processes of life.
* [[Supramolecular chemistry]]- The study of non covalent bonding interactions between molecules

== Notable Chemists ==

* [[Antoine Lavoisier]]
* [[Dmitri Mendelelev]]
* [[Michael Faraday]]
* [[Linus Pauling]]
* [[Alfred Nobel]]
* [[Izaak Kolthoff]]
* [[Marie Curie]]
* [[Max Gergel]]

== See Also ==
*[[Chemistry terms]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Conservapedia:Desk/Miscellany

2014-02-19T02:18:56Z

HPadleckas: /* Requesting article Move (rename) */ new section

<noinclude><center>[[Conservapedia:Desk|Back to the Desk]]</center></noinclude>
=General Messages=
Archives: [[Conservapedia:Desk/Miscellany/Archive1|1]] [[Conservapedia:Desk/Miscellany/Archive2|2]] [[Conservapedia:Desk/Miscellany/Archive3|3]]

== <hiero> tag and WikiHiero ==

Is it possible to introduce support for WikiHiero on Conservapedia? On Wikipedia it is possible to insert hieroglyphs into an article using this tag along with the WikiHiero syntax to enter the signs correctly. It'd be useful to have this feature here too.
--[[User:Krysg|Krysg]] 07:54, 10 December 2008 (EST)

== Someone is trying to steal my password ==

I recently received this E-mail:

Someone (probably you, from IP address 92.16.2.122)
requested that we send you a new password for Conservapedia (http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php).
The password for user "Kuyper" is now "[removed]".
You should log in and change your password now.
If someone else made this request or if you have remembered your password and you no longer wish to change it,
you may ignore this message and continue using your old password.

You might want to consider looking into this as hacking is a serious problem. [[User:Kuyper|Kuyper]] 16:50, 28 December 2008 (EST)

*The operative phrase is below. There wasn't any "hacking" or even "cracking" here.

<blockquote>
'''If someone else made this request or if you have remembered your password and you no longer wish to change it,
''you may ignore this message and continue using your old password.'''''
</blockquote>

--[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 21:57, 21 March 2009 (EDT)

== How to edit? ==

I read the article on Barak Obama. Basically, it is a train wreck. I am not an expert on him, but I thought I could at least take out all the snide innuendo's, and even if the artilce is much shorter, at least it will be more credible. He is, after all, the President of the United States, and deserves some minimal respect.

However, I have no idea how to edit articles on this thing, and there is just about no help or assistance. It certainly does not seem to be user friendly.

So, I am just about ready to give up.

I also read the article on Virgnia, since that is where I am from. Under the list of counties, it only had about half of them. It was a terribel article. I do not understand how this organizaiton works, but many of the articles are not vey good, and then when you invite people to edit them, how do we do it?

Sincerely

Daniel Sharp

: With all due respect, your misspellings are the worst I've seen. Please improve and then try to improve the Virginia article, with good spelling. Thanks much, and Godspeed.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 21:44, 18 January 2009 (EST)

:: As well as the links that I've just put on your user talk page, see [[Help:Contents]] for some more advice. However, that help is not designed for someone who has never edited a Wiki before. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 23:37, 18 January 2009 (EST)

:::Daniel Sharp is also user [[user talk:Lucyjordan|Lucy Jordan]]? I'm really confused here. --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 01:52, 19 January 2009 (EST)

There are some very serious problems with the entries concerning topics related to Confucianism. Many of entries are not strictly incorrect but are sufficiently superficial to be grossly misleading. When it comes to topics as foreign as Confucianism, brevity is not your friend. I will try to help, but unfortunately I do not have the time or the resources to do everything that needs doing. You need a total overhaul.

==Noah's Ark Page Locked==
I would like to create responses to the criticisms on the [[Noah's Ark]] article but the page has been locked by an administrator. The problem is that the locking admin (MountainDew/DanH) is MIA.

Can I get a little help? [[User:CherylE|CherylE]] 12:54, 29 January 2009 (EST)
: I've unlocked it. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 15:02, 29 January 2009 (EST)

== Multiple Problems ==

I've made many edits this month, but most of them have disappeared from "my contributions" and from the pages I edited. Also, many of the math pages (e.g. [[Covariance]]) can't display formulas properly. Finally, another user made an edit to my user page a while ago. But that edit has also disappeared from the record. What's going on? [[User:Sjay|Sjay]] 21:11, 30 January 2009 (EST)

*Conservapedia suffered a hard drive failure earlier this week. We restored up until the 19th, and are adding more current revisions manually, as we find them viable. Sorry for the loss, it has effected all of us. Look for bits and pieces to appear back slowly, bit by bit. --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 01:17, 31 January 2009 (EST)

:*The hard drive failure explains the missing edits, but why isn't the math environment working? The following should appear as an equation, but doesn't:

::<math>
\mbox{E}\left[T\right]=
\begin{cases}
\mu\sqrt{\frac{\nu}{2}}\frac{\Gamma((\nu-1)/2)}{\Gamma(\nu/2)}
&\nu>1\\
\mbox{Does not exist}
&\nu\le1\\
\end{cases}
</math>

:*At the moment, this problem is present on every page I've looked at ([[Linear model]], [[Normal distribution]], etc...). [[User:Sjay|Sjay]] 10:34, 31 January 2009 (EST)

:: The math problems are a problem related to moving to a new server. Other, more major issues are taking priority over the math. I'll get to is soon though. [[User:CPWebmaster|CPWebmaster]] 16:30, 3 February 2009 (EST)

== Messed up linking... ==

I created a new page for the Show hannity that took over Hannity and colmes. I'm not sure what I did, but linking to [[Hannity & Colmes]] directs to [[Hannity]]. If an admin could let me know what I did wrong so I can fix it, that would be great. Thanks.--[[User:TylerG|Tyler]] 23:58, 1 February 2009 (EST)
: Well I found the problem, [[Hannity & Colmes]] is for some reason linking to [[Hannity]] and not [[Hannity and Colmes]]...--[[User:TylerG|Tyler]] 00:04, 2 February 2009 (EST)
:: We've had problems in the past with ampersands in article names, although I thought that problem had disappeared. Perhaps it is back again. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 08:16, 3 February 2009 (EST)

== New outage? ==

The past few times I've checked the site all the pages were protected. One time was around 3PM. Was there an extension of the 1-6AM closing?
[[User:CMcFreeze|CMcFreeze]] 09:55, 8 February 2009 (EST)

:Conservapedia's editing is turned off over-night, for all but Administrators and specially righted editors. That would generally be between Midnight and 6:00AM, Eastern Standard Time, U.S. --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 17:02, 8 February 2009 (EST)

==Wikipedia==
Article [[Wikipedia]] says "Wikipedia bills itself as a democracy." However, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOT#Wikipedia_is_not_a_democracy here], Wikipedia clearly does not bill itself as a democracy. Regards, [[User:J|J]] 19:57, 21 March 2009 (EDT)

== Requested move of [[Hull City F.C.]] ==

Not sure if this is the right place, but can the article [[Hull City F.C.]] please be moved to [[Hull City A.F.C]], as that is the correct name of the club. (see the badge and the club website [http://www.hullcityafc.net/page/World/ here]. Thanks, [[User:Ozoo|Ozoo]] 14:56, 26 March 2009 (EDT)

*Done. --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 19:51, 26 March 2009 (EDT)

== How to start? ==

Just joined and want to edit an article.

If I know that part of the information is incorrect should I first describe the changes I'm going to make on the talk page or should I just go ahead and make the changes? {{Unsigned|ChrisMH -- 09:08, 1 December 2009 (EST)}}

:Glad you joined! In my totally unofficial opinion: If the article's been undergoing a lot of controversy recently, or if there's been controversy before about the issues you want to address, I'd describe the changes. If it's been undergoing a lot of editing recently, and the changes are major, I'd describe them. Otherwise, I'd go right ahead and edit; if someone objects, he can always (revert and) describe his objections. This's what I'd do; it's definitely not official policy. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 11:27, 1 December 2009 (EST)

::Chris, the important thing to remember is that encyclopedia's rely on ''facts''. '''That means having verifiable sources included with your edits.''' If you or I know something is a fact, and we add it to an article, that doesn't help other users without their ability to confirm it with a reliable source. Please check the links I placed on your talk page, including our Manual of Style for help. Our Guidelines will also be of help. Remember part of your online reputation includes not using anonymous proxies to mask your location. That said, welcome to you as well, and that is the ''official'' word on your question! --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 11:43, 1 December 2009 (EST)

I noticed your main page states "wikiproject" - I recommend changing to "pediaproject" or something along those lines; don't want to reinforce or reference wikipedia, sticking to conservapedia. sw

== Technical problem creating AT&T article ==

I've recently attempted to create an article about telephone giant [[AT&T]], but having technical difficulties. The article is created, but attempting to view the article results in an error message stating that there is no article for "AT." Basically, attempting to view "AT&T" results in "AT" being displayed. Anyway we can fix this? AT&T is the largest telephone provider worldwide, certainly worthy of an article if [[Vodafone]] is. [[User:DMorris|DMorris]] 22:21, 27 December 2009 (EST)

== Keep Needing to Reset My Password ==

I apologize if I'm posting this in the wrong place; I'm still relatively new here. After I log out every time, the next time I log in, the form says that my password is incorrect. I e-mail myself a new password, then promptly change my password to something new. The website accepts it and I log in, but after I log out and try to log back in, the same situation happens. Could this because I'm trying to log in from a blocked IP? I'm at a university campus where account creation is blocked by IP, but I spoke with TK and was cleared to create an account from my home IP. Thank you for the help! [[User:Tzoran|Tzoran]] 14:50, 1 February 2010 (EST)

== My new article. ==

Hi there. I've added the article [[Nick Clegg]]. I've researched it, and tried to make it work. I'd really appreciate if somebody would take a look and let me know if it's the right kind of style. Thank you. --[[User:Newton|Newton]] 12:21, 11 March 2010 (EST)

:Good start. I made a few changes. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 14:37, 11 March 2010 (EST)

== Regarding the UK ==

Hello. I'd like to take a serious role in the UK side of Conservapedia, and try to get some serious articles done about the United Kingdom from a proper Christian conservative point of view. Peraonlly, I think that all of the political parties in the United Kingdom are liberal.. it's just a matter of being more or less liberal. But that's just my opinion. Anyway, sorry for rambling...

If any of the administrators would like to request an article about the UK, please let me know on my talk page. I'm more than happy to accept writing assignments. Who knows? Maybe if I write enough good articles, you'll come to think of me as your 'UK Politics & Religion Editor.'

I'm going to bed now, take care. --[[User:Newton|Newton]] 23:49, 25 March 2010 (EDT)

:Thanks, Newton! Dive right in, and I am certain any of us who see the need will do as you ask and post on your talk page. I am sure many of the U.K articles we have are in need, as some I have spotted misleading information and removed it. --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 00:58, 26 March 2010 (EDT)

::Is there a way that I could possibly edit during your night-time period? Who would I speak to about this? At the moment, I can't edit before 10am. On days when I'm in class, I'm often up at 7am or 8am, and have a lot of free time to edit. --[[User:Newton|Newton]] 19:12, 26 March 2010 (EDT)

:::Sorry Newton, you have to earn that through contributions--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 19:16, 26 March 2010 (EDT)

::::Okay, that's reasonable. Thanks for your quick reply. --[[User:Newton|Newton]] 19:20, 26 March 2010 (EDT)

== Vandalism! ==

[[User:Pcook]] is on a vandalism spree, please block him!!! I can't edit the abuse reports section!
[[User:Newton|Newton]] 13:31, 29 March 2010 (EDT)

:::Wuhao1911 blocked him, thank you. I have removed all of his edits. At first I just removed the obvious vandalism, but then I noticed the blasphemous comments and that he has inserted parts into peoples' debate arguements, so it is all gone. [[User:Newton|Newton]] 13:34, 29 March 2010 (EDT)

== Vandal ==

[[User:YeVeg]] (is that how you type a username?) is engaging in excessive vandalism, some of it racist. [[User:RichardKerry|RichardKerry]] 08:04, 16 April 2010 (EDT)

== Content for Geeks ==

I've noticed that Conservapedia seems to lack some content that could be useful to geeks. Being a geek myself, I was wondering if I could write or at least recommend articles to be written or updated for the geek/technophile audience. Articles for [[HTTP]] and [[XML]] are missing entirely. Examples could be added to [[Java]], [[SQL]], and [[JavaScript]]. Finally, [[XHTML]] could probably be set as a redirect to [[HTML]] in the way [[Kitty]] redirects to [[Cat]]. This is just an idea, please don't flame me. ([[User:JlHawkwell|JlHawkwell]] 14:25, 2 August 2010 (EDT))

:You are registered here, and adding technical articles such as you suggest doesn't need permission or discussion to add, JlHawkwell. Please proceed! --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 14:35, 2 August 2010 (EDT)

== What should I edit? ==

Would you mind if I do some massive expansion of chemistry articles here? --[[User:LanthanumK|L]][[User talk:LanthanumK|K]] 10:07, 16 November 2010 (EST)

:I believe Mr. Schlafly responded to this same question on his talk page, so please proceed. --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 14:27, 16 November 2010 (EST)

== "Slug" article - Candidate For Deletion ==

I don't mean to complain, but the article "Slug" is just so embarrassingly bad in so many different ways that it should be deleted. I don't have the energy to write an article on slugs - because this thing is not really editable - somebody should start over. [[User:PaulBurnett|PaulBurnett]] 00:47, 27 November 2010 (EST)

:Looks like Karajou removed the false information that was added by vandal trolls, Paul. I think you can now delete such articles or alter them, as you see fit. :D --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 01:56, 27 November 2010 (EST)

== 403 Errors ==

I participate as a Conservative on another board. One of the members of my group has been a regular user of Conservapedia, but recently began having difficulty accessing your site. She is getting 403 errors. I would appreciate it if you would give me an e-mail address that I can pass on to her so that she may contact someone with your site in order to find out why she is being forbidden access.

Any assistance you can provide will be greatly appreciated.

Thank you.

: Contact info for this account-related issue is on the front page: conservapedia@zoho.com . Godspeed.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 00:35, 5 February 2011 (EST)

== I May Have Been Blocked but I wasn't ==

Hey. I don't know if this is the place to post this, but it didn't seem to fit into any of the other categories. A user posted on my talk page that I was blocked and didn't sign it. I have only made a few edits and am very new here and no reason was specified for the block. However, I am still able to edit pages so I don't think I was actually blocked. So what is going on? Thank you. [[User:Gregkochuconn|Gregkochuconn]] 09:39, 23 March 2011 (EDT)
:nope! you're not blocked, or you wouldn't be able to edit - the user was a vandal.--[[User:Iduan|I]][[User_talk:Iduan|Duan]] 09:41, 23 March 2011 (EDT)

== CBP compilations ==

Hello, I am trying to get the latest CBP compilations, when I click on the "click hear" it directs me to a google group i am not a part of and don't have sufficient permissions for. I downloaded the pdfs awhile back to start reading, am I obviously missing something on how to get the pdf compilations or is that out of commission?
Thank You

:Good question. The pdf compilations have been a helpful format, but I'm not sure if they are up to date. I will look into this. Thanks for the inquiry.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 23:37, 28 May 2011 (EDT)

Thank You

Hello again, Any luck on the compilations? still can't access them.

== /how do I start a new page ==

how doI start a new page?? Help??

== RSS ==

Can whoever made this site make an RSS feed for the "in the news" thing?

== Weird error on [[Bias in Wikipedia]] page ==

I'm trying to edit [[Bias in Wikipedia]]. I tried to remove an item from the list that I moved to another page, but I get this error:
<pre>
The page you wanted to save was blocked by the spam filter. This is probably caused by a link to a blacklisted external site.
The following text is what triggered our spam filter: p u e r i l e
Return to Examples of Bias in Wikipedia.
</pre>

How can I edit the page? I'm not doing anything related to that word or link. In fact I had to add spaces to the word on this page to get it to save! [[User:RickTx|RickTx]] 17:10, 26 April 2012 (EDT)
: I don't know. Maybe some automatic filter that is attempting to filter childish edits is actually filtering edits that have a synonym for childish. Let's see if this gets blocked. [[User:Gregkochuconn|Gregkochuconn]] 15:08, 22 May 2012 (EDT)

== Bias in Wikipedia Navbox Spelling error ==

Could someone please correct the spelling of "Nazism" in the Bias in Wikipedia navbox (or infobox, I always mix those up). It is spelled "Naziism" but the template is protected. When you are done, you should also move the page on Nazism, Communism, and whatever else we lumped in there to reflect the proper spelling. I don't want to do that first or it will cause problems in the interim. [[User:Gregkochuconn|Gregkochuconn]] 15:06, 22 May 2012 (EDT)

== Profanity in Proper Name ==

What should be done about a moderate profanity in a proper name? I'm trying to make an article about the 2010 New York Gubernatorial Election, but I realized that one of the parties was the "Rent is Too D*** High Party", with the censored word spelled out in the official name. Should I spell out the word, since that is the official name of the Party? Keep in mind that Jimmy McMillan, who was the party's nominee, sued the NY Board of Elections to keep that word in the Party name after they took it out for length reasons (they eventually settled out of court by shortening "Too" to "2" and keeping it under the maximum length). I don't want him suing Conservapedia if we take it out, and I wouldn't put it past him to do so. [[User:Gregkochuconn|Gregkochuconn]] 15:07, 28 May 2012 (EDT)

== Blocked and no idea how to let you know about a great article for the news ==

Blitzman: Hello, I was blocked in 2009 by TK for reasons he/she would not tell me. I saw some typos in several pages but did not want to write any articles. If I did something wrong tell me. I was Blitzman just added Blitzman7 so I could add this. I have no idea why you don't have a contact us area?!?! I wanted to tell you to post this news article on the main page if you want: http://www.theblaze.com/stories/creationists-convince-south-korean-officials-to-remove-evolutionary-references-from-high-school-textbooks/

If this does not post I give up.

==Image Request==

Hi. I added the "Articles in Need of an Image" tag to my article http://www.conservapedia.com/Full_Asylum about a week ago but it doesn't seem to have been uploaded yet. Did I miss something?

Thanks,
Mike

==Page Rename==

Can someone with the appropriate administrator powers please rename [[Midnight Solstice The Near Nirvana Oras]] to "Midnight Solstice The Near Nirvana Auras"? I'm sorry but in the heat of the moment I had a little lapse in judgement and made that typo. Thanks.--[[User:Mikon8er|Mikon8er]] 02:56, 12 December 2012 (EST)
:::Done. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 10:48, 12 December 2012 (EST)

== Double redirects ==

The following pages are double redirects, but are locked to prevent editing:

*[[Operation Odyssey Dawn]]
*[[Libyan uprising 2011]]
*[[Muslim agenda of the Obama administration- 2012]]

Could these be unlocked or fixed? Thank you.--[[User:JLauttamus|Jeff W. Lauttamus]][[User_talk:JLauttamus|Discussion]] 09:11, 15 December 2012 (EST)

:Fixed now. Thanks for pointing it out. [[User:Taj|Taj]] 13:46, 15 December 2012 (EST)

==Page Rename==
Can someone with sufficient privileges move "[[Burj_Dubai]]" to "Burj Khalifa"? At it's opening ceremony, that's what the tower was renamed. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/article-1240729/Burj-Dubai-tallest-building-world-renamed-Burj-Khalifa.html Burj Dubai, the tallest building in the world, opens and is renamed Burj Khalifa]

Thanks. --[[User:Mikon8er|Mikon8er]] 21:10, 26 December 2012 (EST)
:Dome :) [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 21:15, 26 December 2012 (EST)

== Wanted Pages ==

The Wanted Pages page is apparently a dead link now. Either that or there was a problem retrieving it, but I've been trying all morning to no avail. -- [[User:JLauttamus|JLauttamus]][[User_talk:JLauttamus|Talk]] 10:03, 18 January 2013 (EST)

== I think a user named Markr may be a troll. ==

An event that is truly supernatural could not be used to prove the existance of a specific God. To prove it was a supernatural event would mean to falsify EVERY natural explanation and would therefore require knowing everything including the knowledge that there is nothing left to know. Religions that tolerate other religions are admitting that they may be wrong and the God they worship might be a fake. Markr 12:26, 5 October 2008 (EDT)

The above quote comes from Markr. I may be wrong, but he seems to be trying to subtly say "you cannot prove God". Despite the large amount of Biblical scientific knowledge and all the prophecies that have come through. This sounds like he is subtly suggesting that he is not Christan. If not Vhristan then what is he? Hindu? Muslim? Atheist? Check what religion he says he is on his page and ask him about it. I do not want to cause trouble, I just want to help.

== Reasonless has a liberal bias. ==

Individual freedoms...Except when they contradict an obscure biblical passage? Or individual freedoms, except when they make soccer moms mildly queasy? Or individual freedoms except that person isn't an American, so why should they have freedoms? I strongly disagree that conservatism is based on individual freedoms. --Reasonless 23:43, 23 March 2008 (EDT)

The above passage is from a talk page. As you can clearly see, Reasonless is clearly making a mistake about Consrvative Philosphy. P,ease correct him about it.

== Splitting one article into two articles ==

Is there a way to split one article into two articles, leaving the same prior edit history in both and then letting the edit history diverge after the time of splitting as individual edits are made to either of the split articles? [[User:HPadleckas|HPadleckas]] 09:40, 18 February 2014 (EST)

== Requesting article Move (rename) ==

I request that the article [[Analytic chemistry]] be moved (renamed) to [[Analytical chemistry]] (currently a Redirect), which actually the name used for this field. Up to this point, I have not found a place in Conservapedia to request an article Move (renaming) better than this page. Although I could copy and paste the contents to the target page, that would not preserve the edit history in [[Analytic chemistry]].

I have degrees in chemistry (one from an well-established Catholic university) and have been an analytical chemist and otherwise involved with chemistry in my career. I have '''not''' heard of analytical chemistry being called "analytic chemistry" nor an analytical chemist being called an "analytic chemist". Furthermore, I did an internet search for both "analytical chemistry" and "analytic chemistry" and found the following results:

analytical chemistry - 18,100,000 results

analytic chemistry - 1,250,000 results

Furthermore, a scan of the first page or two of the "analytic chemistry" results shows the term "analytical chemistry" is used even in these results.
This topic is covered in articles or pages called "Analytical chemistry" in both Wikipedia, Citizendium, a Royal Society of Chemistry wiki called "Learning Chemistry" and a UCDavis ChemWiki site, all of which I'm a member. [[User:HPadleckas|HPadleckas]] 21:18, 18 February 2014 (EST)

Conservapedia:Desk/afd

2014-02-19T00:41:29Z

HPadleckas: removed one already deleted article

* [[Polyphymnia]] (test)

Chess

2014-02-18T15:05:02Z

HPadleckas: updated World Chess Champion

[[Image:Staunton chess set.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A typical chess set and tournament clock.]]

'''Chess''' is a turn-based [[board game]] for two players, and is one of the most popular games in the world. The goal of the game is to place the opposing king into ''checkmate'', that is, a position in which the king is under attack but cannot escape. The game used to be treated as a status symbol of education and aristocracy.

Modern international chess has a powerful, sweeping [[queen]] who was not a piece provided in the original game. The long reach of bishops today was also lacking at first. Maneuvers such as castling or capturing ''en passant'' have been developed within the past few hundred years.

Today, chess is one of the most popular board games in the world. International competitions, including world [[champion]]ship events, are organized by an organization called FIDE and American competition organized by the USCF ([[United States Chess Federation]]). The only American world champion was [[Bobby Fischer]], although [[Paul Morphy]] of [[Louisiana]] was likely the strongest player in the world in the 1850s, before a formal world champion was determined. The current World Chess Champion is [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Magnus Carlsen]]. Prior to that, the world champion was [[India|Indian]] [[Viswanathan Anand|Viswanathan "Vishy" Anand]].

==Origins==
[[File:Alma Tadema Egyptian Chess Players 1865.jpg|thumb|[[Sir Lawrence Alma Tadema]], Egyptian Chess Players, 1865.]]
Chess has its roots in [[India]], where a game called Shaturanga was played. The earliest extant description of the game is contained in the [[Bhavishya Purana]], which dates from A.D. 300 to A.D. 600. Shaturanga used [[dice]], but [[Hinduism]] bans gambling. As a result, the game of chess developed free from any dice or chance. The exact rules of Shaturanga are not known, but the game developed further in Persia into something very like its modern form. The Persian game Shatranj - which remains popular in the middle east today - is nearly identical to modern chess. By A.D. 1200 the game reached southern Europe, and in the late fifteenth century the Europeans adopted a number of changes: the queen, which had formerly been a very weak piece, became the strongest piece on the board, and allowing pawns to move two squares on the first move became standard. These changes had the effect of speeding up play, and they brought the game into the form we know today.

There has been some speculation that chess has roots in [[China]]. It's clear that chess is in some way related to [[XiangQi]] (Chinese Chess) and [[Shogi]] (Japanese Chess), but scholars disagree about whether either of these variants predates Shaturanga.

==The Board==
The chess board is a square, divided into 64 smaller squares arranged in eight rows of eight. The squares are alternating light and dark, with a light square in the bottom right hand corner.

The horizontal rows of squares are referred to as "ranks" and the vertical rows are referred to as "files".

==Pieces==
[[Image:StauntonPieces.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Staunton Style chess pieces. From left to right: King, Queen, Bishop, Knight, Rook, and Pawn.]]
Each player has a total of 16 pieces; 8 pawns, 2 knights, 2 bishops, 2 rooks, 1 queen, and 1 king. 

===Relative Value of Pieces===
There are several different ideas about the relative value of the pieces. It is important to note that the "points" used to assign a value to each piece are hypothetical and do not constitute a score; they are merely an attempt to quantify the relative power that each piece can hypothetically exert upon the board.

The method most often used is:
*[[Image:chesspawn.jpg|20px]] Pawn--1
*[[Image:chessknight.jpg|20px]] Knight--3 (some say 2.5, as Knights are generally regarded as slightly inferior to Bishops in many middlegame and endgame situations)
*[[Image:chessbishop.jpg|20px]] Bishop--3
*[[Image:chessrook.jpg|20px]] Rook--5
*[[Image:chessqueen.jpg|20px]] Queen--9
*[[Image:chessking.jpg|20px]] King--Priceless, since its loss means the loss of the game. However, as an active piece in the endgame it is usually considered to have a value of 3.
 (The value to the player of some pieces will actually vary during the course of the game, for instance, in an endgame, the King has an attacking power of about 3)

===Style===
The most popular style of pieces are known as Staunton style pieces, the tournament standard for chess pieces, although other types exist. Often, popular themed chess sets will appear with characters from [[popular culture]] or [[fiction]] taking the places of the more common Staunton style pieces. These novelty pieces are not tournament sanctioned however, and can sometimes cause confusion during game play as to which piece is which.

Although chess pieces can come in a variety of materials, [[marble]] and [[glass]] tend to be very popular, but for most chess tournaments, simple [[plastic]] pieces are usually favored. Also, while many home chess sets use heavy boards made out of [[wood]] or [[stone]] or some [[polymer]] material, tournament boards are actually roll-able mats with the board printed on it.

==Gameplay ==

The object of the game is to checkmate the other player's '''King''' before he checkmates your king. When a pawn reaches the far side of the board, it may be promoted to any other piece (except a King).

*The players alternate moving until the game has ended.
*The player with the White pieces always moves first.

===Initial Conditions===
The pieces are put on the board in each player's side as follows:
*In the first row from left to right (with the leftmost square being black): '''rook''', '''knight''', '''bishop''', '''queen''', '''king''', '''bishop''', '''knight''' and '''rook'''.
*The second row is filled with '''pawns'''.

===Movement===
The pieces move as follows.
*The '''pawn''' moves one square forward, except when moving from its opening position, when it can optionally move two. The pawn is the only piece that captures in a way different from the way it moves. It captures opposing pieces by capturing one square diagonally forward. When another piece is on the square directly in front of a pawn it cannot move unless it is making a capture. 
*The '''knight''', which is the only piece that can jump over other pieces, moves one square in one straight direction and two in the other. 
*The '''bishop''' can move as many squares as desired diagonally. 
*The '''rook''' can move as many squares as desired in a straight direction. 
*The '''queen''' is the most powerful piece in the board. It can move as many squares as desired (without jumping over another piece), either straight or diagonally. 
*The '''king''', which is the most important piece on the board, moves one square, either straight or diagonally.

====Capturing====

All pieces except for the pawn capture along their lines of motion. A capture is made by moving a piece to a square occupied by one of the opponent's pieces, and removing the opponent's piece from the board. If a piece can move to occupy the location of an opponent's piece, it can capture that piece. The '''pawn''', can only capture by moving diagonally forward one square. A piece is said to be undefended if it has no piece "supporting" its position - i.e., preventing an opponent from capturing it by threat of losing his attacking piece.

====Special Moves====
*'''Castling'''- When a player has no pieces between a rook and his king, and he has not moved either piece, he can move the king two squares in the direction of the rook, and then place the rook on the square that the king passed over. A player cannot castle if the King is currently in check, would be in check after castling, or would move through a square which is under attack.
*'''en passant'''- French for "In passing." In chess, if a player pushes his pawn far down to the end of the board, and his opponent pushes a starting pawn 2 spaces ahead, to put the pawn on the same row to avoid confrontation, the player may choose to invoke the "en passant" move, which treats the enemy pawn as though it had only moved one space. The player may capture diagonally on the square '''behind''' the enemy pawn, and remove the enemy pawn. The principle is that the two space rule for a pawn's first move cannot be used to avoid confrontation between two pawns. However, the player may only invoke "en passant" on the first turn after the opponent pushes his pawn. He cannot make it after that turn.

===The end of the game===
A chess game may end in a number of ways.
*'''Checkmate''': The winning player checkmates his opponent's King (see below).
*'''Resignation''': The losing player, facing an inevitable future checkmate, ''resigns'' rather than play out an extended series of hopeless moves. A player may indicate resignation by toppling his king on its side.
*'''Loss on Time''': In games with a time limit, a player may lose by failing to make a time control, causing his clock to run out.
*'''Draw''': The game may end in a draw, in which case neither player wins.

====Checkmate====
Checkmate is achieved when the following conditions are met.
* The King is ''in check''; that is, it is directly attacked by an opponent's piece.
* Every square that the King can move to is also attacked by an opponent's piece.
* The Piece that is attacking the King cannot be captured.
* Another Piece cannot be interposed between the attacking piece and the King to block the check.
When a King is checkmated, the game is over, and the player initiating the checkmate is the winner.

====Draw====
There are several ways that the game can end in a draw.
*'''Stalemate''': A player is said to be ''stalemated'' when he cannot make a legal move, and is not in check.
*'''Draw by agreement''': The players mutually agree to a draw. In competitive chess, a player may make a draw offer after he has made his move, but before he has started his opponent's clock.
*'''Draw by repetition''': Either player may claim a draw if the same position has appeared on the board three times. The three occasions need not be consecutive.
*'''50 move rule''': Either player may claim a draw if fifty moves have transpired without a capture or a pawn move.

==Notation==
Chess notation is used to record the moves of a chess game. This has several uses. Notation can be used to record games for review at a later time. There are two major methods of chess notation, Algebraic and Descriptive.

====For all forms of Notation====
The notation for a chess game is taken like this. At the top of the page are the players — white listed first — with their names under their colors. Numbers go down the left side of the page to indicate the move number. (see below) 
White, Black 
Name Name
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

Moves are recorded in columns, separated by commas.

Space is usually allotted on the top of tournament scoresheets to record the date and location of the game, and sometimes to record the time limit and opening name.

=====Pieces=====
Each piece is designated by its corresponding letter as follows: 
K = King 
Q = Queen 
R = Rook 
B = Bishop 
N = Knight (notice 'K' is reserved for the King) 
P = Pawn

(In strict chess parlance, the pawns are not considered pieces; officially, a standard chess set consists of sixteen pieces and sixteen pawns.)

=====Moves=====
- Moves to
x Captures
+ Check
++ Checkmate
0-0 Castles king-side
0-0-0 Castles queen-side
e.p. en passant
/ to indicate which square a piece moved from (only when needed to clarify)
/Q Pawn promotion. (use /Q for queen, /R for rook, etc.)
! A good move
!! A very good move
!? An interesting move
?! A dubious move
? A questionable move
?? A blunder

===Algebraic===
Algebraic is the most commonly used method of notation. [[Image:Chessboardanote1.jpg|right]]

====The Board====
In algebraic notation, each file is assigned a letter, and each rank is assigned a number. Each square is designated by the letter and number from it's rank and file. a1 is the square in the bottom left corner for the white player.

====Movement====
Moves are recorded by indicating the piece to be moved and the square it is to be moved to, sometimes using a hyphen (-). For example, if white wants to move his Kingside Knight towards the center of the board to start the game, the notation would be:
White Black
1. Nf3, ....

or

White Black
1. N-f3, ....

In algebraic notation, a P is not used to indicate the pawn. A pawn move is implied when no piece is indicated. So if white wants to advance his king pawn 2 squares, and black responds by advancing his king pawn 2 squares, the notation would be:
White Black
1. e4, e5,
2. ....

Occasionally, two pieces of the same type can move to the same square. To eliminate ambiguity, the unique rank or file of the moving piece is identified after the piece symbol. For example, suppose both of Black's Rooks are on the 8th rank (on the squares f8 and a8), and there are no pieces in between them. Black moves the f8 Rook to d8. In other circumstances, the move would be annotated
17. .... Rd8
but because either Rook could have moved to d8, the identifying file for the f8 Rook must be included, as in
17. .... Rfd8

====Captures====
Captures by a piece or pawn are indicated by first transcribing the symbol for the piece performing the capture, followed by an 'x', followed by the square the capturing piece or pawn moved to. For example, if White uses his Queen to capture a piece on the square h7 on move 23, the correct notation is
23. Qxh7, ....

Because pawns are not designated with a symbol, the system is slightly different for pawn captures. The file originally occupied by the pawn is used to identify the pawn performing the capture. If a black pawn on e5 captures a white piece or pawn on d4 on move 5, the notation is
5. ...., exd4

===Descriptive===
In the more archaic descriptive notation, squares are described according to the starting piece positions. The square originally occupied by the Rook on the Queenside is referred to as "Queen's Rook One" (QR1), while "Queen's Rook Four" is the square directly in front of the Queen's Rook on the fourth rank. Thus, a typical opening move is described as "Pawn to King Four", and is written as
1. P-K4, ....

Note that in descriptive notation, pawns have the designation 'P'. The notation's disadvantages become apparent over the course of a complex game, especially because the same square has different names depending on the perspective of the White and Black pieces. King's Bishop Three (KB3) for White is King's Bishop Six (KB6) for Black.

Captures in descriptive notation operate similar to algebraic notation; for example,

45. .... R-xQN7

means that on his 45th move, Black captured a piece or pawn on his Queen's Knight Seven square (the b2 square in algebraic notation).

Although this method of recording is seldom used, it is advisable for new players to be familiar with it because many older text books use it.

==Tactics and strategy==
Chess players often refer to shorter, forcing sequences of moves that lead to clear advantages as ''tactics'', while moves designed to create or nurture long-term advantages are called ''strategic.''

For more information on specific tactics, see [[chess tactics]]. For more information on specific strategic themes, see [[chess strategies]].
=== Chess vs. Go ===

While chess is extremely popular strategic and tactical game in the [[Western World]], [[Go (game)|go]] is more popular in the Eastern World.

David Lai wrote on the difference between chess and go:
{{cquote|The philosophy behind chess is to win decisively. For the winner, victory is absolute, as is defeat for the loser. In chess, both players have the same clear and overriding objective―capturing the opposing king―and accomplish this objective by decimating whatever opposing forces are standing in the way. In go, total victory usually happens between two mismatched players. That kind of victory, as [[Sun Tzu]] puts it, is not the pinnacle of excellence. In a go game between two well-matched players, the margin between win and lose is usually very small, often decided by only a few points. The philosophy behind go therefore is to compete for relative gain rather than seeking complete annihilation of the opponent’s forces. It is dangerous to play go with the chess mindset. One can become overly aggressive so that he will stretch his force thin and expose his vulnerable parts in the battlefields.

In chess, the focus is on the king. All the moves are geared toward checking the king. In designs to capture the king, chess players always try to eliminate the powerful pieces such as the queen, knight, castle, and bishop. Chess players typically focus on these powerful military units as the ‘center of gravity’ and ‘decisive point’ (in [[Carl von Clausewitz|Clausewitz]] and [[Antoine-Henri Jomini|Jomini]]’s terms). Naturally, chess players are single-minded. In go, it is a war with multiple campaigns and battlefields. There is no one single focus on the board. A go player must always keep the whole situation in mind. Attacking the opponent’s strategy therefore is much more appropriate in go. As a prolonged and complex game, go players focus on building or creating rather than chess players’ emphases on removal and destruction.” <ref>[David Lai, “''Learning From The Stones: A Go Approach To Mastering China’s Strategic Concept, Shi'', pp. 28-29</ref>}}

Another major difference between chess and go is that in go matches there is always a winner and a loser as there are no drawn games.

==Chess Variants==
There are a number of games based on chess with rule variations, and these are referred to as ''chess variants''. One of the most popular of these is ''Bughouse'', a partner-based game in which a player who captures his opponent's piece can give it to a partner on another board to drop on a square of his choosing. Another is ''Kriegspiel'', a game in which a player can see his pieces but not that of his opponent. <ref>http://www.chessvariants.com/incinf.dir/kriegspiel.html</ref> A simpler variant is ''Antichess'', which is also called ''Suicide chess'', in which a player must make a capturing move if any legal captures exist on the board, and in which the goal is to run out of pieces first.

In 1996, [[Bobby Fischer]] introduced a variant called FischerRandom Chess, which involves scrambling the positions of the pieces on the first and eighth ranks before starting play. A number of rules govern the precise manner in which the pieces can be arranged; for example, the king must be somewhere between the two rooks, so that castling to either side is still possible, and the black and white positions must mirror one another. The rules provide for 960 possible starting positions, and for this reason the game is sometimes called Chess960. Fischer hoped his variant would encourage creative thinking and avoid the memorization associated with opening play in modern chess.

==Computer Chess==
Deep Blue, a computer developed by IBM, was the first computer engine to beat a human world champion in 1997, when it defeated [[Garry Kasparov]] in a six game series. This series was a rematch of 1996 series which Kasparov won, although Deep Blue had been upgraded since the first series. It should be noted that during this second match, Deep Blue was also upgraded between games to avoid falling into the same type of trap more than once.

Chess engines have increased in strength in recent years to the point where humans are falling behind. In 2005, Michael Adams, one of the top fifteen players in the world, played a six game match against the engine Hydra, and lost five games with only one draw. Chess writer Eric Schiller, who uses computer assistance in writing his books, admits that "computers have taken some of the fun out of (chess)." Despite this, chess remains far from being a [[solved game]].

==External links==
*[http://www.fide.com/ FIDE] - World Chess Federation
*[http://www.uschess.org USCF] - United States Chess Federation
*[http://www.iccf.com/ ICCF] - International Correspondence Chess Federation
*[http://www.chess-players.org/eng/index.html ACP] - Association of Chess Professionals
*[http://www.freechess.org FICS] - Free Internet Chess Server

Online chess:

*[http://www.chess.com/ Chess.com]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Chess]]

Conservapedia:Desk/afd

2014-02-18T14:48:45Z

HPadleckas: suggesting Nucleo Magnetic Resonance as Article for deletion

* [[Polyphymnia]] (test)
* [[Nucleo Magnetic Resonance]]

Conservapedia:Desk/Miscellany

2014-02-18T14:40:55Z

HPadleckas: /* Splitting one article into two articles */ new section

History of Chicago

2014-02-18T06:51:46Z

HPadleckas: /* Business */ clarified statement on trial of Insull

==Before 1900==
Chicago's locational advantage is the link between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River system. Its first permanent resident, [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]], a Frenchman of West Indian and African descent, and operated an fur-trading 1780-1800. The U.S. government erected Fort Dearborn in 1803 three years later. In the [[War of 1812]] it was captured by Indians and the residents were massacred. After 1830 the rich farmlands of Northern Illinois attracted Yankee settlers. Yankee real estate operators crated a city overnight in the 1830s. Hundreds of wagons a day of farm produce arrived, so the entrepreneurs built grain elevators and docks to load ships bound for points east. By the 1850s the railroads made Chicago a major hub with over 30 lines. The main lines from the East ended in Chicago, and those oriented to the West began in Chicago, so the city became the nation's trans-shipment and warehousing center by 1860. Factories were created, most famously the harvester factory opened in 1847 by [[Cyrus Hall McCormick]]. The Wisconsin forests supported the mill-work and lumber business; the Illinois hinterland provided the wheat, as well as hogs and cattle that were slaughtered, preserved in salt and shipped east; by 1870 refrigerated cars allowed fresh meat to be shipped.
[[File:Chicago Art Institute..JPG|thumb|left|Chicago Art Institute.]]
As the city grew large numbers of Irish Catholics and Germans arrived. Their saloons became the focus of attacks by the Know-Nothing Party, which was anti-immigration and anti-liquor, and called for the purification of politics by reducing the power of the saloon-keepers. In 1855, the new party elected Levi Boone mayor and he banned Sunday sales of liquor and beer, angering the Germans who frequented beer gardens, and Irish who frequented saloons. Law enforcement resulted in the Lager Beer Riot of April 1855, which erupted outside a courthouse where eight Germans were being tried for liquor ordinance violations. After the Civil War, saloons became community centers only for local ethnic men, as reformers saw them as places that incited riotous behavior and moral decay.

===Newspapers===
Late-19th-century big city newspapers such as the ''Chicago Daily News'' - founded in 1875 by Melville E. Stone - ushered in an era of news reporting that was, unlike earlier periods, in tune with the particulars of community life in specific cities. Vigorous competition between older and newer-style city papers soon broke out, centered on civic activism and sensationalist reporting of urban political issues and the numerous problems associated with rapid urban growth. In Chicago competition was especially fierce between the ''Chicago Times'' (Democratic), the ''Chicago Tribune,'' (Republican) and the ''Daily News'' (independent), with the latter becoming the city's most popular paper by the 1880s.<ref>David Paul Nord, "Read All about It"" ''Chicago History'' 2002 31(1): 26-57. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

==1900-1945==
[[File:Chicago up town theatre.jpg|thumb|Up Town Theatre.]]
===Business===
[[Samuel Insull]] (1859 – 1938), born poor in England, built a great electrical empire in the city (notably "Commonwealth Edison", a giant utility formed in 1907<ref>It is now part of Exelon Corporation, and serves 3.8 million customers in Chicago and northern Illinois.</ref>) and electrified much of the Midwest, 1910-1929. His empire collapsed in the Great Depression, for which he was blamed and put on trial by the U.S. Government, but was acquitted.

Chicago, along with New York, was the center of the nation's advertising industry. [[Albert Lasker]] (1880-1952), known as the "father of modern advertising" made Chicago his base 1898-1942. As head of Lord and Thomas, Lasker devised a copywriting technique that appealed directly to the psychology of the consumer. Women seldom smoked cigarettes; he told them if they smoked Lucky Strikes they could stay slender. Lasker's use of radio, particularly with his campaigns for Palmolive soap, Pepsodent toothpaste, Kotex products, and Lucky Strike cigarettes, not only revolutionized the advertising industry but also significantly changed popular culture.

===Labor===
After 1900 Chicago was a heavily unionized city, apart from the factories (which were non-union until the 1930s). The unionized teamsters in Chicago enjoyed an unusually strong bargaining position when they contended with employers around the city. Their wagons could easily be positioned to disrupt streetcars and block traffic. In addition, their families and neighborhood supporters often surrounded the wagons of nonunion teamsters and made strikebreaking a very unpleasant endeavor. When the teamsters used their clout to engage in sympathy strikes, employers decided to coordinate their anti-union efforts, claiming that the teamsters held tyrannical power over commerce in their control of the streets. The teamsters' strike in 1905 represented a clash both over labor issues and the public nature of the streets. To the employers the streets were arteries for commerce, while to the teamsters they remained public spaces integral to their neighborhoods.<ref>David Witwer, "Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-century City." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(1): 183-222. Issn: 0145-5532 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]
</ref>

===Disasters===
[[File:Chicago fire.jpg|thumb|left|The great Chicago Fire, October, 1871.]]
The [[Great Chicago Fire]] occurred in October 1871.

On December 7, 1903, the "absolutely fireproof," five-week-old Iroquois Theater was destroyed by fire in Chicago. The fire lasted less than thirty minutes; however, 602 people died as a result of being burned, asphyxiated, or trampled.<ref> Anthony P. Hatch, "Inferno at the Iroquois." ''Chicago History'' 2003 32(2): 4-31. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

The cruise ship ''Eastland'' capsized at its pier on a calm day, July 24, 1915, killing over 800 passengers. It was top-heavy because of new federal laws (passed in response to the Titanic) requiring lifeboats.<ref> George W. Hilton, ''Eastland: Legacy of the Titanic.'' (1995). </ref>

Our Lady of the Angels School fire occurred on December 1, 1958. There occurred 95 deaths, mostly of children.

A major environmental disaster came in July 1995, with 739 heat-related deaths after one week of record high heat and humidity.<ref> Christopher R. Browning; Wallace, Danielle; Feinberg, Seth L.; and Cagney, Kathleen A.; Klinenberg, Eric (Reply). "Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and Disaster-related Mortality: the Case of the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave." ''American Sociological Review'' 2006 71(4): 661-678. Issn: 0003-1224 </ref>

===Crime===
By 1900, [[Progressive Era]] political and legal reformers initiated far-ranging changes in the American criminal justice system, with Chicago taking the lead. Violent crime rates were high yet law enforcers rarely convicted killers, more than three-fourths of whom went unpunished. Even in homicide cases in which the identity of killers was certain and the police made arrests, jurors typically exonerated or acquitted killers. A blend of gender-, race-, and class-based notions of justice trumped the rule of law, producing low homicide conviction rates during a period of soaring violence.<ref> Jeffrey S. Adler, "'It Is His First Offense. We Might as Well Let Him Go': Homicide and Criminal Justice in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Social History'' 2006 40(1): 5-24. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] and [[Project Muse]]</ref>

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rates of domestic murder tripled in Chicago. Domestic homicide was often a manifestation of strains in gender relations induced by urban and industrial change. At the core of such family murders were male attempts to preserve masculine authority. Yet, there were nuances in the motives for the murder of family members, and study of the patterns of domestic homicide among ethnic groups reveals basic cultural differences. German immigrants tended to murder over declining status and the failure to achieve economic prosperity. In addition, they were likely to kill all members of the family and then commit suicide in the ultimate attempt at maintaining control. Italian men killed family members to save a gender-based ideal of respectability that entailed patriarchal control over women and family reputation. African Americans, like the Germans, often murdered in response to economic conditions but not over desperation about the future. Like the Italians, the killers tended to be young, but family honor was not usually at stake. Instead, black men murdered to regain control of wives and lovers who resisted their patriarchal "rights."<ref> Adler, "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." 2003 </ref>

Progressive reformers in the business community created the Chicago Crime Commission (CCC) in 1919 after an investigation into the robbery at a factory showed the city's criminal justice system was deficient. The CCC initially served as a watchdog of the justice system. However, after a suggestion that the justice system begin collecting criminal records was rejected, the CCC assumed a more active role in fighting crime. The commission's role expanded even further after Frank J. Loesch became president in 1928. Loesch recognized the need to eliminate the glamour that Chicago's media typically attributed to criminals. Determined to expose the horrors and violence of the crime world, Loesch drafted a list of public enemies and turned Al Capone into a scapegoat for society's evils.<ref>Bill Barnhart, "Public Enemies: Chicago Origins of Personalized Anticrime Campaigns." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2001 4(4): 258-270. Issn: 1522-0532 </ref>

===Black migration===
[[File:Chicago musician.jpg|thumb|Chicago musician.]]
Chicago's black population swelled dramatically during World War I as immigration from Europe was impossible and factories demanded more and more war workers. Whites got the factory jobs, but many opportunities opened for black men and women. Economic conditions for the city's blacks during the 1920s were much better than in the South, but were also characterized by chronic unemployment and low wage rates. Many families living below the poverty line. These conditions were caused primarily by employers' discriminatory hiring and promotion policies, a surplus of labor at a time of continued black migration from the South, and residential segregation in the African American neighborhoods of Chicago. Consequently, the economic conditions that brought about political radicalization and realignment of African Americans during the 1930s, and which are associated primarily with the Great Depression, were in evidence throughout much of the 1920s. Accordingly, the Great Migration of the 1910s and 1920s, rather than being seen largely as a phenomenon associated with World War I, takes on greater significance in terms of its economic and political repercussions in black Chicago in the years before the depression.<ref>Gareth Canaan, "'Part of the Loaf': Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class During the 1920's." ''Journal of Social History'' 2001 35(1): 147-174. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]] </ref>

===Polonia===
Chicago's [[Polish Americans|Polonia]] sustained diverse political cultures, each with its own newspaper. In 1920 the community had a choice of five daily papers - from the Socialist ''Dziennik Ludowy'' [People's daily] (1907-25) to the Polish Roman Catholic Union's ''Dziennik Zjednoczenia'' [Union daily] (1921-39) - all of which supported workers' struggles for better working conditions and were part of a broader program of cultural and educational activities. The decision to subscribe to a particular paper reaffirmed a particular ideology or institutional network based on ethnicity and class, which lent itself to different alliances and different strategies.<ref>Jon Bekken, "Negotiating Class and Ethnicity: the Polish-language Press in Chicago." ''Polish American Studies'' 2000 57(2): 5-29. Issn: 0032-2806 </ref>

===Great Depression===
==Since 1940==
===Politics===
Many recent [[mayor]]s of Chicago belonged to the [[Democratic Party]]. The current mayor of Chicago is [[Rahm Emanuel]]. Before him, [[Richard M. Daley]] (b. 1942), who was elected in 1989, was mayor until 2011. His father, [[Richard J. Daley]] (1902-1976), was mayor from 1955-1976, and controlled the powerful Cook County Democratic organization, called "the machine." <ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Daley2.html</ref> Current President [[Barack Obama]] spent his politically formative years as a city planner "foot soldier" for the Democratic machine, an experience that deeply affected his political methods and radical beliefs later in life.

The city hosted the 1968 [[Democratic National Convention]] when [[Richard J. Daley]] was mayor. The convention was disrupted by radicals such as [[Abbie Hoffman]].

Holli (1999) argues that the political regime of Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley during 1955-76 was unusually stable during an era of national instability because Daley kept firm control of the governmental machinery, which slowed change to a manageable pace and had a deep and profound appeal to Chicagoans. Ethnic and racial squabbling erupted after Daley's death in 1976 and continued through the tenures of four mayors, even as the rest of the nation entered a period of greater political stability. After the transitory tenure of interim mayor Eugene Sawyer, the years of political instability ended with the 1989 election of the former boss's son, Richard M. Daley. Young Daley's election marked a return to political calm seen, in the light of equilibrium theory, as inevitable after the tumultuous years that preceded it.<ref> Melvin G. Holli, "Political Equilibrium and the Daley Eras in Chicago." ''Continuity'' 1999 (23): 83-96. Issn: 0277-1446 </ref>

===Public housing===
The Robert Taylor Homes (RTH), part of Chicago's public housing projects financed by the federal government, opened in 1962. As the largest US public housing project, RTH consisted of 28 high-rises of 16 floors each, providing homes for 27,000 people. By 1965, RTH was already substandard and crime-ridden. Through the 1970s, RTH became predominantly single-mother welfare households. During site selection, the size of the project kept increasing. Federal cost worries forced the use of the high-rise design. Minors so outnumbered adults at RTH from the beginning that gangs, vandalism, and other crimes quickly became endemic. RTH was too large to administer effectively. Substandard systems, including elevators, plumbing, and heating, insufficient police protection, and the demographic burden on local schools were instrumental in RTH's failure.<ref> D. Bradford Hunt, "What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes." ''Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society'' 2001 94(1): 96-123. Issn: 1522-1067; Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002). </ref> Since then, the Robert Taylor Homes have been demolished.

====Japanese====
[[File:Chicago Street violin musician.JPG|thumb|left|Street violin musician.]]
In 1942-43 60,000 Nisei (born in U.S. of Japanese parents) were removed from the West Coast relocation camps and resettled in distant cities. 20,000 came to Chicago. In contrast to their self-contained, West-coast lifestyle, the Nisei in Chicago attempted to more fully integrate themselves in the community. This permitted many to take advantage of their racial "inbetweenness" to fill labor shortages caused by the war. Nisei used this "twilight zone" status between blacks and whites to distance themselves from blacks, frequently adopting the language of racial prejudice to heighten distinctions. Most Nisei successfully shed their ethnic identity in Chicago, amalgamated into the white community and stayed in the city.<ref> Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945." ''Journal of American History'' 2000 86(4): 1655-1687. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200003)86%3A4%3C1655%3AITTZBB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S and Jstor]]</ref>

====Hispanic immigrants====
Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II. Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975." PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp. DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M. Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago." PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp. DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079
Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

==Schools==
Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in Jstor]]</ref>
[[File:Chicago River Saint Patricks Day.jpg|thumb|left|Chicago River, Saint Patricks Day.]]
As a politician and as Chicago's black mayor (1983-87), [[Harold Washington]] maintained a distinctive strategy toward reform of public schools.<ref> Jim Carl, "Harold Washington and Chicago's Schools Between Civil Rights and the Decline of the New Deal Consensus, 1955-1987." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2001 41(3): 311-343. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(200123)41%3A3%3C311%3AHWACSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in Jstor]]</ref> Rather than focus on integration (bringing whites and minorities into the same schools), Washington favored measures to strengthen local schools, especially in minority neighborhoods. He called for more state support to urban schools in place of property taxes and more power to local groups to influence curriculum and the quality of teaching. In 1987 the teacher strike transformed educational problems into a crisis. Washington created the Parent Community Council from local groups and arranged for a summit with their representatives and those of business, school administration, and teachers. His death in 1987 unraveled the deliberations for change that had been taking place. The schools were so beset by violence, teacher shortages, and inadequate financing that few disagreed with the brutal verdict of U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] in 1987, "Chicago's public schools are the worst in the nation." In the late 1990s, the realization that busing had become unrealistic caused Chicago's political leaders and community activists to join together in focusing attention and resources on improving neighborhood schools. Mayor Richard M. Daley seized control of the school system in 1995 and promised drastic reforms. However, the legislature largely left in place elected councils made up of parents and community members at each of the district's nearly 600 schools. At struggling schools on probation, Daley has stripped councils of power, but at others the councils hire principals and oversee a significant portion of each school's budget. Paul G. Vallas, a blunt-talking, bottom-line-driven manager led the system from 1995 to 2001. Vallas presided over a $3 billion construction effort that built 71 schools and renovated 500. He cut 2,000 non-teaching positions and stabilized the district's finances. Given broad executive authority, Vallas ended automatic promotion from grade to grade and greatly expanded summer school, policies that have been copied across the country. Math and reading scores improved, with about 40% of students at grade level in 2001, up from 30% in 1995. <ref> See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDB1E3FF934A35755C0A9679C8B63 Jodi Wilgoren, "Chief Executive of Chicago Schools Resigns," ''New York Times'' June 7, 2001]</ref> In 2001 Daley appointed Arne Duncan, 36, to preside over a school system with 435,000 students, 45,900 employees and a $3.5-billion annual budget. In 2009 Duncan, hailed for his work in Chicago, became Secretary of Education for the [[Obama Administration]].

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Chicago]]

Category:Chicago

2014-02-18T05:30:06Z

HPadleckas: Main article: Chicago

:''Main article:'' [[Chicago]]

[[Category:Illinois]]

History of Chicago

2014-02-18T05:26:24Z

HPadleckas: /* Disasters */ +link

==Before 1900==
Chicago's locational advantage is the link between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River system. Its first permanent resident, [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]], a Frenchman of West Indian and African descent, and operated an fur-trading 1780-1800. The U.S. government erected Fort Dearborn in 1803 three years later. In the [[War of 1812]] it was captured by Indians and the residents were massacred. After 1830 the rich farmlands of Northern Illinois attracted Yankee settlers. Yankee real estate operators crated a city overnight in the 1830s. Hundreds of wagons a day of farm produce arrived, so the entrepreneurs built grain elevators and docks to load ships bound for points east. By the 1850s the railroads made Chicago a major hub with over 30 lines. The main lines from the East ended in Chicago, and those oriented to the West began in Chicago, so the city became the nation's trans-shipment and warehousing center by 1860. Factories were created, most famously the harvester factory opened in 1847 by [[Cyrus Hall McCormick]]. The Wisconsin forests supported the mill-work and lumber business; the Illinois hinterland provided the wheat, as well as hogs and cattle that were slaughtered, preserved in salt and shipped east; by 1870 refrigerated cars allowed fresh meat to be shipped.
[[File:Chicago Art Institute..JPG|thumb|left|Chicago Art Institute.]]
As the city grew large numbers of Irish Catholics and Germans arrived. Their saloons became the focus of attacks by the Know-Nothing Party, which was anti-immigration and anti-liquor, and called for the purification of politics by reducing the power of the saloon-keepers. In 1855, the new party elected Levi Boone mayor and he banned Sunday sales of liquor and beer, angering the Germans who frequented beer gardens, and Irish who frequented saloons. Law enforcement resulted in the Lager Beer Riot of April 1855, which erupted outside a courthouse where eight Germans were being tried for liquor ordinance violations. After the Civil War, saloons became community centers only for local ethnic men, as reformers saw them as places that incited riotous behavior and moral decay.

===Newspapers===
Late-19th-century big city newspapers such as the ''Chicago Daily News'' - founded in 1875 by Melville E. Stone - ushered in an era of news reporting that was, unlike earlier periods, in tune with the particulars of community life in specific cities. Vigorous competition between older and newer-style city papers soon broke out, centered on civic activism and sensationalist reporting of urban political issues and the numerous problems associated with rapid urban growth. In Chicago competition was especially fierce between the ''Chicago Times'' (Democratic), the ''Chicago Tribune,'' (Republican) and the ''Daily News'' (independent), with the latter becoming the city's most popular paper by the 1880s.<ref>David Paul Nord, "Read All about It"" ''Chicago History'' 2002 31(1): 26-57. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

==1900-1945==
[[File:Chicago up town theatre.jpg|thumb|Up Town Theatre.]]
===Business===
[[Samuel Insull]] (1859 – 1938), born poor in England, built a great electrical empire in the city (notably "Commonwealth Edison", a giant utility formed in 1907<ref>It is now part of Exelon Corporation, and serves 3.8 million customers in Chicago and northern Illinois.</ref>) and electrified much of the Midwest, 1910-1929. His empire collapsed in the Great Depression, for which he was blamed and put on trial by the [[New Deal]]; he was acquitted.

Chicago, along with New York, was the center of the nation's advertising industry. [[Albert Lasker]] (1880-1952), known as the "father of modern advertising" made Chicago his base 1898-1942. As head of Lord and Thomas, Lasker devised a copywriting technique that appealed directly to the psychology of the consumer. Women seldom smoked cigarettes; he told them if they smoked Lucky Strikes they could stay slender. Lasker's use of radio, particularly with his campaigns for Palmolive soap, Pepsodent toothpaste, Kotex products, and Lucky Strike cigarettes, not only revolutionized the advertising industry but also significantly changed popular culture.

===Labor===
After 1900 Chicago was a heavily unionized city, apart from the factories (which were non-union until the 1930s). The unionized teamsters in Chicago enjoyed an unusually strong bargaining position when they contended with employers around the city. Their wagons could easily be positioned to disrupt streetcars and block traffic. In addition, their families and neighborhood supporters often surrounded the wagons of nonunion teamsters and made strikebreaking a very unpleasant endeavor. When the teamsters used their clout to engage in sympathy strikes, employers decided to coordinate their anti-union efforts, claiming that the teamsters held tyrannical power over commerce in their control of the streets. The teamsters' strike in 1905 represented a clash both over labor issues and the public nature of the streets. To the employers the streets were arteries for commerce, while to the teamsters they remained public spaces integral to their neighborhoods.<ref>David Witwer, "Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-century City." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(1): 183-222. Issn: 0145-5532 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]
</ref>

===Disasters===
[[File:Chicago fire.jpg|thumb|left|The great Chicago Fire, October, 1871.]]
The [[Great Chicago Fire]] occurred in October 1871.

On December 7, 1903, the "absolutely fireproof," five-week-old Iroquois Theater was destroyed by fire in Chicago. The fire lasted less than thirty minutes; however, 602 people died as a result of being burned, asphyxiated, or trampled.<ref> Anthony P. Hatch, "Inferno at the Iroquois." ''Chicago History'' 2003 32(2): 4-31. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

The cruise ship ''Eastland'' capsized at its pier on a calm day, July 24, 1915, killing over 800 passengers. It was top-heavy because of new federal laws (passed in response to the Titanic) requiring lifeboats.<ref> George W. Hilton, ''Eastland: Legacy of the Titanic.'' (1995). </ref>

Our Lady of the Angels School fire occurred on December 1, 1958. There occurred 95 deaths, mostly of children.

A major environmental disaster came in July 1995, with 739 heat-related deaths after one week of record high heat and humidity.<ref> Christopher R. Browning; Wallace, Danielle; Feinberg, Seth L.; and Cagney, Kathleen A.; Klinenberg, Eric (Reply). "Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and Disaster-related Mortality: the Case of the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave." ''American Sociological Review'' 2006 71(4): 661-678. Issn: 0003-1224 </ref>

===Crime===
By 1900, [[Progressive Era]] political and legal reformers initiated far-ranging changes in the American criminal justice system, with Chicago taking the lead. Violent crime rates were high yet law enforcers rarely convicted killers, more than three-fourths of whom went unpunished. Even in homicide cases in which the identity of killers was certain and the police made arrests, jurors typically exonerated or acquitted killers. A blend of gender-, race-, and class-based notions of justice trumped the rule of law, producing low homicide conviction rates during a period of soaring violence.<ref> Jeffrey S. Adler, "'It Is His First Offense. We Might as Well Let Him Go': Homicide and Criminal Justice in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Social History'' 2006 40(1): 5-24. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] and [[Project Muse]]</ref>

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rates of domestic murder tripled in Chicago. Domestic homicide was often a manifestation of strains in gender relations induced by urban and industrial change. At the core of such family murders were male attempts to preserve masculine authority. Yet, there were nuances in the motives for the murder of family members, and study of the patterns of domestic homicide among ethnic groups reveals basic cultural differences. German immigrants tended to murder over declining status and the failure to achieve economic prosperity. In addition, they were likely to kill all members of the family and then commit suicide in the ultimate attempt at maintaining control. Italian men killed family members to save a gender-based ideal of respectability that entailed patriarchal control over women and family reputation. African Americans, like the Germans, often murdered in response to economic conditions but not over desperation about the future. Like the Italians, the killers tended to be young, but family honor was not usually at stake. Instead, black men murdered to regain control of wives and lovers who resisted their patriarchal "rights."<ref> Adler, "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." 2003 </ref>

Progressive reformers in the business community created the Chicago Crime Commission (CCC) in 1919 after an investigation into the robbery at a factory showed the city's criminal justice system was deficient. The CCC initially served as a watchdog of the justice system. However, after a suggestion that the justice system begin collecting criminal records was rejected, the CCC assumed a more active role in fighting crime. The commission's role expanded even further after Frank J. Loesch became president in 1928. Loesch recognized the need to eliminate the glamour that Chicago's media typically attributed to criminals. Determined to expose the horrors and violence of the crime world, Loesch drafted a list of public enemies and turned Al Capone into a scapegoat for society's evils.<ref>Bill Barnhart, "Public Enemies: Chicago Origins of Personalized Anticrime Campaigns." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2001 4(4): 258-270. Issn: 1522-0532 </ref>

===Black migration===
[[File:Chicago musician.jpg|thumb|Chicago musician.]]
Chicago's black population swelled dramatically during World War I as immigration from Europe was impossible and factories demanded more and more war workers. Whites got the factory jobs, but many opportunities opened for black men and women. Economic conditions for the city's blacks during the 1920s were much better than in the South, but were also characterized by chronic unemployment and low wage rates. Many families living below the poverty line. These conditions were caused primarily by employers' discriminatory hiring and promotion policies, a surplus of labor at a time of continued black migration from the South, and residential segregation in the African American neighborhoods of Chicago. Consequently, the economic conditions that brought about political radicalization and realignment of African Americans during the 1930s, and which are associated primarily with the Great Depression, were in evidence throughout much of the 1920s. Accordingly, the Great Migration of the 1910s and 1920s, rather than being seen largely as a phenomenon associated with World War I, takes on greater significance in terms of its economic and political repercussions in black Chicago in the years before the depression.<ref>Gareth Canaan, "'Part of the Loaf': Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class During the 1920's." ''Journal of Social History'' 2001 35(1): 147-174. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]] </ref>

===Polonia===
Chicago's [[Polish Americans|Polonia]] sustained diverse political cultures, each with its own newspaper. In 1920 the community had a choice of five daily papers - from the Socialist ''Dziennik Ludowy'' [People's daily] (1907-25) to the Polish Roman Catholic Union's ''Dziennik Zjednoczenia'' [Union daily] (1921-39) - all of which supported workers' struggles for better working conditions and were part of a broader program of cultural and educational activities. The decision to subscribe to a particular paper reaffirmed a particular ideology or institutional network based on ethnicity and class, which lent itself to different alliances and different strategies.<ref>Jon Bekken, "Negotiating Class and Ethnicity: the Polish-language Press in Chicago." ''Polish American Studies'' 2000 57(2): 5-29. Issn: 0032-2806 </ref>

===Great Depression===
==Since 1940==
===Politics===
Many recent [[mayor]]s of Chicago belonged to the [[Democratic Party]]. The current mayor of Chicago is [[Rahm Emanuel]]. Before him, [[Richard M. Daley]] (b. 1942), who was elected in 1989, was mayor until 2011. His father, [[Richard J. Daley]] (1902-1976), was mayor from 1955-1976, and controlled the powerful Cook County Democratic organization, called "the machine." <ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Daley2.html</ref> Current President [[Barack Obama]] spent his politically formative years as a city planner "foot soldier" for the Democratic machine, an experience that deeply affected his political methods and radical beliefs later in life.

The city hosted the 1968 [[Democratic National Convention]] when [[Richard J. Daley]] was mayor. The convention was disrupted by radicals such as [[Abbie Hoffman]].

Holli (1999) argues that the political regime of Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley during 1955-76 was unusually stable during an era of national instability because Daley kept firm control of the governmental machinery, which slowed change to a manageable pace and had a deep and profound appeal to Chicagoans. Ethnic and racial squabbling erupted after Daley's death in 1976 and continued through the tenures of four mayors, even as the rest of the nation entered a period of greater political stability. After the transitory tenure of interim mayor Eugene Sawyer, the years of political instability ended with the 1989 election of the former boss's son, Richard M. Daley. Young Daley's election marked a return to political calm seen, in the light of equilibrium theory, as inevitable after the tumultuous years that preceded it.<ref> Melvin G. Holli, "Political Equilibrium and the Daley Eras in Chicago." ''Continuity'' 1999 (23): 83-96. Issn: 0277-1446 </ref>

===Public housing===
The Robert Taylor Homes (RTH), part of Chicago's public housing projects financed by the federal government, opened in 1962. As the largest US public housing project, RTH consisted of 28 high-rises of 16 floors each, providing homes for 27,000 people. By 1965, RTH was already substandard and crime-ridden. Through the 1970s, RTH became predominantly single-mother welfare households. During site selection, the size of the project kept increasing. Federal cost worries forced the use of the high-rise design. Minors so outnumbered adults at RTH from the beginning that gangs, vandalism, and other crimes quickly became endemic. RTH was too large to administer effectively. Substandard systems, including elevators, plumbing, and heating, insufficient police protection, and the demographic burden on local schools were instrumental in RTH's failure.<ref> D. Bradford Hunt, "What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes." ''Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society'' 2001 94(1): 96-123. Issn: 1522-1067; Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002). </ref> Since then, the Robert Taylor Homes have been demolished.

====Japanese====
[[File:Chicago Street violin musician.JPG|thumb|left|Street violin musician.]]
In 1942-43 60,000 Nisei (born in U.S. of Japanese parents) were removed from the West Coast relocation camps and resettled in distant cities. 20,000 came to Chicago. In contrast to their self-contained, West-coast lifestyle, the Nisei in Chicago attempted to more fully integrate themselves in the community. This permitted many to take advantage of their racial "inbetweenness" to fill labor shortages caused by the war. Nisei used this "twilight zone" status between blacks and whites to distance themselves from blacks, frequently adopting the language of racial prejudice to heighten distinctions. Most Nisei successfully shed their ethnic identity in Chicago, amalgamated into the white community and stayed in the city.<ref> Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945." ''Journal of American History'' 2000 86(4): 1655-1687. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200003)86%3A4%3C1655%3AITTZBB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S and Jstor]]</ref>

====Hispanic immigrants====
Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II. Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975." PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp. DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M. Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago." PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp. DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079
Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

==Schools==
Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in Jstor]]</ref>
[[File:Chicago River Saint Patricks Day.jpg|thumb|left|Chicago River, Saint Patricks Day.]]
As a politician and as Chicago's black mayor (1983-87), [[Harold Washington]] maintained a distinctive strategy toward reform of public schools.<ref> Jim Carl, "Harold Washington and Chicago's Schools Between Civil Rights and the Decline of the New Deal Consensus, 1955-1987." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2001 41(3): 311-343. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(200123)41%3A3%3C311%3AHWACSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in Jstor]]</ref> Rather than focus on integration (bringing whites and minorities into the same schools), Washington favored measures to strengthen local schools, especially in minority neighborhoods. He called for more state support to urban schools in place of property taxes and more power to local groups to influence curriculum and the quality of teaching. In 1987 the teacher strike transformed educational problems into a crisis. Washington created the Parent Community Council from local groups and arranged for a summit with their representatives and those of business, school administration, and teachers. His death in 1987 unraveled the deliberations for change that had been taking place. The schools were so beset by violence, teacher shortages, and inadequate financing that few disagreed with the brutal verdict of U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] in 1987, "Chicago's public schools are the worst in the nation." In the late 1990s, the realization that busing had become unrealistic caused Chicago's political leaders and community activists to join together in focusing attention and resources on improving neighborhood schools. Mayor Richard M. Daley seized control of the school system in 1995 and promised drastic reforms. However, the legislature largely left in place elected councils made up of parents and community members at each of the district's nearly 600 schools. At struggling schools on probation, Daley has stripped councils of power, but at others the councils hire principals and oversee a significant portion of each school's budget. Paul G. Vallas, a blunt-talking, bottom-line-driven manager led the system from 1995 to 2001. Vallas presided over a $3 billion construction effort that built 71 schools and renovated 500. He cut 2,000 non-teaching positions and stabilized the district's finances. Given broad executive authority, Vallas ended automatic promotion from grade to grade and greatly expanded summer school, policies that have been copied across the country. Math and reading scores improved, with about 40% of students at grade level in 2001, up from 30% in 1995. <ref> See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDB1E3FF934A35755C0A9679C8B63 Jodi Wilgoren, "Chief Executive of Chicago Schools Resigns," ''New York Times'' June 7, 2001]</ref> In 2001 Daley appointed Arne Duncan, 36, to preside over a school system with 435,000 students, 45,900 employees and a $3.5-billion annual budget. In 2009 Duncan, hailed for his work in Chicago, became Secretary of Education for the [[Obama Administration]].

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Chicago]]

History of Chicago

2014-02-18T05:22:25Z

HPadleckas: /* Disasters */ mentioned Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and Our Lady of Angels School fire in 1958

==Before 1900==
Chicago's locational advantage is the link between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River system. Its first permanent resident, [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]], a Frenchman of West Indian and African descent, and operated an fur-trading 1780-1800. The U.S. government erected Fort Dearborn in 1803 three years later. In the [[War of 1812]] it was captured by Indians and the residents were massacred. After 1830 the rich farmlands of Northern Illinois attracted Yankee settlers. Yankee real estate operators crated a city overnight in the 1830s. Hundreds of wagons a day of farm produce arrived, so the entrepreneurs built grain elevators and docks to load ships bound for points east. By the 1850s the railroads made Chicago a major hub with over 30 lines. The main lines from the East ended in Chicago, and those oriented to the West began in Chicago, so the city became the nation's trans-shipment and warehousing center by 1860. Factories were created, most famously the harvester factory opened in 1847 by [[Cyrus Hall McCormick]]. The Wisconsin forests supported the mill-work and lumber business; the Illinois hinterland provided the wheat, as well as hogs and cattle that were slaughtered, preserved in salt and shipped east; by 1870 refrigerated cars allowed fresh meat to be shipped.
[[File:Chicago Art Institute..JPG|thumb|left|Chicago Art Institute.]]
As the city grew large numbers of Irish Catholics and Germans arrived. Their saloons became the focus of attacks by the Know-Nothing Party, which was anti-immigration and anti-liquor, and called for the purification of politics by reducing the power of the saloon-keepers. In 1855, the new party elected Levi Boone mayor and he banned Sunday sales of liquor and beer, angering the Germans who frequented beer gardens, and Irish who frequented saloons. Law enforcement resulted in the Lager Beer Riot of April 1855, which erupted outside a courthouse where eight Germans were being tried for liquor ordinance violations. After the Civil War, saloons became community centers only for local ethnic men, as reformers saw them as places that incited riotous behavior and moral decay.

===Newspapers===
Late-19th-century big city newspapers such as the ''Chicago Daily News'' - founded in 1875 by Melville E. Stone - ushered in an era of news reporting that was, unlike earlier periods, in tune with the particulars of community life in specific cities. Vigorous competition between older and newer-style city papers soon broke out, centered on civic activism and sensationalist reporting of urban political issues and the numerous problems associated with rapid urban growth. In Chicago competition was especially fierce between the ''Chicago Times'' (Democratic), the ''Chicago Tribune,'' (Republican) and the ''Daily News'' (independent), with the latter becoming the city's most popular paper by the 1880s.<ref>David Paul Nord, "Read All about It"" ''Chicago History'' 2002 31(1): 26-57. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

==1900-1945==
[[File:Chicago up town theatre.jpg|thumb|Up Town Theatre.]]
===Business===
[[Samuel Insull]] (1859 – 1938), born poor in England, built a great electrical empire in the city (notably "Commonwealth Edison", a giant utility formed in 1907<ref>It is now part of Exelon Corporation, and serves 3.8 million customers in Chicago and northern Illinois.</ref>) and electrified much of the Midwest, 1910-1929. His empire collapsed in the Great Depression, for which he was blamed and put on trial by the [[New Deal]]; he was acquitted.

Chicago, along with New York, was the center of the nation's advertising industry. [[Albert Lasker]] (1880-1952), known as the "father of modern advertising" made Chicago his base 1898-1942. As head of Lord and Thomas, Lasker devised a copywriting technique that appealed directly to the psychology of the consumer. Women seldom smoked cigarettes; he told them if they smoked Lucky Strikes they could stay slender. Lasker's use of radio, particularly with his campaigns for Palmolive soap, Pepsodent toothpaste, Kotex products, and Lucky Strike cigarettes, not only revolutionized the advertising industry but also significantly changed popular culture.

===Labor===
After 1900 Chicago was a heavily unionized city, apart from the factories (which were non-union until the 1930s). The unionized teamsters in Chicago enjoyed an unusually strong bargaining position when they contended with employers around the city. Their wagons could easily be positioned to disrupt streetcars and block traffic. In addition, their families and neighborhood supporters often surrounded the wagons of nonunion teamsters and made strikebreaking a very unpleasant endeavor. When the teamsters used their clout to engage in sympathy strikes, employers decided to coordinate their anti-union efforts, claiming that the teamsters held tyrannical power over commerce in their control of the streets. The teamsters' strike in 1905 represented a clash both over labor issues and the public nature of the streets. To the employers the streets were arteries for commerce, while to the teamsters they remained public spaces integral to their neighborhoods.<ref>David Witwer, "Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-century City." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(1): 183-222. Issn: 0145-5532 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]
</ref>

===Disasters===
[[File:Chicago fire.jpg|thumb|left|The great Chicago Fire, October, 1871.]]
The Great Chicago Fire occurred in October 1871.

On December 7, 1903, the "absolutely fireproof," five-week-old Iroquois Theater was destroyed by fire in Chicago. The fire lasted less than thirty minutes; however, 602 people died as a result of being burned, asphyxiated, or trampled.<ref> Anthony P. Hatch, "Inferno at the Iroquois." ''Chicago History'' 2003 32(2): 4-31. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

The cruise ship ''Eastland'' capsized at its pier on a calm day, July 24, 1915, killing over 800 passengers. It was top-heavy because of new federal laws (passed in response to the Titanic) requiring lifeboats.<ref> George W. Hilton, ''Eastland: Legacy of the Titanic.'' (1995). </ref>

Our Lady of the Angels School fire occurred on December 1, 1958. There occurred 95 deaths, mostly of children.

A major environmental disaster came in July 1995, with 739 heat-related deaths after one week of record high heat and humidity.<ref> Christopher R. Browning; Wallace, Danielle; Feinberg, Seth L.; and Cagney, Kathleen A.; Klinenberg, Eric (Reply). "Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and Disaster-related Mortality: the Case of the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave." ''American Sociological Review'' 2006 71(4): 661-678. Issn: 0003-1224 </ref>

===Crime===
By 1900, [[Progressive Era]] political and legal reformers initiated far-ranging changes in the American criminal justice system, with Chicago taking the lead. Violent crime rates were high yet law enforcers rarely convicted killers, more than three-fourths of whom went unpunished. Even in homicide cases in which the identity of killers was certain and the police made arrests, jurors typically exonerated or acquitted killers. A blend of gender-, race-, and class-based notions of justice trumped the rule of law, producing low homicide conviction rates during a period of soaring violence.<ref> Jeffrey S. Adler, "'It Is His First Offense. We Might as Well Let Him Go': Homicide and Criminal Justice in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Social History'' 2006 40(1): 5-24. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] and [[Project Muse]]</ref>

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rates of domestic murder tripled in Chicago. Domestic homicide was often a manifestation of strains in gender relations induced by urban and industrial change. At the core of such family murders were male attempts to preserve masculine authority. Yet, there were nuances in the motives for the murder of family members, and study of the patterns of domestic homicide among ethnic groups reveals basic cultural differences. German immigrants tended to murder over declining status and the failure to achieve economic prosperity. In addition, they were likely to kill all members of the family and then commit suicide in the ultimate attempt at maintaining control. Italian men killed family members to save a gender-based ideal of respectability that entailed patriarchal control over women and family reputation. African Americans, like the Germans, often murdered in response to economic conditions but not over desperation about the future. Like the Italians, the killers tended to be young, but family honor was not usually at stake. Instead, black men murdered to regain control of wives and lovers who resisted their patriarchal "rights."<ref> Adler, "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." 2003 </ref>

Progressive reformers in the business community created the Chicago Crime Commission (CCC) in 1919 after an investigation into the robbery at a factory showed the city's criminal justice system was deficient. The CCC initially served as a watchdog of the justice system. However, after a suggestion that the justice system begin collecting criminal records was rejected, the CCC assumed a more active role in fighting crime. The commission's role expanded even further after Frank J. Loesch became president in 1928. Loesch recognized the need to eliminate the glamour that Chicago's media typically attributed to criminals. Determined to expose the horrors and violence of the crime world, Loesch drafted a list of public enemies and turned Al Capone into a scapegoat for society's evils.<ref>Bill Barnhart, "Public Enemies: Chicago Origins of Personalized Anticrime Campaigns." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2001 4(4): 258-270. Issn: 1522-0532 </ref>

===Black migration===
[[File:Chicago musician.jpg|thumb|Chicago musician.]]
Chicago's black population swelled dramatically during World War I as immigration from Europe was impossible and factories demanded more and more war workers. Whites got the factory jobs, but many opportunities opened for black men and women. Economic conditions for the city's blacks during the 1920s were much better than in the South, but were also characterized by chronic unemployment and low wage rates. Many families living below the poverty line. These conditions were caused primarily by employers' discriminatory hiring and promotion policies, a surplus of labor at a time of continued black migration from the South, and residential segregation in the African American neighborhoods of Chicago. Consequently, the economic conditions that brought about political radicalization and realignment of African Americans during the 1930s, and which are associated primarily with the Great Depression, were in evidence throughout much of the 1920s. Accordingly, the Great Migration of the 1910s and 1920s, rather than being seen largely as a phenomenon associated with World War I, takes on greater significance in terms of its economic and political repercussions in black Chicago in the years before the depression.<ref>Gareth Canaan, "'Part of the Loaf': Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class During the 1920's." ''Journal of Social History'' 2001 35(1): 147-174. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]] </ref>

===Polonia===
Chicago's [[Polish Americans|Polonia]] sustained diverse political cultures, each with its own newspaper. In 1920 the community had a choice of five daily papers - from the Socialist ''Dziennik Ludowy'' [People's daily] (1907-25) to the Polish Roman Catholic Union's ''Dziennik Zjednoczenia'' [Union daily] (1921-39) - all of which supported workers' struggles for better working conditions and were part of a broader program of cultural and educational activities. The decision to subscribe to a particular paper reaffirmed a particular ideology or institutional network based on ethnicity and class, which lent itself to different alliances and different strategies.<ref>Jon Bekken, "Negotiating Class and Ethnicity: the Polish-language Press in Chicago." ''Polish American Studies'' 2000 57(2): 5-29. Issn: 0032-2806 </ref>

===Great Depression===
==Since 1940==
===Politics===
Many recent [[mayor]]s of Chicago belonged to the [[Democratic Party]]. The current mayor of Chicago is [[Rahm Emanuel]]. Before him, [[Richard M. Daley]] (b. 1942), who was elected in 1989, was mayor until 2011. His father, [[Richard J. Daley]] (1902-1976), was mayor from 1955-1976, and controlled the powerful Cook County Democratic organization, called "the machine." <ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Daley2.html</ref> Current President [[Barack Obama]] spent his politically formative years as a city planner "foot soldier" for the Democratic machine, an experience that deeply affected his political methods and radical beliefs later in life.

The city hosted the 1968 [[Democratic National Convention]] when [[Richard J. Daley]] was mayor. The convention was disrupted by radicals such as [[Abbie Hoffman]].

Holli (1999) argues that the political regime of Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley during 1955-76 was unusually stable during an era of national instability because Daley kept firm control of the governmental machinery, which slowed change to a manageable pace and had a deep and profound appeal to Chicagoans. Ethnic and racial squabbling erupted after Daley's death in 1976 and continued through the tenures of four mayors, even as the rest of the nation entered a period of greater political stability. After the transitory tenure of interim mayor Eugene Sawyer, the years of political instability ended with the 1989 election of the former boss's son, Richard M. Daley. Young Daley's election marked a return to political calm seen, in the light of equilibrium theory, as inevitable after the tumultuous years that preceded it.<ref> Melvin G. Holli, "Political Equilibrium and the Daley Eras in Chicago." ''Continuity'' 1999 (23): 83-96. Issn: 0277-1446 </ref>

===Public housing===
The Robert Taylor Homes (RTH), part of Chicago's public housing projects financed by the federal government, opened in 1962. As the largest US public housing project, RTH consisted of 28 high-rises of 16 floors each, providing homes for 27,000 people. By 1965, RTH was already substandard and crime-ridden. Through the 1970s, RTH became predominantly single-mother welfare households. During site selection, the size of the project kept increasing. Federal cost worries forced the use of the high-rise design. Minors so outnumbered adults at RTH from the beginning that gangs, vandalism, and other crimes quickly became endemic. RTH was too large to administer effectively. Substandard systems, including elevators, plumbing, and heating, insufficient police protection, and the demographic burden on local schools were instrumental in RTH's failure.<ref> D. Bradford Hunt, "What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes." ''Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society'' 2001 94(1): 96-123. Issn: 1522-1067; Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002). </ref> Since then, the Robert Taylor Homes have been demolished.

====Japanese====
[[File:Chicago Street violin musician.JPG|thumb|left|Street violin musician.]]
In 1942-43 60,000 Nisei (born in U.S. of Japanese parents) were removed from the West Coast relocation camps and resettled in distant cities. 20,000 came to Chicago. In contrast to their self-contained, West-coast lifestyle, the Nisei in Chicago attempted to more fully integrate themselves in the community. This permitted many to take advantage of their racial "inbetweenness" to fill labor shortages caused by the war. Nisei used this "twilight zone" status between blacks and whites to distance themselves from blacks, frequently adopting the language of racial prejudice to heighten distinctions. Most Nisei successfully shed their ethnic identity in Chicago, amalgamated into the white community and stayed in the city.<ref> Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945." ''Journal of American History'' 2000 86(4): 1655-1687. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200003)86%3A4%3C1655%3AITTZBB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S and Jstor]]</ref>

====Hispanic immigrants====
Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II. Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975." PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp. DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M. Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago." PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp. DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079
Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

==Schools==
Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in Jstor]]</ref>
[[File:Chicago River Saint Patricks Day.jpg|thumb|left|Chicago River, Saint Patricks Day.]]
As a politician and as Chicago's black mayor (1983-87), [[Harold Washington]] maintained a distinctive strategy toward reform of public schools.<ref> Jim Carl, "Harold Washington and Chicago's Schools Between Civil Rights and the Decline of the New Deal Consensus, 1955-1987." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2001 41(3): 311-343. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(200123)41%3A3%3C311%3AHWACSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in Jstor]]</ref> Rather than focus on integration (bringing whites and minorities into the same schools), Washington favored measures to strengthen local schools, especially in minority neighborhoods. He called for more state support to urban schools in place of property taxes and more power to local groups to influence curriculum and the quality of teaching. In 1987 the teacher strike transformed educational problems into a crisis. Washington created the Parent Community Council from local groups and arranged for a summit with their representatives and those of business, school administration, and teachers. His death in 1987 unraveled the deliberations for change that had been taking place. The schools were so beset by violence, teacher shortages, and inadequate financing that few disagreed with the brutal verdict of U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] in 1987, "Chicago's public schools are the worst in the nation." In the late 1990s, the realization that busing had become unrealistic caused Chicago's political leaders and community activists to join together in focusing attention and resources on improving neighborhood schools. Mayor Richard M. Daley seized control of the school system in 1995 and promised drastic reforms. However, the legislature largely left in place elected councils made up of parents and community members at each of the district's nearly 600 schools. At struggling schools on probation, Daley has stripped councils of power, but at others the councils hire principals and oversee a significant portion of each school's budget. Paul G. Vallas, a blunt-talking, bottom-line-driven manager led the system from 1995 to 2001. Vallas presided over a $3 billion construction effort that built 71 schools and renovated 500. He cut 2,000 non-teaching positions and stabilized the district's finances. Given broad executive authority, Vallas ended automatic promotion from grade to grade and greatly expanded summer school, policies that have been copied across the country. Math and reading scores improved, with about 40% of students at grade level in 2001, up from 30% in 1995. <ref> See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDB1E3FF934A35755C0A9679C8B63 Jodi Wilgoren, "Chief Executive of Chicago Schools Resigns," ''New York Times'' June 7, 2001]</ref> In 2001 Daley appointed Arne Duncan, 36, to preside over a school system with 435,000 students, 45,900 employees and a $3.5-billion annual budget. In 2009 Duncan, hailed for his work in Chicago, became Secretary of Education for the [[Obama Administration]].

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Chicago]]

History of Chicago

2014-02-18T05:12:14Z

HPadleckas: New article. "History" section from Chicago article transferred here.

==Before 1900==
Chicago's locational advantage is the link between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River system. Its first permanent resident, [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]], a Frenchman of West Indian and African descent, and operated an fur-trading 1780-1800. The U.S. government erected Fort Dearborn in 1803 three years later. In the [[War of 1812]] it was captured by Indians and the residents were massacred. After 1830 the rich farmlands of Northern Illinois attracted Yankee settlers. Yankee real estate operators crated a city overnight in the 1830s. Hundreds of wagons a day of farm produce arrived, so the entrepreneurs built grain elevators and docks to load ships bound for points east. By the 1850s the railroads made Chicago a major hub with over 30 lines. The main lines from the East ended in Chicago, and those oriented to the West began in Chicago, so the city became the nation's trans-shipment and warehousing center by 1860. Factories were created, most famously the harvester factory opened in 1847 by [[Cyrus Hall McCormick]]. The Wisconsin forests supported the mill-work and lumber business; the Illinois hinterland provided the wheat, as well as hogs and cattle that were slaughtered, preserved in salt and shipped east; by 1870 refrigerated cars allowed fresh meat to be shipped.
[[File:Chicago Art Institute..JPG|thumb|left|Chicago Art Institute.]]
As the city grew large numbers of Irish Catholics and Germans arrived. Their saloons became the focus of attacks by the Know-Nothing Party, which was anti-immigration and anti-liquor, and called for the purification of politics by reducing the power of the saloon-keepers. In 1855, the new party elected Levi Boone mayor and he banned Sunday sales of liquor and beer, angering the Germans who frequented beer gardens, and Irish who frequented saloons. Law enforcement resulted in the Lager Beer Riot of April 1855, which erupted outside a courthouse where eight Germans were being tried for liquor ordinance violations. After the Civil War, saloons became community centers only for local ethnic men, as reformers saw them as places that incited riotous behavior and moral decay.

===Newspapers===
Late-19th-century big city newspapers such as the ''Chicago Daily News'' - founded in 1875 by Melville E. Stone - ushered in an era of news reporting that was, unlike earlier periods, in tune with the particulars of community life in specific cities. Vigorous competition between older and newer-style city papers soon broke out, centered on civic activism and sensationalist reporting of urban political issues and the numerous problems associated with rapid urban growth. In Chicago competition was especially fierce between the ''Chicago Times'' (Democratic), the ''Chicago Tribune,'' (Republican) and the ''Daily News'' (independent), with the latter becoming the city's most popular paper by the 1880s.<ref>David Paul Nord, "Read All about It"" ''Chicago History'' 2002 31(1): 26-57. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

==1900-1945==
[[File:Chicago up town theatre.jpg|thumb|Up Town Theatre.]]
===Business===
[[Samuel Insull]] (1859 – 1938), born poor in England, built a great electrical empire in the city (notably "Commonwealth Edison", a giant utility formed in 1907<ref>It is now part of Exelon Corporation, and serves 3.8 million customers in Chicago and northern Illinois.</ref>) and electrified much of the Midwest, 1910-1929. His empire collapsed in the Great Depression, for which he was blamed and put on trial by the [[New Deal]]; he was acquitted.

Chicago, along with New York, was the center of the nation's advertising industry. [[Albert Lasker]] (1880-1952), known as the "father of modern advertising" made Chicago his base 1898-1942. As head of Lord and Thomas, Lasker devised a copywriting technique that appealed directly to the psychology of the consumer. Women seldom smoked cigarettes; he told them if they smoked Lucky Strikes they could stay slender. Lasker's use of radio, particularly with his campaigns for Palmolive soap, Pepsodent toothpaste, Kotex products, and Lucky Strike cigarettes, not only revolutionized the advertising industry but also significantly changed popular culture.

===Labor===
After 1900 Chicago was a heavily unionized city, apart from the factories (which were non-union until the 1930s). The unionized teamsters in Chicago enjoyed an unusually strong bargaining position when they contended with employers around the city. Their wagons could easily be positioned to disrupt streetcars and block traffic. In addition, their families and neighborhood supporters often surrounded the wagons of nonunion teamsters and made strikebreaking a very unpleasant endeavor. When the teamsters used their clout to engage in sympathy strikes, employers decided to coordinate their anti-union efforts, claiming that the teamsters held tyrannical power over commerce in their control of the streets. The teamsters' strike in 1905 represented a clash both over labor issues and the public nature of the streets. To the employers the streets were arteries for commerce, while to the teamsters they remained public spaces integral to their neighborhoods.<ref>David Witwer, "Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-century City." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(1): 183-222. Issn: 0145-5532 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]
</ref>

===Disasters===
[[File:Chicago fire.jpg|thumb|left|The great Chicago Fire, October, 1871.]]
On 7 December 1903 the "absolutely fireproof," five-week-old Iroquois Theater was destroyed by fire in Chicago. The fire lasted less than thirty minutes; however, 602 people died as a result of being burned, asphyxiated, or trampled.<ref> Anthony P. Hatch, "Inferno at the Iroquois." ''Chicago History'' 2003 32(2): 4-31. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

The cruise ship ''Eastland'' capsized at its pier on a calm day, July 24, 1915, killing over 800 passengers. It was top-heavy because of new federal laws (passed in response to the Titanic) requiring lifeboats.<ref> George W. Hilton, ''Eastland: Legacy of the Titanic.'' (1995). </ref>

A major environmental disaster came in July 1995, with 739 heat-related deaths after one week of record high heat and humidity.<ref> Christopher R. Browning; Wallace, Danielle; Feinberg, Seth L.; and Cagney, Kathleen A.; Klinenberg, Eric (Reply). "Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and Disaster-related Mortality: the Case of the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave." ''American Sociological Review'' 2006 71(4): 661-678. Issn: 0003-1224 </ref>

===Crime===
By 1900, [[Progressive Era]] political and legal reformers initiated far-ranging changes in the American criminal justice system, with Chicago taking the lead. Violent crime rates were high yet law enforcers rarely convicted killers, more than three-fourths of whom went unpunished. Even in homicide cases in which the identity of killers was certain and the police made arrests, jurors typically exonerated or acquitted killers. A blend of gender-, race-, and class-based notions of justice trumped the rule of law, producing low homicide conviction rates during a period of soaring violence.<ref> Jeffrey S. Adler, "'It Is His First Offense. We Might as Well Let Him Go': Homicide and Criminal Justice in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Social History'' 2006 40(1): 5-24. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] and [[Project Muse]]</ref>

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rates of domestic murder tripled in Chicago. Domestic homicide was often a manifestation of strains in gender relations induced by urban and industrial change. At the core of such family murders were male attempts to preserve masculine authority. Yet, there were nuances in the motives for the murder of family members, and study of the patterns of domestic homicide among ethnic groups reveals basic cultural differences. German immigrants tended to murder over declining status and the failure to achieve economic prosperity. In addition, they were likely to kill all members of the family and then commit suicide in the ultimate attempt at maintaining control. Italian men killed family members to save a gender-based ideal of respectability that entailed patriarchal control over women and family reputation. African Americans, like the Germans, often murdered in response to economic conditions but not over desperation about the future. Like the Italians, the killers tended to be young, but family honor was not usually at stake. Instead, black men murdered to regain control of wives and lovers who resisted their patriarchal "rights."<ref> Adler, "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." 2003 </ref>

Progressive reformers in the business community created the Chicago Crime Commission (CCC) in 1919 after an investigation into the robbery at a factory showed the city's criminal justice system was deficient. The CCC initially served as a watchdog of the justice system. However, after a suggestion that the justice system begin collecting criminal records was rejected, the CCC assumed a more active role in fighting crime. The commission's role expanded even further after Frank J. Loesch became president in 1928. Loesch recognized the need to eliminate the glamour that Chicago's media typically attributed to criminals. Determined to expose the horrors and violence of the crime world, Loesch drafted a list of public enemies and turned Al Capone into a scapegoat for society's evils.<ref>Bill Barnhart, "Public Enemies: Chicago Origins of Personalized Anticrime Campaigns." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2001 4(4): 258-270. Issn: 1522-0532 </ref>

===Black migration===
[[File:Chicago musician.jpg|thumb|Chicago musician.]]
Chicago's black population swelled dramatically during World War I as immigration from Europe was impossible and factories demanded more and more war workers. Whites got the factory jobs, but many opportunities opened for black men and women. Economic conditions for the city's blacks during the 1920s were much better than in the South, but were also characterized by chronic unemployment and low wage rates. Many families living below the poverty line. These conditions were caused primarily by employers' discriminatory hiring and promotion policies, a surplus of labor at a time of continued black migration from the South, and residential segregation in the African American neighborhoods of Chicago. Consequently, the economic conditions that brought about political radicalization and realignment of African Americans during the 1930s, and which are associated primarily with the Great Depression, were in evidence throughout much of the 1920s. Accordingly, the Great Migration of the 1910s and 1920s, rather than being seen largely as a phenomenon associated with World War I, takes on greater significance in terms of its economic and political repercussions in black Chicago in the years before the depression.<ref>Gareth Canaan, "'Part of the Loaf': Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class During the 1920's." ''Journal of Social History'' 2001 35(1): 147-174. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]] </ref>

===Polonia===
Chicago's [[Polish Americans|Polonia]] sustained diverse political cultures, each with its own newspaper. In 1920 the community had a choice of five daily papers - from the Socialist ''Dziennik Ludowy'' [People's daily] (1907-25) to the Polish Roman Catholic Union's ''Dziennik Zjednoczenia'' [Union daily] (1921-39) - all of which supported workers' struggles for better working conditions and were part of a broader program of cultural and educational activities. The decision to subscribe to a particular paper reaffirmed a particular ideology or institutional network based on ethnicity and class, which lent itself to different alliances and different strategies.<ref>Jon Bekken, "Negotiating Class and Ethnicity: the Polish-language Press in Chicago." ''Polish American Studies'' 2000 57(2): 5-29. Issn: 0032-2806 </ref>

===Great Depression===
==Since 1940==
===Politics===
Many recent [[mayor]]s of Chicago belonged to the [[Democratic Party]]. The current mayor of Chicago is [[Rahm Emanuel]]. Before him, [[Richard M. Daley]] (b. 1942), who was elected in 1989, was mayor until 2011. His father, [[Richard J. Daley]] (1902-1976), was mayor from 1955-1976, and controlled the powerful Cook County Democratic organization, called "the machine." <ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Daley2.html</ref> Current President [[Barack Obama]] spent his politically formative years as a city planner "foot soldier" for the Democratic machine, an experience that deeply affected his political methods and radical beliefs later in life.

The city hosted the 1968 [[Democratic National Convention]] when [[Richard J. Daley]] was mayor. The convention was disrupted by radicals such as [[Abbie Hoffman]].

Holli (1999) argues that the political regime of Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley during 1955-76 was unusually stable during an era of national instability because Daley kept firm control of the governmental machinery, which slowed change to a manageable pace and had a deep and profound appeal to Chicagoans. Ethnic and racial squabbling erupted after Daley's death in 1976 and continued through the tenures of four mayors, even as the rest of the nation entered a period of greater political stability. After the transitory tenure of interim mayor Eugene Sawyer, the years of political instability ended with the 1989 election of the former boss's son, Richard M. Daley. Young Daley's election marked a return to political calm seen, in the light of equilibrium theory, as inevitable after the tumultuous years that preceded it.<ref> Melvin G. Holli, "Political Equilibrium and the Daley Eras in Chicago." ''Continuity'' 1999 (23): 83-96. Issn: 0277-1446 </ref>

===Public housing===
The Robert Taylor Homes (RTH), part of Chicago's public housing projects financed by the federal government, opened in 1962. As the largest US public housing project, RTH consisted of 28 high-rises of 16 floors each, providing homes for 27,000 people. By 1965, RTH was already substandard and crime-ridden. Through the 1970s, RTH became predominantly single-mother welfare households. During site selection, the size of the project kept increasing. Federal cost worries forced the use of the high-rise design. Minors so outnumbered adults at RTH from the beginning that gangs, vandalism, and other crimes quickly became endemic. RTH was too large to administer effectively. Substandard systems, including elevators, plumbing, and heating, insufficient police protection, and the demographic burden on local schools were instrumental in RTH's failure.<ref> D. Bradford Hunt, "What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes." ''Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society'' 2001 94(1): 96-123. Issn: 1522-1067; Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002). </ref> Since then, the Robert Taylor Homes have been demolished.

====Japanese====
[[File:Chicago Street violin musician.JPG|thumb|left|Street violin musician.]]
In 1942-43 60,000 Nisei (born in U.S. of Japanese parents) were removed from the West Coast relocation camps and resettled in distant cities. 20,000 came to Chicago. In contrast to their self-contained, West-coast lifestyle, the Nisei in Chicago attempted to more fully integrate themselves in the community. This permitted many to take advantage of their racial "inbetweenness" to fill labor shortages caused by the war. Nisei used this "twilight zone" status between blacks and whites to distance themselves from blacks, frequently adopting the language of racial prejudice to heighten distinctions. Most Nisei successfully shed their ethnic identity in Chicago, amalgamated into the white community and stayed in the city.<ref> Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945." ''Journal of American History'' 2000 86(4): 1655-1687. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200003)86%3A4%3C1655%3AITTZBB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S and Jstor]]</ref>

====Hispanic immigrants====
Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II. Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975." PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp. DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M. Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago." PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp. DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079
Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

==Schools==
Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in Jstor]]</ref>
[[File:Chicago River Saint Patricks Day.jpg|thumb|left|Chicago River, Saint Patricks Day.]]
As a politician and as Chicago's black mayor (1983-87), [[Harold Washington]] maintained a distinctive strategy toward reform of public schools.<ref> Jim Carl, "Harold Washington and Chicago's Schools Between Civil Rights and the Decline of the New Deal Consensus, 1955-1987." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2001 41(3): 311-343. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(200123)41%3A3%3C311%3AHWACSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in Jstor]]</ref> Rather than focus on integration (bringing whites and minorities into the same schools), Washington favored measures to strengthen local schools, especially in minority neighborhoods. He called for more state support to urban schools in place of property taxes and more power to local groups to influence curriculum and the quality of teaching. In 1987 the teacher strike transformed educational problems into a crisis. Washington created the Parent Community Council from local groups and arranged for a summit with their representatives and those of business, school administration, and teachers. His death in 1987 unraveled the deliberations for change that had been taking place. The schools were so beset by violence, teacher shortages, and inadequate financing that few disagreed with the brutal verdict of U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] in 1987, "Chicago's public schools are the worst in the nation." In the late 1990s, the realization that busing had become unrealistic caused Chicago's political leaders and community activists to join together in focusing attention and resources on improving neighborhood schools. Mayor Richard M. Daley seized control of the school system in 1995 and promised drastic reforms. However, the legislature largely left in place elected councils made up of parents and community members at each of the district's nearly 600 schools. At struggling schools on probation, Daley has stripped councils of power, but at others the councils hire principals and oversee a significant portion of each school's budget. Paul G. Vallas, a blunt-talking, bottom-line-driven manager led the system from 1995 to 2001. Vallas presided over a $3 billion construction effort that built 71 schools and renovated 500. He cut 2,000 non-teaching positions and stabilized the district's finances. Given broad executive authority, Vallas ended automatic promotion from grade to grade and greatly expanded summer school, policies that have been copied across the country. Math and reading scores improved, with about 40% of students at grade level in 2001, up from 30% in 1995. <ref> See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDB1E3FF934A35755C0A9679C8B63 Jodi Wilgoren, "Chief Executive of Chicago Schools Resigns," ''New York Times'' June 7, 2001]</ref> In 2001 Daley appointed Arne Duncan, 36, to preside over a school system with 435,000 students, 45,900 employees and a $3.5-billion annual budget. In 2009 Duncan, hailed for his work in Chicago, became Secretary of Education for the [[Obama Administration]].

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Chicago]]

Talk:Chicago

2014-02-18T01:10:22Z

HPadleckas: /* excessively long article ? */ new section

The third biggest city in the States gets a couple of lines? Come on - who knows enough to write something? [[User:Ferret|Ferret]] 08:47, 7 July 2007 (EDT)

:I'll work on it as I get time. First step is to change the caption on the picture to accurately reflect what's pictured :) [[User:Thecount|Thecount]] 22:44, 15 December 2008 (EST)
::{{template|Part of this article was copied from [[Citizendium]] and [[Wikipedia]] but the copied text was originally written by me, RJJensen (under the name Richard Jensen and rjensen) and does not include alterations made by others on that site.||category=Copied Articles}} [[User:RJJensen|RJJensen]] 13:25, 28 May 2009 (EDT)

Removed "despite its usually cold weather" from the line about the 1995 heat wave. Although it can easily get below freezing in the winter, it can just as easily get above 90oF in the summer.

== excessively long article ? ==

When I tried to edit the [[Chicago]] article, I got this message at the top of the edit page:
::WARNING: This page is 67 kilobytes long; some browsers may have problems editing pages approaching or longer than 32kb. Please consider breaking the page into smaller sections or removing irrelevant information.

This results from two situations: (1) a very long "Bibliography" list near the end of the article, and (2) a fairly long "History" section. In accordance with the above message, I propose doing the following: move the history to a new article called "[[History of Chicago]]", thus making more room for other valuable information. [[User:HPadleckas|HPadleckas]] 20:10, 17 February 2014 (EST)

Chicago

2014-02-18T00:53:33Z

HPadleckas: mentioned Cook County and DuPage County, updated and moved mayor content from intro to "Politics" subsubsection

{{City
|picture =Chicago Lincoln zoo.jpg
|picture2 =
|map =
|country =United States
|state =Illinois
|region =Cook County
|settled =1630
|charter =
|population =2,800,000
|area =
|density =
|mayor =Rahm Emanuel
|demonym =Chicagoan
}}

[[File:Sears Tower.jpg|thumb|260px|left|Looking north on the Chicago River south of Harrison Street. The tall black building is the Willis (née Sears) Tower; the building in the foreground is 311 South Wacker.]]

'''Chicago''' is a city located in the northeastern corner of the state of [[Illinois]] on the shore of the southwestern tip of [[Lake Michigan]]. Chicago is located mostly within [[Cook County]], but a corner of its O'Hare Airport is in [[DuPage County]]. It is the largest city in Illinois and the third-largest city in the [[United States]], with 2.8 million residents, after New York City and Los Angeles.<ref>http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/17/1714000.html</ref>. The Chicago metropolitan area, which extends from southern [[Wisconsin]] to northeastern [[Indiana]] and is often called "Chicagoland", contains 9.3 million people. <ref>http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/metro_general/2006/CSA-EST2006-alldata.csv</ref> It is the dominant city of the Midwest for transportation, trade, finance and high culture, and only reluctantly gave up the "second city" title to [[Los Angeles]] in the 1970s.

The name "Chicago" originated in 1630, when the Miami-Illinois Indians arrived in the region, and called it after a type of wild garlic that grew in the area.

Chicago is home to the [[Sears Tower|Willis Tower]], which at 1,450 feet is the tallest building in the United States, and was once the tallest building in the world. The building, more commonly known locally and internationally as the "Sears Tower", was originally the headquarters of Sears when constructed. In the late 2000s, London-based Willis Insurance bought the naming rights to the tower upon leasing a significant amount of space.<ref>http://www.thesearstower.com/buildinginfo.axis?type=n&name=Property Profile </ref>

The world-renowned ''Art Institute of Chicago'' houses both a museum and a school. <ref> [http://www.artic.edu/ The Art Institute of Chicago] </ref>

==Demography==
Although originally settled by Yankees, the railroads, stockyards, and other heavy industry of the late 19th century attracted a variety of skilled workers from Europe, especially Germans, English, Swedish and Dutch, as well as unskilled Irish Catholics. From 1890-1914 migrations swelled, attracting especially unskilled workers from Eastern and Southern Europe, including Poles, Lithuanians, Croatians, Czechs, Greeks, Italians and Jews among others. World War I cut off immigrations from Europe, and restrictions in the 1920s slowed the European influx to a trickle, apart from refugees after World War II. During both world wars poor Americans arrived from the South--whites from Appalachia and blacks from the cotton fields due south. The near south side was the first Black area, and it continued to expand, as did the black neighborhoods on the near west side. These were segregated areas (few blacks were tolerated in white neighborhoods), and after 1950 public housing high rises anchored poor black neighborhoods south and west of the Loop.

Old stock Americans who relocated to Chicago after 1900 preferred the outlying areas and suburbs, making Oak Park and Evanston enclaves of the upper middle class. The lakefront north of the Loop saw construction of high-rise luxury apartments starting in the 1910s, and continuing into the 21st century. The high-rises had wealthy residents but few children, since the city had an abysmal public school system, a large parochial system of middling quality for the Catholics, and few upscale private schools. The northern and western suburbs boasted some of the best public schools in the nation. The suburban trend accelerated after 1945, with middle class Chicagoans headed to the outlying areas of the city, and then pouring into the Cook County and Dupage County suburbs. Jews and Irish in particular rose sharply in status, leaving slums and heading north. Well educated migrants from around the country moved to the far suburbs.

Beginning in the 1940s waves of [[Latino]] (or "Hispanic") immigrants began to arrive, with the largest numbers from Mexico and Puerto Rico, as well as Cuba and (by the 1980s), other Hispanic lands. After 1965 large numbers of Asian immigrants came, the largest proportion were well educated Indians and Chinese. By the 1970s gentrification began, turning old inner city slums into upscale neighborhoods, which proved attractive to singles and gays.

==Geography==
===Loop===
The "Loop" was named in 1901 when the new elevated rail line (the "L") looped around the main downtown business section. It remains a world class locus for banking, finance, law, business and high culture. It has numerous colleges and universities and a large upscale population in condominiums. The main department and specialty stores, however, have moved a mile or two north to the "Miracle Mile" (North Michigan Avenue).

===Neighborhoods===
Chicagoans define themselves by neighborhood (or for Catholics, by their parish).
====Home ownership====
Concentrating the family resources to achieve home ownerships was a common strategy in the ethnic neighborhoods. It meant sacrificing current consumption, and pulling children out of school as soon as they could earn a wage. By 1900 working-class ethnics immigrants owned homes at higher rates than native-born people. After borrowing from friends and building associations, immigrants kept boarders, grew market gardens, and even opened home-based commercial laundries, eroding home-work distinctions while sending out women and children to work to repay loans. They sought not middle class upward mobility but the security of home ownership. Many social workers wanted them to pursue upward job mobility (which required more education), but realtors asserted that houses were better than a bank for a poor man. With [[hindsight]], and considering uninsured banks' precariousness, this appears to have been true. Chicago's workers made immense sacrifices for home ownership, contributing to Chicago's sprawling suburban geography and to modern myths about the American dream. The Jewish community, by contrast, rented apartments and maximized education and upward mobility for the next generation.<ref>Elaine Lewinnek, "Better than a Bank for a Poor Man? Home Financing Strategies in Early Chicago." ''Journal of Urban History'' 2006 32(2): 274-301. Issn: 0096-1442 Fulltext: [[Sage]]; see also Joseph C. Bigott, ''From Cottage to Bungalow: Houses and the Working Classes in Metropolitan Chicago, 1869-1929'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Cottage-Bungalow-Metropolitan-1869-1929-Architecture/dp/0226048756/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198670620&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search] </ref>

===Suburbs===
[[Image:Chicago-olympics.jpg|thumb|320px|left]]
Keating (2004) studied the origins of 233 settlements that by 1900 had become suburbs or city neighborhoods of Chicago. The settlements began as farm centers (41%), industrial towns (30%), residential railroad suburbs (15%), and recreational/institutional centers (13%).
===Environment and planning===
Danish immigrant Jens Jensen arrived in 1886 and soon became a highly successful and celebrated landscape designer. Jensen's work was characterized by a democratic approach to landscaping, informed by his interest in social justice and conservationism and his rejection of antidemocratic formalism. Among Jensen's creations were four Chicago city parks, most famously Columbus Park. His work also included garden design for some of the region's most influential people, including the Ford and Rosenwald families.
The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal was first proposed in 1885 by civil engineer Lyman Edgar Cooley, who envisioned a deep waterway that would dilute and divert the city's sewage by funneling water from Lake Michigan into a canal, which would drain into the Mississippi River via the Illinois River. Beyond presenting a solution for Chicago's sewage problem, Cooley's proposal appealed to the economic need to link the Midwest with America's central waterways to compete with East Coast shipping and railroad industries. Strong regional support for the project led the Illinois legislature to circumvent the federal government and complete the canal with state funding. The opening in January 1900 met with controversy and a lawsuit against Chicago's appropriation of water from Lake Michigan. By the 1920s the lawsuit was divided between the states of the Mississippi River Valley, who supported the development of deep waterways linking the Great Lakes with the Mississippi, and the Great Lakes states, who feared sinking water levels might harm shipping in the lakes. In 1929 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in support of Chicago's use of the canal to promote commerce, but ordered the city to discontinue its use for sewage disposal.<ref>Lorien Foote, "Bring the Sea to Us: the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal and the Industrialization of the Midwest, 1885-1929." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 1999 2(1): 39-56. Issn: 1522-0532 </ref>

One of the largest municipal public works projects in US history lies inconspicuously 150 to 300 feet below the streets of Chicago, a city plagued from its inception by pollution and flooding related to Lake Michigan's basin. Engineering techniques pioneered specifically for the project have created mammoth overflow sewers commonly known as the Deep Tunnel and more officially as the Tunnel and Reservoir Plan (TARP). Construction began in 1976 after nearly fifty years of financial, engineering, and political maneuvering by local, state, and federal officials. While the project's long-promised rewards were materializing as of 2001, critics asserted that the city approached the problem of flood overflow in its usual grandiose manner, employing large-scale solutions when simpler, less-costly alternatives to TARP, such as curbing wasteful water use and creating green belts, should have been explored.<ref> Timothy B. Neary, "Chicago-style Environmental Politics: Origins of the Deep Tunnel Project." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2001 4(2): 83-102. Issn: 1522-0532 </ref>

===Museums===
[[Image:Chicago Science Museum.jpg|thumb|Museum of Science and Industry.]]
The Chicago Historical Society has probably the finest local history collection in the world, with an equally strong library to support research.<ref> See Catherine M. Lewis, ''The Changing Face of Public History: The Chicago Historical Society and the Transformation of an American Museum.'' (2005). 172 pp. </ref>
Following his 1924 retirement as chairman of the board of Sears, Roebuck & Company, [[Julius Rosenwald]] embarked on a campaign to found a science and industry museum in Chicago similar to the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany, which he had visited in 1911. Although a city bond issue provided some funds, Rosenwald and his estate spent over $11 million through the mid-1940s. Portions of the Museum of Science and Industry opened in 1933, one year after Rosenwald's death, and the entire museum opened in 1938.<ref> Ascoli (2006)</ref>

==History==
Chicago's locational advantage is the link between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River system. Its first permanent resident, Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, a Frenchman West Indian and African descent, and operated an fur-trading 1780-1800. The U.S. government erected Fort Dearborn in 1803 three years later. In the War of 1812 it was captured by Indians and the residents massacred. After 1830 the rich farmlands of Northern Illinois attracted Yankee settlers. Yankee real estate operators crated a city overnight in the 1830s. Hundreds of wagons a day of farm produce arrived, so the entrepreneurs built grain elevators and docks to load ships bound for points east. By the 1850s the railroads made Chicago a major hub with over 30 lines. The main lines from the East ended in Chicago, and those oriented to the West began in Chicago, so the city became the nation's trans-shipment and warehousing center by 1860. Factories were created, most famously the harvester factory opened in 1847 by [[Cyrus Hall McCormick]]. The Wisconsin forests supported the mill-work and lumber business; the Illinois hinterland provided the wheat, as well as hogs and cattle that were slaughtered, preserved in salt and shipped east; by 1870 refrigerated cars allowed fresh meat to ship.
[[File:Chicago Art Institute..JPG|thumb|left|Chicago Art Institute.]]
As the city grew large numbers of Irish Catholics and Germans arrived. Their saloons became the focus of attacks by the Know-Nothing Party, which was anti-immigration and anti-liquor, and called for the purification of politics by reducing the power of the saloon-keepers. In 1855, the new party elected Levi Boone mayor and he banned Sunday sales of liquor and beer, angering the Germans who frequented beer gardens, and Irish who frequented saloons. Law enforcement resulted in the Lager Beer Riot of April 1855, which erupted outside a courthouse where eight Germans were being tried for liquor ordinance violations. After the Civil War, saloons became community centers only for local ethnic men, as reformers saw them as places that incited riotous behavior and moral decay.

====Newspapers====
Late-19th-century big city newspapers such as the ''Chicago Daily News'' - founded in 1875 by Melville E. Stone - ushered in an era of news reporting that was, unlike earlier periods, in tune with the particulars of community life in specific cities. Vigorous competition between older and newer-style city papers soon broke out, centered on civic activism and sensationalist reporting of urban political issues and the numerous problems associated with rapid urban growth. In Chicago competition was especially fierce between the ''Chicago Times'' (Democratic), the ''Chicago Tribune,'' (Republican) and the ''Daily News'' (independent), with the latter becoming the city's most popular paper by the 1880s.<ref>David Paul Nord, "Read All about It"" ''Chicago History'' 2002 31(1): 26-57. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

===1900-1945===
[[File:Chicago up town theatre.jpg|thumb|Up Town Theatre.]]
====Business====
[[Samuel Insull]] (1859 – 1938), born poor in England, built a great electrical empire in the city (notably "Commonwealth Edison", a giant utility formed in 1907<ref>It is now part of Exelon Corporation, and serves 3.8 million customers in Chicago and northern Illinois.</ref>) and electrified much of the Midwest, 1910-1929. His empire collapsed in the Great Depression, for which he was blamed and put on trial by the [[New Deal]]; he was acquitted.

Chicago, along with New York, was the center of the nation's advertising industry. [[Albert Lasker]] (1880-1952), known as the "father of modern advertising" made Chicago his base 1898-1942. As head of Lord and Thomas, Lasker devised a copywriting technique that appealed directly to the psychology of the consumer. Women seldom smoked cigarettes; he told them if they smoked Lucky Strikes they could stay slender. Lasker's use of radio, particularly with his campaigns for Palmolive soap, Pepsodent toothpaste, Kotex products, and Lucky Strike cigarettes, not only revolutionized the advertising industry but also significantly changed popular culture.

====Labor====
After 1900 Chicago was a heavily unionized city, apart from the factories (which were non-union until the 1930s). The unionized teamsters in Chicago enjoyed an unusually strong bargaining position when they contended with employers around the city. Their wagons could easily be positioned to disrupt streetcars and block traffic. In addition, their families and neighborhood supporters often surrounded the wagons of nonunion teamsters and made strikebreaking a very unpleasant endeavor. When the teamsters used their clout to engage in sympathy strikes, employers decided to coordinate their antiunion efforts, claiming that the teamsters held tyrannical power over commerce in their control of the streets. The teamsters' strike in 1905 represented a clash both over labor issues and the public nature of the streets. To the employers the streets were arteries for commerce, while to the teamsters they remained public spaces integral to their neighborhoods.<ref>David Witwer, "Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-century City." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(1): 183-222. Issn: 0145-5532 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]
</ref>

====Disasters====
[[File:Chicago fire.jpg|thumb|left|The great Chicago Fire, October, 1871.]]
On 7 December 1903 the "absolutely fireproof," five-week-old Iroquois Theater was destroyed by fire in Chicago. The fire lasted less than thirty minutes; however, 602 people died as a result of being burned, asphyxiated, or trampled.<ref> Anthony P. Hatch, "Inferno at the Iroquois." ''Chicago History'' 2003 32(2): 4-31. Issn: 0272-8540 </ref>

The cruise ship ''Eastland'' capsized at its pier on a calm day, July 24, 1915, killing over 800 passengers. It was top-heavy because of new federal laws (passed in response to the Titanic) requiring lifeboats.<ref> George W. Hilton, ''Eastland: Legacy of the Titanic.'' (1995). </ref>

A major environmental disaster came in July 1995, with 739 heat-related deaths after one week of record high heat and humidity.<ref> Christopher R. Browning; Wallace, Danielle; Feinberg, Seth L.; and Cagney, Kathleen A.; Klinenberg, Eric (Reply). "Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and Disaster-related Mortality: the Case of the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave." ''American Sociological Review'' 2006 71(4): 661-678. Issn: 0003-1224 </ref>

====Crime====
By 1900, [[Progressive Era]] political and legal reformers initiated far-ranging changes in the American criminal justice system, with Chicago taking the lead. Violent crime rates were high yet law enforcers rarely convicted killers, more than three-fourths of whom went unpunished. Even in homicide cases in which the identity of killers was certain and the police made arrests, jurors typically exonerated or acquitted killers. A blend of gender-, race-, and class-based notions of justice trumped the rule of law, producing low homicide conviction rates during a period of soaring violence.<ref> Jeffrey S. Adler, "'It Is His First Offense. We Might as Well Let Him Go': Homicide and Criminal Justice in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Social History'' 2006 40(1): 5-24. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] and [[Project Muse]]</ref>

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rates of domestic murder tripled in Chicago. Domestic homicide was often a manifestation of strains in gender relations induced by urban and industrial change. At the core of such family murders were male attempts to preserve masculine authority. Yet, there were nuances in the motives for the murder of family members, and study of the patterns of domestic homicide among ethnic groups reveals basic cultural differences. German immigrants tended to murder over declining status and the failure to achieve economic prosperity. In addition, they were likely to kill all members of the family and then commit suicide in the ultimate attempt at maintaining control. Italian men killed family members to save a gender-based ideal of respectability that entailed patriarchal control over women and family reputation. African Americans, like the Germans, often murdered in response to economic conditions but not over desperation about the future. Like the Italians, the killers tended to be young, but family honor was not usually at stake. Instead, black men murdered to regain control of wives and lovers who resisted their patriarchal "rights."<ref> Adler, "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." 2003 </ref>

Progressive reformers in the business community created the Chicago Crime Commission (CCC) in 1919 after an investigation into the robbery at a factory showed the city's criminal justice system was deficient. The CCC initially served as a watchdog of the justice system. However, after a suggestion that the justice system begin collecting criminal records was rejected, the CCC assumed a more active role in fighting crime. The commission's role expanded even further after Frank J. Loesch became president in 1928. Loesch recognized the need to eliminate the glamour that Chicago's media typically attributed to criminals. Determined to expose the horrors and violence of the crime world, Loesch drafted a list of public enemies and turned Al Capone into a scapegoat for society's evils.<ref>Bill Barnhart, "Public Enemies: Chicago Origins of Personalized Anticrime Campaigns." ''Journal of Illinois History'' 2001 4(4): 258-270. Issn: 1522-0532 </ref>

====Black migration====
[[File:Chicago musician.jpg|thumb|Chicago musician.]]
Chicago's black population swelled dramatically during World War I as immigration from Europe was impossible and factories demanded more and more war workers. Whites got the factory jobs, but many opportunities opened for black men and women. Economic conditions for the city's blacks during the 1920s were much better than in the South, but were also characterized by chronic unemployment and low wage rates. Many families living below the poverty line. These conditions were caused primarily by employers' discriminatory hiring and promotion policies, a surplus of labor at a time of continued black migration from the South, and residential segregation in the African American neighborhoods of Chicago. Consequently, the economic conditions that brought about political radicalization and realignment of African Americans during the 1930s, and which are associated primarily with the Great Depression, were in evidence throughout much of the 1920s. Accordingly, the Great Migration of the 1910s and 1920s, rather than being seen largely as a phenomenon associated with World War I, takes on greater significance in terms of its economic and political repercussions in black Chicago in the years before the depression.<ref>Gareth Canaan, "'Part of the Loaf': Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class During the 1920's." ''Journal of Social History'' 2001 35(1): 147-174. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]] </ref>

====Polonia====
Chicago's [[Polish Americans|Polonia]] sustained diverse political cultures, each with its own newspaper. In 1920 the community had a choice of five daily papers - from the Socialist ''Dziennik Ludowy'' [People's daily] (1907-25) to the Polish Roman Catholic Union's ''Dziennik Zjednoczenia'' [Union daily] (1921-39) - all of which supported workers' struggles for better working conditions and were part of a broader program of cultural and educational activities. The decision to subscribe to a particular paper reaffirmed a particular ideology or institutional network based on ethnicity and class, which lent itself to different alliances and different strategies.<ref>Jon Bekken, "Negotiating Class and Ethnicity: the Polish-language Press in Chicago." ''Polish American Studies'' 2000 57(2): 5-29. Issn: 0032-2806 </ref>

====Great Depression====
===Since 1940===
====Politics====
Many recent [[mayor]]s of Chicago belonged to the [[Democratic Party]]. The current mayor of Chicago is [[Rahm Emanuel]]. Before him, [[Richard M. Daley]] (b. 1942), who was elected in 1989, was mayor until 2011. His father, [[Richard J. Daley]] (1902-1976), was mayor from 1955-1976, and controlled the powerful Cook County Democratic organization, called "the machine." <ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Daley2.html</ref> Current President [[Barack Obama]] spent his politically formative years as a city planner "foot soldier" for the Democratic machine, an experience that deeply affected his political methods and radical beliefs later in life.

The city hosted the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] when [[Richard J. Daley]] was mayor. The convention was disrupted by radicals such as [[Abbie Hoffman]].

Holli (1999) argues that the political regime of Chicago Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] during 1955-76 was unusually stable during an era of national instability because Daley kept firm control of the governmental machinery, which slowed change to a manageable pace and had a deep and profound appeal to Chicagoans. Ethnic and racial squabbling erupted after Daley's death in 1976 and continued through the tenures of four mayors, even as the rest of the nation entered a period of greater political stability. After the transitory tenure of interim mayor Eugene Sawyer, the years of political instability ended with the 1989 election of the former boss's son, [[Richard M. Daley]]. Young Daley's election marked a return to political calm seen, in the light of equilibrium theory, as inevitable after the tumultuous years that preceded it.<ref> Melvin G. Holli, "Political Equilibrium and the Daley Eras in Chicago." ''Continuity'' 1999 (23): 83-96. Issn: 0277-1446 </ref>

====Public housing====
The Robert Taylor Homes (RTH), part of Chicago's public housing projects financed by the federal government, opened in 1962. As the largest US public housing project, RTH consisted of 28 high-rises of 16 floors each, providing homes for 27,000 people. By 1965, RTH was already substandard and crime-ridden. Through the 1970s, RTH became predominantly single-mother welfare households. During site selection, the size of the project kept increasing. Federal cost worries forced the use of the high-rise design. Minors so outnumbered adults at RTH from the beginning that gangs, vandalism, and other crimes quickly became endemic. RTH was too large to administer effectively. Substandard systems, including elevators, plumbing, and heating, insufficient police protection, and the demographic burden on local schools were instrumental in RTH's failure.<ref> D. Bradford Hunt, "What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes." ''Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society'' 2001 94(1): 96-123. Issn: 1522-1067; Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002). </ref>
=====Japanese=====
[[File:Chicago Street violin musician.JPG|thumb|left|Street violin musician.]]
In 1942-43 60,000 Nisei (born in U.S. of Japanese parents) were removed from the West Coast relocation camps and resettled in distant cities. 20,000 came to Chicago. In contrast to their self-contained, West-coast lifestyle, the Nisei in Chicago attempted to more fully integrate themselves in the community. This permitted many to take advantage of their racial "inbetweenness" to fill labor shortages caused by the war. Nisei used this "twilight zone" status between blacks and whites to distance themselves from blacks, frequently adopting the language of racial prejudice to heighten distinctions. Most Nisei successfully shed their ethnic identity in Chicago, amalgamated into the white community and stayed in the city.<ref> Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945." ''Journal of American History'' 2000 86(4): 1655-1687. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200003)86%3A4%3C1655%3AITTZBB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S and Jstor]]</ref>

=====Hispanic immigrants=====
Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II. Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975." PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp. DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M. Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago." PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp. DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079
Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

===Schools===
Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in Jstor]]</ref>
[[File:Chicago River Saint Patricks Day.jpg|thumb|left|Chicago River, Saint Patricks Day.]]
As a politician and as Chicago's black mayor (1983-87), [[Harold Washington]] maintained a distinctive strategy toward reform of public schools.<ref> Jim Carl, "Harold Washington and Chicago's Schools Between Civil Rights and the Decline of the New Deal Consensus, 1955-1987." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2001 41(3): 311-343. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(200123)41%3A3%3C311%3AHWACSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in Jstor]]</ref> Rather than focus on integration (bringing whites and minorities into the same schools), Washington favored measures to strengthen local schools, especially in minority neighborhoods. He called for more state support to urban schools in place of property taxes and more power to local groups to influence curriculum and the quality of teaching. In 1987 the teacher strike transformed educational problems into a crisis. Washington created the Parent Community Council from local groups and arranged for a summit with their representatives and those of business, school administration, and teachers. His death in 1987 unraveled the deliberations for change that had been taking place. The schoold were so beset by violence, teacher shortages and inadequate financing that few Few disagreed with the brutal verdict of U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] in 1987, "Chicago's public schools are the worst in the nation." In the late 1990s, the realization that busing had become unrealistic caused Chicago's political leaders and community activists to join together in focusing attention and resources on improving neighborhood schools. Mayor Richard M. Daley seized control of the school system in 1995 and promised drastic reforms. However, the legislature largely left in place elected councils made up of parents and community members at each of the district's nearly 600 schools. At struggling schools on probation, Daley has stripped councils of power, but at others the councils hire principals and oversee a significant portion of each school's budget. Paul G. Vallas, a blunt-talking, bottom-line-driven manager led the system from 1995 to 2001. Vallas presided over a $3 billion construction effort that built 71 schools and renovated 500. He cut 2,000 nonteaching positions and stabilized the district's finances. Given broad executive authority, Vallas ended automatic promotion from grade to grade and greatly expanded summer school, policies that have been copied across the country. Math and reading scores improved, with about 40% of students at grade level in 2001, up from 30% in 1995. <ref> See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDB1E3FF934A35755C0A9679C8B63 Jodi Wilgoren, "Chief Executive of Chicago Schools Resigns," ''New York Times'' June 7, 2001]</ref> In 2001 Daley appointed Arne Duncan, 36, to preside over a school system with 435,000 students, 45,900 employees and a $3.5-billion annual budget. In 2009 Duncan, hailed for his work in Chicago, became Secretary of Education for the [[Obama Administration]].

==Reputation==
[[File:USCellular1.jpg|thumb|left|U.S. Cellular Field. Home of Chicago White Sox.]]
Journalists, novelists and poets shaped Chicago's national and international reputation. Images and representations are important means by which the city is known and negotiated. During the years of rapid urbanization 1890-1930 the numerous daily newspapers presented the most important and pervasive word versions of the city. Among the significant innovations of Chicago's newspapers in these years that shaped the idea of the city was the emergence of the local color columnist. Groeninger (2005) examines the role of columnists in Chicago newspapers in creating a "city of the mind." After a review of the literature on images of cities, the relationship of newspapers to modern city life in the thought of Robert Park, and the world of Chicago's newspapers at the turn-of-the-century, detailed studies of a number of the most important columnists of the era follow. [[George Ade]]'s column of the 1890s in the ''Daily News'', "Stories of the Streets and of the Town," presented a view of Chicago from the perspective of migrants from the small towns of the Midwest. In the same decade [[Finley Peter Dunne]]'s column in the ''Evening Post'', featuring the fictional Irish barkeeper, Mr. Dooley, offered readers a literary version of the Irish working-class neighborhood of Bridgeport. [[Ring Lardner]]'s ''Tribune'' sports column of the teens, "In the Wake of the News," satirized not only Chicagoans obsession with sports, but also the middle-class culture of opera, musical theater, and the newspaper itself. Several columns in the black newspaper, ''The Whip'', offered images of Bronzeville in the 1920s that both reflected and helped shape the experience of African-Americans on the South Side of Chicago. [[Ben Hecht]]'s "1001 Afternoons in Chicago" column in the ''Daily News'' expressed a new, anti-Victorian sensibility in the post-war era, but his most enduring contributions to the image of Chicago were on the stage and in the new medium of film. The columnists who wrote about everyday life in the city were the most distinctive and powerful newspaper voices in shaping the idea of Chicago and the civic personality of the city itself.<ref> David V. Groeninger, "Chicago Imagined: The Role of Newspaper Columnists in Creating a City of the Mind, 1890-1930." PhD dissertation Loyola U., Chicago 2005. 280 pp. DAI 2005 66(5): 1925-A. DA3175764 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Sarah Susan Marcus, "Up from the Prairie: Depictions of Chicago and the Middle West in Popular Culture, 1865-1983." PhD dissertation U. of Wisconsin, Madison 2001. 445 pp. DAI 2001 62(4): 1554-1555-A. DA3012550 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref> Often referred to as the "Windy City", many people mistake that saying for the weather. It actually refers to the chatter of deal-making among Chicago politicians, the wind being talk. Chicago was the United States' bid city for the 2016 Olympics, which ultimately were awarded to [[Rio de Janeiro]].

==See also==
*[[Art cities]]
* [[Chicago School of Economics]]
* [[Hull House]]
* [[Jane Addams]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.fieldmuseum.org/ The Field Museum]
*[http://www.nationalmuseumofmexicanart.org/ National Museum of Mexican Art]
*[http://egov.cityofchicago.org/city/webportal/portalEntityHomeAction.do?entityname=Tourism%2526amp%253BentityNameEnumValue%253D41 City of Chicago - Tourism]
* [http://chicago.areaconnect.com/statistics.htm summary of 2000 census for city]
* [http://www.luc.edu/depts/sociology/johnson/ChicagoCensus(2004).html Kenneth M. Johnson, "Demographic Trends in the Chicago Metropolitan Area" (2006)]

==Bibliography==
the best source to study all aspects of Chicago is [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ James R. Grossman, Ann Durkin Keating, and Janice L. Reiff, eds.. ''The Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (University of Chicago Press, (2005) ISBN 0-226-31015-9; (online version)]
* Szucs, Loretto Dennis. ''Chicago and Cook County: A Guide to Research'' (1996), 517pp; bibliographies for genealogy and local history[http://www.amazon.com/Chicago-Cook-County-Guide-Research/dp/0916489620/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product excerpt and text search]

===Current===
* ''Frommer's Chicago 2007'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Chicago-2007-Complete/dp/0470040785/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198575167&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

===History===
*[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ ''The Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (2005) (online version)], the place to start

====Surveys====
* Longstreet, Stephen. ''Chicago: An Intimate Portrait of People, Pleasures, and Power, 1860-1919.'' (1973). 547 pp. popular
* Miller, Donald L. ''City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America'' (1997), popular epic; [http://www.amazon.com/City-Century-Chicago-Making-America/dp/0684831384/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198576637&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Pierce, Bessie Louise. ''A History of Chicago, Volume I: The Beginning of a City 1673-1848'' (1937; reprint 2007); ''Volume II: From Town to City 1848-1871'' (reprint 2007); ''Volume III: The Rise of a Modern City, 1871-1893'' (reprint 2007)
* Spinney, Robert G. ''City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago'' (2000), popular epic; [http://www.amazon.com/City-Big-Shoulders-History-Chicago/dp/0875805833/ref=pd_bbs_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198576637&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

====Geography, region, housing====
* Barrett, Paul. ''The Automobile and Urban Transit: The Formation of Public Policy in Chicago, 1900-1930.'' (1983). 295 pp.
* Betancur, John J. "The Settlement Experience of Latinos in Chicago: Segregation, Speculation, and the Ecology Model." ''Social Forces'' 1996 74(4): 1299-1324. Issn: 0037-7732 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-7732(199606)74%3A4%3C1299%3ATSEOLI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L Jstor]
* Bigott, Joseph C. ''From Cottage to Bungalow: Houses and the Working Classes in Metropolitan Chicago, 1869-1929'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Cottage-Bungalow-Metropolitan-1869-1929-Architecture/dp/0226048756/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198670620&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Bronsky, Eric, Neal Samors and Jennifer Samors. ''Downtown Chicago in Transition'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Downtown-Chicago-Transition-Bronsky-Samors/dp/0979789206/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198575167&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Cronon, William. ''Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West.'' (1991). 530 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Natures-Metropolis-Chicago-Great-West/dp/0393308731/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592196&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Garb, Margaret. ''City of American Dreams: A History of Home Ownership and Housing Reform in Chicago, 1871-1919.'' (2005). 261 pp.
* Keating, Ann Durkin. ''Building Chicago: Suburban Developers and the Creation of a Divided Metropolis.'' (1988). 230 pp.
* Keating, Ann Durkin. "Chicagoland: More than the Sum of its Parts." ''Journal of Urban History'' 2004 30(2): 213-230. Issn: 0096-1442 Fulltext: [Ebsco]]
* Mayer, Harold M., and Richard C. Wade. ''Chicago: Growth of a Metropolis'' (1969) 510pp
* Pacyga, Dominic A. and Skerrett, Ellen. ''Chicago: City of Neighborhoods. Histories and Tours.'' (1986). 582 pp.
* Randall, Gregory C. ''America's Original G.I. Town: Park Forest, Illinois.'' 2000. 236 pp.
* Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi. ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002), 360pp, on Robert Taylor Homes, a high rise public housing project with a negative reputation [http://www.amazon.com/American-Project-Rise-Modern-Ghetto/dp/0674008308/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198670359&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* WPA. ''Illinois: A Descriptive and Historical Guide'' (1939)

====Pre 1871====
* Fehrenbacher, Don E. ''Chicago Giant: A Biography of "Long John" Wentworth.'' (1957). 278 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/4005584 online edition]
* Karamanski, Theodore J. ''Rally 'Round the Flag: Chicago and the Civil War.'' (1993). 292 pp.
*Pierce, Bessie Louise. ''A History of Chicago, Volume I: The Beginning of a City 1673-1848'' (1937; reprint 2007); ''Volume II: From Town to City 1848-1871'' (reprint 2007)
* Quaife, Milo Milton. ''Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835.'' (1913, reprint (2001). 480 pp.

====Politics====
* Allswang, John. ''A House For All Peoples: Ethnic Politics In Chicago, 1890-1936.'' (1973). 213 pp.
* Barnard, Harry. ''"Eagle Forgotten": The Life of John Peter Altgeld'' (1938)
* Beito, David T. ''Taxpayers in Revolt: Tax Resistance during the Great Depression.'' (1989). 216 pp.
* Biles, Roger. ''Richard J. Daley: Politics, Race, and the Governing of Chicago.'' (1995). 292 pp.
* Biles, Roger. ''Big City Boss in Depression and War: Mayor Edward J. Kelly of Chicago.'' (1984). 219 pp.
* Bukowski, Douglas. ''Big Bill Thompson, Chicago, and the Politics of Image.'' (1998). 273 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Bill-Thompson-Chicago-Politics-Image/dp/0252066685/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592309&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Cohen, Adam, and Elizabeth Taylor. ''American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley - His Battle for Chicago and the Nation.'' (2001). 614pp ISBN 0-316-83489-0 [http://www.amazon.com/American-Pharaoh-Richard-Battle-Chicago/dp/B000FDFWIW/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610306&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Flanagan, Maureen A. ''Charter Reform in Chicago.'' (1987). 207 pp.
* Fuchs, Ester R. ''Mayors and Money: Fiscal Policy in New York and Chicago.'' (1992). 361 pp.
* Green, Paul M. and Holli, Melvin G., eds. ''The Mayors: The Chicago Political Tradition'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-mayors-the-chicago-political-tradition-by-paul-m-green-melvin-g-holli.jsp online edition]
* Green, Paul M. and Holli, Melvin G., eds. ''Restoration 1989: Chicago Elects a New Daley.'' (1991). 212 pp.
* Gosnell, Harold F. ''Machine Politics: Chicago Model'' (1937), classic statistical study [http://www.questia.com/library/book/machine-politics-chicago-model-by-harold-f-gosnell.jsp online edition]
* Guterbock, Thomas M. ''Machine Politics in Transition: Party and Community in Chicago.'' (1980). 324 pp.
* Hartley, Robert E. ''Big Jim Thompson of Illinois'' (1979), governor 1980s
* Hogan, David John. ''Class and Reform: School and Society in Chicago, 1880-1930.'' (1985). 328 pp.
* Kantowicz, Edward R. ''Polish-American Politics in Chicago, 1888-1940.'' (1975). 260 pp.
* Kleppner, Paul. ''Chicago Divided: The Making of a Black Mayor.'' (1985). 313 pp.
* Littlewood, Thomas B. ''Horner of Illinois'' (1969), governor 1933-40
* Merriam, Charles Edward. ''Chicago: A More Intimate View of Urban Politics'' (1929) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/chicago-a-more-intimate-view-of-urban-politics-by-charles-edward-merriam.jsp online edition]
* Miller, Kristie. ''Ruth Hanna Mccormick: A Life in Politics, 1880-1944'' (1992)
* Morton, Richard Allen. ''Justice and Humanity: Edward F. Dunne, Illinois Progressive'' (1997), 174pp Democrfatic mayor 1905-7 and governor 1913-17.
* Peterson, Paul E. ''The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940.'' (1985). 241 pp.
* Pinderhughes, Dianne M. ''Race and Ethnicity in Chicago Politics: A Reexamination of Pluralist Theory.'' (1987). 318 pp.
* Rivlin, Gary. ''Fire on the Prairie: Chicago's Harold Washington and the Politics of Race.'' (1992). 426 pp.
* Schmidt, John R. ''"The Mayor Who Cleaned Up Chicago": A Political Biography of William E. Dever.'' (1989). 239 pp.
* Schneirov, Richard. ''Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97.'' (1998). 390 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Labor-Urban-Politics-Conflict-Liberalism/dp/0252066766/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198678418&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Simpson, Dick. ''Rogues, Rebels, and Rubber Stamps: The Politics of the Chicago City Council from 1863 to the Present'' (2001) 356pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100296105 online edition]
* Smith, Joan K. ''Ella Flagg Young: Portrait of a Leader.'' (1979). 272 pp.
* Tarr, Joel Arthur. ''A Study in Boss Politics: William Lorimer of Chicago.'' (1971). 376 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/58538592 online edition]
* Wendt, Lloyd, Herman Kogan, and Bette Jore. ''Big Bill of Chicago.'' (2005) ISBN 0-8101-2319-3, popular vio of mayor in 1920s

====Crime, law and disaster ====
* Adler, Jeffrey S. ''First in Violence, Deepest in Dirt: Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920.'' (2006). 357 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/First-Violence-Deepest-Dirt-Homicide/dp/0674021495/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Adler, Jeffrey S. "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 2003 34(1): 27-48. Issn: 0022-1953 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]
* Avrich, Paul. ''The Haymarket Tragedy'' (1984) [http://www.amazon.com/Haymarket-Tragedy-Paul-Avrich/dp/0691006008/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198669133&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Bales, Richard F. ''The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow.'' (2002). 338 pp.
* Hilton, George W. ''Eastland: Legacy of the Titanic.'' (1995). 364 pp. The cruise ship capsized at its pier on a calm day in 1915, killing over 800 passengers. It was topheavy because of new federal laws (passed in response to the Titanic) requiring lifboats.
* Brandt, Nat. ''Chicago Death Trap: The Iroquois Theatre Fire of 1903.'' (2003). 180 pp.
* Bruno, Robert. ''Reforming the Chicago Teamsters: The Story of Local 705.'' (2003). 203 pp.
* Cahan, Richard. ''A Court that Shaped America: Chicago's Federal District Court from Abe Lincoln to Abbie Hoffman.'' (2002). 273 pp.
* Chicago Commission on Race Relations. ''The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot'' (1922) - 672 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=3kErAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=intitle:chicago+date:1920-1923&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 full text online]
* Cohen, Andrew Wender. ''The Racketeer's Progress: Chicago and the Struggle for the Modern American Economy, 1900-1940.'' (2004). 333 pp.
* Getis, Victoria. ''The Juvenile Court and the Progressives.'' (2000). 216 pp.
* Farber, David. ''Chicago '68.'' (1988). 304 pp.
* Heinz, John P. and Laumann, Edward O. ''Chicago Lawyers: The Social Structure of the Bar.'' (1983). 496 pp.
* Higdon, Hal. ''Leopold and Loeb: The Crime of the Century.'' (1975). 380 pp.
* Hoffman, Dennis E. ''Scarface Al and the Crime Crusaders: Chicago's Private War against Capone.'' (1993). 192 pp.
* Lindberg, Richard Carl. ''To Serve and Collect: Chicago Politics and Police Corruption from the Lager Beer Riot to the Summerdale Scandal: 1855-1960.'' 1991. ISBN 0-275-93415-2 [http://www.questia.com/read/24258677 online edition]
* Merriner, James L. ''Grafters and Goo Goos: Corruption and Reform in Chicago, 1833-(2003).'' (2004). 302 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/109814452 online edition]
* Miller, Ross. ''The Great Chicago Fire'' (2000); 1st ed was ''American Apocalypse: The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Chicago'' 287 pp.
* Mumford, Kevin J. ''Interzones: Black/White Sex Districts in Chicago and New York in the Early Twentieth Century.'' (1997). 238 pp.
* Sawislak, Karen. ''Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871-1874.'' (1995). 408 pp.
* Tuttle, William M., Jr. ''Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919.'' (1970). 305 pp.
* Wendt, Lloyd, and Herman Kogan. ''Lords of the Levee.'' (1967), popular stories from early 20th century.
* Willrich, Michael. ''City of Courts: Socializing Justice in Progressive Era Chicago.'' (2003). 332 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/City-Courts-Socializing-Progressive-Historical/dp/052179403X/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wolcott, David B. ''Cops and Kids: Policing Juvenile Delinquency in Urban America, 1890-1940.'' (2005). 264 pp.

====Labor====
* Bae, Youngsoo. ''Labor in Retreat: Class and Community among Men's Clothing Workers of Chicago, 1871-1929.'' (2001). 295 pp.
* Barrett, James. ''Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago's Packinghouse Workers, 1894--1922'' (1987), [http://www.amazon.com/Work-Community-Jungle-Packinghouse-1894-1922/dp/0252061365/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198680212&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Cohen, Lizabeth. ''Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939.'' (1990). 526 pp.
* Cummings, John. "The Chicago Teamsters’ Strike: A study in industrial democracy." ''Journal of Political Economy'' (1905) 13: 536–73. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3808(190509)13%3A4%3C536%3ATCTSSI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 in jstor]
* Fine, Lisa M. ''The Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930.'' (1990). 249 pp.
* Green, James. ''Death in the Haymarket: A Story of Chicago, the First Labor Movement and the Bombing that Divided Gilded Age America.'' (2006). 383 pp.
* Halpern, Rick. ''Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-1954.'' (1997). 309 pp.
* Meyerowitz, Joanne J. ''Women Adrift: Independent Wage Earners in Chicago, 1880-1930.'' (1988). 224 pp.
* Newell, Barbara Wayne. ''Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s'' (1961)
* Papke, David Ray. ''The Pullman Case: The Clash of Labor and Capital in Industrial America.'' (1999). 118 pp. legal aspects
* Schneirov, Richard; Stromquist, Shelton; and Salvatore, Nick, eds. ''The Pullman Strike and the Crisis of the 1890s: Essays on Labor and Politics.'' (1999). 258 pp.
* Schneirov, Richard and Suhrbur, Thomas J. ''Union Brotherhood, Union Town: A History of the Carpenters' Union of Chicago, 1863-1987.'' (1988). 211 pp.

====Business and economics====
* Ascoli, Peter Max. ''Julius Rosenwald: The Man Who Built Sears, Roebuck and Advanced the Cause of Black Education in the American South'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Julius-Rosenwald-Education-Philanthropic-Nonprofit/dp/0253347416/ref=sr_1_31?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198677606&sr=1-31 excerpt and text search]
* Emmet, Boris, and John E. Jeuck. ''Catalogues and Counters: A History of Sears, Roebuck & Company'' (1965), the standard corporate history
* Ferris, William G. ''The Grain Traders: The Story of the Chicago Board of Trade.'' (1988). 221 pp.
* Franch, John. ''Robber Baron: The Life of Charles Tyson Yerkes.'' (2006). 374 pp.
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Insull: The Rise and Fall of a Billionaire Utility Tycoon'' (2004)
* Rast, Joel. ''Remaking Chicago: The Political Origins of Urban Industrial Change.'' (1999). 220 pp. redevelopment of area near downtown
* Smith, Raymond D., and William P. Darrow. "Strategic Management and Entrepreneurial Opportunity: The Rise of Sears, Inc.," ''Journal of Business & Entrepreneurship'' (1999) 11#1
* Young, David M. ''The Iron Horse and the Windy City: How Railroads Shaped Chicago.'' (2005). 270 pp. popular
* Young, David M. ''Chicago Aviation: An Illustrated History.'' (2003). 254 pp. popular
* Young, David M. ''Chicago Transit: An Illustrated History.'' (1998). 213 pp. popular

====Environment====
* Cain, Louis P. ''Sanitation Strategy for a Lakefront Metropolis: The Case of Chicago.'' (1978). 141 pp.
* Capano, Daniel E. "Chicago's War with Water." ''American Heritage of Invention & Technology'' 2003 18(4): 50-58. Issn: 8756-7296[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2003/4/2003_4_50.shtml full text online]
* O'Connell, James C. ''Chicago's Quest for Pure Water.'' (1976).
* Pellow, David Naguib. ''Garbage Wars: The Struggle for Environmental Justice in Chicago.'' (2002). 234 pp.
* Platt, Harold L. ''Shock Cities: The Environmental Transformation and Reform of Manchester and Chicago.'' (2005). 628 pp.
* Platt, Harold L. ''The Electric City: Energy and the Growth of the Chicago Area, 1880-1930.'' (1991). 318 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Electric-City-Energy-Chicago-1880-1930/dp/0226670759/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]

====High culture, architecture, science====
* Bolotin, Norman and Laing, Christine. ''The World's Columbian Exposition: The Chicago World's Fair of 1893.'' (1992). 166 pp.
* Bonner, Thomas Neville. ''Medicine in Chicago, 1850-1950: A Chapter in the Social and Scientific Development of a City.'' ( 1957, 2d ed. 1991). 335 pp.
* Bruegmann, Robert. ''The Architects and the City: Holabird & Roche of Chicago, 1880-1918.'' (1997). 544 pp.
* Cappetti, Carla. ''Writing Chicago: Modernism, Ethnography, and the Novel.'' (1993). 274 pp.
* Christiansen, Richard. ''A Theater of Our Own: A History and a Memoir of 1,001 Nights in Chicago.'' (2004). 317 pp.
* Clarke, Jane H.; Saliga, Pauline A.; and Zukowsky, John. ''The Sky's the Limit: A Century of Chicago Skyscrapers.'' (1990). 304 pp.
* Condit, Carl W. ''Chicago, 1910-29: Building, Planning, and Urban Technology.'' (1973). 354 pp.
* Condit, Carl W. ''Chicago, 1930-70: Building, Planning, and Urban Technology.'' (1974). 351 pp.
* Garvey, Timothy J. ''Public Sculptor: Lorado Taft and the Beautification of Chicago.'' (1988). 222 pp.
* Gray, Mary Lackritz. ''A Guide to Chicago's Murals.'' (2001). 488 pp.
* Greenhouse, Wendy and Weininger, Susan. ''Chicago Painting 1895-1945: The Bridges Collection.'' (2004). 251 pp.
* Hallwas, John E. ed., ''Illinois Literature: The Nineteenth Century'' (1986)
* Harris, Neil. ''Chicago Apartments: A Century of Lakefront Luxury.'' (2004). 352 pp.
* Hines, Thomas S. ''Burnham of Chicago: Architect and Planner.'' (1974). 445 pp.
* Longstreth, Richard, ed. ''The Charnley House: Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and the Making of Chicago's Gold Coast.'' (2004). 249 pp.
* Lowe, David Garrard. ''Lost Chicago'' (2000), architectural landmarks that were torn down. [http://www.amazon.com/Lost-Chicago-David-Garrard-Lowe/dp/0823028712/ref=pd_bbs_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198576637&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* McCarthy, Kathleen D. ''Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849-1929.'' (1982). 230 pp.
* Moudry, Roberta, ed. ''The American Skyscraper: Cultural Histories.'' (2005). 281 pp.
* Saum, Lewis O. ''Eugene Field and His Age.'' (2001). 324 pp.
* Schaffer, Kristen. ''Daniel H. Burnham: Visionary Architect and Planner.'' (2003). 223 pp.
* Siry, Joseph M. ''The Chicago Auditorium Building: Adler and Sullivan's Architecture and the City.'' (2002). 550 pp.
* Siry, Joseph. ''Carson Pirie Scott: Louis Sullivan and the Chicago Department Store.'' (1989). 290 pp.
* Waldheim, Charles and Ray, Katerina Rüedi, eds. ''Chicago Architecture: Histories, Revisions, Alternatives.'' (2005). 488 pp.
* Wright, Gwendolyn. ''Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago, 1873-1913.'' (1980). 382 pp.
* Zukowsky, John, ed. ''Chicago Architecture and Design, 1923-1993: Reconfiguration of an American Metropolis.'' (1993). 479 pp.

====Black Chicago====
* Best, Wallace D. ''Passionately Human, No Less Divine: Religion and Culture in Black Chicago, 1915-1952.'' (2005). 251 pp.
* Black, Timuel D., Jr. ''Bridges of Memory: Chicago's First Wave of Black Migration.'' (2003). 600 pp.
* Blakely, Robert J. ''Earl B. Dickerson: A Voice for Freedom and Equality.'' (2006). 270 pp.
* Chicago Commission on Race Relations. ''The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot'' (1922) - 672 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=3kErAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=intitle:chicago+date:1920-1923&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 full text online]
* Drake, St. Clair, and Horace R. Cayton. ''Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City'' (4th ed. 1945), classic sociological study
* Grimshaw, William J. ''Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931-1991.'' (1992). 248 pp.
* Grossman, James R. ''Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration.'' (1989). 384 pp.
* Hirsch, Arnold R. ''Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-60.'' (1983). 362 pp.
* Knupfer, Anne Meis. ''The Chicago Black Renaissance and Women's Activism.'' (2006). 244 pp.
* Lemann, Nicholas. ''The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America.'' (1991). 401 pp.
* Philpott, Thomas Lee. ''The Slum and the Ghetto: Immigrants, Blacks, and Reformers in Chicago, 1880-1930.'' (1978). 437 pp.
* Pinderhughes, Dianne M. ''Race and Ethnicity in Chicago Politics: A Reexamination of Pluralist Theory.'' (1987). 318 pp.
* Reed, Christopher Robert. ''Black Chicago's First Century. Vol. 1: 1833-1900.'' (2005). 582 pp.
* Reed, Christopher Robert. ''The Chicago NAACP and the Rise of Black Professional Leadership, 1910-1966.'' (1997). 257 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/101542281 online edition]
* Rivlin, Gary. ''Fire on the Prairie: Chicago's Harold Washington and the Politics of Race.'' (1992). 426 pp.
* Spear, Allan. ''Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890--1920'' (1967),
* Strickland, Arvarh E. ''History of the Chicago Urban League.'' (1966, 2nd ed. (2001). 286 pp.
* Tuttle, William M., Jr. ''Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919.'' (1970). 305 pp.
* Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi. ''American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto,'' (2002), 360pp, on Robert Taylor Homes, a high rise public housing project with a negative reputation [http://www.amazon.com/American-Project-Rise-Modern-Ghetto/dp/0674008308/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198670359&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wellman, James K., Jr. ''The Gold Coast Church and the Ghetto: Christ and Culture in Mainline Protestantism.'' (1999). 241 pp.

====Social, religious, and ethnic====
* Anderson, Philip J. and Blanck, Dag, eds. ''Swedish-American Life in Chicago: Cultural and Urban Aspects of an Immigrant People, 1850-1930.'' (1992). 394 pp.
* Avella, Steven M. ''This Confident Church: Catholic Leadership and Life in Chicago, 1940-1965.'' (1992). 410 pp.
* Barrett, James. ''Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago's Packinghouse Workers, 1894--1922'' (1987), [http://www.amazon.com/Work-Community-Jungle-Packinghouse-1894-1922/dp/0252061365/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198680212&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Beijbom, Ulf. ''Swedes in Chicago: A Demographic and Social Study of the 1846-1880 Immigration.'' (1971). 381 pp
* Betancur, John J. "The Settlement Experience of Latinos in Chicago: Segregation, Speculation, and the Ecology Model." ''Social Forces'' 1996 74(4): 1299-1324. Issn: 0037-7732 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-7732(199606)74%3A4%3C1299%3ATSEOLI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L Jstor]
* Bowly Jr., Devereux ''The Poorhouse: Subsidized Housing in Chicago, 1895-1976'' (1978) [http://www.questia.com/SM.qst?act=adv&contributors=Devereux Bowly Jr.&dcontributors=Devereux+Bowly+Jr. online edition]
* Candeloro, Dominic. ''Italians in Chicago.'' (1999). 128 pp.
* Cutler, Irving. ''The Jews of Chicago: From Shtetl to Suburb.'' (1996). 316 pp.
* Dahm, Charles and Ghelardi, Robert. ''Power and Authority in the Catholic Church: Cardinal Cody in Chicago.'' (1982). 334 pp.
* DeGenova, Nicholas. ''Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and "Illegality" in Mexican Chicago.'' (2005). 329 pp.
* Duis, Perry R. ''Challenging Chicago: Coping with Everyday Life, 1837-1920.'' (1998). 430 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=23567921015495 online review]
* Duis, Perry R. ''The Saloon: Public Drinking in Chicago and Boston, 1880-1920'' (1983).
* Erdmans, Mary Patrice. ''Opposite Poles: Immigrants and Ethnics in Polish Chicago, 1976-1990.'' (1998). 267 pp.
* Fuerst, J. S. and Hunt, D. Bradford, eds. ''When Public Housing Was Paradise: Building Community in Chicago.'' (2003) 228 pp.
* Green, Paul M., and and Melvin G. Holli. ''Chicago, World War II'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Chicago-World-War-Images-America/dp/0738532096/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592033&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Greene, Victor. ''For God and Country: The Rise of Polish and Lithuanian Ethnic Consciousness in America, 1860-1910.'' (1975). 202 pp.
* Guglielmo, Thomas A. ''White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945.'' (2003). 296 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/104280928 online edition]
* Harden, Jacalyn D. ''Double Cross: Japanese Americans in Black and White Chicago.'' (2003). 232 pp.
* Holli, Melvin G. and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Ethnic Chicago: A Multicultural Portrait.'' (4th ed. 1995). 648 pp. essays by scholars on each major ethnic group
* Hoy, Suellen. ''Good Hearts: Catholic Sisters in Chicago's Past.'' (2006). 242 pp.
* Jaher, Frederic Cople. ''The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles.'' (1982). 777 pp.
* Kantowicz, Edward R. ''Corporation Sole: Cardinal Mundelein and Chicago Catholicism.'' (1983). 295 pp.
* Keil, Hartmut, ed. ''German Workers' Culture in the United States, 1850 to 1920.'' (1988). 330 pp.
* Keil, Hartmut and Jentz, John B., eds. ''German Workers in Industrial Chicago, 1850-1910: A Comparative Perspective.'' (1983). 252 pp.
* Lovoll, Odd S. ''A Century of Urban Life: The Norwegians in Chicago before 1930.'' (1988). 367 pp.
* McCaffrey, Lawrence J.; Skerrett, Ellen; Funchion, Michael F.; and Fanning, Charles. ''The Irish in Chicago.'' (1987). 171 pp.
* Nelli, Humbert S. ''The Italians in Chicago: A Study in Ethnic Mobility, 1880-1930.'' (1970). 300 pp.
* Pacyga, Dominic A. ''Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago: Workers on the South Side, 1880-1920.'' (1991). 322 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Polish-Immigrants-Industrial-Chicago-1880-1922/dp/0226644243/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198664960&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Padilla, Felix M. ''Puerto Rican Chicago.'' (1987). 277 pp.
* Parot, Joseph John. ''Polish Catholics in Chicago, 1850-1920: A Religious History.'' (1982) 298 pp.
* Philpott, Thomas Lee. ''The Slum and the Ghetto: Immigrants, Blacks, and Reformers in Chicago, 1880-1930.'' (1978). 437 pp.
* Posadas, Barbara M. "Crossed Boundaries in Interracial Chicago: Filipino American Families since 1925," in ''Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History'', ed. Vicki L. Ruiz and Ellen Carol DuBois (1994), 319+.
* Rangaswamy, Padma. ''Namasté America: Indian Immigrants in an American Metropolis.'' 2000. 366 pp.
* Robertson, Darrel M. ''The Chicago Revival, 1876: Society and Revivalism in a Nineteenth-Century City.'' (1989). 225 pp.
* Sanders, James W. ''The Education of an Urban Minority: Catholics in Chicago, 1833-1965.'' (1977). 278 pp.
* Shanabruch, Charles. ''Chicago's Catholics: The Evolution of an American Identity.'' (1981). 296 pp.
* Shaw, Stephen J. ''The Catholic Parish as a Way-Station of Ethnicity and Americanization: Chicago's Germans and Italians, 1903-1939.''(1991). 206 pp.
* Swierenga, Robert P. ''Dutch Chicago: A History of the Hollanders in the Windy City.'' (2002). 825 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Dutch-Chicago-Hollanders-Historical-Reformed/dp/0802813119/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592252&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Tischauser, Leslie V. ''The Burden of Ethnicity: The German Question in Chicago, 1914-1941.'' (1990). 282 pp.
* Tuttle, William M., Jr. ''Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919.'' (1970). 305 pp.
* Wade, Louise Carroll. ''Chicago's Pride: The Stockyards, Packingtown, and Environs in the Nineteenth Century.'' (1987). 423 pp.
* Walch, Timothy. ''The Diverse Origins of American Catholic Education: Chicago, Milwaukee, and the Nation.'' (1988). 235 pp.
* Wellman, James K., Jr. ''The Gold Coast Church and the Ghetto: Christ and Culture in Mainline Protestantism.'' (1999). 241 pp.

====Sports, entertainment, music, newspapers====
* Kenney, William Howland. ''Chicago Jazz: A Cultural History, 1904-1930.'' (1993). 233 pp.
* Kinsley, Philip. ''The Chicago Tribune: Its First Hundred Years'' (1943) [http://www.questia.com/read/55479945 online edition]
* Sengstock, Charles A., Jr. ''That Toddlin' Town: Chicago's White Dance Bands and Orchestras, 1900-1950.'' (2004). 244 pp.
* Smith, Richard Norton. ''The Colonel: The Life and Legend of Robert R. McCormick, 1880-1955.'' (1997). 597 pp.
* Spirou, Costas and Bennett, Larry. ''It's Hardly Sportin': Stadiums, Neighborhoods, and the New Chicago.'' (2003). 212 pp.
* Vaillant, Derek. ''Sounds of Reform: Progressivism & Music in Chicago, 1873-1935.'' (2003). 401 pp.
* Ziemba, Joe. ''When Football Was Football: The Chicago Cardinals and the Birth of the NFL.'' (1999). 408 pp.

====Reputation, images, visions, planning====
* Fairfield, John D. ''The Mysteries of the Great City: The Politics of Urban Design, 1877-1937.'' (1993). 320 pp.
* Flanagan, Maureen A. ''Seeing with Their Hearts: Chicago Women and the Vision of the Good City, 1871-1933.'' (2002). 319 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Seeing-Their-Hearts-Chicago-1871-1933/dp/0691095396/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hines, Thomas S. ''Burnham of Chicago: Architect and Planner.'' (1974). 445 pp.
* Miller, Ross. ''American Apocalypse: The Great Fire and the Myth of Chicago.'' 1990. 287 pp.
* Ciccone, F. Richard ''Royko: A Life in Print'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/read/100247911 online edition]
* Smith, Carl S. ''Chicago and the American Literary Imagination, 1880-1920.'' (1984). 232 pp.
* Spears, Timothy B. ''Chicago Dreaming: Midwesterners and the City, 1871-1919.'' (2005). 322 pp.
* Williams, Kenny J. ''A Storyteller and a City: Sherwood Anderson's Chicago.'' (1988). 314 pp.
* Williams, Kenny J. and Duffy, Bernard, eds. ''Chicago's Public Wits: A Chapter in the American Comic Spirit.'' (1983). 289 pp.
* Williams, Kenny J. ''Prairie Voices: A Literary History of Chicago from the Frontier to 1893.'' (1980). 529 pp.

====Primary sources====
* Byrne, Jane. ''My Chicago.'' (1992), mayor in 1980s
* Despres, Leon M. and Heise, Kenan. ''Challenging the Daley Machine: A Chicago Alderman's Memoir.'' (2005). 168 pp.
* Fanning, Charles, ed. ''Mr. Dooley and the Chicago Irish: An Anthology.'' (1976).
* Keil, Hartmut and Jentz, John B., eds. ''German Workers in Chicago: A Documentary History of Working-Class Culture from 1850 to World War I.'' (1988). 427 pp.
* Pierce, Bessue Louise, ed. ''As Others See Chicago: Impressions of Visitors, 1673-1933.'' (1937, reprinted 2004). 548 pp
* Royko, Mike. ''For the Love of Mike: More of the Best of Mike Royko.'' (2001). 270 pp.
* Sandburg, Carl. ''Chicago Poems'' (1916) [http://www.questia.com/read/3789090 online edition]
* Thomas, William, and Florian Znaniecki. ''The Polish Peasant in Europe and America.'' 2 vol 1920, ISBN 0252010922 (1984 printing). ; famous classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC11633316&id=zaUMAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PR7&lpg=RA1-PR7&dq=Thomas+and+Florian+Znaniecki++Polish online edition]

====notes====
<references/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Illinois Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Rahm Emanuel

2014-02-18T00:16:06Z

HPadleckas: updated his career in intro and added short section "Mayor of Chicago"

[[File:Rahm Emanuel.jpg|thumb|200px|Rahm Emanuel]]
'''Rahm Emanuel''' (b. 1959) is a [[United States]] politician from [[Illinois]] belonging to the [[Democratic Party]] who is currently the [[mayor]] of [[Chicago, Illinois]]. He was previously Chief of Staff to President [[Barack Obama]]. Prior to that, he represented [[Illinois]]' 5th Congressional District in the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] during 2003-2008. As chairman of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, he took credit gaining a majority for the first time since 1994. He became a top leader as Chairman of the Democratic Caucus in the House.

Emanual was appointed to the Board of Directors of [[Freddie Mac]] by [[President William Jefferson Clinton]], shepherding the [[subprime lending]] abuses under the [[Community Reinvestment Act]]. [[Barack Obama]] appointed Emanuel as his first Chief of Staff. Emanuel resigned amidst charges of his involvement in Operation [[Fast and Furious]] and the [[Jobsgate]] scandal<ref>http://www.denverpost.com/ci_15213784</ref><ref>http://voices.washingtonpost.com/thefix/white-house/how-the-sestak-job-offer-becam.html</ref> reportedly to run for Mayor of Chicago and take control of the Chicago Democratic party machine.<ref>http://biggovernment.com/tfitton/2010/10/14/is-scandal-ridden-rahmbo-chicagos-next-mayor/</ref>

Illustrating Emanuel's penchant for exploiting crises for political gain, he remarked, "A crisis is a terrible thing to waste."<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1yeA_kHHLow Rahm Emanuel]YouTube- you never want a serious crisis video</ref><ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122721278056345271.html?mod=googlenews_wsj]</ref>

==Background==
Emanuel is the son of a prominent physician, Dr. Benjamin M. Emanuel; the father was born in Jerusalem. Emanuel has a bachelor's degree from [[Sarah Lawrence College]] (1981), and a master's degree in speech and communication from [[Northwestern University]] (1985). Emanuel and his wife Ann have three children.

==Clinton White House==

He worked in the [[Bill Clinton]] White House from 1993-1998, first serving as Assistant to the President for Political Affairs, and then Senior Adviser to the President for Policy and Strategy. He was demoted at the behest of [[Hillary Clinton]] after complaints from other staffers. Ironically, as Obama Chief of Staff, Emanuel was now in a position to overrule Hillary Clinton when she attempted to hire another former Clinton White House staffer, Sidney Blumenthal.

Leaving the White House staff, he became wealthy as an "investment banker" on the Board of the [[government sponsored entity]] Freddie Mac, 1999-2002. Emanuel had no previous banking experience.

==Emanuel's role in Freddie Mac and the subprime lending crisis==
Emanuel was appointed to the board of scandal-plagued quasi-governmental mortgage giant Freddie Mac by [[President Clinton]]. <ref>http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122610420534009957.html</ref><ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/story?id=6201900&page=1 Emanuel Was Director Of Freddie Mac During Scandal], ABC News,
November 7, 2008.</ref> While Emanuel was on the board, Freddie Mac misreported its net income in 2000 by 30.5 percent, in 2001 by 23.9 percent and 2002 by 42.9 percent, defrauding investors according to the SEC. Freddie Mac's failure is regarded as one of the precipitating events of the [[Financial_Crisis_of_2008#2008_crises| Financial Crisis of 2008]].

On February 21, 2003, Emanuel was then serving Congress and reportedly sold up to $250,000 in Freddie Mac stock in an insider trading deal only days before the stock dropped by 10 percent — and weeks before it was publicly revealed that the entity was under criminal investigation for inflating earnings.<ref> http://www.businessinsider.com/book-rahm-emanuel-dumped-tons-of-freddie-mac-stock-days-before-it-collapsed-2011-11#ixzz2MnesKpxI </ref>

==Congressional leadership position==
Emanuel served in Congress 2002-2008 from the North Side of Chicago. Among Democrats in the House, he was squarely in the middle in his votes on social, economic and foreign policy issues. His aggressive in-your-face style alienated his opponents, but Emanuel took charge of the 2006 election for House Democrats, and secured major gains, giving the Democrats a majority for the first time since 1994, and propelling Emanuel to a top leadership role.

==Obama Chief of Staff==
In the White House Emanuel's aggressive demands for a [[stimulus]] package won passage of the liberals' [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009|$789 billion bill]] in February, but alienated Republicans (only three of whom voted for it). His seizure of control of the Census Bureau from the Commerce department led Senator [[Judd Gregg]], a leading Republican, to reverse himself and reject the job of Secretary of Commerce. Emanuel released control of the census to head off complaints of political interference. Emanuel also ran roughshod over the Secretary of State, vetoing her choice for a senior aide. In President Obama's first year, Emanuel was considered to be the most powerful White House chief of staff in decades.

==Mayor of Chicago==
In 2011, Emanuel was elected and became Mayor of Chicago after [[Richard M. Daley]] no longer ran for office.

==See also==
* [[Obama Administration]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Illinois]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category:American Jews]]
[[Category:Former United States Representatives]]
[[Category:Clinton administration]]
[[Category:Obama Administration]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Emanuel, Rahm}}
[[Category:Liberals]]

Conservapedia:Articles for deletion

2014-02-17T00:50:37Z

HPadleckas: /* Current discussions */ added {{afd|Nucleo Magnetic Resonance}} to Afd list

{{policy proposal}}
<big>'''Conservapedia:Articles for deletion''' is a project space designed to explain the process and requirements for proposing the removal of an article, and to list the current discussions.</big>

==Deletion Process==

If you think an article should be deleted because it violates The Conservapedia Commandments, or for any other reason you may nominate it for deletion. The correct process for this is as follows:
# Add the template <nowiki>{{Delete Notice}}</nowiki> to the ''top'' of the page
# List the article on this page under [[Conservapedia:Articles for deletion#Current discussions|current discussions]], using the template <nowiki>{{afd|"title"}}</nowiki>, replacing "title" with the name of the page
# Follow the link from the deletion notice to the AFD page for the article nominated for deletion, and explain why you believe it should be deleted

Discussion will occur on the AFD page before a final decision regarding the article is made.

This is not the appropriate place to discuss copyright issues. Please use [[Conservapedia:Copying]] to track articles that have no problem with topic or content, but which seem to draw too heavily on material copied from elsewhere.


__toc__

= Current discussions =

*{{afd|Barack Obama's Muslim Heritage}}
*{{afd|Leetspeak}}
* http://conservapedia.com/Essay:_The_transitional_animal_the_flying_kitty%3F
*{{afd|Kentucky Fried Chicken Corp. v. Diversified Packaging Corp.}}
*{{afd|An insight to the world of dental care and achieving an oral expert}}
*{{afd|Nucleo Magnetic Resonance}}

= Past discussions =

== Kept ==

==Kept with provisions ==

==Deleted==

[[Category:Conservapedia Maintenance]]

Ion

2012-04-04T22:07:15Z

HPadleckas: defined cation, anion, zwitterion

[[Image:Ion.png|thumb|right|An electrostatic potential map of the [[nitrate]] ion (NO3−). Areas colored red are lower in energy than areas colored yellow]]

An '''ion''' is an [[atom]] or [[molecule]] that possesses a number of [[electron]]s that is greater or lower than the number of [[proton]]s, yielding a net electric charge.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Chemistry''. Apologia Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

An ion with a positive ( '''+''' ) charge is called a '''cation'''. An ion with a negative ( '''-''' ) charge is called an '''anion'''. An ion with both a positive and negative charge is a '''zwitterion'''.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Physics]]

Crystal

2011-03-01T03:15:48Z

HPadleckas: mentioned ions and molecules

A '''crystal''' is a substance in which the constituent [[atom]]s, [[ion]]s, or [[molecule]]s are arranged in a consistent, repetitive, and therefore orderly pattern. Crystals are extremely common, forming the basis for many [[rock|rocks]] and [[mineral|minerals]], and playing a large part in the [[biology|biological processes]] of many organisms.

[[Category:Crystallography]]
[[Category:Biology]]

User:HPadleckas

2011-03-01T02:41:19Z

HPadleckas: short, introductory statement here

I think any work I do here will be of a non-political, largely non-controversial but informative nature. Generally, I do not plan to take either a conservative or a liberal side to any contributions I make here. [[User:HPadleckas|HPadleckas]] 21:41, 28 February 2011 (EST)

Equilibrium

2011-03-01T01:53:58Z

HPadleckas: added Types of equilibrium

'''Equilibrium''' is a state of balance or rest, lacking in any tendency to change. In economics, the equilibrium price is the price at which [[demand]] equals [[supply]], and there is neither a surplus nor shortage of [[goods]].

Types of equilibrium:
* [[Force equilibrium]]
* [[Equilibrium(Chemistry)|Chemical equilibrium]]
* [[Economic equilibrium]]

A system in equilibrium does not necessarily have to be static. A [[chemical reaction]], for example, is considered to be in dynamic equilibrium when the forward and backward rates are equal. This means that, while reactants are converting to products and vice versa, the system is still at equilibrium because the overall concentration of each component is constant over time.

See [[Equilibrium(Chemistry)]]

[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Economics]]

Chemistry

2011-03-01T01:46:34Z

HPadleckas: modified organic chemistry definition, added famous chemists

'''Chemistry''' (from the Egyptian '''kēme''', meaning "earth") is the study of structure, composition, and properties of matter, as well as the interactions of chemical elements and compounds. Along with [[physics]], chemistry is one of the physical sciences. Chemistry is the modern counterpart to [[alchemy]]. Chemistry be divided into several sub-branches, including:

* [[Organic chemistry]]- The study of chemical compounds containing [[carbon]]
* [[Inorganic chemistry]]- The study of [[inorganic compounds]]
* [[Physical chemistry]]- The application of [[Physics]] to chemical compounds and systems
* [[Analytic chemistry]]- The study of chemical composition
* [[Biochemistry]]- The study of the chemical processes in cells
* [[Supramolecular chemistry]]- The study of non covalent bonding interactions between molecules

Famous chemists include:
* [[Antoine Lavoisier]]
* [[Dmitri Mendelelev]]
* [[Michael Faraday]]
* [[Linus Pauling]]
* [[Alfred Nobel]]

== See Also ==
*[[Chemistry terms]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]