Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Timbuktu

2008-08-12T01:29:07Z

Guddle: minor changes

'''Timbuktu''' (Timbouctou) is a once prominent city on the [[Niger River]] in the modern [[West African]] country of [[Mali]], known as the ''African [[Eldorado]]''. It was a city populated by the Songhay, Tuareg, Fulani, and Moorish people. It was founded by the Tuareg sometime after 1000 A.D. and became a center of [[Islamic]] learning. It fell into decline when the [[Spanish]] invaded. It has never recovered its former glory. Due to [[desertification]] of the [[sub-Saharan Africa|sub-Sahara]], the city's once flourishing gardens have shrivelled. Water must be irrigated by [[aqueduct]]s from further downstream, leading to occasional civil disturbances over the [[rationing]] of water and basic [[sewage]] disposal. The city is made of mud<ref>http://www.esnips.com/oases/Timbuktu</ref> and has annual problems with sand, which will make the city disappear if no one acts quickly.<ref>http://www.wisegeek.com/where-is-timbuktu.htm</ref>

== Sources ==

The Earth and Its Peoples A Global History, Bulliet et al, 2005.

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:African Cities and Towns]][[Category:Capital Cities]]

Concert of Europe

2008-07-29T03:13:05Z

Guddle: Correction

The Concert of Europe describes the cooperation between the great powers of Europe, as started in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, in response to the fall of Napoleonic France. This cooperation was designed in hopes of avoiding revolutions and keeping the peace. The Concert of Europe remained influential for most of the 19th century.

The Concert made these changes to the map of [[Europe]]:

*It recognized [[Switzerland]] as and independent nation.

*It required [[France]] to return the lands conquered by [[Napoleon]].

*It created the German Confederation.

*It created the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

*It allowed the Kingdom of Sardinia to include Genoa.

[[Category:European History]]

Pharaoh

2008-07-29T03:03:23Z

Guddle: Deleted rubbish

'''Pharaoh''' was a title used for rulers of Ancient [[Egypt]]. The Pharaoh was believed to be a god (specifically, an incarnation of the god [[Horus]]) and absolute owner and dictator of the country, and was worshiped by the people.
Some famous pharaohs include
*Tutankamen "King Tut"
*Ramses II

[[category:Egypt]]

Venice

2008-07-28T18:52:42Z

Guddle:

'''Venice''' is a city currently in [[Italy]], but for many years the center of a [[Republic]] and [[naval]] powerhouse. It was a major center of learning during the [[Renaissance]]. People from Venice are called Venetians.

It was founded after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] by Italian citizens seeking refuge from the invading barbarians in the numerous small islands of the [[Venetian Lagoon]].

The elaborate system of canals developed to navigate the islands became justly famous, as did the spectacular architecture created as Venice increased in wealth and importance.

At its peak, the Venetian empire included many Aegean islands, including [[Crete]] and [[Cyprus]], and stretches of the [[Croatia]]n coastline.

Notable episodes in its history include the [[Fourth Crusade]] of 1204, when the blind octagenarian [[doge]] [[Enrico Dandolo]] led the sack of [[Constantinople]], and the [[Battle of Lepanto]] of 1571, when a Venetian-led fleet gave the [[Ottoman Empire]] its first major naval defeat and marked the end of [[Islam]]ic expansion into [[Christian]] Europe.

[[Category:Italian Cities and Towns]]

Talk:Essay:Greatest Church Hymns

2008-07-27T20:03:04Z

Guddle:

"Crown Him with Many Crowns" is a good one, Dan!--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 13:49, 30 September 2007 (EDT)

Handel's "The Messiah" and Mozart's Requiem are not hymns - even the arias and choruses within them are outside the abilities of the normal church congregation. I have replaced them with two of my favourites ; one for its matchless "singability, the other for its beauty and pro-life message. [[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 16:03, 27 July 2008 (EDT)

Talk:Essay:Greatest Church Hymns

2008-07-27T20:00:43Z

Guddle:

Essay:Greatest Church Hymns

2008-07-27T19:54:31Z

Guddle: Messiah and Requiem NOT hymns

There are many great church hymns. Please add to this list, and tell your church to start playing these rather than [[liberal]] substitutes:

#"[[Amazing Grace]]"
#"I Have a Friend in Jesus"
#"Jesus Christ Is Risen Today"
#"Blest be the Lord"
#"To Jesus Christ Our Sovereign King"
#"Though the Mountains May Fall"
#"He who would valiant be" (Bunyan's hymn - tune: Monk's Gate, RVW))
#"Come Down, Oh Love Divine" (Down Ampney)
#"All the Ends of the Earth"
#"All That We Have"
#"Sing a New Song"
#"Whatsoever You Do"
#"On Eagle's Wings"
#"A Mighty Fortress Is Our God" by [[Martin Luther]]
#"Crown Him With Many Crowns"
#"Joyful, Joyful, We Adore Thee"
#"Holy God We Praise Thy Name"
#"Hail Holy Queen Enthroned Above" (Salve Regina)
#"Be Not Afraid"
[[Category:Essays]]

Talk:Phillip John Savage II

2008-07-27T19:16:57Z

Guddle: New page: ''Several'' screenplays in ''a great many genres''? How does he manage that? ~~~~

''Several'' screenplays in ''a great many genres''? How does he manage that? [[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 15:16, 27 July 2008 (EDT)

Talk:Musical theater

2008-07-27T03:09:34Z

Guddle:

Wouldn't West Side Story be considered Musical Tragedy? [[User:ZTak|ZTak]] 23:44, 14 April 2008 (EDT)

I think this page probably aught be moved to "Musical Theater" since there are, at least on modern times, a fair number of Musicals which qualify as Tragedies, Dramas, etc. West Side Story, above, is a perfect example. Use of the term "Musical Comedy" to describe all Musicals is outdated. --[[User:BirdieA|Birdie]] 10:21, 23 July 2008 (EDT)

I liked the article. It said most of the necessary things, and criticism would be nitpicking. On the subject of what to call things, I think there should be a subcategory within "Music" containing the various forms of "music theatre" or whatever you want to call it. Off the top of my head (and on my shelves) there is Grand Opera (Puccini, Verdi, say); Opera Bouffe, (Offenbach) Operetta (G & S, Strauss Lehar), Music Drama (Wagner), Folk Opera (Porgy) , Ballad Opera, (The Beggar's Opera, Hugh the Drover), Musical Theatre, Musical, Light Opera, and so on. Works like Show Boat and West ide Story are ard to pin down within one sub-genr. And when did the early American operettas of Victor Herbert and Sigmund Romberg etc morph into Gershwin and Berlin. And remember that there was a time when London's West End was as productive as Broadway. Just a thought.... [[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 23:09, 26 July 2008 (EDT)

Jacques Offenbach

2008-07-26T20:28:34Z

Guddle: Tales of Hoffman is grand opera

Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880) was a French composer of nearly 100 light operas, notably "[[Orpheus]] in the Underworld", "La Perichole", and "La Belle Hélène." A serious opera, unfinished at his death, “The Tales of Hoffman” (completed by Guirard) is his most regularly performed and recorded work.

His most familiar tune is probably the [http://www.danshep.net/cancan.mid Can-Can] from ''Orpheus in the Underworld.''

The [[United States]] [[Marine]] Hymn ("From the halls of Montezuma...") is based on an Offenbach tune, the Galop from ''La Belle Hélène.''

[[category:composers]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Offenbach, Jacques}}

America's Cup

2008-07-22T21:30:35Z

Guddle: whoops!

The America's Cup is a match-racing yachting regatta competed between countries. The name originated from the yacht, "America" which won the first series off Cowes in 1851. USA held the cup until 1983. The current holder is Alinghi from Switzerland.

America's Cup

2008-07-22T21:24:24Z

Guddle:

The America's Cup is a match-racing yachting regatta competed between countries. The name originated from the yacht, "America" which one the first series off Cowes in 1851. USA held the cup until 1983. The current holder is Alinghi from Switzerland.

Magna Carta

2008-07-22T21:18:07Z

Guddle:

[[Image:Magna carta.jpg|thumb|300px|Copy of the ''Magna Carta'' printed in 1297 on order of King [[Edward I]] (Perot Foundation)]]
The '''''Magna Carta''''' was a charter of liberties, both personal and political, granted to the barons by King John of England on the island of [[Runnymede]] in the [[Thames]] in June 1215.

A draft document was presented to him on 15 June to which the King was forced to put his seal. After negotiations the final form was fixed and sealed, “freely granted”, on 19 June, 1215.

The ''Magna Carta'' contains the words: "for the salvation of our [[soul]], and the souls of all our ... heirs, and unto the honor of God."

This was a negotiated peace between King John and his barons following a period of conflict. Many of the clauses protected the barons’ demands for redress for recent erosion of their rights. But most importantly, the document established fundamental liberties for all, including habeas corpus and of trial by one’s peers. It also banned the selling, denial, or delay of justice to anyone. Hence the ''Magna Carta'' is famous for establishing personal liberty for the first time.

King John did not intend to honor it. But within a year or so he was dead, and it was reissued with some changes under the seal of his son, the 9 year old King [[Henry III]]. Other amended versions were issued in 1217 and 1225, and this last version became part of [[English Statute Law]]. Many of its clauses remaining there through the centuries to become integral parts of the legal systems of the English speaking world and indeed much of the world.

==Text of the ''Magna Carta''==
John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, and count of Anjou, to the archbishop, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciaries, foresters, sheriffs, stewards, servants, and to all his bailiffs and liege subjects, greetings. Know that, having regard to God and for the salvation of our soul, and those of all our ancestors and heirs, and unto the honor of God and the advancement of his holy Church and for the rectifying of our realm, we have granted as underwritten by advice of our venerable fathers, Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England and cardinal of the holy Roman Church, Henry, archbishop of Dublin, William of London, Peter of Winchester, Jocelyn of Bath and Glastonbury, Hugh of Lincoln, Walter of Worcester, William of Coventry, Benedict of Rochester, bishops; of Master Pandulf, subdeacon and member of the household of our lord the Pope, of brother Aymeric (master of the Knights of the Temple in England), and of the illustrious men William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, William, earl of Salisbury, William, earl of Warenne, William, earl of Arundel, Alan of Galloway (constable of Scotland), Waren Fitz Gerold, Peter Fitz Herbert, Hubert De Burgh (seneschal of Poitou), Hugh de Neville, Matthew Fitz Herbert, Thomas Basset, Alan Basset, Philip d'Aubigny, Robert of Roppesley, John Marshal, John Fitz Hugh, and others, our liegemen.

1. In the first place we have granted to God, and by this our present charter confirmed for us and our heirs forever that the English Church shall be free, and shall have her rights entire, and her liberties inviolate; and we will that it be thus observed; which is apparent from this that the freedom of elections, which is reckoned most important and very essential to the English Church, we, of our pure and unconstrained will, did grant, and did by our charter confirm and did obtain the ratification of the same from our lord, Pope Innocent III, before the quarrel arose between us and our barons: and this we will observe, and our will is that it be observed in good faith by our heirs forever. We have also granted to all freemen of our kingdom, for us and our heirs forever, all the underwritten liberties, to be had and held by them and their heirs, of us and our heirs forever.

2. If any of our earls or barons, or others holding of us in chief by military service shall have died, and at the time of his death his heir shall be full of age and owe "relief", he shall have his inheritance by the old relief, to wit, the heir or heirs of an earl, for the whole baroncy of an earl by L100; the heir or heirs of a baron, L100 for a whole barony; the heir or heirs of a knight, 100s, at most, and whoever owes less let him give less, according to the ancient custom of fees.

3. If, however, the heir of any one of the aforesaid has been under age and in wardship, let him have his inheritance without relief and without fine when he comes of age.

4. The guardian of the land of an heir who is thus under age, shall take from the land of the heir nothing but reasonable produce, reasonable customs, and reasonable services, and that without destruction or waste of men or goods; and if we have committed the wardship of the lands of any such minor to the sheriff, or to any other who is responsible to us for its issues, and he has made destruction or waster of what he holds in wardship, we will take of him amends, and the land shall be committed to two lawful and discreet men of that fee, who shall be responsible for the issues to us or to him to whom we shall assign them; and if we have given or sold the wardship of any such land to anyone and he has therein made destruction or waste, he shall lose that wardship, and it shall be transferred to two lawful and discreet men of that fief, who shall be responsible to us in like manner as aforesaid.

5. The guardian, moreover, so long as he has the wardship of the land, shall keep up the houses, parks, fishponds, stanks, mills, and other things pertaining to the land, out of the issues of the same land; and he shall restore to the heir, when he has come to full age, all his land, stocked with ploughs and wainage, according as the season of husbandry shall require, and the issues of the land can reasonable bear.

6. Heirs shall be married without disparagement, yet so that before the marriage takes place the nearest in blood to that heir shall have notice.

7. A widow, after the death of her husband, shall forthwith and without difficulty have her marriage portion and inheritance; nor shall she give anything for her dower, or for her marriage portion, or for the inheritance which her husband and she held on the day of the death of that husband; and she may remain in the house of her husband for forty days after his death, within which time her dower shall be assigned to her.

8. No widow shall be compelled to marry, so long as she prefers to live without a husband; provided always that she gives security not to marry without our consent, if she holds of us, or without the consent of the lord of whom she holds, if she holds of another.

9. Neither we nor our bailiffs will seize any land or rent for any debt, as long as the chattels of the debtor are sufficient to repay the debt; nor shall the sureties of the debtor be distrained so long as the principal debtor is able to satisfy the debt; and if the principal debtor shall fail to pay the debt, having nothing wherewith to pay it, then the sureties shall answer for the debt; and let them have the lands and rents of the debtor, if they desire them, until they are indemnified for the debt which they have paid for him, unless the principal debtor can show proof that he is discharged thereof as against the said sureties.

10. If one who has borrowed from the Jews any sum, great or small, die before that loan be repaid, the debt shall not bear interest while the heir is under age, of whomsoever he may hold; and if the debt fall into our hands, we will not take anything except the principal sum contained in the bond.

11. And if anyone die indebted to the Jews, his wife shall have her dower and pay nothing of that debt; and if any children of the deceased are left under age, necessaries shall be provided for them in keeping with the holding of the deceased; and out of the residue the debt shall be paid, reserving, however, service due to feudal lords; in like manner let it be done touching debts due to others than Jews.

12. No scutage not aid shall be imposed on our kingdom, unless by common counsel of our kingdom, except for ransoming our person, for making our eldest son a knight, and for once marrying our eldest daughter; and for these there shall not be levied more than a reasonable aid. In like manner it shall be done concerning aids from the city of London.

13. And the city of London shall have all it ancient liberties and free customs, as well by land as by water; furthermore, we decree and grant that all other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports shall have all their liberties and free customs.

14. And for obtaining the common counsel of the kingdom anent the assessing of an aid (except in the three cases aforesaid) or of a scutage, we will cause to be summoned the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons, severally by our letters; and we will moveover cause to be summoned generally, through our sheriffs and bailiffs, and others who hold of us in chief, for a fixed date, namely, after the expiry of at least forty days, and at a fixed place; and in all letters of such summons we will specify the reason of the summons. And when the summons has thus been made, the business shall proceed on the day appointed, according to the counsel of such as are present, although not all who were summoned have come.

15. We will not for the future grant to anyone license to take an aid from his own free tenants, except to ransom his person, to make his eldest son a knight, and once to marry his eldest daughter; and on each of these occasions there shall be levied only a reasonable aid.

16. No one shall be distrained for performance of greater service for a knight's fee, or for any other free tenement, than is due therefrom.

17. Common pleas shall not follow our court, but shall be held in some fixed place.

18. Inquests of novel disseisin, of mort d'ancestor, and of darrein presentment shall not be held elsewhere than in their own county courts, and that in manner following; We, or, if we should be out of the realm, our chief justiciar, will send two justiciaries through every county four times a year, who shall alone with four knights of the county chosen by the county, hold the said assizes in the county court, on the day and in the place of meeting of that court.

19. And if any of the said assizes cannot be taken on the day of the county court, let there remain of the knights and freeholders, who were present at the county court on that day, as many as may be required for the efficient making of judgments, according as the business be more or less.

20. A freeman shall not be amerced for a slight offense, except in accordance with the degree of the offense; and for a grave offense he shall be amerced in accordance with the gravity of the offense, yet saving always his "contentment"; and a merchant in the same way, saving his "merchandise"; and a villein shall be amerced in the same way, saving his "wainage" if they have fallen into our mercy: and none of the aforesaid amercements shall be imposed except by the oath of honest men of the neighborhood.

21. Earls and barons shall not be amerced except through their peers, and only in accordance with the degree of the offense.

22. A clerk shall not be amerced in respect of his lay holding except after the manner of the others aforesaid; further, he shall not be amerced in accordance with the extent of his ecclesiastical benefice.

23. No village or individual shall be compelled to make bridges at river banks, except those who from of old were legally bound to do so.

24. No sheriff, constable, coroners, or others of our bailiffs, shall hold pleas of our Crown.

25. All counties, hundred, wapentakes, and trithings (except our demesne manors) shall remain at the old rents, and without any additional payment.

26. If anyone holding of us a lay fief shall die, and our sheriff or bailiff shall exhibit our letters patent of summons for a debt which the deceased owed us, it shall be lawful for our sheriff or bailiff to attach and enroll the chattels of the deceased, found upon the lay fief, to the value of that debt, at the sight of law worthy men, provided always that nothing whatever be thence removed until the debt which is evident shall be fully paid to us; and the residue shall be left to the executors to fulfill the will of the deceased; and if there be nothing due from him to us, all the chattels shall go to the deceased, saving to his wife and children their reasonable shares.

27. If any freeman shall die intestate, his chattels shall be distributed by the hands of his nearest kinsfolk and friends, under supervision of the Church, saving to every one the debts which the deceased owed to him.

28. No constable or other bailiff of ours shall take corn or other provisions from anyone without immediately tendering money therefor, unless he can have postponement thereof by permission of the seller.

29. No constable shall compel any knight to give money in lieu of castle-guard, when he is willing to perform it in his own person, or (if he himself cannot do it from any reasonable cause) then by another responsible man. Further, if we have led or sent him upon military service, he shall be relieved from guard in proportion to the time during which he has been on service because of us.

30. No sheriff or bailiff of ours, or other person, shall take the horses or carts of any freeman for transport duty, against the will of the said freeman.

31. Neither we nor our bailiffs shall take, for our castles or for any other work of ours, wood which is not ours, against the will of the owner of that wood.

32. We will not retain beyond one year and one day, the lands those who have been convicted of felony, and the lands shall thereafter be handed over to the lords of the fiefs.

33. All kydells for the future shall be removed altogether from Thames and Medway, and throughout all England, except upon the seashore.

34. The writ which is called praecipe shall not for the future be issued to anyone, regarding any tenement whereby a freeman may lose his court.

35. Let there be one measure of wine throughout our whole realm; and one measure of ale; and one measure of corn, to wit, "the London quarter"; and one width of cloth (whether dyed, or russet, or "halberget"), to wit, two ells within the selvedges; of weights also let it be as of measures.

36. Nothing in future shall be given or taken for awrit of inquisition of life or limbs, but freely it shall be granted, and never denied.

37. If anyone holds of us by fee-farm, either by socage or by burage, or of any other land by knight's service, we will not (by reason of that fee-farm, socage, or burgage), have the wardship of the heir, or of such land of his as if of the fief of that other; nor shall we have wardship of that fee-farm, socage, or burgage, unless such fee-farm owes knight's service. We will not by reason of any small serjeancy which anyone may hold of us by the service of rendering to us knives, arrows, or the like, have wardship of his heir or of the land which he holds of another lord by knight's service.

38. No bailiff for the future shall, upon his own unsupported complaint, put anyone to his "law", without credible witnesses brought for this purposes.

39. No freemen shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised or exiled or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him nor send upon him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land.

40. To no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay, right or justice.

41. All merchants shall have safe and secure exit from England, and entry to England, with the right to tarry there and to move about as well by land as by water, for buying and selling by the ancient and right customs, quit from all evil tolls, except (in time of war) such merchants as are of the land at war with us. And if such are found in our land at the beginning of the war, they shall be detained, without injury to their bodies or goods, until information be received by us, or by our chief justiciar, how the merchants of our land found in the land at war with us are treated; and if our men are safe there, the others shall be safe in our land.

42. It shall be lawful in future for anyone (excepting always those imprisoned or outlawed in accordance with the law of the kingdom, and natives of any country at war with us, and merchants, who shall be treated as if above provided) to leave our kingdom and to return, safe and secure by land and water, except for a short period in time of war, on grounds of public policy- reserving always the allegiance due to us.

43. If anyone holding of some escheat (such as the honor of Wallingford, Nottingham, Boulogne, Lancaster, or of other escheats which are in our hands and are baronies) shall die, his heir shall give no other relief, and perform no other service to us than he would have done to the baron if that barony had been in the baron's hand; and we shall hold it in the same manner in which the baron held it.

44. Men who dwell without the forest need not henceforth come before our justiciaries of the forest upon a general summons, unless they are in plea, or sureties of one or more, who are attached for the forest.

45. We will appoint as justices, constables, sheriffs, or bailiffs only such as know the law of the realm and mean to observe it well.

46. All barons who have founded abbeys, concerning which they hold charters from the kings of England, or of which they have long continued possession, shall have the wardship of them, when vacant, as they ought to have.

47. All forests that have been made such in our time shall forthwith be disafforsted; and a similar course shall be followed with regard to river banks that have been placed "in defense" by us in our time.

48. All evil customs connected with forests and warrens, foresters and warreners, sheriffs and their officers, river banks and their wardens, shall immediately by inquired into in each county by twelve sworn knights of the same county chosen by the honest men of the same county, and shall, within forty days of the said inquest, be utterly abolished, so as never to be restored, provided always that we previously have intimation thereof, or our justiciar, if we should not be in England.

49. We will immediately restore all hostages and charters delivered to us by Englishmen, as sureties of the peace of faithful service.

50. We will entirely remove from their bailiwicks, the relations of Gerard of Athee (so that in future they shall have no bailiwick in England); namely, Engelard of Cigogne, Peter, Guy, and Andrew of Chanceaux, Guy of Cigogne, Geoffrey of Martigny with his brothers, Philip Mark with his brothers and his nephew Geoffrey, and the whole brood of the same.

51. As soon as peace is restored, we will banish from the kingdom all foreign born knights, crossbowmen, serjeants, and mercenary soldiers who have come with horses and arms to the kingdom's hurt.

52. If anyone has been dispossessed or removed by us, without the legal judgment of his peers, from his lands, castles, franchises, or from his right, we will immediately restore them to him; and if a dispute arise over this, then let it be decided by the five and twenty barons of whom mention is made below in the clause for securing the peace. Moreover, for all those possessions, from which anyone has, without the lawful judgment of his peers, been disseised or removed, by our father, King Henry, or by our brother, King Richard, and which we retain in our hand (or which as possessed by others, to whom we are bound to warrant them) we shall have respite until the usual term of crusaders; excepting those things about which a plea has been raised, or an inquest made by our order, before our taking of the cross; but as soon as we return from the expedition, we will immediately grant full justice therein.

53. We shall have, moreover, the same respite and in the same manner in rendering justice concerning the disafforestation or retention of those forests which Henry our father and Richard our brother afforested, and concerning the wardship of lands which are of the fief of another (namely, such wardships as we have hitherto had by reason of a fief which anyone held of us by knight's service), and concerning abbeys founded on other fiefs than our own, in which the lord of the fee claims to have right; and when we have returned, or if we desist from our expedition, we will immediately grant full justice to all who complain of such things.

54. No one shall be arrested or imprisoned upon the appeal of a woman, for the death of any other than her husband.

55. All fines made with us unjustly and against the law of the land, and all amercements, imposed unjustly and against the law of the land, shall be entirely remitted, or else it shall be done concerning them according to the decision of the five and twenty barons whom mention is made below in the clause for securing the pease, or according to the judgment of the majority of the same, along with the aforesaid Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, if he can be present, and such others as he may wish to bring with him for this purpose, and if he cannot be present the business shall nevertheless proceed without him, provided always that if any one or more of the aforesaid five and twenty barons are in a similar suit, they shall be removed as far as concerns this particular judgment, others being substituted in their places after having been selected by the rest of the same five and twenty for this purpose only, and after having been sworn.

56. If we have disseised or removed Welshmen from lands or liberties, or other things, without the legal judgment of their peers in England or in Wales, they shall be immediately restored to them; and if a dispute arise over this, then let it be decided in the marches by the judgment of their peers; for the tenements in England according to the law of England, for tenements in Wales according to the law of Wales, and for tenements in the marches according to the law of the marches. Welshmen shall do the same to us and ours.

57. Further, for all those possessions from which any Welshman has, without the lawful judgment of his peers, been disseised or removed by King Henry our father, or King Richard our brother, and which we retain in our hand (or which are possessed by others, and which we ought to warrant), we will have respite until the usual term of crusaders; excepting those things about which a plea has been raised or an inquest made by our order before we took the cross; but as soon as we return (or if perchance we desist from our expedition), we will immediately grant full justice in accordance with the laws of the Welsh and in relation to the foresaid regions.

58. We will immediately give up the son of Llywelyn and all the hostages of Wales, and the charters delivered to us as security for the peace.

59. We will do towards Alexander, king of Scots, concerning the return of his sisters and his hostages, and concerning his franchises, and his right, in the same manner as we shall do towards our owher barons of England, unless it ought to be otherwise according to the charters which we hold from William his father, formerly king of Scots; and this shall be according to the judgment of his peers in our court.

60. Moreover, all these aforesaid customs and liberties, the observances of which we have granted in our kingdom as far as pertains to us towards our men, shall be observed by all of our kingdom, as well clergy as laymen, as far as pertains to them towards their men.

61. Since, moveover, for God and the amendment of our kingdom and for the better allaying of the quarrel that has arisen between us and our barons, we have granted all these concessions, desirous that they should enjoy them in complete and firm endurance forever, we give and grant to them the underwritten security, namely, that the barons choose five and twenty barons of the kingdom, whomsoever they will, who shall be bound with all their might, to observe and hold, and cause to be observed, the peace and liberties we have granted and confirmed to them by this our present Charter, so that if we, or our justiciar, or our bailiffs or any one of our officers, shall in anything be at fault towards anyone, or shall have broken any one of the articles of this peace or of this security, and the offense be notified to four barons of the foresaid five and twenty, the said four barons shall repair to us (or our justiciar, if we are out of the realm) and, laying the transgression before us, petition to have that transgression redressed without delay. And if we shall not have corrected the transgression (or, in the event of our being out of the realm, if our justiciar shall not have corrected it) within forty days, reckoning from the time it has been intimated to us (or to our justiciar, if we should be out of the realm), the four barons aforesaid shall refer that matter to the rest of the five and twenty barons, and those five and twenty barons shall, together with the community of the whole realm, distrain and distress us in all possible ways, namely, by seizing our castles, lands, possessions, and in any other way they can, until redress has been obtained as they deem fit, saving harmless our own person, and the persons of our queen and children; and when redress has been obtained, they shall resume their old relations towards us. And let whoever in the country desires it, swear to obey the orders of the said five and twenty barons for the execution of all the aforesaid matters, and along with them, to molest us to the utmost of his power; and we publicly and freely grant leave to everyone who wishes to swear, and we shall never forbid anyone to swear. All those, moveover, in the land who of themselves and of their own accord are unwilling to swear to the twenty five to help them in constraining and molesting us, we shall by our command compel the same to swear to the effect foresaid. And if any one of the five and twenty barons shall have died or departed from the land, or be incapacitated in any other manner which would prevent the foresaid provisions being carried out, those of the said twenty five barons who are left shall choose another in his place according to their own judgment, and he shall be sworn in the same way as the others. Further, in all matters, the execution of which is entrusted,to these twenty five barons, if perchance these twenty five are present and disagree about anything, or if some of them, after being summoned, are unwilling or unable to be present, that which the majority of those present ordain or command shall be held as fixed and established, exactly as if the whole twenty five had concurred in this; and the said twenty five shall swear that they will faithfully observe all that is aforesaid, and cause it to be observed with all their might. And we shall procure nothing from anyone, directly or indirectly, whereby any part of these concessions and liberties might be revoked or diminished; and if any such things has been procured, let it be void and null, and we shall never use it personally or by another.

62. And all the will, hatreds, and bitterness that have arisen between us and our men, clergy and lay, from the date of the quarrel, we have completely remitted and pardoned to everyone. Moreover, all trespasses occasioned by the said quarrel, from Easter in the sixteenth year of our reign till the restoration of peace, we have fully remitted to all, both clergy and laymen, and completely forgiven, as far as pertains to us. And on this head, we have caused to be made for them letters testimonial patent of the lord Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, of the lord Henry, archbishop of Dublin, of the bishops aforesaid, and of Master Pandulf as touching this security and the concessions aforesaid.

63. Wherefore we will and firmly order that the English Church be free, and that the men in our kingdom have and hold all the aforesaid liberties, rights, and concessions, well and peaceably, freely and quietly, fully and wholly, for themselves and their heirs, of us and our heirs, in all respects and in all places forever, as is aforesaid. An oath, moreover, has been taken, as well on our part as on the part of the barons, that all these conditions aforesaid shall be kept in good faith and without evil intent. Given under our hand - the above named and many others being witnesses - in the meadow which is called Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines, on the fifteenth day of June, in the seventeenth year of our reign.

==Links==
*[http://www.bl.uk/treasures/magnacarta/translation/mc_trans.html The Magna Carta, from the British Library].

==See Also==
[[Roots of US government]]

[[category:European History]]
[[category:Law]][[Category:United Kingdom State Papers]]

Talk:Magna Carta

2008-07-22T21:16:40Z

Guddle:

"The Magna Carta concludes with the words: "for the salvation of our souls, and the souls of all our ... heirs, and unto the honor of God."" I cannot find a translation of the document that concludes with these words. This includes those on the Net, my local library, two books at home and a translation of one of the originals that was on display in Canterbury Cathedral some years ago.
I am thinking of deleting it, unless a cite can be given. [[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 16:51, 22 July 2008 (EDT)
:It's right in the beginning, actually, rather than the end; third line of the text in this article: ''"Know that, having regard to God and for the salvation of our soul, and those of all our ancestors and heirs, and unto the honor of God..."'' --[[User:AKjeldsen|AKjeldsen]] 17:04, 22 July 2008 (EDT)

ArHA! Thank you. Ctrl+f didn't pick it up because of the "souls" instead of soul. I'll change it. [[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 17:16, 22 July 2008 (EDT)

Talk:Magna Carta

2008-07-22T20:51:59Z

Guddle: New page: "The Magna Carta concludes with the words: "for the salvation of our souls, and the souls of all our ... heirs, and unto the honor of God."" I cannot find a translation of the document tha...

Stephen Sondheim

2008-07-22T19:07:14Z

Guddle: Removed "AD" - unnecessary.

'''Stephen Sondheim''' is an American lyricist and composer (b. 1930) who wrote many classic [[Musical comedy|Broadway musicals]].

For a number of years he also constructed ingenious and diabolically difficult [[crossword]]-like puzzles for ''New York'' magazine.

== Sondheim musicals ==
# [[West Side Story]] (1957) (lyrics)
# Gypsy (1959) (lyrics)
# [[Company (musical|Company]] (1970)
# [[Sweeney Todd]], the Demon Barber of Fleet Street (1979)
# [[Into the Woods]] (1987)
# [[Assassins (musical)|Assassins]] (1990)

[[category:composers]]

Talk:Robert Schumann

2008-07-18T20:20:43Z

Guddle: Um..sorry.

Can we have some sort of citation for the Clara/Brahms assertion? This is one piece of gossip I haven't heard. Perhaps I have read all the wrong books. They were close, all three of them, and Brahms once proposed to Clara well after Robert's death. She was the love of his life. But as for adultery...no way. [[User:AlanE|AlanE]] 21:14, 8 May 2007 (EDT)

And can someone please give me information on Arlene Cole's Schumann CD(s). I can't find any anywhere.[[User:AlanE|AlanE]] 03:21, 25 May 2007 (EDT)

Re the Trivia rubbish that has managed to stay there so long. (a) His Opus 1 (Abegg Variations) are a "musical puzzle on the name of a young pianist he knew - Meta Abegg. No Mozart anywhere to be seen.(2) Whilst he did injure his hand through some foolhardy contraption he used, it was Rachmaninov who dedicated his 2nd Piano Concerto to Nikolai Dahl. (3) If we are going to list "famous" versions, we should have more than one famous pianist, one flavour of the month, and one obscure music teacher.
I will do something constructive on the article shortly. [[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 16:11, 17 July 2008 (EDT)

It seems he didn't wreck his hand on a contraption....sorry. [[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 16:20, 18 July 2008 (EDT)

Talk:Robert Schumann

2008-07-18T20:02:02Z

Guddle: Um..sorry.

Talk:Robert Schumann

2008-07-18T20:01:38Z

Guddle: Um..sorry.

Talk:Robert Schumann

2008-07-18T19:54:34Z

Guddle: Um..sorry.

Robert Schumann

2008-07-18T19:51:25Z

Guddle:

'''Robert''' (Alexander) '''Schumann''' (1810-1856), was a [[German]] composer and music critic, and one of the leading musical lights of the early romantic era. He was the son of a bookseller/publisher and grew up engrossed in the romances of Sir [[Walter Scott]], and ‘Jean Paul’, and the poetry of [[Byron]] and others. As a composer, much of his music was inspired by works of literature, the German countryside, and his own romantic proclivities. As a critic and writer on music, and an editor of a music magazine, he did much to introduce and further the careers of aspiring composers, notably Chopin and Brahms.

Young Schumann was sent to study law, but managed to study music on the quiet. He was a more than capable pianist, and in 1830, (the date of his first published work – the Abbend Variations for solo piano) with his family’s consent, he moved into the home of his piano teacher, Friedrich Vieck. Problems appeared with his hands; however he continued composing.

He also started a relationship with Wieck’s daughter, Clara, a virtuoso pianist and capable composer. The family was against their union and it was not until 1840 that they were able to marry. Schumann that year began composing songs, many of which – like those in the cycles, “Frauenliebe und –lieben” and “Dichterliebe” – are ranked with those of [[Schubert]] and [[Brahms]]. They are true partnerships of voice and piano.

During the 1840s he wrote most of his symphonic works, chamber music, choral music, his only opera and more songs. He had started suffering bouts of depression which affected his creativity, however between times he wrote some of his finest works, particularly the Piano Concerto, and Piano Quintet – the latter, one of the finest in the repertoire.

Two major works appeared in 1850: the Third Symphony (“Rhenish”) and the Cello Concerto – positive works frequently enjoyed today. By 1852, however he had started to deteriorate, and had to leave his post as music director at Dusseldorf. By 1854 he attempted suicide, and entered an asylum. He died in 1856, almost certainly from the effects of syphilis, from which he had suffered all his adult life. (Grove’s Dictionary of Music states that the injuries to his hands that had halted his career as a pianist was more likely to have been caused by remedies for a syphilitic sore than any finger-strengthening machine.)

SELECTED MUSIC:

* Piano Works – although he wrote 2 sonatas, it is his shorter pieces, or works consisting of miniatures that are popular today. “Scenes of Childhood”, “Papillons”, “Carnaval”, “Kreisleriana” are the most well known.
* Orchestral – 4 symphonies, all of which are popular; Piano Concerto, Cello Concerto, various shorter pieces (eg Manfred Overture)
* Chamber Music. The Piano Quintet is the most well known, but he also wrote 3 string quartets, piano trios, violin sonatas, and other works for a variety of instruments: cello, viola, oboe, clarinet, horn.
* Drama – an opera (“Genoveva”, successful at the time but now not performed), and the “Manfred “ incidental music.
* Vocal - Over 300 songs, plus numerous duets and partsongs.
* Choral – An oratorio: “Das Paradies und die Peri”, still performed, plus others.

Reference: The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music"

[[category:composers|Schumann,Robert]]

Robert Schumann

2008-07-18T19:49:39Z

Guddle:

'''Robert''' (Alexander) '''Schumann''' (1810-1856), was a [[German]] composer and music critic, and one of the leading musical lights of the early romantic era. He was the son of a bookseller/publisher and grew up engrossed in the romances of Sir [[Walter Scott]], and ‘Jean Paul’, and the poetry of [[Byron]] and others. As a composer, much of his music was inspired by works of literature, the German countryside, and his own romantic proclivities. As a critic and writer on music, and an editor of a music magazine, he did much to introduce and further the careers of aspiring composers, notably Chopin and Brahms.

Young Schumann was sent to study law, but managed to study music on the quiet. He was a more than capable pianist, and in 1830, (the date of his first published work – the Abbend Variations for solo piano) with his family’s consent, he moved into the home of his piano teacher, Friedrich Vieck. Problems appeared with his hands; however he continued composing.

He also started a relationship with Wieck’s daughter, Clara, a virtuoso pianist and capable composer. The family was against their union and it was not until 1840 that they were able to marry. Schumann that year began composing songs, many of which – like those in the cycles, “Frauenliebe und –lieben” and “Dichterliebe” – are ranked with those of [[Schubert]] and [[Brahms]]. They are true partnerships of voice and piano.

During the 1840s he wrote most of his symphonic works, chamber music, choral music, his only opera and more songs. He had started suffering bouts of depression which affected his creativity, however between times he wrote some of his finest works, particularly the Piano Concerto, and Piano Quintet – the latter, one of the finest in the repertoire.

Two major works appeared in 1850: the Third Symphony (“Rhenish”) and the Cello Concerto – positive works frequently enjoyed today. By 1852, however he had started to deteriorate, and had to leave his post as music director at Dusseldorf. By 1854 he attempted suicide, and entered an asylum. He died in 1856, almost certainly from the effects of syphilis, from which he had suffered all his adult life. (Grove’s Dictionary of Music states that the injuries to his hands that had halted his career as a pianist was more likely to have been caused by remedies for a syphilitic sore than any finger-strengthening machine.)

SELECTED MUSIC:

* Piano Works – although he wrote 2 sonatas, it is his shorter pieces, or works consisting of miniatures that are popular today. “Scenes of Childhood”, “Papillons”, “Carnavals”, “Kreisleriana” are the most well known.
* Orchestral – 4 symphonies, all of which are popular; Piano Concerto, Cello Concerto, various shorter pieces (eg Manfred Overture)
* Chamber Music. The Piano Quintet is the most well known, but he also wrote 3 string quartets, piano trios, violin sonatas, and other works for a variety of instruments: cello, viola, oboe, clarinet, horn.
* Drama – an opera (“Genoveva”, successful at the time but now not performed), and the “Manfred “ incidental music.
* Vocal - Over 300 songs, plus numerous duets and partsongs.
* Choral – An oratorio: “Das Paradies und die Peri”, still performed, plus others.

Reference: The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music"

[[category:composers|Schumann,Robert]]

Akkadian

2008-07-17T20:42:27Z

Guddle: Link

Akkadian. See [[Akkadian Empire]]

Robert Schumann

2008-07-17T20:12:03Z

Guddle:

'''Robert Schumann''' was a [[German]] composer and music critic who lived during the 19th century and composed in the [[Romantic period (music)|Romantic]] style. He is well-known for his originality in [[harmony]], [[rhythm]], and form, although he is often criticized for his perceived inability to handle large-scale works such as [[symphony]] and [[opera]].

[[category:composers|Schumann,Robert]]

Talk:Robert Schumann

2008-07-17T20:11:01Z

Guddle:

Robert Schumann

2008-07-17T20:01:46Z

Guddle: Got rid of "Trivia"

Crimean War

2008-07-17T18:14:55Z

Guddle:

The '''Crimean War''' lasted from October 1853 to February 1856. It was a war fought primarily on the [[Crimean Peninsula]] between the [[Russia]]ns on one side, and the British, French, and the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman Empire]] on the other, with the [[Kingdom]] of [[Sardinia]] joining the Allies later in the war..

The beginnings of the war can be traced to 1851, when [[Napoleon III]] (France) demanded that the Ottomans acknowledge [[France]] as the 'sovereign authority' of the [[Holy Land]].

However, this flew in the face of two earlier treaties between the Russians and the Ottomans, and so the Ottomans renounced the treaty. Napoleon III responded by sending a warship, the ''Charlemagne'' to the [[Black Sea]]. This show of force, along with some diplomacy and money, led the Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I to reverse his decision, and a new treaty confirmed France and the Catholic Church as the supreme Christian Organization in the Holy Land. It also gave the keys to the [[Church of the Nativity]], previously in the hands of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], to the [[Catholic Church]].

Napoleon appeared to misjudge the religious convictions of Tsar [[Nicholas I]]. Angry over losing the diplomatic war to France, the Russian Tsar had his 4th and 5th Army Corps mobilized and deployed along the [[River Danube]] and had Count [[Karl Nesselrode]], his foreign minister, begin a diplomatic war to regain Russian prestige with the Ottomans.

Prince Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new treaty, under which Russia would be allowed to interfere whenever it deemed the Sultan's protection inadequate.
The British embassy in Istanbul at the time was being run by Hugh Rose. Rose gathered intelligence on Russian troop movements along the Danube frontier, and became concerned about the extent of Menshikov's mission.
Rose used his powers as the British representative to the Ottomans, and ordered a British squadron of warships to depart and head for Istanbul. However, Rose's actions were not backed by the British admiral in command of the squadron, only the French sent a naval task force.

At the same time, however, the British Prime Minister Aberdeen sent Lord Stratford who, through skillful diplomacy, convinced the Sultan to reject the treaty. Benjamin Disraeli blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making war inevitable, starting the process by which Aberdeen would be forced to resign. Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy, the Czar marched his armies into Moldavia and Wallachia (Ottoman principalities in which Russia was acknowledged as a special guardian of the Orthodox Church), using the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the Holy Places as a pretext. Nicholas believed that the European powers would not object strongly to the annexation of a few Ottoman provinces.

In July 1853 the Russians invaded Moldavia and Wallachia. With the failure of a peace conference in Vienna; in October 1853 Turkey declared war on Russia. Britain and France declared war on 27th March 1854, after their ultimatim for Russia to withdraw was ignored, and concentrated their forces at Varna in Bulgaria, defending any Russian move towards Constantinople. The Turks, however, were able to force the withdrawal of Russian forces from the Principalities.

The French and British decided to make use of their overwhelming sea forces and capture the Russian base at Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsular. The taking of Sevastopol would end any hope of Russian naval superiority in the Black Sea. They landed about 30 miles north of the base during 14-18th September, 1894 and marched south along the coast, accompanied by the fleet. They met the Russians under Menshikov at the Alma River, and after three hours of fighting, the Russians retreated, having lost 9,000 men to the Allies’ 2000. In one of those inexplicable cases of failure of command, the Allies’ commanders either couldn’t (the British Lord Raglan) or wouldn’t (the French St. Arnaud) press home their advantage, and by the time they moved, Menshikov had removed his army from danger and commenced shoring up the defences of Sebastopol by sinking ships in the entrance to the Harbour.

The campaign bogged down into the siege of Sevastopol, which was to last until the Russians finally retreated from the base on 8th September 1855 after a French attack; and included two major battles where the Russians tried to break the siege: Balaclava (25th October 1854) – during which the “Charge of the Light Brigade”, immortalised in Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s poem, took place – and Inkerman (5th November 1854) in which numerically superior Russian forces; both from within Sevastopol, and a Russian field army; were repulsed; but not defeated due to the failure of the French and British commanders to act as one… a problem that reoccurred during the war.

The Crimean War also included naval action throughout the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, and engagements by the Royal Navy in the Baltic. It was the Royal Navy’s destruction of the Russian dockyard at Sweaborg (in modern Finland) in August 1855, as much as any action in the Black Sea, that forced the Russians to think of peace.

After the French success in the autumn of 1855, peace negotiations were held during the winter of 1855/6 and the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30th March 1856. The Black Sea was closed to all naval forces, and its shores to fortifications, ending Russia’s plans for control in that area. A part of the Baltic was made a demilitarised zone. Both France and Russia lost the official right to protect Christians’ rights in the Ottoman Empire.

The Crimean War is notable for the lack of will of the French field command at certain crucial times, poor decision making of the British, and the tactical inferiority of the Russians. (There has not been any criticism of the courage of the men of any of the nations involved.) It was the first major conflict where the Media had an effect on the conduct of the war, with the correspondent for the Times of London newspaper being able to whip up righteous anger in the public of Britain with his articles on the plight of the wounded and the lack of support for troops ill-equipped for the rigours of a Russian winter. It also brought the world’s attention to [[Florence Nightingale]].

The war took place at a time of technological change with both the British and French armies changing from the old smooth-bore musket to muzzle-loading rifles. The fleets were a mixture of sail and steam. The new telegraph technology enabled almost instant news to reach those at home.

The Victoria Cross, Britain’s highest medal for gallantry, was first awarded for acts during the Crimean War.

Preposition

2008-07-17T02:34:06Z

Guddle: Sorry - couldn't help it.

'''Prepositions''' in many West European [[language]]s indicate relationships such as direction and position. Common English prepositions include ''of'', ''in'', ''from'', ''near''; there are around 45 prepositions in English.

A preposition is a word you should never end a sentence with.

[[Category:Parts of Speech]]

Crimean War

2008-07-16T22:36:34Z

Guddle:

The '''Crimean War''' lasted from October 1853 to February 1856. It was a war fought primarily on the [[Crimean Peninsula]] between the [[Russia]]ns on one side, and the British, French, and the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman Empire]] on the other, with the [[Kingdom]] of [[Sardinia]]joining the Allies later in the war..

The beginnings of the war can be traced to 1851, when [[Napoleon III]] (France) demanded that the Ottomans acknowledge [[France]] as the 'sovereign authority' of the [[Holy Land]].

However, this flew in the face of two earlier treaties between the Russians and the Ottomans, and so the Ottomans renounced the treaty. Napoleon III responded by sending a warship, the ''Charlemagne'' to the [[Black Sea]]. This show of force, along with some diplomacy and money, led the Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I to reverse his decision, and a new treaty confirmed France and the Catholic Church as the supreme Christian Organization in the Holy Land. It also gave the keys to the [[Church of the Nativity]], previously in the hands of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], to the [[Catholic Church]].

Napoleon appeared to misjudge the religious convictions of Tsar [[Nicholas I]]. Angry over losing the diplomatic war to France, the Russian Tsar had his 4th and 5th Army Corps mobilized and deployed along the [[River Danube]] and had Count [[Karl Nesselrode]], his foreign minister, begin a diplomatic war to regain Russian prestige with the Ottomans.

Prince Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new treaty, under which Russia would be allowed to interfere whenever it deemed the Sultan's protection inadequate.
The British embassy in Istanbul at the time was being run by Hugh Rose. Rose gathered intelligence on Russian troop movements along the Danube frontier, and became concerned about the extent of Menshikov's mission.
Rose used his powers as the British representative to the Ottomans, and ordered a British squadron of warships to depart and head for Istanbul. However, Rose's actions were not backed by the British admiral in command of the squadron, only the French sent a naval task force.

At the same time, however, the British Prime Minister Aberdeen sent Lord Stratford who, through skillful diplomacy, convinced the Sultan to reject the treaty. Benjamin Disraeli blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making war inevitable, starting the process by which Aberdeen would be forced to resign. Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy, the Czar marched his armies into Moldavia and Wallachia (Ottoman principalities in which Russia was acknowledged as a special guardian of the Orthodox Church), using the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the Holy Places as a pretext. Nicholas believed that the European powers would not object strongly to the annexation of a few Ottoman provinces.

In July 1853 the Russians invaded Moldavia and Wallachia. With the failure of a peace conference in Vienna; in October 1853 Turkey declared war on Russia. Britain and France declared war on 27th March 1854, after their ultimatim for Russia to withdraw was ignored, and concentrated their forces at Varna in Bulgaria, defending any Russian move towards Constantinople. The Turks, however, were able to force the withdrawal of Russian forces from the Principalities.

The French and British decided to make use of their overwhelming sea forces and capture the Russian base at Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsular. The taking of Sevastopol would end any hope of Russian naval superiority in the Black Sea. They landed about 30 miles north of the base during 14-18th September, 1894 and marched south along the coast, accompanied by the fleet. They met the Russians under Menshikov at the Alma River, and after three hours of fighting, the Russians retreated, having lost 9,000 men to the Allies’ 2000. In one of those inexplicable cases of failure of command, the Allies’ commanders either couldn’t (the British Lord Raglan) or wouldn’t (the French St. Arnaud) press home their advantage, and by the time they moved, Menshikov had removed his army from danger and commenced shoring up the defences of Sebastopol by sinking ships in the entrance to the Harbour.

The campaign bogged down into the siege of Sevastopol, which was to last until the Russians finally retreated from the base on 8th September 1855 after a French attack; and included two major battles where the Russians tried to break the siege: Balaclava (25th October 1854) – during which the “Charge of the Light Brigade”, immortalised in Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s poem, took place – and Inkerman (5th November 1854) in which numerically superior Russian forces; both from within Sevastopol, and a Russian field army; were repulsed; but not defeated due to the failure of the French and British commanders to act as one… a problem that reoccurred during the war.

The Crimean War also included naval action throughout the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, and engagements by the Royal Navy in the Baltic. It was the Royal Navy’s destruction of the Russian dockyard at Sweaborg (in modern Finland) in August 1855, as much as any action in the Black Sea, that forced the Russians to think of peace.

After the French success in the autumn of 1855, peace negotiations were held during the winter of 1855/6 and the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30th March 1856. The Black Sea was closed to all naval forces, and its shores to fortifications, ending Russia’s plans for control in that area. A part of the Baltic was made a demilitarised zone. Both France and Russia lost the official right to protect Christians’ rights in the Ottoman Empire.

The Crimean War is notable for the lack of will of the French field command at certain crucial times, poor decision making of the British, and the tactical inferiority of the Russians. (There has not been any criticism of the courage of the men of any of the nations involved.) It was the first major conflict where the Media had an effect on the conduct of the war, with the correspondent for the Times of London newspaper being able to whip up righteous anger in the public of Britain with his articles on the plight of the wounded and the lack of support for troops ill-equipped for the rigours of a Russian winter. It also brought the world’s attention to [[Florence Nightingale]].

The war took place at a time of technological change with both the British and French armies changing from the old smooth-bore musket to muzzle-loading rifles. The fleets were a mixture of sail and steam. The new telegraph technology enabled almost instant news to reach those at home.

The Victoria Cross, Britain’s highest medal for gallantry, was first awarded for acts during the Crimean War.

Crimean War

2008-07-16T22:31:58Z

Guddle:

The '''Crimean War''' lasted from October 1853 to February 1856. It was a war fought primarily on the [[Crimean Peninsula]] between the [[Russia]]ns on one side, and the British, French, and the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman Empire]] on the other, with the [[Kingdom]] of [[Sardinia]]joining the Allies later in the war..

The beginnings of the war can be traced to 1851, when [[Napoleon III]] (France) demanded that the Ottomans acknowledge [[France]] as the 'sovereign authority' of the [[Holy Land]].

However, this flew in the face of two earlier treaties between the Russians and the Ottomans, and so the Ottomans renounced the treaty. Napoleon III responded by sending a warship, the ''Charlemagne'' to the [[Black Sea]]. This show of force, along with some diplomacy and money, led the Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I to reverse his decision, and a new treaty confirmed France and the Catholic Church as the supreme Christian Organization in the Holy Land. It also gave the keys to the [[Church of the Nativity]], previously in the hands of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], to the [[Catholic Church]].

Napoleon appeared to misjudge the religious convictions of Tsar [[Nicholas I]]. Angry over losing the diplomatic war to France, the Russian Tsar had his 4th and 5th Army Corps mobilized and deployed along the [[River Danube]] and had Count [[Karl Nesselrode]], his foreign minister, begin a diplomatic war to regain Russian prestige with the Ottomans.

Prince Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new treaty, under which Russia would be allowed to interfere whenever it deemed the Sultan's protection inadequate.
The British embassy in Istanbul at the time was being run by Hugh Rose. Rose gathered intelligence on Russian troop movements along the Danube frontier, and became concerned about the extent of Menshikov's mission.
Rose used his powers as the British representative to the Ottomans, and ordered a British squadron of warships to depart and head for Istanbul. However, Rose's actions were not backed by the British admiral in command of the squadron, only the French sent a naval task force.

At the same time, however, the British Prime Minister Aberdeen sent Lord Stratford who, through skillful diplomacy, convinced the Sultan to reject the treaty. Benjamin Disraeli blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making war inevitable, starting the process by which Aberdeen would be forced to resign. Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy, the Czar marched his armies into Moldavia and Wallachia (Ottoman principalities in which Russia was acknowledged as a special guardian of the Orthodox Church), using the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the Holy Places as a pretext. Nicholas believed that the European powers would not object strongly to the annexation of a few Ottoman provinces.

In 1853, after Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian Principalities, Great Britain and France declared war.

In July 1853 the Russians invaded Moldavia and Wallachia. With the failure of a peace conference in Vienna; in October 1853 Turkey declared war on Russia. Britain and France declared war on 27th March 1854, and concentrated their forces at Varna in Bulgaria, defending any Russian move towards Constantinople. The Turks, however, were able to force the withdrawal of Russian forces from the Principalities.

The French and British decided to make use of their overwhelming sea forces and capture the Russian base at Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsular. The taking of Sevastopol would end any hope of Russian naval superiority in the Black Sea. They landed about 30 miles north of the base during 14-18th September, 1894 and marched south along the coast, accompanied by the fleet. They met the Russians under Menshikov at the Alma River, and after three hours of fighting, the Russians retreated, having lost 9,000 men to the Allies’ 2000. In one of those inexplicable cases of failure of command, the Allies’ commanders either couldn’t (the British Lord Raglan) or wouldn’t (the French St. Arnaud) press home their advantage, and by the time they moved, Menshikov had removed his army from danger and commenced shoring up the defences of Sebastopol by sinking ships in the entrance to the Harbour.

The campaign bogged down into the siege of Sevastopol, which was to last until the Russians finally retreated from the base on 8th September 1855 after a French attack; and included two major battles where the Russians tried to break the siege: Balaclava (25th October 1854) – during which the “Charge of the Light Brigade”, immortalised in Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s poem, took place – and Inkerman (5th November 1854) in which numerically superior Russian forces; both from within Sevastopol, and a Russian field army; were repulsed; but not defeated due to the failure of the French and British commanders to act as one… a problem that reoccurred during the war.

The Crimean War also included naval action throughout the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, and engagements by the Royal Navy in the Baltic. It was the Royal Navy’s destruction of the Russian dockyard at Sweaborg (in modern Finland) in August 1855, as much as any action in the Black Sea, that forced the Russians to think of peace.

After the French success in the autumn of 1855, peace negotiations were held during the winter of 1855/6 and the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30th March 1856. The Black Sea was closed to all naval forces, and its shores to fortifications, ending Russia’s plans for control in that area. A part of the Baltic was made a demilitarised zone. Both France and Russia lost the official right to protect Christians’ rights in the Ottoman Empire.

The Crimean War is notable for the lack of will of the French field command at certain crucial times, poor decision making of the British, and the tactical inferiority of the Russians. (There has not been any criticism of the courage of the men of any of the nations involved.) It was the first major conflict where the Media had an effect on the conduct of the war, with the correspondent for the Times of London newspaper being able to whip up righteous anger in the public of Britain with his articles on the plight of the wounded and the lack of support for troops ill-equipped for the rigours of a Russian winter. It also brought the world’s attention to [[Florence Nightingale]].

The war took place at a time of technological change with both the British and French armies changing from the old smooth-bore musket to muzzle-loading rifles. The fleets were a mixture of sail and steam. The new telegraph technology enabled almost instant news to reach those at home.

The Victoria Cross, Britain’s highest medal for gallantry, was first awarded for acts during the Crimean War.

Arnold Toynbee

2008-07-16T21:53:13Z

Guddle:

'''Arnold Toynbee''' (1889-1975) was an eminent [[British]] historian best known for his comprehensive, multi-volume life work, ''A Study of History''. Toynbee examined extinct and existing civilizations (rather than nations) as the fundamental unit of historical study. He noted that civilizations could rise directly out of primitive life or be "affiliated" with a parent civilization.

Toynbee pointed out that Ancient [[Egypt]] had no predecessor or successor, contradicting the fashionable idea that Egypt was the cradle of civilization. He also posited a possibly unique sort of relationship with the Greco-Roman Civilization and Western Christendom, predicting that the West would assimilate the [[Far East]], [[Hindu]], and [[Islamic]] civilizations.

[[Category:United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Historians]]
[[Category:Authors]]

Sweden

2008-07-16T21:15:10Z

Guddle: /* Some Notable Swedes */

{{Country
|name =''Konungariket Sverige''
|map =Sweden rel96.jpg
|flag =Flag of Sweden.png
|arms =Arms of Sweden.png
|capital =Stockholm
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Swedish
|king =Carl XVI Gustaf
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Fredrik Reinfeldt
|pm-raw =
|area =173,732 sq mi
|pop =9,142,8174 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$291 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$32,200 (2006)
|currency =Swedish krona
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'''Sweden''' is a country in [[Scandinavia]]. The capital city is [[Stockholm]], which is also the largest city. Sweden has approximately 9 million inhabitants, with an area of 173,750 square miles (450,000 square kilometers).

Sweden is a constitutional [[monarchy]] and a parliamentary [[democracy]]. The prime minister of Sweden is 41 year old Fredrik Reinfeldt, leader of the Moderates. The Swedish parliament has 349 seats. [[Carl XVI Gustaf]] is the current king.

==People==
Sweden has one of the world's highest life expectancies and one of the lowest birth rates. The country counts at least 17,000 Sami among its population. About one-fifth of Sweden's population are immigrants or have at least one foreign-born parent. The largest immigrant groups are from Finland, Iraq, Serbia and Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Iran, Norway, Denmark, and Poland. This reflects Nordic immigration, earlier periods of labor immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration.

Swedish is a Germanic language related to Danish and Norwegian but different in pronunciation and orthography. English is by far the leading foreign language, particularly among students and those under age 50.

Sweden has an extensive child-care system that guarantees a place for all young children from 2-6 years old in a public day-care facility. From ages 7-16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. After completing the ninth grade, 90% attend upper secondary school for either academic or technical education.

Swedes benefit from an extensive social welfare system, which provides for childcare and maternity and paternity leave, a ceiling on health care costs, old-age pensions, and sick leave among other benefits. Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days' paid leave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 of those days reserved specifically for the father.
*Population (November 2007): 9,179,731.
*Annual population growth rate (2007): 0.76%.
*Ethnic groups: Indigenous Swedes, ethnic Finns, ethnic Sami.
*Immigrants: Total: 491,996 (20% of total population); Finns, Iraqis, ex-Yugoslavia nationals, Iranians, Norwegians, Danes, Greeks, and Turks.
*Religions: Lutheran (87%), Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Baptist, Jewish, Buddhist, Muslim.
*Education: Years compulsory--9. Literacy--99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006)--2.80/1,000. Life expectancy--men 78.70 years, women 82.94 years.
*Work force (4.82 million, 2007 est.): Services--70.7%; industry--28.2%; agriculture--1.1%. Unemployment (2007)--5.2%.
*Public holidays (2008): January 1 (New Year's Day); January 6 (Epiphany); March 21 (Good Friday); March 22 (Easter); March 23 (Easter Sunday); March 24 (Easter Monday); May 1 (May Day and Ascension Day); May 11 (Whit Sunday); June 6 (National Day); June 21 (Midsummer Holiday); November 1 (All Saints' Day); December 25 (Christmas); December 26 (Boxing Day).

The eve of a holiday is as important--or more so--than the holiday itself. Most Swedes have the day off, including those working in the civil service, banks, public transport, hospitals, shops, and the media. Others have at least a half-day. This applies especially to Midsummer's Eve, All Saints' Day Eve, and Christmas Eve. The eve of May Day is called Valborg Eve or St Walpurgis. When a holiday falls on a Thursday many Swedes have the following Friday off in addition. When a holiday falls on a Saturday or Sunday it is not taken on the following Monday.

====Christianity in Sweden====
80% of the inhabitants belong to the Evangelical [[Lutheran Church]] of Sweden named The Swedish Church (Svenska kyrkan in Swedish). The number is so high because children born to members of the church automatically become lifelong members. This church is somewhat unique because it has decided to marry [[homosexuality|homosexuals]]. This Church is considered a [[liberal]] Church and does not protest against [[abortion]]s, [[divorce]], and other conservative issues. About 5% of the Swedish population belong to "conservative" Christian churches. 46 - 85% of the population are [[atheists]] which is the highest worldwide. <ref>[http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.html Zuckerman, Phil. "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns", chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005). ]</ref>

Sweden has 18 weeks of free [[abortion]] and 4 weeks during which women need to get special permission to be allowed an abortion. Swedish politicians are currently discussing whether foreign women should be allowed to have an late term abortion in Sweden, and much suggests that the parliament will vote in favor of that proposition. In the 1960's the government decided to reduce in school education about [[Christianity]]. In 2000, the Evangelical [[Lutheran Church]] and the government were separated. Before that, all children were born members of the church, except those whose parents took an active decision against it and both left the church. Even if a child were not christened, he or she became a member for life, having to pay a small tax to the church.

In 2005 a Swedish Pentecostal preacher, [[Ake Green|Åke Green]], was charged with, and found guilty of hate speech, when preaching Biblical teachings regarding homosexuality. He was imprisoned for one month, but then acquitted by the High Court and the Supreme Court.

==Government==
Popular government in Sweden rests upon ancient tradition. The Swedish parliament (Riksdag) stems from tribal courts (Ting) and the election of kings in the Viking age. It became a permanent institution in the 15th century. Sweden's government is a limited constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. Executive authority is vested in the cabinet, which consists of a prime minister and 22 ministers who run the government departments. The present Alliance for Sweden government, led by Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt, came to power in September 2006. King Carl XVI Gustaf (Bernadotte) ascended to the throne on September 15, 1973. His authority is formal, symbolic, and representational. The unicameral Riksdag has 349 members, popularly elected every 4 years, and is in session generally from September through mid-June.

Sweden has three levels of government: national, regional, and local. In addition, there is the European level which has acquired increasing importance following Sweden's entry into the EU. At parliamentary elections and municipal and county council elections held every four years, voters elect those who are to decide how Sweden is governed and administered.

Sweden is divided into 18 counties (lan), 18 county councils (landsting), 290 municipalities (kommuner), and 2 semi-independent regions. Each county (lan) is headed by a governor, who is appointed by the central government. The counties coordinate administration with national political goals for the county. The county council (landsting) is a regional government that is popularly elected with particular responsibility for health and medical care. The municipalities are local governments that deal with issues such as education, public transportation and social welfare. Elected municipal councils are headed by executive committees roughly analogous to the boards of commissioners found in some U.S. cities.

Swedish law, drawing on Germanic and Roman, is neither as codified as in France and other countries influenced by the Napoleonic Code, nor as dependent on judicial practice and precedents as in the United States. Legislative and judicial institutions include, in addition to the Riksdag, the Supreme Court, the Supreme Administrative Court, the Labor Court, the Law Council, District Courts and Courts of Appeal, the Public Prosecutor's Office, the parliamentary ombudsmen and the Chancellor of Justice who oversee the application of laws with particular attention to abuses of authority.

At the national level, the Swedish people are represented by the Riksdag (Swedish parliament) which has legislative powers. Proposals for new laws are presented by the government which also implements decisions taken by the Riksdag. The government is assisted in its work by the government offices, comprising a number of ministries, and some 300 central government agencies and public administrations.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State--King Carl XVI Gustaf
*Prime Minister (Head of Government)--Fredrik Reinfeldt
*Minister for Finance--Anders Borg
*Minister for the Environment--Andreas Carlgren
*Minister for Justice--Beatrice Ask
*Minister for Foreign Affairs--Carl Bildt
*Minister for EU Affairs--Cecilia Malmstrom
*Minister for Social Security--Cristina Husmark Pehrsson
*Minister for Agriculture--Eskil Erlandsson
*Minister for International Development Co-operation--Gunilla Carlsson
*Minister for Health and Social Affairs--Goran Hagglund
*Minister for Higher Education and Research--Lars Leijonborg
*Minister for Education--Jan Bjorklund
*Minister for Culture--Lena Adelsohn Liljeroth
*Minister for Elderly Care and Public Health--Maria Larsson
*Minister for Local Government and Financial Markets--Mats Odell
*Minister for Enterprise and Energy--Maud Olofsson
*Minister for Defense--Sten Tolgfors
*Minister for Integration and Gender Equality--Nyamko Sabuni
*Minister for Trade--Ewa Bjorling
*Minister for Employment--Sven Otto Littorin
*Minister for Migration and Asylum Policy--Tobias Billstrom
*Minister for Infrastructure--Asa Torstensson
*Ambassador to the United Nations--Anders Liden

===Political Conditions===
Ordinary general elections to the Swedish parliament are held every fourth year on the third Sunday in September. County council and municipal council elections take place at the same time. The last elections were held in September 2006. There is a barrier rule intended to prevent very small parties from gaining representation in the parliament. A party must thus receive at least 4% of the votes in the entire country or 12% in a single electoral district to qualify for any seats.

Elections to the Riksdag were held on September 17, 2006. The Alliance for Sweden (a coalition of four center-right parties--the Moderate Party, the Liberal Party, the Christian Democrat, and the Center Party) won 178 of the 349 seats, securing Moderate Fredrik Reinfeldt the position of Prime Minister. The 2006 election results for Sweden's major parties were as follows: the Social Democratic Party (34.99%; 130 seats), the Moderate Party (26.23%; 97 seats), the Center Party (7.88%; 29 seats), the Liberal Party (7.54%; 28 seats), the Christian Democrats (6.59%; 24 seats), the Left Party (5.85%; 22 seats), and the Green Party (5.24%; 19 seats).

The Social Democratic Party has a base of blue-collar workers and public sector employees. It derives much of its power from strong links with the National Swedish Confederation of Trade Unions (LO), which represents blue-collar workers. The party program combines a commitment to social welfare programs and government direction of the economy. The Social Democratic Party has led the government for 65 of the 76 years since 1932; the 2006 election ended its most recent term of 12 consecutive years in office.

The Moderate Party emphasizes personal freedom, free enterprise, and reduction of the public-sector growth rate, while still supporting most of the social benefits introduced since the 1930s. The party also supports a strong defense and Sweden's membership in the European Union (EU). Its voter base is urban business people and professionals, but the party also attracts young voters, main-street shop owners, and, to some extent, blue-collar workers. Moderate Party Leader Reinfeldt followed an election strategy of remodeling his party as "New Moderates," moving away from the party's right-wing, upper-class roots to appeal to a large middle ground of voters, and successfully winning over many who had until then supported the SDP, as well as others who had previously voted for the smaller, non-socialist parties. Reinfeldt was instrumental in uniting the previously divided four parties of the center-right opposition. The Alliance offered alternative policies focusing on job creation that persuaded the voters.

The Center Party maintains close ties to rural Sweden. The main priorities of the party include providing a sound economic climate for business and job creation, climate change and environmental concerns (including nuclear power), and health and welfare issues.

The Left Party, formerly the Communist Party, focuses on feminist issues, employment in the public sector, and the environment. It opposes privatization, cuts in public expenditure, Swedish participation in NATO activities, and EU membership. Its voter base consists mainly of young people, public sector employees, feminists, journalists, and former social democrats.

The Christian Democrat Party is conservative and value-oriented. Its voter base is primarily among members of conservative churches and rural populations. Christian Democrats seek government support for families and better ethical practices to improve care for the elderly.

The Liberal Party's platform is "social responsibility without socialism," which includes a commitment to a free-market economy combined with comprehensive Swedish social welfare programs. Foreign aid, education and women's equality also are popular issues. The Liberal Party base is mainly centered in educated middle-class voters.

The Green Party is a leftist environmentalist party that attracts young people. The Greens support a phasing-out of nuclear energy in Sweden and hope to replace it with alternative, environmentally friendly energy sources.

The next Swedish election for parliament is scheduled to be held in 2010. In 2009 Sweden will vote for its representatives to the European Parliament.

===Foreign Relations===
Swedish foreign policy is based on the premise that national security is best served by staying free of alliances in peacetime in order to remain neutral in the event of war. In 2002, Sweden revised its security doctrine. The new security doctrine still states that "Sweden pursues a policy of non-participation in military alliances," but permits cooperation in response to threats against peace and security. The Swedish Government devotes particular attention to issues of disarmament, arms control, and nuclear nonproliferation and has contributed importantly to UN and other international peacekeeping efforts, including the NATO-led peacekeeping forces in the Balkans (KFOR). Sweden also contributes to the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan and assumed leadership of the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Mazar e-Sharif in March 2006.

Sweden participates actively in the United Nations and its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, World Trade Organization (WTO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labor Organization (ILO), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (USESCO), World Health Organization (WHO), and others including as a member of the Security Council in 1997-98. In January 1995, Sweden became a full member of the European Union after a referendum in late 1994 indicated that 52.3% of participants wanted to join. Sweden became a member in part due to its increasing isolation outside the economic framework of the Maastricht Treaty. Sweden is a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace (PFP) and participates in numerous international peacekeeping operations under UN auspices. Sweden also cooperates closely with its Nordic neighbors, formally in economic and social matters through the Nordic Council of Ministers and informally in political matters through direct consultation.

Swedish governments do not consider that nonalignment precludes taking outspoken positions in international affairs. Government leaders have favored national liberation movements that enjoy broad support among developing world countries, with notable attention to Africa. During the Cold War, Sweden was suspicious of the superpowers, which it saw as making decisions affecting small countries without always consulting those countries. With the end of the Cold War, that suspicion has lessened somewhat, although Sweden still chooses to remain nonaligned.

== Economy ==
Sweden is a highly industrialized country. Agriculture, once accounting for nearly all of Sweden's economy, now employs less than 2% of the labor force. Extensive forests, rich iron ore deposits, and hydroelectric power are the natural resources which, through the application of technology and efficient organization, have enabled Sweden to become a leading producing and exporting nation.

The Swedish economic picture has brightened significantly since the severe recession in the early 1990s. Growth has been strong in recent years, with an annual average GDP growth rate of 2.5% for the period 2000-2004 and 2.7% in 2005. The inflation rate was low in 2006, with an annual average inflation rate of about 1.5%, but unemployment remains a stubborn problem. The inflation rate rose to 3.5% in December 2007. The unemployment rate held steady in recent years at about 5% and in 2005 reached 7.8%. Unemployment in 2007 reached 5.2%. Since the mid-1990s, Sweden's export sector has grown significantly as the information technology (IT) industry, telecommunications, and services have overtaken traditional industries such as steel, paper, and pulp. The overall current-account surplus has traditionally been much smaller than the merchandise trade balance, as Sweden has generally run a deficit on trade in services, net income flows, and unrequited transfers. However, since 2003 this has not been the case, as the services balance swung into surplus in 2003 and improved further in 2004 and 2005. In addition, the income account also swung from deficit into surplus in 2003, before slipping back to register small deficits in 2004 and 2005. Although the transfers balance remained in deficit, mainly as a result of Sweden's contributions to the EU budget, the overall current-account surplus was larger than the trade surplus in 2003-05. Most categories of services exports produced an improvement over this period, but the biggest contribution came from business services exports, followed by transportation and royalties and license fees.

During 2005 real GDP rose by 2.5%, 3.4% in 2006, and 2.9% (est.) in 2007. The government budget improved dramatically from a record deficit of more than 12% of GDP in 1993 to a surplus of 0.9% of GDP in 2006. The new, strict budget process with spending ceilings set by parliament, and a constitutional change to an independent Central Bank, have greatly improved policy credibility. This can be seen in the long-term interest rate margin versus the Euro, which is negligible. From the perspective of longer-term fiscal sustainability, the long-awaited reform of old-age pensions entered into force in 1999. This entails a far more robust system vis-à-vis adverse demographic and economic trends, which should keep the ratio of total pension disbursements to the aggregate wage bill close to 20% in the decades ahead. Taken together, both fiscal consolidation and pension reform have brought public finances back on a sustainable footing. Gross public debt, which jumped from 43% of GDP in 1990 to 78% in 1994, stabilized around the middle of the 1990s and has been decreasing in recent years. In 2007 public debt was about 35.6% of GDP. These figures show excellent improvement of the Swedish economy since the crisis of the early 1990s.

Eighty percent of the Swedish labor force is unionized. For most unions there is a counterpart employers' organization for businesses. The unions and employer organizations are independent of both the government and political parties, although the largest federation of unions, the National Swedish Confederation of Trade Unions (LO), always has maintained close links to the largest political party, the Social Democrats. There is no fixed minimum wage by legislation. Instead, wages are set by collective bargaining.
*GDP (2007, purchasing power parity): $308.9 billion. GDP (2007, official exchange rate): $384.1 billion.
*Annual growth rate (3rd quarter 2007): 2.5%.
*Per capita income (2006, purchasing power parity): $33,897.
*Inflation rate (December 2007): 2.2%.
*Natural resources: Forests, hydroelectric power, iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, tungsten, uranium, arsenic, feldspar, timber.
*Agriculture (2006, 2.2% of GDP): Products--dairy products, meat, grains (barley, wheat), sugar beets, potatoes, wood. Arable land--6 million acres.
*Industry (2006, 38% of GDP): Types--machinery/metal products (iron and steel), electrical equipment, aircraft, paper products, precision equipment (bearings, radio and telephone parts, armaments), wood pulp and paper products, processed foods.
*Services (2006, 59.8% of GDP): Types--telecommunications, computer equipment, biotech.
*Trade: Exports (2006)--$148.8 billion. Types--machinery, transport equipment, motor vehicles, wood products, paper, pulp, chemicals, iron and steel products, and manufactured goods. Major trading partners, exports (2007)--Germany 9.9%, U.S. 9.3%, Norway 9.1%, U.K. 7.2%, EU total 59.7%. *Imports (2006)--$127.3 billion. Types--machinery, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel, foodstuffs, clothing. Major trading partners, imports (2007)--Germany 18.6%, Denmark 8.9%, Norway 8.5%, U.K. 6.9%, Netherlands 6.1%, Finland 6.0%, France 4.9%.

==History==
During the seventh and eighth centuries, the Swedes were merchant seamen well known for their far-reaching trade. In the ninth century, Nordic Vikings raided and ravaged the European continent as far as the Black and Caspian Seas. During the 11th and 12th centuries, Sweden gradually became a unified Christian kingdom that later included Finland. Queen Margaret of Denmark united all the Nordic lands in the "Kalmar Union" in 1397. Continual tension within the countries and within the union gradually led to open conflict between the Swedes and the Danes in the 15th century. The union's final disintegration in the early 16th century brought on a long-lived rivalry between Norway and Denmark on one side and Sweden and Finland on the other.

In the 16th century, Gustav Vasa fought for an independent Sweden, crushing an attempt to restore the Kalmar Union and laying the foundation for modern Sweden. At the same time, he broke with the Catholic Church and established the Reformation. During the 17th century, after winning wars against Denmark, Russia, and Poland, Sweden-Finland (with scarcely more than 1 million inhabitants) emerged as a great power. Its contributions during the Thirty Years War under Gustav II Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus) determined the political as well as the religious balance of power in Europe. By 1658, Sweden ruled several provinces of Denmark as well as what is now Finland, Ingermanland (in which St. Petersburg is located), Estonia, Latvia, and important coastal towns and other areas of northern Germany.

Russia, Saxony-Poland, and Denmark-Norway pooled their power in 1700 and attacked the Swedish-Finnish empire. Although the young Swedish King Karl XII (also known as Charles XII) won spectacular victories in the early years of the Great Northern War, his plan to attack Moscow and force Russia into peace proved too ambitious; he fell in battle in 1718. In the subsequent peace treaties, the allied powers, joined by Prussia and England-Hanover, ended Sweden's reign as a great power.

Sweden suffered further territorial losses during the Napoleonic wars and was forced to cede Finland to Russia in 1809. The following year, the Swedish King's adopted heir, French Marshal Bernadotte, was elected Crown Prince as Karl Johan by the Riksdag (parliament). In 1813, his forces joined the allies against Napoleon. The Congress of Vienna compensated Sweden for its lost German territory through a merger of the Swedish and Norwegian crowns in a dual monarchy. Sweden's last war was fought in 1814. It was a brief confrontation with Norway to restrain their demands for independence. The war resulted in Norway entering into union with Sweden, but with its own constitution and parliament. The Sweden-Norway union was peacefully dissolved at Norway's request in 1905.

Sweden's predominantly agricultural economy shifted gradually from village to private farm-based agriculture during the Industrial Revolution, but this change failed to bring economic and social improvements commensurate with the rate of population growth. About 1 million Swedes immigrated to the United States between 1850 and 1890.

The 19th century was marked by the emergence of a liberal opposition press, the abolition of guild monopolies in trade and manufacturing in favor of free enterprise, the introduction of taxation and voting reforms, the installation of a national military service, and the rise in the electorate of three major party groups--Social Democratic Party, Liberal Party, and Conservative Party.

During and after World War I, in which Sweden remained neutral, the country benefited from the worldwide demand for Swedish steel, ball bearings, wood pulp, and matches. Postwar prosperity provided the foundations for the social welfare policies characteristic of modern Sweden. Foreign policy concerns in the 1930s centered on Soviet and German expansionism, which stimulated abortive efforts at Nordic defense cooperation. Sweden followed a policy of armed neutrality during World War II and currently remains nonaligned.

Sweden became a member of the European Union (EU) in 1995. In September 2003 Sweden held a referendum on entering the European Monetary Union. The Swedish people rejected participation, with 56% voting against and 42% for. All parliamentary parties pledged to respect the outcome of the referendum. No new referendum is planned for the foreseeable future.

==Some Notable Swedes==
* [[Alfred Nobel]], instigator of the [[Nobel Prize]]
* [[Anders Celsius]], inventor of the world standard [[Celsius scale]].
* Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus) inventor of the modern system of classifying all lifeforms.
* Greta Garbo, actress
* ABBA - 1970's rock group comprised of Benny Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus, Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog.
* Dag Hammarskjöld
* [[Anders Celsius]]
* Astrid Lindgren
* Fredrik Ljungberg
* Henrik Larsson
* Stellan Skarsgård
* Saint Bridgid
* Lars Magnus Ericsson
* Gustavus Adolphus (king, founder of Gothenburg etc, died 1632 in the Thirty Years War)
* Björn Borg, tennis player
* Olof Palme
* Ingemar Bergman
* Roxette
* Jussi Bjoeling

==References==
*[http://www.sweden.se SWEDEN.SE]
*[http://www.svenskakyrkan.se Svenska Kyrkan]
*http://www.lo.se
*http://www.moderaterna.se
*http://www.gp.se/gp/jsp/Crosslink.jsp?d=913&a=324428
*http://www.gluefox.com
*[http://www.historyofnations.net/europe/sweden.html History of Sweden]
* Forte, Angelo. Oram, Richard. Pedersen, Frederik. ''Viking Empires''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005
* Hudson, Benjamin. ''Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in North America''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
* http://www.livetsord.se/default.aspx?idStructure=918
* http://perkornhall.se/LivetsOrd/index-eng.htm
* http://www.skattebetalarna.se
* http://www.engdahl.oilgeopolitics.net/History/MacKinder/mackinder.html
* http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-NWE-Norway/index.html
* http://www.sweden.se/templates/cs/Article____12355.aspx

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|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| <small>This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code</small>
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[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Scandinavian Countries]]
[[Category:Atheism]]
[[Category:Sweden]]

Talk:Crimean War

2008-07-16T21:01:10Z

Guddle:

The latest edit to this article leaves things ambiguous. Was the key from the hands of the Greek Orthodox Church or the Eastern Orthodox Church? The fault in grammar indicates the editor wanted to replace the former with the latter. --[[User:BillOReillyFan|BillOReillyFan]] 18:22, 18 March 2007 (EDT)

I am amazed that the authorship of "The Charge of the Light Brigade" managed to stay unchanged for 6 months. Longfellow indeed! [[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 18:28, 15 July 2008 (EDT)

And is there any reason why there is nothing about the actual war? It's like ending the American Revolution at the Boston Tea Party![[User:Guddle|Guddle]] 17:01, 16 July 2008 (EDT)

Talk:Crimean War

2008-07-16T21:00:04Z

Guddle:

Talk:Crimean War

2008-07-16T20:59:02Z

Guddle:

Crimean War

2008-07-16T20:52:56Z

Guddle:

Ballet

2008-07-16T01:30:59Z

Guddle:

[[Image:Swan lake ballet.JPG|right]]
'''Ballet''' is a specific technical form of [[dance]]. It was first developed in the Italian [[Renaissance]], and later in [[France]] sponsored by the patronage of King [[Louis XIV]], and in [[Russia]]. ''The word "ballet" comes from the Italian word "ballare," meaning "to dance"''. <ref>[http://www.bostonballet.org/educationoutreach/balletbasics/ballethistory.html Ballet History]</ref> Later, neoclassical ballet and contemporary ballet were developed.

Works of dance choreographed using this technique are called ballets, and normally include dance, [[music]], acting and mime. <ref> Can You Appreciate the Art of Ballet? by Jeffrey Meier - EzineArticles.com Expert Author http://ezinearticles .com/?Can-You-Appreciate-the-Art-of-Ballet?&id=294632&opt=print '''(please "Join" address )'''</ref> A significant part of ballet's vocabulary is in French, and reflects the French origin of this dance.
(Troupe, Ballerina, Entrée, Arrière, Glissade, Saut, Pirouette, Derrière, Elevé, Double, etc.)

<blockquote>
Classical ballet is the most formal of the different ballet styles. Ballet, as practiced in [[Europe]] and the Americas, emphasizes the abstract geometry of bodily form exploring the heights and extensions the body can achieve both on the floor and in the air. <ref>[http://www.answers.com/dance?cat=entertainment Dance] World of the Body. </ref>
</blockquote>

Agrippina Vaganova, Enrico Cecchetti, George Balanchine and August Bournonville created famous ballet training methods. Professional ballet dancers are both, athletes and artists; many years of hard training are necessary as well as daily practice. ''Corps de ballet'' is the ''troupe'', not including the soloists.

[[Isadora Duncan]] was a famous "Ballerina". ''She rejected the traditions of ballet technique and costuming and created her own free style, which was based on naturalistic movement and performed barefoot in loose, flowing tunics.'' ''[[Fanny Elssler]] was, along with [[Marie Taglioni]], the greatest of ballerinas in the romantic era.'' [http://www.pitt.edu/~gillis/dance/glossary.html]
[[Anna Pavlova]], [[Vaslav Nijinsky]], Dame [[Margot Fonteyne]] and [[Rudolf Nureyev]] are considered among the greatest ballet dancers. Nina Ananiashvili is one of the current international ballet stars. It was in Russia that Marius Petipa wrote the great masterpiece of ballet "Swan lake".

==See also==
[[Image:Nina.jpg|thumb|Nina Ananiashvili.]]
*[[Igor Stravinsky]]
*[[Music]]
*[[Irish Dance]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dance4it.com/ballethistory.htm The History of Ballet]
*[http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/exploring/ballet/history.html A History of the Art]
*[http://www.zeroland.co.nz/ind2.html Ballet, a Web Directory]
*[http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/articles/article/France/Ballet-in-France/557 Ballet in France]
*[http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/yiannis/dance/nureyev.html Nureyev]
*[http://www.aha.ru/~vladmo/imperial.html Imperial Russian Ballet]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Art]]
[[Category:Dancing]]

Talk:Crimean War

2008-07-15T22:28:09Z

Guddle:

Talk:Crimean War

2008-07-15T22:27:02Z

Guddle:

Crimean War

2008-07-15T22:15:13Z

Guddle:

The '''Crimean War''' lasted from October 1853 to February 1856. It was a war fought primarily on the [[Crimean Peninsula]] between the [[Russia]]ns on one side, and the British, French, and the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman Empire]] on the other.

The beginnings of the war can be traced to 1851, when [[Napoleon III]] (France) demanded that the Ottomans acknowledge [[France]] as the 'sovereign authority' of the [[Holy Land]].

However, this flew in the face of two earlier treaties between the Russians and the Ottomans, and so the Ottomans renounced the treaty. Napoleon III responded by sending a warship, the ''Charlemagne'' to the [[Black Sea]]. This show of force, along with some diplomacy and money, led the Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I to reverse his decision, and a new treaty confirmed France and the Catholic Church as the supreme Christian Organization in the Holy Land. It also gave the keys to the [[Church of the Nativity]], previously in the hands of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], to the [[Catholic Church]].

Napoleon appeared to misjudge the religious convictions of Tsar [[Nicholas I]]. Angry over losing the diplomatic war to France, the Russian Tsar had his 4th and 5th Army Corps mobilized and deployed along the [[River Danube]] and had Count [[Karl Nesselrode]], his foreign minister, begin a diplomatic war to regain Russian prestige with the Ottomans.

Prince Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new treaty, under which Russia would be allowed to interfere whenever it deemed the Sultan's protection inadequate.
The British embassy in Istanbul at the time was being run by Hugh Rose. Rose gathered intelligence on Russian troop movements along the Danube frontier, and became concerned about the extent of Menshikov's mission.
Rose used his powers as the British representative to the Ottomans, and ordered a British squadron of warships to depart and head for Istanbul. However, Rose's actions were not backed by the British admiral in command of the squadron, only the French sent a naval task force.

At the same time, however, the British Prime Minister Aberdeen sent Lord Stratford who, through skillful diplomacy, convinced the Sultan to reject the treaty. Benjamin Disraeli blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making war inevitable, starting the process by which Aberdeen would be forced to resign. Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy, the Czar marched his armies into Moldavia and Wallachia (Ottoman principalities in which Russia was acknowledged as a special guardian of the Orthodox Church), using the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the Holy Places as a pretext. Nicholas believed that the European powers would not object strongly to the annexation of a few Ottoman provinces.

In 1853, after Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian Principalities, Great Britain and France declared war.

''The Charge of the Light Brigade'', a poem by [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]], is about a battle in the Crimean War where a brigade of horsemen was sent against cannons and heavy artillery.
[[Category:Wars]]

Viola

2008-07-07T04:46:44Z

Guddle:

The '''viola''' is one of the four main [[String Instruments]] that comprise a string [[orchestra]]. It serves as the alto voice of the violin family.

Though similar in shape to a [[violin]], the viola is slightly larger and lower in pitch by a perfect fifth. It is usually tuned from high to low, a d g c, an octave higher than the violoncello. The tone of the viola also sets it apart from the [[violin]], being less brilliant and warmer.

The viola has been the subject of many jokes because of its lesser role in orchestral music, implying that one does not require as much talent to play it. However, many musicians claim that the viola is actually more difficult to play and it has its own rewards.

Some famous viola players include [[William Primrose]], [[Paul Hindemith]], (who also composed for the instrument), [[Yuri Bashmet]], [[Nobuko Imay]], [[John Cale]],[[Whit Schroder]] and the Texas [[blues]] violist and [[guitarist]] [[Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown]]. Many famous violinists also play, or have played, the viola as a secondary instrument, such as [[Itzhak Perlman]], [[David Gilmour]] and Sir Yehudi Menuhin.
Some famous works for the viola include viola sonatas by Brahms, (Brahms' own transcriptions of his clarinet sonatas, op.120) and the works of English composers such as Ralph Vaughan Williams, (who studied the instrument)Benjamin Britten, Frank Bridge, Rebecca Clarke, and Arnold Bax, who used the unique tone of the instrument in their compositions.

Two major compositions for the instrument with orchestra that are regularly played are Berlioz's "Harold in Italy", a musical invocation of a part of Byron's epic "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage"; and William Walton's Viola Concerto, one of the great string concertos of the 20th century.

The viola was W. A. Mozart's instrument of choice when playing chamber music with his friends. His "Kegelstatt" Trio for piano, viola and clarinet is a rare example of this combination.

Dmitri Shostakovich's last work is his Viola Sonata.

==Notable works for viola==

* Hindemith - Viola Concerto "''Der Schwanendreher''" (1935)
* Walton - Concerto in A minor (1929)

[[Category:Musical Instruments]]

Caravel

2008-07-07T03:32:54Z

Guddle:

[[Image:Caravel.jpg|thumb|200px|Early Caravel]]
The '''Caravel''' was the “work-horse” of the [[Spanish]] and Portuguese during the Age of Exploration; a vessel that would be adapted according to the varying needs and challenges of the era.

In the early 15th century a caravel was termed as a Portuguese two-masted lateen rigged carvel-built vessel with forecastle and deckhouse, designed for trade in the [[Mediterranean]] and the Atlantic coast. When Henry the Navigator began his search for a sea route to India in the 1420s one of his priorities was the development of a suitable vessel. The caravela latina was the first design change, with a slimmer hull and three masts, though still all lateen rigged. This was followed by the caravella redonda, a three masted vessel, square rigged on the fore- and mainmast, however the mizzen retained the lateen sail as an aid to maneuverability. By the 16th century four-masted versions had appeared. A water color by the sixteenth century Spaniard, Monleon, shows two four-masted caravels square rigged on only the foremast. During the fifteenth century, the use of topsails was developed.

Their size varied. Diaz sailed with two small caravels designed for poking about amongst the shoals and reefs of an unknown coast. Vasco da Gama, on the advice of Diaz, was supplied with much larger and heavily armed caravels. [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]’ [[The Niña]] and [[The Pinta]] were small caravels. ([[Santa Maria]] was a “Nao”, a much larger and older design, developed from the craft that had carried the Crusaders two centuries and more before.) Magellan’s fleet included large four-masted caravels.

The term refers to the type of hull. The hulls of caravels were a mixture of Iberian and Arab design and were carvel built. That is, the strakes, or planks, of the hull were butt jointed along their edges; not overlapping (clinker built). This meant less drag, easier cleaning and enabled the use of shorter boards and the construction of a double hull if required. This method was not new – its use has been recorded from ancient times – but the success of the caravel caused an explosion in its use, and large carvel built vessels were being built in Holland and the Baltic by the second half of the fifteenth century. The word caravel, however, usually refers to those vessels of the Iberian Peninsula.

==Sources==

Dictionary of [[Ship]] Types, (Conway Maritime Press)
J. R. Parry, The Age of Exploration (Uni of California Press)

[[Category: Age of Exploration]]

Johannes Brahms

2008-07-07T00:59:31Z

Guddle:

[[Image:Johannes Brahms.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Johannes Brahms, c.1853]]
'''Johannes Brahms''' (1833-1897) was a German [[classical music]] composer, whom [[conductor]] Hans van Bülow dubbed as one of the "three ''B's''" ([[Bach]], [[Beethoven]], and Brahms). Joseph Machlis, contrasting him with contemporaries [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]], [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], and [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]], called him
:an austere, high-minded musician dedicated to the purity of the classical style. His veneration for the past and his mastery of the architecture of absolute music brought him closer to the spirit of Beethoven than any of his contemporaries.<ref>Machlis, Joseph (1970), ''The Enjoyment of Music,'' 3rd edition, W. W. Norton</ref>

He studied the piano from the age of 7 and composition from 13. From an early age he absorbed the popular and folk idioms – often in a Hungarian style - as an arranger for his father’s light orchestra in Frankfurt. When he was 20 he met the Hungarians Liszt and [[Joachim]]. Joachim and Brahms were to become lifelong friends. This was to surface in his 21 Hungarian Dances, and the scherzo movements of various other works.<ref>The last movement of the Piano Quartet is a perfect example</ref> He also met Robert and Clara Schumann who became his friends and mentors. His relationship with Clara was one of early infatuation maturing to a profound reverence and mutual friendship that lasted the rest of their lives.

As a pianist he was prodigious enough to be have been offered a concert tour of America before his teens;<ref>Musgrave, A Brahms Reader, Yale University Press</ref> but in spite of this, and the urging of his family, he set his sights on composition. He struggled to gain recognition in this until the publication of his “German Requiem” in 1869; a work recognised as one of the masterworks of its genre. He had recently moved to Vienna, the capital of the Hapsburg Empire, and hub of cultural life. It suited him, and the works written in the next few years were to bring him fame and financial security. When he died in 1897 he was given a state procession with thousands walking behind his coffin.

==Works==

*4 Symphonies
*2 serenades for large orchestra
*2 Piano Concertos
*Violin Concerto
*Double Concerto (for Violin and ‘cello)
*Various shorter orchestral works
*3 Piano sonatas, plus many shorter works for solo piano – variations, intermezzi, fantasies etc., Miniatures, but many of them great.
*Various works for two pianos and piano four hands. (See trivia, below)
*3 Violin sonatas
*2 ‘cello sonatas (or 3, counting his ‘cello transcription of the 1st violin sonata.
*2 Clarinet (or viola) sonatas
*4 piano trios
*3 piano quartets
*Piano quintet
*Horn trio
*Clarinet trio
*Clarinet quintet
*3 String quartets
*2 string quintets
*2 string sextets
*Over 300 songs
*'A German Requiem', Cantatas, and other works for chorus and/or voice and orchestra.
*Much music for unaccompanied choir.
*Dozens of folk song arrangements for one or two singers and piano.

==Trivia==

Brahms became quite the modern entrepreneur. These days, we walk out of the concert hall or recital room to be met by displays of the “Latest CD”. Brahms usually had the sheet music for 4 hand piano versions of the concert pieces on sale at the venue. Most Viennese families had at least two members proficient on the piano. It not only meant more profit from the concert, but it spread his music far and wide amongst the citizens who couldn’t get to the concert. Even “A German Requiem”, as big a piece of music as one can hear, (often heard with over 200 performers) has not only a version for choir, soloists and two pianos; but a setting for two pianos alone!

Reviewing the first performance of Symphony No. 1, critic Eduard Hanslick suggested that Brahms had relied rather too heavily on Beethoven, and that the regal string melody of the fourth movement was strikingly similar to Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" . Conductor Hans von Bülow agreed with Hanslick's assessment, and memorably tagged the piece "Beethoven's Tenth"<ref> http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/brahms_sym1.html </ref>.

==References==

<references/>

[[category:composers|Brahms,Johannes]]

Johannes Brahms

2008-07-07T00:59:00Z

Guddle:

[[Image:Johannes Brahms.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Johannes Brahms, c.1853]]
'''Johannes Brahms''' (1833-1897) was a German [[classical music]] composer, whom [[conductor]] Hans van Bülow dubbed as one of the "three ''B's''" ([[Bach]], [[Beethoven]], and Brahms). Joseph Machlis, contrasting him with contemporaries [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]], [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], and [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]], called him
:an austere, high-minded musician dedicated to the purity of the classical style. His veneration for the past and his mastery of the architecture of absolute music brought him closer to the spirit of Beethoven than any of his contemporaries.<ref>Machlis, Joseph (1970), ''The Enjoyment of Music,'' 3rd edition, W. W. Norton</ref>

He studied the piano from the age of 7 and composition from 13. From an early age he absorbed the popular and folk idioms – often in a Hungarian style - as an arranger for his father’s light orchestra in Frankfurt. When he was 20 he met the Hungarians Liszt and [[Joachim]]. Joachim and Brahms were to become lifelong friends. This was to surface in his 21 Hungarian dances, and the scherzo movements of various other works.<ref>The last movement of the Piano Quartet is a perfect example</ref> He also met Robert and Clara Schumann who became his friends and mentors. His relationship with Clara was one of early infatuation maturing to a profound reverence and mutual friendship that lasted the rest of their lives.

As a pianist he was prodigious enough to be have been offered a concert tour of America before his teens;<ref>Musgrave, A Brahms Reader, Yale University Press</ref> but in spite of this, and the urging of his family, he set his sights on composition. He struggled to gain recognition in this until the publication of his “German Requiem” in 1869; a work recognised as one of the masterworks of its genre. He had recently moved to Vienna, the capital of the Hapsburg Empire, and hub of cultural life. It suited him, and the works written in the next few years were to bring him fame and financial security. When he died in 1897 he was given a state procession with thousands walking behind his coffin.

==Works==

*4 Symphonies
*2 serenades for large orchestra
*2 Piano Concertos
*Violin Concerto
*Double Concerto (for Violin and ‘cello)
*Various shorter orchestral works
*3 Piano sonatas, plus many shorter works for solo piano – variations, intermezzi, fantasies etc., Miniatures, but many of them great.
*Various works for two pianos and piano four hands. (See trivia, below)
*3 Violin sonatas
*2 ‘cello sonatas (or 3, counting his ‘cello transcription of the 1st violin sonata.
*2 Clarinet (or viola) sonatas
*4 piano trios
*3 piano quartets
*Piano quintet
*Horn trio
*Clarinet trio
*Clarinet quintet
*3 String quartets
*2 string quintets
*2 string sextets
*Over 300 songs
*'A German Requiem', Cantatas, and other works for chorus and/or voice and orchestra.
*Much music for unaccompanied choir.
*Dozens of folk song arrangements for one or two singers and piano.

==Trivia==

Brahms became quite the modern entrepreneur. These days, we walk out of the concert hall or recital room to be met by displays of the “Latest CD”. Brahms usually had the sheet music for 4 hand piano versions of the concert pieces on sale at the venue. Most Viennese families had at least two members proficient on the piano. It not only meant more profit from the concert, but it spread his music far and wide amongst the citizens who couldn’t get to the concert. Even “A German Requiem”, as big a piece of music as one can hear, (often heard with over 200 performers) has not only a version for choir, soloists and two pianos; but a setting for two pianos alone!

Reviewing the first performance of Symphony No. 1, critic Eduard Hanslick suggested that Brahms had relied rather too heavily on Beethoven, and that the regal string melody of the fourth movement was strikingly similar to Beethoven's "Ode to Joy" . Conductor Hans von Bülow agreed with Hanslick's assessment, and memorably tagged the piece "Beethoven's Tenth"<ref> http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/brahms_sym1.html </ref>.

==References==

<references/>

[[category:composers|Brahms,Johannes]]

Henry I

2007-08-07T20:01:55Z

Guddle:

[[HENRY I]] (1068-1135) King of [[England]](1100-1135) Duke of [[Normandy]] (1106-1135) Third son of [[William the Conqueror]] and younger brother of [[William Rufus]], whom he succeeded.

Henry took swift advantage of his brother’s death from an arrow wound whilst hunting in the [[New Forest]]; and his eldest brother Robert’s absence on the [[First Crusade]]; to secure the Treasury at [[Winchester]], and have himself crowned at London within 3 days of the event. At his coronation he proclaimed a charter promising just rule, and shortly after, gained support amongst the [[English]] when he married Matilda of [[Scotland]], who was directly descended from [[Anglo Saxon]] royalty.

The early years of his reign saw him defending his realm against the returned Robert, and in 1106 he defeated Robert in Normandy, imprisoned him, and reunited England and Normandy under the one rule as his father had done. He was to spend a great part of his reign defending Normandy against [[France]], and the machinations of certain of his barons, however England was generally peaceful for the rest of his reign.

His reign is considered successful within certain limits, as he is the founder of the English judicial system, and centralized and simplified the financial workings of the Crown by the formation of the “Exchequer”, a term still in use today as the nation’s treasury. However, the death of his son at sea in 1128, meant he had no male heir, and the last years of his life were spent attempting to have his daughter, [[Matilda]], accepted as his successor. He married her to Geoffrey of [[Anjou]] in 1128, accepting the end of the Norman dynasty in a vain attempt to avert the civil war that was to follow.

[[Category:UK Monarchs]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Henry 1}}