Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Walter Payton

2012-03-09T17:02:29Z

GeorgeWashington1776: Created page with "Walter Jerry Payton (July 25. 1954 -- November 1, 1999) was a Hall of Fame running for the Chicago Bears. Nicknamed "Sweetness", he is considered by many to be the greatest r..."

Walter Jerry Payton (July 25. 1954 -- November 1, 1999) was a Hall of Fame running for the [[Chicago Bears]]. Nicknamed "Sweetness", he is considered by many to be the greatest running back in [[NFL]] history. Payton was known not just for his ability to run the ball but also to receive and pass. He still holds or held at one point the record for most rushing yards (16,726 yards), yards from scrimmage(21,624 yards), all-purpose yards, (21,803 yards), rushing touchdowns (110), passing yards of a non-quarterback (331 yards) and most passing touchdowns of a non-quarterback (8).

Chicago Bears

2012-03-09T16:46:35Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

The '''Chicago Bears''' are a [[National Football League]] [[franchise]] based in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]. They are part of the National Football Conference (NFC) and play in the NFC North Division.

== History ==
The Chicago Bears were founded in 1919. They were origanally the Decatur Staleys, named after their founder, A. E. Staley. In 1921, the team moved and became the Chicago Staleys and in 1922, after George Halas (the coach at the time) bought the team from Staley, they became they Chicago Bears. Halas coached the Bears from 1920-1929, from 1933-1942, from 1946-1955 and then from 1958-1967, winning 6 National Championships, 318 regular season games and going undefeated in the regular season twice.

The Bears currently have 27 [[NFL]] Hall of Fame players. Some of their most famous players include [[Dick Butkus]], [[Walter Payton]], [[Gale Sayers]], [[Mike Singletary]], [[Richard Dent]] and [[Sid Luckman]].

==Roster==
===Quarterbacks===
*6 - Jay Cutler
*8 - Rex Grossman
*12 - Caleb Hanie

===Running Backs===
*43 - Jason Davis
*22 - [[Matt Forte]]
*27 - Kevin Jones
*29 - Adrian Peterson
*25 - Garrett Wolfe

===Fullbacks===
*37 - Jason McKie

===Wide Receivers===
*19 - Devin Aromashodu
*85 - Earl Bennett
*86 - Marty Booker
*81 - Rashied Davis
*23 - [[Devin Hester]]
*80 - Brandon Lloyd
*84 - Brandon Rideau

===Tight Ends===
*88 - Desmond Clark
*87 - Kellen Davis
*82 - Greg Olsen

===Offensive Tackles===
*78 - John St. Clair
* - Frank Omiyale
* - Kevin Shaffer
*74 - Chris Williams
*69 - Fred Miller

===Guards===
*67 - Josh Beekman
*72 - Dan Buenning
*63 - Roberto Garza

===Centers===
*65 - Patrick Mannelly

===Defensive Ends===
*97 - Mark Anderson
*99 - Ervin Baldwin
*96 - Alex Brown
*93 - Adewale Ogunleye

===Defensive Tackles===
*95 - Anthony Adams
*91 - Tommie Harris
*94 - Marcus Harrison
*71 - Israel Idonije
*75 - Matt Toeaina
*98 - Dusty Dvoracek

===Linebackers===
*55 - [[Lance Briggs]]
*59 - Gilbert Gardner
*92 - Hunter Hillenmeyer
*90 - Joey LaRocque
*53 - Nick Roach
*54 - [[Brian Urlacher]]
*52 - Jamar Williams
*58 - Darrell McClover

===Cornerbacks===
*21 - Corey Graham
*24 - Marcus Hamilton
*26 - Trumaine McBride
*33 - Charles Tillman
*35 - Zackary Bowman
*31 - Nathan Vasher

===Safeties===
*36 - Brandon McGowan
*30 - Mike Brown
* - Josh Bullocks
*38 - Danieal Manning
*44 - Kevin Payne
*20 - Craig Steltz

===Kickers===
*9 - Robbie Gould

===Punters===
*4 - Brad Maynard

==See also==
*[[Detroit Lions]]
*[[Green Bay Packers]]
*[[Minnesota Vikings]]
*[[National Football Conference]]

== External links ==
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/nfl/teams/bears/index.html Team site]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/clubhouse?teamId=3 Chicago Bears]

{{NFL Teams}}

[[Category:National Football League]]
[[Category:Illinois]]

Chicago Bears

2012-02-03T20:43:01Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

The '''Chicago Bears''' are a [[National Football League]] [[franchise]] based in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]. They are part of the National Football Conference (NFC) and play in the NFC North Division.

== History ==
The Chicago Bears were founded in 1919. They were origanally the Decatur Staleys, named after their founder, A. E. Staley. In 1921, the team moved and became the Chicago Staleys and in 1922, after George Halas (the current coach) bought the team from Staley, they became they Chicago Bears. Halas coached the Bears from 1920-1929, then from 1933-1942, from 1946-1955 and then from 1958-1967, winning 8 National Championships, 318 regular season games and going undefeated twice.

The Bears currently have 27 Hall of Fame players. Some of their most famous players include [[Dick Butkus]], [[Walter Payton]], [[Gale Sayers]], [[Mike Singletary]], [[Richard Dent]] and [[Sid Luckman]].

==Roster==
===Quarterbacks===
*6 - Jay Cutler
*8 - Rex Grossman
*12 - Caleb Hanie

===Running Backs===
*43 - Jason Davis
*22 - [[Matt Forte]]
*27 - Kevin Jones
*29 - Adrian Peterson
*25 - Garrett Wolfe

===Fullbacks===
*37 - Jason McKie

===Wide Receivers===
*19 - Devin Aromashodu
*85 - Earl Bennett
*86 - Marty Booker
*81 - Rashied Davis
*23 - [[Devin Hester]]
*80 - Brandon Lloyd
*84 - Brandon Rideau

===Tight Ends===
*88 - Desmond Clark
*87 - Kellen Davis
*82 - Greg Olsen

===Offensive Tackles===
*78 - John St. Clair
* - Frank Omiyale
* - Kevin Shaffer
*74 - Chris Williams
*69 - Fred Miller

===Guards===
*67 - Josh Beekman
*72 - Dan Buenning
*63 - Roberto Garza

===Centers===
*65 - Patrick Mannelly

===Defensive Ends===
*97 - Mark Anderson
*99 - Ervin Baldwin
*96 - Alex Brown
*93 - Adewale Ogunleye

===Defensive Tackles===
*95 - Anthony Adams
*91 - Tommie Harris
*94 - Marcus Harrison
*71 - Israel Idonije
*75 - Matt Toeaina
*98 - Dusty Dvoracek

===Linebackers===
*55 - [[Lance Briggs]]
*59 - Gilbert Gardner
*92 - Hunter Hillenmeyer
*90 - Joey LaRocque
*53 - Nick Roach
*54 - [[Brian Urlacher]]
*52 - Jamar Williams
*58 - Darrell McClover

===Cornerbacks===
*21 - Corey Graham
*24 - Marcus Hamilton
*26 - Trumaine McBride
*33 - Charles Tillman
*35 - Zackary Bowman
*31 - Nathan Vasher

===Safeties===
*36 - Brandon McGowan
*30 - Mike Brown
* - Josh Bullocks
*38 - Danieal Manning
*44 - Kevin Payne
*20 - Craig Steltz

===Kickers===
*9 - Robbie Gould

===Punters===
*4 - Brad Maynard

==See also==
*[[Detroit Lions]]
*[[Green Bay Packers]]
*[[Minnesota Vikings]]
*[[National Football Conference]]

== External links ==
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/nfl/teams/bears/index.html Team site]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/clubhouse?teamId=3 Chicago Bears]

{{NFL Teams}}

[[Category:National Football League]]
[[Category:Illinois]]

Water Payton

2012-02-03T20:41:56Z

GeorgeWashington1776: Created page with "Walter Jerry Payton (July 25, 1954 – November 1, 1999) was an American Football player for the Chicago Bears. He played all thirteen years of his career with the Bears and ..."

Walter Jerry Payton (July 25, 1954 – November 1, 1999) was an American Football player for the [[Chicago Bears]]. He played all thirteen years of his career with the Bears and is considered by many to be the best [[running back]] of all time.

Chicago Bears

2012-01-25T16:56:17Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

The '''Chicago Bears''' are a [[National Football League]] [[franchise]] based in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]. They are part of the National Football Conference (NFC) and play in the NFC North Division.

== History ==
The Chicago Bears were founded in 1919. They were origanally the Decatur Staleys, named after their founder, A. E. Staley. In 1921, the team moved and became the Chicago Staleys and in 1922, after George Halas (the current coach) bought the team from Staley, they became they Chicago Bears. Halas coached the Bears from 1920-1929, then from 1933-1942, from 1946-1955 and then from 1958-1967, winning 8 National Championships, 318 regular season games and going undefeated twice.

The Bears currently have 27 Hall of Fame players. Some of their most famous players include [[Dick Butkus]], [[Water Payton]], [[Gale Sayers]], [[Mike Singletary]], [[Richard Dent]] and [[Sid Luckman]].

==Roster==
===Quarterbacks===
*6 - Jay Cutler
*8 - Rex Grossman
*12 - Caleb Hanie

===Running Backs===
*43 - Jason Davis
*22 - [[Matt Forte]]
*27 - Kevin Jones
*29 - Adrian Peterson
*25 - Garrett Wolfe

===Fullbacks===
*37 - Jason McKie

===Wide Receivers===
*19 - Devin Aromashodu
*85 - Earl Bennett
*86 - Marty Booker
*81 - Rashied Davis
*23 - [[Devin Hester]]
*80 - Brandon Lloyd
*84 - Brandon Rideau

===Tight Ends===
*88 - Desmond Clark
*87 - Kellen Davis
*82 - Greg Olsen

===Offensive Tackles===
*78 - John St. Clair
* - Frank Omiyale
* - Kevin Shaffer
*74 - Chris Williams
*69 - Fred Miller

===Guards===
*67 - Josh Beekman
*72 - Dan Buenning
*63 - Roberto Garza

===Centers===
*65 - Patrick Mannelly

===Defensive Ends===
*97 - Mark Anderson
*99 - Ervin Baldwin
*96 - Alex Brown
*93 - Adewale Ogunleye

===Defensive Tackles===
*95 - Anthony Adams
*91 - Tommie Harris
*94 - Marcus Harrison
*71 - Israel Idonije
*75 - Matt Toeaina
*98 - Dusty Dvoracek

===Linebackers===
*55 - [[Lance Briggs]]
*59 - Gilbert Gardner
*92 - Hunter Hillenmeyer
*90 - Joey LaRocque
*53 - Nick Roach
*54 - [[Brian Urlacher]]
*52 - Jamar Williams
*58 - Darrell McClover

===Cornerbacks===
*21 - Corey Graham
*24 - Marcus Hamilton
*26 - Trumaine McBride
*33 - Charles Tillman
*35 - Zackary Bowman
*31 - Nathan Vasher

===Safeties===
*36 - Brandon McGowan
*30 - Mike Brown
* - Josh Bullocks
*38 - Danieal Manning
*44 - Kevin Payne
*20 - Craig Steltz

===Kickers===
*9 - Robbie Gould

===Punters===
*4 - Brad Maynard

==See also==
*[[Detroit Lions]]
*[[Green Bay Packers]]
*[[Minnesota Vikings]]
*[[National Football Conference]]

== External links ==
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/nfl/teams/bears/index.html Team site]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/clubhouse?teamId=3 Chicago Bears]

{{NFL Teams}}

[[Category:National Football League]]
[[Category:Illinois]]

Chicago Bears

2012-01-23T21:06:50Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

The '''Chicago Bears''' are a [[National Football League]] [[franchise]] based in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]. They are part of the National Football Conference (NFC) and play in the NFC North Division.

== History ==
The Chicago Bears were founded in 1919. They were origanally the Decatur Staleys, named after their founder, A. E. Staley. In 1921, the team moved and became the Chicago Staleys and in 1922, after George Halas (the current coach) bought the team from Staley, they became they Chicago Bears. Halas coached the Bears from 1920-1929, then from 1933-1942, from 1946-1955 and then from 1958-1967, winning 8 National Championships, 318 regular season games and going undefeated twice.

==Roster==
===Quarterbacks===
*6 - Jay Cutler
*8 - Rex Grossman
*12 - Caleb Hanie

===Running Backs===
*43 - Jason Davis
*22 - [[Matt Forte]]
*27 - Kevin Jones
*29 - Adrian Peterson
*25 - Garrett Wolfe

===Fullbacks===
*37 - Jason McKie

===Wide Receivers===
*19 - Devin Aromashodu
*85 - Earl Bennett
*86 - Marty Booker
*81 - Rashied Davis
*23 - [[Devin Hester]]
*80 - Brandon Lloyd
*84 - Brandon Rideau

===Tight Ends===
*88 - Desmond Clark
*87 - Kellen Davis
*82 - Greg Olsen

===Offensive Tackles===
*78 - John St. Clair
* - Frank Omiyale
* - Kevin Shaffer
*74 - Chris Williams
*69 - Fred Miller

===Guards===
*67 - Josh Beekman
*72 - Dan Buenning
*63 - Roberto Garza

===Centers===
*65 - Patrick Mannelly

===Defensive Ends===
*97 - Mark Anderson
*99 - Ervin Baldwin
*96 - Alex Brown
*93 - Adewale Ogunleye

===Defensive Tackles===
*95 - Anthony Adams
*91 - Tommie Harris
*94 - Marcus Harrison
*71 - Israel Idonije
*75 - Matt Toeaina
*98 - Dusty Dvoracek

===Linebackers===
*55 - [[Lance Briggs]]
*59 - Gilbert Gardner
*92 - Hunter Hillenmeyer
*90 - Joey LaRocque
*53 - Nick Roach
*54 - [[Brian Urlacher]]
*52 - Jamar Williams
*58 - Darrell McClover

===Cornerbacks===
*21 - Corey Graham
*24 - Marcus Hamilton
*26 - Trumaine McBride
*33 - Charles Tillman
*35 - Zackary Bowman
*31 - Nathan Vasher

===Safeties===
*36 - Brandon McGowan
*30 - Mike Brown
* - Josh Bullocks
*38 - Danieal Manning
*44 - Kevin Payne
*20 - Craig Steltz

===Kickers===
*9 - Robbie Gould

===Punters===
*4 - Brad Maynard

==See also==
*[[Detroit Lions]]
*[[Green Bay Packers]]
*[[Minnesota Vikings]]
*[[National Football Conference]]

== External links ==
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/nfl/teams/bears/index.html Team site]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/clubhouse?teamId=3 Chicago Bears]

{{NFL Teams}}

[[Category:National Football League]]
[[Category:Illinois]]

Johann Sebastian Bach

2012-01-18T15:38:48Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

[[Image:Johann Bach.jpg|right]]
'''Johann Sebastian Bach''' (March 21, 1685 - July 28, 1750) was a [[German]] [[composer]] and organist active in the late [[Baroque]] era who has been recognized as one of greatest composers of the Western classical music tradition, often called the "master of masters."

By age 18, Bach was a church organist, and he stated his goal as composer and performer of music as follows:<ref>http://www.americanminute.com/index.php?date=2004-03-21&view=View</ref>

:"The aim and final end of all music should be none other than the glory of God and the refreshment of the soul. If heed is not paid to this, it is not true music but a diabolical bawling and twanging."

==Biography==

Bach came from an extremely musical family, which had been supported by local governments and churches throughout Germany for many years. After graduating from the St. Michael's School in Lüneburg, he became a court musician in Weimar, where his fame as a keyboardist began to spread. In this time, he also began a career as organ inspector, which he kept up in some form for the remainder of his life. Later in the year, Bach became the organist at St. Boniface's Church in Arnstadt with help from some family connections, where he often clashed with authorities over the quality of the choir and a long, unauthorized leave of absence where he visited the great composer Buxtehude, who became an important musical influence. After leaving the church and serving as the Kapellmeister and court organist in various cities, Bach ended up in [[Leipzig]] in 1723, where he spent the rest of his life.

As Cantor of the Thomasschule in Leipzig, Bach took on a greater variety of responsibilities, including teaching Latin and supervising the dormitories, and was never entirely respected by the authorities. Indeed, when he was hired, the council remarked "because the best men for the job could not be procured, we have been forced to accept a mediocre one instead."<ref>''New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', "J.S. Bach."</ref> Bach also simultaneously took the job of Director of Music in all of Leipzig's churches. In this capacity, he produced a stunning output of cantatas: between 1723 and 1729, he had produced close to three whole yearly cycles, or 300 cantatas.<ref>ibid.</ref>

After 1729, Bach also wrote much of his [[chamber music]], orchestral music, and keyboard works. He published many of the latter in his lifetime at his own expense,<ref>ibid.</ref> though most of his compositional output remained unpublished after his death.

Although Bach was always famous as an organist and his music remained well-loved in Leipzig, his music was mostly forgotten in Europe until several of his works were revived by the composer [[Felix Mendelssohn]], most importantly an 1829 performance of the [[St. Matthew Passion]].

Bach had several children who became famous composers in their own right, such as Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Carl Phillipp Emmanuel Bach, and Johann Christian Bach.

==Music==

Bach was a devout [[Lutheran]], and much of his music was religious in nature. Bach attributed the beauty of his music to [[God]], by writing the letters "S.D.G." or "Soli Deo Gloria" in many of his scores and has been quoted as saying, "The purpose of all music is to give glory to God and bring rest to the soul". He is well-known for his complete mastery of [[counterpoint]], as well as his use of styles from many different regions of Europe. His music is filled with melodic harmonies and overlaping melodies, giving the impression that every instrument has the melody. He also used the cruciform B-A-C-H motif in his work as a sign of devotion to [[Christ]], although future composers used it to pay homage to their great predecessor.

Important works include:
* The Mass in B Minor
* The [[St. Matthew Passion]]
* The St. John Passion
* The Christmas Oratorio (6 related cantatas)
* The 6 Brandenburg Concerti
* The Musical Offering
* The Art of Fugue
* The [[Well-Tempered Clavier|''Well-Tempered Clavier'']] (2 collections, each containing 24 preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys)
* The 6 English Suites for keyboard
* The 6 French Suites for keyboard
* The 6 Partitas for keyboard
* many choral preludes, toccatas, toccatas and fugues, fugues, and other works for organ, including the famous Passacaglia and Fugue in C Minor and the Toccata and Fugue in D Minor
* The 4 Orchestral Suites
* The Goldberg Variations for keyboard
* The 12 2-part Inventions and 12 3-part Sinfonias for keyboard
* several hundred sacred and secular cantatas
* The 6 suites for unaccompanied cello

Some of his most famous pieces are drawn from the cantatas, including:
* ''Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring''
* ''Sheep may Safely Graze''

Bach also had a great influence on composers who followed him. Composers such as [[Mozart]], [[Beethoven]], [[Schumann]], and Mendelssohn began using more contrapuntal elements in their works as a result of his influence. In addition, [[Chopin]]'s Preludes Op. 28 and [[Dmitri Shostakovich|Shostakovich]]'s Preludes and Fugues Op. 87 are based explicitly on the Well-Tempered Clavier. Other works that play explicit homage to Bach include Beethoven's Diabelli Variations and [[Franz Liszt]]'s Prelude and Fugue on B-A-C-H.

Important interpreters of Bach's works include:
* [[Glenn Gould]], pianist
* Wanda Landowska, harpischordist
* Rosalyn Tureck, pianist
* Angela Hewitt, pianist
* Pablo Casals, cellist
* [[Mark Steinbach]], organist
* Otto Klemperer, conductor
* Karl Richter, conductor, organist
* Phillippe Herreweghe, conductor

There have also been many "modernizations" of Bach's music by artists as varied as [[Wendy Carlos]] and [[Jethro Tull]].

==Trivia==
*Bach was an avid coffee-drinker, so much so that he wrote an ode to the drink in one of his secular cantatas (BMV 211), which was performed at Zimmerman's coffeehouse between 1732 and 1734.<ref>http://afactor.net/kitchen/coffee/kaffeeKantate.html</ref>
*Since Bach's music was virtually unknown outside of a small circle of Leipzig-based connoiseurs after his death, it was something of a miracle that composers Mozart and Beethoven learned of it.
**Beethoven's teacher as a boy, Christian-Gottlob Neefe (who came from Leipzig), made sure that Beethoven played Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier; the young genius had memorized all 48 by the age of 12!
**Mozart learned of Bach's music relatively late in life, in the 1780's, from Baron Gottfried van Swieten, an ambassador and connoiseur who brought Bach's music with him to Vienna (after he also had learned of it in Berlin). Swieten would hold all-night music sessions where only Bach and Handel was played; a few decades later, Beethoven would also be invited to Swieten's palace.







== External links ==

*[http://web.uvic.ca/~tonicxt/assign_1/composer.html Biography]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PiqPxT_4FYk Glory to God Alone: The Life of J.S. Bach]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ipzR9bhei_o Toccata and Fugue in D Minor] - an animation that's a cross between riding a roller coaster and playing Lode Runner



== References ==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bach, Johann Sebastian}}

[[Category:Composers]]
[[Category:German People]]

Johann Sebastian Bach

2012-01-18T15:33:55Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

[[Image:Johann Bach.jpg|right]]
'''Johann Sebastian Bach''' (March 21, 1685 - July 28, 1750) was a [[German]] [[composer]] and organist active in the late [[Baroque]] era who has been recognized as one of greatest composers of the Western classical music tradition, often called the "master of masters."

By age 18, Bach was a church organist, and he stated his goal as composer and performer of music as follows:<ref>http://www.americanminute.com/index.php?date=2004-03-21&view=View</ref>

:"The aim and final end of all music should be none other than the glory of God and the refreshment of the soul. If heed is not paid to this, it is not true music but a diabolical bawling and twanging."

==Biography==

Bach came from an extremely musical family, which had been supported by local governments and churches throughout Germany for many years. After graduating from the St. Michael's School in Lüneburg, he became a court musician in Weimar, where his fame as a keyboardist began to spread. In this time, he also began a career as organ inspector, which he kept up in some form for the remainder of his life. Later in the year, Bach became the organist at St. Boniface's Church in Arnstadt with help from some family connections, where he often clashed with authorities over the quality of the choir and a long, unauthorized leave of absence where he visited the great composer Buxtehude, who became an important musical influence. After leaving the church and serving as the Kapellmeister and court organist in various cities, Bach ended up in [[Leipzig]] in 1723, where he spent the rest of his life.

As Cantor of the Thomasschule in Leipzig, Bach took on a greater variety of responsibilities, including teaching Latin and supervising the dormitories, and was never entirely respected by the authorities. Indeed, when he was hired, the council remarked "because the best men for the job could not be procured, we have been forced to accept a mediocre one instead."<ref>''New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', "J.S. Bach."</ref> Bach also simultaneously took the job of Director of Music in all of Leipzig's churches. In this capacity, he produced a stunning output of cantatas: between 1723 and 1729, he had produced close to three whole yearly cycles, or 300 cantatas.<ref>ibid.</ref>

After 1729, Bach also wrote much of his [[chamber music]], orchestral music, and keyboard works. He published many of the latter in his lifetime at his own expense,<ref>ibid.</ref> though most of his compositional output remained unpublished after his death.

Although Bach was always famous as an organist and his music remained well-loved in Leipzig, his music was mostly forgotten in Europe until several of his works were revived by the composer [[Felix Mendelssohn]], most importantly an 1829 performance of the [[St. Matthew Passion]].

Bach had several children who became famous composers in their own right, such as Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Carl Phillipp Emmanuel Bach, and Johann Christian Bach.

==Music==

Bach was a devout [[Lutheran]], and much of his music was religious in nature. Bach attributed the beauty of his music to [[God]], by writing the letters "S.D.G." or "Soli Deo Gloria" in many of his scores and has been quoted as saying, "The purpose of all music is to give glory to God and bring rest to the soul". He is well-known for his complete mastery of [[counterpoint]], as well as his use of styles from many different regions of Europe. He also used the cruciform B-A-C-H motif in his work as a sign of devotion to [[Christ]], although future composers used it to pay homage to their great predecessor.

Important works include:
* The Mass in B Minor
* The [[St. Matthew Passion]]
* The St. John Passion
* The Christmas Oratorio (6 related cantatas)
* The 6 Brandenburg Concerti
* The Musical Offering
* The Art of Fugue
* The [[Well-Tempered Clavier|''Well-Tempered Clavier'']] (2 collections, each containing 24 preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys)
* The 6 English Suites for keyboard
* The 6 French Suites for keyboard
* The 6 Partitas for keyboard
* many choral preludes, toccatas, toccatas and fugues, fugues, and other works for organ, including the famous Passacaglia and Fugue in C Minor and the Toccata and Fugue in D Minor
* The 4 Orchestral Suites
* The Goldberg Variations for keyboard
* The 12 2-part Inventions and 12 3-part Sinfonias for keyboard
* several hundred sacred and secular cantatas
* The 6 suites for unaccompanied cello

Some of his most famous pieces are drawn from the cantatas, including:
* ''Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring''
* ''Sheep may Safely Graze''

Bach also had a great influence on composers who followed him. Composers such as [[Mozart]], [[Beethoven]], [[Schumann]], and Mendelssohn began using more contrapuntal elements in their works as a result of his influence. In addition, [[Chopin]]'s Preludes Op. 28 and [[Dmitri Shostakovich|Shostakovich]]'s Preludes and Fugues Op. 87 are based explicitly on the Well-Tempered Clavier. Other works that play explicit homage to Bach include Beethoven's Diabelli Variations and [[Franz Liszt]]'s Prelude and Fugue on B-A-C-H.

Important interpreters of Bach's works include:
* [[Glenn Gould]], pianist
* Wanda Landowska, harpischordist
* Rosalyn Tureck, pianist
* Angela Hewitt, pianist
* Pablo Casals, cellist
* [[Mark Steinbach]], organist
* Otto Klemperer, conductor
* Karl Richter, conductor, organist
* Phillippe Herreweghe, conductor

There have also been many "modernizations" of Bach's music by artists as varied as [[Wendy Carlos]] and [[Jethro Tull]].

==Trivia==
*Bach was an avid coffee-drinker, so much so that he wrote an ode to the drink in one of his secular cantatas (BMV 211), which was performed at Zimmerman's coffeehouse between 1732 and 1734.<ref>http://afactor.net/kitchen/coffee/kaffeeKantate.html</ref>
*Since Bach's music was virtually unknown outside of a small circle of Leipzig-based connoiseurs after his death, it was something of a miracle that composers Mozart and Beethoven learned of it.
**Beethoven's teacher as a boy, Christian-Gottlob Neefe (who came from Leipzig), made sure that Beethoven played Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier; the young genius had memorized all 48 by the age of 12!
**Mozart learned of Bach's music relatively late in life, in the 1780's, from Baron Gottfried van Swieten, an ambassador and connoiseur who brought Bach's music with him to Vienna (after he also had learned of it in Berlin). Swieten would hold all-night music sessions where only Bach and Handel was played; a few decades later, Beethoven would also be invited to Swieten's palace.







== External links ==

*[http://web.uvic.ca/~tonicxt/assign_1/composer.html Biography]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PiqPxT_4FYk Glory to God Alone: The Life of J.S. Bach]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ipzR9bhei_o Toccata and Fugue in D Minor] - an animation that's a cross between riding a roller coaster and playing Lode Runner



== References ==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bach, Johann Sebastian}}

[[Category:Composers]]
[[Category:German People]]

Napoleon Bonaparte

2012-01-18T15:29:42Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

[[Image:Y8r587ig.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Napoleon I by [[Jacques Louis David]]]]
'''Napoleon''' ('''Napoleon Bonaparte''' or, after 1804, '''Napoleon I, Emperor of the French''') (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a world historic figure and dictator of [[History of France|France]] as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, and Emperor of the French, 1804 to 1814. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies. He revolutionized the military applications of artillery, and routinely moved his troops faster and with fewer supplies than was then thought possible, allowing for amazingly large and rapid concentrations of force against his slower and less adaptable enemies. His most used tactic wat to lead a surge into the center of his enemy, dividing them and then bring his remaining forces into a flanking formation and give the opposing army no option but to surrender or retreat.

As a civil leader he played a major role in the [[French Revolution]], then ended democracy and became First Consul in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804. He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. The Napoleonic Civil Code is considered the first successful codification that strongly influenced the law of many other countries.

Napoleon was constantly at war against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies, forced to abdicate in 1814 and sent into exile at Elba (an island near Rome). In 1815, after escaping from Elba, he took control of France again, raised a new army, and almost succeeded in defeating the isolated Prussian and British forces but was defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. He was exiled to St. Helena--a remote island in the South Atlantic, where he died.

Napoleon's image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

==Early History==
He was born ''Napoleone di Buonaparte'' in the town of Ajaccio, one year after the island of [[Corsica]] was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. He was the second son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer of the minor nobility; his mother was Marie-Letizia Bonaparte. The Buonopartes, proud members of the lower aristocracy, were destitute. Carlo Buonaparte had fought for Corsican independence under [[Pasquale Paoli]]; he now switched and became a supporter of the French regime, which recognized his noble rank. When the King offered free education to impoverished noble families, Napoleon and several siblings were educated at royal expense. In 1779, after a few months' schooling at Autun to improve his French--he always had a thick Corsican accent--Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne, which was run by a Catholic religious order. He remained there for five years. Taunted by his schoolmates as being provincial from the wildest, newest and most violent part of France, and uncouth, he professed an intense Corsican patriotism and hatred of the French "oppressors." In 1784 he was selected to attend the top-ranked Ecole Militaire in Paris to study the science and mathematics of artillery. Napoleon spent the year in luxury such as he had never known before, and graduated 42nd in a class of 130. Commissioned as second lieutenant of artillery, he was sent to Valence in southern France.

There was revolution in the air; Napoleon was an intellectual and an ardent disciple of Voltaire, Rousseau and the philosophes; he saluted the people but hated mob violence.<ref> Englund pp 29-33</ref> During his 10 years as a junior officer made five extended trips to Corsica, seeking a politico-military career, alongside Paoli or against him. He took prolonged leaves, adding up to three years in seven, sometimes failing to report back on time. In June 1793 Napoleon in Corsica was defeated by the Paolists; he and his family fled to France, joined the French revolutionary cause and forgot Corsica.<ref> Englund ch. 1-3</ref>

==Rise to Power==
[[Image:1799italy.jpg|thumb|375px|Italy and Corsica in 1799]]
Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under [[Robespierre]] to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.<ref> Englund pp. 63-73, 91-2, 97-8</ref>
===Italy===
In Italy, Napoleon's rapid maneuvers proved brilliantly successful and had major long-term effects. He defeated [[Austria]], France's most dangerous enemy. He established French hegemony in the Italian peninsula, put Vienna in an impossible strategic situation, and solidified his reputation as a military genius beloved by the men in the ranks; he became a major national hero, and thus a political force in his own right.
===Egypt===
The governing Directory was happy to send Napoleon to far-off Egypt. In July 1798, Napoleon led the Armée d’Orient an expeditionary force of 36,000 men to conquer Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, the opening move in his plan to acquire a new colony for France, block England's access to India, and export the values of French republicanism to a modernized Middle East. Aware that Europe was ignorant of cultural and religious Islam, Napoleon brought along a hundred scholars and linguists. The scholars opened the field of [[Orientalism|Oriental]] studies; the third-ranking French general converted to Islam as Abdallah Menou.
[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Rosetta Stone]]]]

He easily defeated the 60,000-man army of the Mamelukes (horsemen) at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (July 21, 1798).

Intending to transplant French liberty to Egypt, Napoleon encountered stiff resistance and reacted with the same barbarism and repression used by the Ottomans. <ref> Juan Cole, ''Napoleon's Egypt'' (2007); Irene A. Bierman, ed., ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (2003)</ref> The British under Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] sank Napoleon's entire fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]] (August 1, 1798), trapping the French army as the [[Turkish]] main army approached. Napoleon attacked first, invading Syria and defeating the Turks in a bloody massacre. As he laid siege to Acre, plague broke out among his troops, forcing Napoleon to retreat back to Egypt. At the [[Battle of Aboukir]] (July 25, 1799), his 6000 men defeated a Turkish force three times as strong. Napoleon then slipped through the blockade and returned to France. <ref> The British defeated the French army in Egypt in 1801 and allowed it to return to France. </ref> Although he won great victories in Egypt, disease and the heat decimated his ranks. He left most of his forces in Egypt under the command of Jean-Baptiste Kleber, who continued to fight in Egypt for another two years.

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he forced the Council of 500 into electing a consular government as the executive branch. Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: there was no longer an elected representative government.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

==Diplomacy==
The long string of wars was broken by the Treaty of Amiens (1802), which proved to be only a 14 month pause. <ref> Historians often use the Treaty of Amiens to separate what they call the "French Revolutionary wars" from the "Napoleonic wars." The new wars were much more nationalistic and less ideological. John D. Grainger, ''The Amiens Truce: Britain and Bonaparte, 1801-1803.'' (2004)</ref> Napoleon used the interlude to make major territorial gains in Italy and Germany without firing a shot, an unexpected development that forced the British back to the battlefield.
===Slavery===
Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever. Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. Issn: 1539-3402 Fulltext: in Project Muse </ref> Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref> Englund p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>

==Military action to 1812==
[[Image:David - Napoleon.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Napoleon Crossing The Alps by [[Jacques Louis David]]--Napoleon actually rode a sure-footed mule over the Alps]]
Napoleon's basic military strategy was to identify and defeat the enemy's main force. The goal was to break the enemy's will to resist so that favorable negotiations followed; the conquest of territory was won in negotiations. "I see only one thing," Napoleon explained in 1797, "namely the enemy's main body. I try to crush it, confident that secondary matters will then settle themselves."<ref> Maximilian Yorck von Wartenburg, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CWwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22confident+that+secondary+matters+will+then+settle+%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 ''Napoleon as a General'' (1902) p. 39]</ref>

Less flamboyant was his close attention to selecting his generals, and his calculations of the logistical needs of a campaign. He also pioneered the use of the [[division]] as a combined arms formation, although he did not standardize their organization. Napoleon also made much more routine use of maps and accurate watches, for synchronizing operations, than had previous military commanders.

His spectacular failure in [[Russia]] in 1812 was due primarily to his bad logistical planning, a blunder historians have been unable to explain. In battle he paid close attention to the overall picture, but left the critical decisions to his marshals. He rarely issued detailed guidance on corps level tactical employment; instead he devised the overall battle plans, and directed the combined attacks of infantry, cavalry reserves, and massed batteries of guns. Since he was simultaneously head of the government, he integrated the military, political and diplomatic dimensions. He was an accurate judge of his opponents, except that is for Britain and Russia. He could never be at peace with Britain; with Russia he let his need for diplomatic prestige overcome his military judgment.

===Austerlitz, 1805===
The [[Battle of Austerlitz]] on 2 December 1805 is celebrated as Napoleon's greatest victory. The collapse of the Peace of Amiens led Britain to assemble the "Third Coalition" in April 1805, including Austria, Russia, and Sweden. After threatening to invade Britain, Napoleon sent 200,000 soldiers marching east. He used six army corps, each a self-contained, all-arms combat force. The [[corps]] was a Napoleonic invention, and each was strong enough to operate independently, allowing the army to advance along a broad front, which facilitated [[logistics]] (each army seized supplies in its region), and increased the speed of the advance. Napoleon commanded in person in Germany; relying on the support of most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians who had invaded [[Bavaria]]. On the upper Danube he concentrated his 200,000 men, reinforced by Bernadotte, and by allied from Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians had been defeated in several engagements, their main army was surrounded at Ulm and surrendered 30,000 men on October 17, 1805 without a fight.

At the same time, "the French had captured most of Europe and intended to seize England, the final piece of the puzzle." [http://modelshipmaster.com/products/tall_ships/hms_Surprise.htm] (For a dramatic treatment of a great English-French naval encounter, see "[[Master and Commander]]".)

The British navy won a total victory under [[Horatio Nelson]] sinking the combined French and Spanish fleet at [[Trafalgar]] on October 21, 1805, permanently destroying Napoleon's sea power. On December 2, 1805, at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], called "the battle of the three emperors," Napoleon split the enemy center, encircled the enemy left, and won a smashing victory over the united forces of Austria and Russia. Napoleon lost 9000 men, the enemy 26,000. Austria made peace; the Russians retreated.
The Peace of Pressburg deprived Austria of territory and forced her to pay an indemnity. Napoleon then turned his attention to Prussia, who was going to attack France but didn't mobilize in time for the fighting. Napoleon declared war after the conclusion of the Peace of Pressburg and destroyed the Prussian army at the battle of Jena-Aurstadt. Napoleon, remembering that Russia hadn't sued for peace after Austerlitz decided to pursue the retreating Russian army through Poland. He enjoyed early sucess, pushing the Russians back and capturing Warsaw but was weakened at a bloody stalemate at Eylau. Napoleon, determined on a "spring recovery" pushed the Russians further into Poland, delivering a crippling blow at the Battle of Friedland. The Peace of Tilsit between Prussia, Russia and France did little to the Russians, instead depriving Prussia of huge amounts of land while Russia only had to give up part of Poland. Aside from that, Prussia had to pay an indemnity and had its army restricted to a certain size while Russia only had outlaw British goods from its ports. Napoleon and the Tsar became close friends after the Treaty.

===Artillery===
The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry.<ref> Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(3): 617-640. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(200107)65%3A3%3C617%3ATROADN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z in Jstor]. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. </ref>

===Russia to 1812===
===The Polish issue===
[[File:Alejandro Walewski.jpg|thumb|left|His son Alexander Walewski.]]
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. [[Poland]] had recently been divided up by its neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon's ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country. The 2.5 million Poles thrilled to the opportunity and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon's armies, including about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow. The Russians strongly opposed any move toward an independent Poland and to punish them Napoleon invaded in 1812. <ref> Riley (2000) p. 27-8. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland would not be a state until 1918.</ref> Napoleon's impact on Poland was dramatic, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.

== Moscow ==

===Collapse, 1813-1814===
The fiasco in Russia in 1812 wounded Napoleon's political prestige, emptied his treasury and encouraged his enemies to greater exertions and nations on the fence to turn against France. Diplomatic historians blame Napoleon's inflexibility and unwillingness to compromise when he was winning (before Russia), and, especially, when the odds had turned against him in 1813-14; in January 1813, Napoleon rejected Prussian terms; that summer he mishandled Austria; in early 1814 he fumbled the final offer of peace made at Chatillon in March 1814. That political failure doomed him. The Allies then signed a 20 year alliance (the Treaty of Chaumont), stuck together, and switched Bavaria away from Napoleon.<ref> Thompson ch 13-14</ref>

Military setbacks in Spain further weakened his cause and exposed France to an attack through Spain. While Napoleon could recruit replacement troops, the loss of experienced cavalry in 1812 meant that he could not exploit his victories at Luetzen and Bautzen in 1813.<ref> Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 77</ref> His army of raw and ill-equipped recruits was outnumbered and France was war-weary; on the other hand, the Allies were also exhausted, and had longer lines of communications and supply. Man for man, except for Wellington's British, the French probably remained better soldiers than their opponents to the very end.<ref> Schroeder (1996) p. 495-6</ref>

Napoleon mishandled the campaigns in north Germany in 1813. Instead of concentrating his forces for a decisive battle with the enemy's main force, Napoleon repeatedly detached large numbers of troops under ineffective commanders to capture the Prussian capital of Berlin. The heavy losses and strategic reverses sustained by the French in these questionable undertakings left Napoleon's Grande Armée vulnerable to the massive Allied coalition that met him at [[Leipzig]]. He won at [[Dresden]] but Napoleon's mistakes were uncharacteristic of him at a younger age; he now underestimated the strength of his enemies and overestimated his own, and he was driven less by calculation than by thirst for revenge against Prussia, a onetime ally who switched against him.<ref> Michael V. Leggiere, "From Berlin to Leipzig: Napoleon's Gamble in North Germany, 1813." ''Journal of Military History'' 2003 67(1): 39-84. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in [[Project Muse]] </ref>

Napoleon's decisive defeat came at the [[Leipzig, Battle of|Battle of Leipzig]], called "the battle of nations" in October 1813. Napoleon's 180,000 French and Saxon and Württemberg troops were overwhelmed by 320,000 Allies, comprising Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies. It was the biggest battle to date in European history, with 100,000 to 120,000 killed, wounded or captured on both sides.<ref>Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 80 </ref> Napoleon managed to escape to France with a portion of his army, but the disaster was almost as great as that in Russia in 1812 and even more irreparable; all the German states now joined the Allies, the Dutch expelled the French, and Denmark was forced to accept terms. In early January, 1814, 200,000 Allied troops invaded France. Napoleon scored some small victories but the Allies took Paris on March 31, his government declared him deposed, and his marshals deserted him. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile at Elba (an island north of Rome), as the old monarchy was brought back to France. The French army, now controlled by [[Louis XVIII]] numbered 460,000 men, but most were still loyal to Napoleon.

===100 Days to Waterloo, 1815===
In March 1815, Napoleon secretly landed in France and rallied his supporters. They flocked to his cause as the French royal officials lost control; Napoleon entered Paris in triumph and raised new armies.
[[Image:1815waterloo.jpg|thumb|375px]]

The Allies, meeting at a peace conference in [[Vienna]], sent a million soldiers to stop him. The largest contingents was a multinational force under the command of the Briton, the [[Duke of Wellington]]. Napoleon defeated the German army under Blücher at Ligny but had to turn and stop Wellington before he merged forces with Blücher. At a very hard and closely fought battle of [[Waterloo, Battle of|Waterloo]] on June 18, 1815, Blücher arrived at the last moment and Napoleon was finally and totally defeated. He surrendered to the British who sent him in exile to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic, where he died a prisoner in 1821. His relatives lost their royal positions; his imperial army, and particularly the legendary Imperial Guard, were disbanded, and Europe entered an era of peace.

==Impact on France==
Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the ancient régime and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>
===Law: Code Napoléon ===
Of permanent importance was the Code Napoléon (1806), created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its Gallic clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general. The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and ruled that inheritances should be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized, with all judges appointed by Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>
===Religion===
Religion had been a major issue during the [[French Revolution]], and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the [[Concordat of 1801]] (signed with Pope [[Pius VII]]), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants and atheists were tolerated.<ref> Sutherland (2003) ch 11</ref>
===Taxes===
The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible.
===Conscription===
Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerist sergeants and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by merit and achievement--every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

==Impact on Europe==
[[File:Napoleon, statue invalides.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Napoleon at l'Hotel des Invalides' Honor Courtyard, Paris.]]
Broers (1996) distinguishes the "inner" and "outer" empire. The "Inner" Empire included France itself and Belgium, the Netherlands, the Rhinelands, most of western Germany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. These areas were integrated into an efficiently administered and largely obedient bloc. Napoleon sought to rally hostile political factions of both right and left to his rule (ralliement), as well as to fuse them into a loyal administrative class. In return for their services and obedience, Napoleon offered this new elite social order a coherent legal code and protection of their property.

The "outer" empire, comprised the German Hanseatic territories, former Papal States, Illyrian provinces, and the kingdom of Spain (ruled by his brother Joseph Bonaparte). It displayed little enthusiasm for French occupation and resented the imposition of high taxes, enforcement of the Continental blockade against trade with England and [[America]], application of the Concordat with the Pope to protect the [[Catholic]] Church, and especially, conscription demands to supply troops for the Grande Armee, such as the 300,000 lost in Russia in 1812. In the Outer Empire banditry flourished, elites refused to cooperate with the occupier, and the forces of counterrevolution remained active. Napoleonic rule rested on an insecure alliance of local collaborators and French administrators, both of whom were unpopular with their subjects. Grab (1996) shows heart of the French occupation of Europe was a combination of reform and exploitation designed to extract men and money more efficiently from the subject states.<ref>Broers (1996) </ref>

Napoleon lifted all restriction on [[Jews]] in France and its empire. In Germany and Italy, especially, this marked a dramatic liberation from the ghetto.<ref> Frederic Cople Jaher, ''The Jews and the Nation: Revolution, Emancipation, State Formation, and the Liberal Paradigm in America and France'' (2002) pp 103-37.</ref>

After overcoming the forces of the coalition in 1807, Napoleon decided to create a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. He established the [[Grand Duchy of Warsaw]], which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. He gave some support to the Polish struggle with Russia, which wanted to keep [[Poland]] within its sphere of power. The addition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Czar Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated, and this was a factor that led to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.

==Personality==
[[File:Delaroche Bonaparte franchissant les Alpes 1848 WC PD.jpg|thumb|Paul Delaroche, Bonaparte franchissant les Alpes.]]
All historians agree that Napoleon's remarkable personality was one key to his influence.Although short and not physically imposing, in one-on-one situations he immediately had a hypnotic impact on people and seemingly bent the strongest leaders to his will. Second his intellectual powers were unrivaled. He had a photographic memory for facts, people, events, numbers, military units and maps. He devoured statistical information and reports, memorized maps, and had a perfect recall of a fantastic stock of information. He had a thorough command of military technology, as well as the financial and diplomatic secrets of France. He could instantly organize and integrate all that information, generating brilliant insights on complex situations. He could organize his own thoughts and rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to all his subordinates, keeping in mind where each major unit was expected to be at every future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays many moves ahead. Combined with his inexhaustible energy, he kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. Unlike many generals Napoleon did not turn to history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or whoever did in a similar situation. After 1812 Napoleon seems to have lost his old verve. On the great Russian campaign of 1812, with crisis after crisis at hand, he rarely rose to the occasion. After that debacle compatriots noticed a loss of the old flair. Some historians have suggested a physical deterioration, but others note that an impaired Napoleon was still a brilliant general. <ref> See Chandler, "General Introduction" to ''The Campaigns of Napoleon'' (1975). </ref>

In terms of impact on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. He chose outstanding generals, and stood by them. He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for great wars. Above all he inspired his men--Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers,<ref> Thompson, ''Napoleon Bonaparte'' (1951) p 285</ref> for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals. The force of his personality neutralized material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely win.<ref>Englund, ''Napoleon'' (2004) pp 379ff</ref>

Napoleon's ambition and drive inspired the term "[[Napoleonic Complex]]", which is used to describe a person who overcompensates for shortness or other physical deficiencies by excessive aggressiveness or will to dominate other people.

He married first [[Josephine Beauharnais]] (9 March 1796) and later Marie-Louise of Austria (11 March 1810). His only son, [[Napoleon II]] (1811 - 1832) the [[King of Rome]], died at the the age of 21.

=== Quote on Jesus ===

<blockquote>"[[Alexander]], [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Charlemagne]], and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. [[Jesus Christ]] founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him."<ref>http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/2505</ref></blockquote>

==Propaganda and memory ==
[[Image:David-Napoleon I.jpg|right|thumb|The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame by [[Jacques-Louis David|J. L. David]]]]
Napoleon's extensive and masterful use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling every aspect of the press, books, theater, and art, was only part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered an important, though uneasy, relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling all forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.<ref>Forrest (2004) </ref>
[[Image:Napoleon's Tomb.jpg|thumb|left|280px|The tomb of Napoleon at Les Invalides, in Paris.]]

The memory of Napoleon in Poland is highly favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.<ref> Andrzej Nieuwazny, "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55</ref>

Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory is best understood as playing a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815-30. People from all walks of life and all areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution. They spread rumors of Napoleon's return from St. Helena; many talked openly of Napoleon as the great inspiration for French patriotism and for individual and collective liberties. A pro-Napoleon political mobilization appeared in open displays of the tricolor and rosettes, as well as celebrations of anniversaries of Napoleon's triumphs. Royal celebrations were disrupted by raucous laughter and buffoonery as the many supporters of Napoleon worked, without any central coordination, to destabilize the Bourbon regime.<ref>See Hazareesingh (2004) </ref>

Datta (2005) shows that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on plays and novels from the period 1893-1913, Datta examines how writers and critics of the "Belle Epoque" exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends. Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon was not a world historical figure but an intimate one fashioned by each individual's needs and consumed as popular entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture.<ref>Venita Datta, "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071 Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

<blockquote>
''After being defeated by the British in 1815, the French Emperor was exiled to St. Helena--an island in the South Atlantic Ocean. Six years later, at the age of 52, Bonaparte whispered his last words, "Head of Army!"'' <ref>[http://www.livescience.com/history/070116_napoleon_bonaparte.html Mystery of Napoleon's Death Said Solved] </ref>
</blockquote>

<center>

[[File:Steuben Mort de Napoleon.jpg|thumb|420px|center|Death of Napoleon I at Santa Elena, May 5, 1821 by Charles de Steuben]]

</center>

==Basic further reading==
See the detailed Bibliography

* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best political biography [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0674018036/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197704843&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Harold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon'' (Penguin Lives) (2002) 208pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' (1963). 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986), Napoleon's ideas on warfare
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain

==Detailed bibliography==
===Major biographies===
* Asprey, Robert. ''The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte'' and ''The Reign of Napoleon Bonaparte''. (2002); 2 vol, 1200pp well-written popular biography focusing on the military [http://www.amazon.com/Rise-Napoleon-Bonaparte-Robert-Asprey/dp/0465048811/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736126&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Barnett, Corelli. ''Bonaparte'' (1978), hostile
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), to 1799
* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Cronin, Vincent. ''Napoleon'' (1971), favorable popular bio
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), 672 pp; vol 1 of major new biography, to 1799 [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Path-Power-Philip-Dwyer/dp/0300137540/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Ellis, Geoffry. ''Napoleon'' (1997)
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best (and most advanced) political biography; thin on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0684871424/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736235&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Fournier, August. ''Napoleon the First: A Biography'' (1903); 836 pages; excellent old biography [http://books.google.com/books?vid=02iZ1BDnhyMh95-cSu&id=jI0aAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon: A Penguin Life.'' (2002). 208 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lefebvre, Georges: ''Napoleon,'' 1969, influential French perspective
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' 1963. 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Schom, Alan. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life'' (1997), 944pp; very hostile; argues Napoleon was a paranoiac psychopath [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Bonaparte-Life-Alan-Schom/dp/0060929588/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736422&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain
* Tulard, Jean. ''Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour'' (1985), influential French biography
* Woloch, Isser. '' Napoleon and His Collaborators: the making of a dictatorship'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-His-Collaborators-Making-Dictatorship/dp/0393323412/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736488&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===General reference===
* Chandler, David. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1993)
* Esposito, Vincent J. and John R. Elting, ''A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1999); textbook; includes the West Point maps
* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective; stress on history of ideas
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Nafziger, George F. ''Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era.'' 2002. 353 pp.
* Nicholls, David. ''Napoleon: A Biographical Companion.'' 1999. 300 pp.
* Pope, Stephen. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars.'' (2000). 572 pp.
* Smith, Digby. ''The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book'' (1998); 582pp; data on 2000+ individual battles, clashes, sieges, raids, capitulations, and naval engagements

===Military studies===
* Adkin, Mark. ''The Waterloo Companion: The Complete Guide to History's Most Famous Land Battle'' (2002) 448pp [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Companion-Complete-Historys-Famous/dp/0811718549/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735456&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Arnold, James R. ''Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809 Campaign for Vienna.'' (1995). 247 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Conquers-Austria-Campaign-Vienna/dp/0275946940/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735487&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Bell, David A. ''The First Total War: Napoleon's Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/First-Total-War-Napoleons-Warfare/dp/0618919813/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244784677&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Chandler, David. ''The Campaigns of Napoleon: the Mind and Method of History's Greatest Soldier'' (1973), 1216 pp; experts call it the best military synthesis
* Cole, Juan. ''Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Egypt-Invading-Middle-East/dp/1403964319/ref=sr_1_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189485491&sr=1-5 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
* Connelly, Owen. ''Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns'' (2nd ed 2006) negative on Napoleon's skills
* Coote, Stephen. ''Napoleon and the Hundred Days.'' (2005). 320 pp.
* Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. ''Napoleon; A History of the Art of War'' (1904), old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0N7HWOuEzfsHb6vtWh&id=Y6kfAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Austerlitz, 1805'' (1999)
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Borodino and the War of 1812'' (1999).
* Elting, John R. ''Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armee'' (1997), influential study
* Epstein, Robert M. ''Napoleon's Last Victory and the Emergence of Modern War'' (1994) on Austrian war of 1809
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803-1815 '' (2008), 656pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Wars-International-History-1803-1815/dp/0670020303/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244784677&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''The French Wars 1792-1815.'' (2001). 96pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102715226 online edition]
* Fisher, Todd. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2001-4) 3 vol; 96pp, short, well-illustrated operational history [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Essential-Histories-Specials/dp/1841768316/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 1]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-1805-1807-Essential-Histories/dp/1579583571/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search vol 2]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Empires-Strike-1808-1812/dp/1579583660/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 3]
* Forrest, Alan. ''Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire.'' 2002. 248 pp.
* Fortescue, J. W. ''A history of the British army'' (19v 1899-1930) [http://www.archive.org/details/historybritishp202fortuoft full text vol 4 pt2: 1789-1801][http://www.archive.org/download/britisharmy06fortuoft/britisharmy06fortuoft online edition vol 6: 1807-1809]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish07fortuoft/historyofbritish07fortuoft full text vol 7: 1809-1810]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish08fortuoft/historyofbritish08fortuoft full text vol 8: 1810-1812]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish09fortuoft full text vol 9: 1813-1814]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish10fortuoft full text vol 10: 1814-1815]
* Gates, David. ''The Napoleonic Wars, 1803-1815'' (1997) 304pp; attacks Connolly and says N's "brilliance as a military commander has rarely been equalled let alone surpassed"
* Gill, John. ''With Eagles to Glory: Napoleon and his German Allies in the 1809 Campaign'' (1992)
* Goetz, Robert. ''1805: Austerlitz; Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition'' (2005). 368pp
* Griffith, Paddy. ''The Art of War of Revolutionary France 1789-1802,'' (1998); 304 pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735789&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hamilton-Williams, David. ''Waterloo: New Perspectives; The Great Battle Reappraised.'' (1994). 416 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Perspectives-Great-Battle-Reappraised/dp/0471145718/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735763&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (1962) [http://ia331331.us.archive.org/2/items/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp_djvu.txt online edition]
* Kagan, Frederick W. "Russia's Wars with Napoleon: 1805–1815," in ''The Military History of Tsarist Russia,'' ed. Frederick W. Kagan and Robin Higham (2002), 106–22.
* Kagan, Frederick W. ''The End of the Old Order: Napoleon And Europe, 1801-1805'' (2006) first of four promised volumes; covers the strengths and strategies of all the powers [http://www.amazon.com/End-Old-Order-Napoleon-1801-1805/dp/0306815451/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735729&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Leggiere, Michael V. ''Napoleon and Berlin: The Franco-Prussian War in North Germany, 1813.'' 2002. 384 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Berlin-Franco-Prussian-Campaigns-Commanders/dp/0806133996/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735699&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Liaropoulos, Andrew N. "Revolutions in Warfare: Theoretical Paradigms and Historical Evidence - the Napoleonic and First World War Revolutions in Military Affairs." ''Journal of Military History'' 2006 70(2): 363-384. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Lieven, Dominic. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812–14)" ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 7#2 (2006) 283-308 online in [[Project Muse]]
* Luvaas, Jay. '' Napoleon on the Art of War'' (2001) 288 pp. A synthesis, arrangement, and translation of Napoleon's thinking. [http://books.google.com/books?id=zq8GhdLeK_kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:luvaas&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=AlNZSLjJErW2iQG1rOH5Bg&sig=knBV3L0vr0dptGr0fOa32pMlZ6k excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–94'' (1984); influential analysis [http://www.amazon.com/Bayonets-Republic-History-Warfare/dp/0813329450/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735664&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Muir, Rory. ''Tactics and the Experience of Battle in the Age of Napoleon'' (2000), 466pp [http://www.amazon.com/Tactics-Experience-Battle-Age-Napoleon/dp/0300082703/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735639&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Nofi, Albert A. ''The Waterloo Campaign, June 1815.'' 1993. 333pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100857568 online edition]
* Nosworthy, Brent. ''With Musket, Cannon and Sword: Battle Tactics of Napoleon and His Enemies.'' (1996). 528 pp.
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986)
* Pericoli, Ugo.''1815: The Armies at Waterloo'' (1973)
* Riley, J. P. "How Good Was Napoleon?" ''History Today,'' (July 2007) 57#7 10pp in [[EBSCO]]
* Riley, J. P. ''Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting.'' (2000). 480 pp
* Riley, Jonathon. ''Napoleon As a General: Command from the Battlefield to Grand Strategy'' (2007)
* Rogers, H.C.B. ''Napoleon's Army'' (1974)
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2006) 240pp, well illustrated synthesis by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Smithsonian-History-Warfare/dp/006085121X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735584&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon'' 1978
* Schneid, Frederick C. ''Napoleon's Italian Campaigns: 1805-1815.'' (2002); 229pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101329281 online edition]
* Tarle, Eugene. ''Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812. 1942.'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6522304 online edition]

===Impact on France===
* Bergeron, Louis. ''France under Napoleon'' (1981), French viewpoint
* Forrest, Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 426-445. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in OUP journals
* Furet, François. ''The French Revolution, 1770-1814'' (1996), pp 211-65 on Napoleon
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective
* Goubert, Pierre. ''The Course of French History.'' 1991; French textbook; ch. 14 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103458094 online edition]
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Paxton, John. ''Companion to the French Revolution'' (1987), hundreds of short entries.
* Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799'' (1984), short essays by scholars
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order'' (2nd ed 2003), comprehensive survey
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2003, 430pp [http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolution-Empire-Quest-Civic/dp/0631233636/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189597597&sr=1-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]

===Diplomacy and impact on Europe===
* Blanning, T.C.W. ''The French Revolutionary Wars 1787-1802'' (1996).
* Broers, Michael. ''Europe under Napoleon 1799-1815'' (1996) 291pp, covers everything except the battles
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814'' 1938. excellent survey of all of Europe
* Dwyer, Philip G. ed.''Napoleon and Europe,'' (2001), essays by scholars on each major power
* Ellis, Geoffrey. ''The Napoleonic Empire'' (1991)
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hill, Peter P. ''Napoleon's Troublesome Americans: Franco-American Relations, 1804-1815'' (2005)
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Muir, Rory. ''Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807-1815.'' (1996). 466 pp.
* Parker, Harold T. "Why Did Napoleon Invade Russia? A Study in Motivation and the Interrelations of Personality and Social Structure," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 131–46. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(199004)54%3A2%3C131%3AWDNIRA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]
* Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 18, No. 4, (Spring, 1988), pp. 771-793 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1953%28198821%2918%3A4%3C771%3ATOCAEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Rude, George F. and Harvey J. Kaye.''Revolutionary Europe, 1783-1815' (2000), scholarly survey
* Schroeder, Paul W. "Napoleon's Foreign Policy: A Criminal Enterprise," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 147–62. Highly negative
* Schroeder, Paul. ''The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848.'' 1996; Elaborate detail; advanced history; very hostile to Napoleon; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28171953 online edition]
* Woolf, Stuart. ''Napoleon's Integration of Europe'' (1991) 320pp [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103462796 online edition]
* ''Cambridge Modern History'' (1907) vol 9: Napoleon [http://books.google.com/books?id=gMgFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=Cambridge+Modern+History+napoleon+waterloo online edition], older articles by scholars, 900pp

==Historiography and Memory==
* Black, Jeremy. "Why the French Failed: New Work on the Military History of French Imperialism 1792-1815." ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(1): 105-115. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: in Sage journals
* Datta, Venita. "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071
* Dunne, John. "Napoleon: For or against ... and Beyond." ''History Review.'' Issue: 27. 1997. pp 17+. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000519459 online edition]
* Dwyer, Philip G. "Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour: Image, Rhetoric and Behaviour in the Construction of a Legend," ''French History'' 2004 18(4): 379-403,
* Forrest, Robert F. "Rumor into Myth: the Image of Napoleon among the Romanians, 1800-1848," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1992 21: 98-105
* Geyl, Pieter. ''Napoleon: For and Against'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59600303 online edition], debates among scholars
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. ''The Legend of Napoleon'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Legend-Napoleon-Sudhir-Hazareesingh/dp/1862077894/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255822534&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Memory and Political Imagination: the Legend of Napoleon Revisited." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 463-483. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in Oxford up
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Bonapartist Memory and Republican Nation-building: Revisiting the Civic Festivities of the Second Empire," ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 2003 11(3): 349-364
* Heit, Siegfried. "German Romanticism: an Ideological Response to Napoleon," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1980 1: 187-197. Argues that German opposition to Napoleon led German Romanticism to reject the chief ideals represented by the French Revolution and Napoleon. Uses the works of Arndt, Fichte, Jahn, Kleist, and Schleiermacher, to show how German Romanticism became identified with political reaction and nationalism, and how it opposed political liberalism, rationalism, neoclassicism, and cosmopolitanism.
* Horward, Donald D. "Napoleon and Beethoven," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1980 2: 3-13,
* Markham, J. David. "Napoleon and the Romantic Poets," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers'' 1998: 651-663,
* Newman, Edgar Leon. "Defanging the Revolution: How the Memory of the French Revolution Was Changed in French Working-class Poetry and Song, 1830-52," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers'' 1995: 591-605,
* Nieuwazny, Andrzej. "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55
* O'Brien, David. ''After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Painting and Propaganda under Napoleon'' (2006) 288p.
*{{cite book|last=Prendergast|first=Christopher|title=Napoleon and History Painting: Antoine-Jean Gros's La Bataille d'Eylau|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|location=Oxford|date=1997|isbn=0-19-817422-5}}
* Pinkney, David. ed., ''Napoleon: Historical Enigma'' (1969)
* Schönpflug, Daniel. "So Far, and Yet So Near: Comparison, Transfer and Memory in Recent German Books on the Age of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''French History'' 2004 18(4): 446-462
* Stock, Paul. "Imposing on Napoleon: the Romantic Appropriation of Bonaparte," ''Journal of European Studies'' 2006 36(4): 363-388, deals with English Romantic writers
* Wilson-Smith, Timothy. ''Napoleon and His Artists'' (1996)

===Primary Sources===
* Dwyer, Philip G. and Peter Mcphee, eds. ''The French Revolution and Napoleon: A Sourcebook.'' (2002) 213pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108790059 online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#G. Richard Jensen, ed. ''Web Sources for Military History'' annotated links]
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap7a.html War, terror and Resistance]
* [http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=europeanhistory&cdn=education&tm=10&gps=150_217_766_469&f=10&tt=14&bt=1&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.napoleonbonaparte.nl/ Napoleon Bonaparte: Internet Guide]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bonaparte, Napoleon}}
[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Military History]]
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:French Revolution]]
[[Category:Conquerors]]

Napoleon Bonaparte

2012-01-18T15:29:02Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

[[Image:Y8r587ig.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Napoleon I by [[Jacques Louis David]]]]
'''Napoleon''' ('''Napoleon Bonaparte''' or, after 1804, '''Napoleon I, Emperor of the French''') (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a world historic figure and dictator of [[History of France|France]] as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, and Emperor of the French, 1804 to 1814. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies. He revolutionized the military applications of artillery, and routinely moved his troops faster and with fewer supplies than was then thought possible, allowing for amazingly large and rapid concentrations of force against his slower and less adaptable enemies. His most used tactic wat to lead a surge into the center of his enemy, dividing them and then bring his remaining forces into a flanking formation and give the opposing army the no option but to surrender or retreat.

As a civil leader he played a major role in the [[French Revolution]], then ended democracy and became First Consul in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804. He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. The Napoleonic Civil Code is considered the first successful codification that strongly influenced the law of many other countries.

Napoleon was constantly at war against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies, forced to abdicate in 1814 and sent into exile at Elba (an island near Rome). In 1815, after escaping from Elba, he took control of France again, raised a new army, and almost succeeded in defeating the isolated Prussian and British forces but was defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. He was exiled to St. Helena--a remote island in the South Atlantic, where he died.

Napoleon's image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

==Early History==
He was born ''Napoleone di Buonaparte'' in the town of Ajaccio, one year after the island of [[Corsica]] was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa. He was the second son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer of the minor nobility; his mother was Marie-Letizia Bonaparte. The Buonopartes, proud members of the lower aristocracy, were destitute. Carlo Buonaparte had fought for Corsican independence under [[Pasquale Paoli]]; he now switched and became a supporter of the French regime, which recognized his noble rank. When the King offered free education to impoverished noble families, Napoleon and several siblings were educated at royal expense. In 1779, after a few months' schooling at Autun to improve his French--he always had a thick Corsican accent--Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne, which was run by a Catholic religious order. He remained there for five years. Taunted by his schoolmates as being provincial from the wildest, newest and most violent part of France, and uncouth, he professed an intense Corsican patriotism and hatred of the French "oppressors." In 1784 he was selected to attend the top-ranked Ecole Militaire in Paris to study the science and mathematics of artillery. Napoleon spent the year in luxury such as he had never known before, and graduated 42nd in a class of 130. Commissioned as second lieutenant of artillery, he was sent to Valence in southern France.

There was revolution in the air; Napoleon was an intellectual and an ardent disciple of Voltaire, Rousseau and the philosophes; he saluted the people but hated mob violence.<ref> Englund pp 29-33</ref> During his 10 years as a junior officer made five extended trips to Corsica, seeking a politico-military career, alongside Paoli or against him. He took prolonged leaves, adding up to three years in seven, sometimes failing to report back on time. In June 1793 Napoleon in Corsica was defeated by the Paolists; he and his family fled to France, joined the French revolutionary cause and forgot Corsica.<ref> Englund ch. 1-3</ref>

==Rise to Power==
[[Image:1799italy.jpg|thumb|375px|Italy and Corsica in 1799]]
Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under [[Robespierre]] to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.<ref> Englund pp. 63-73, 91-2, 97-8</ref>
===Italy===
In Italy, Napoleon's rapid maneuvers proved brilliantly successful and had major long-term effects. He defeated [[Austria]], France's most dangerous enemy. He established French hegemony in the Italian peninsula, put Vienna in an impossible strategic situation, and solidified his reputation as a military genius beloved by the men in the ranks; he became a major national hero, and thus a political force in his own right.
===Egypt===
The governing Directory was happy to send Napoleon to far-off Egypt. In July 1798, Napoleon led the Armée d’Orient an expeditionary force of 36,000 men to conquer Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, the opening move in his plan to acquire a new colony for France, block England's access to India, and export the values of French republicanism to a modernized Middle East. Aware that Europe was ignorant of cultural and religious Islam, Napoleon brought along a hundred scholars and linguists. The scholars opened the field of [[Orientalism|Oriental]] studies; the third-ranking French general converted to Islam as Abdallah Menou.
[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Rosetta Stone]]]]

He easily defeated the 60,000-man army of the Mamelukes (horsemen) at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (July 21, 1798).

Intending to transplant French liberty to Egypt, Napoleon encountered stiff resistance and reacted with the same barbarism and repression used by the Ottomans. <ref> Juan Cole, ''Napoleon's Egypt'' (2007); Irene A. Bierman, ed., ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (2003)</ref> The British under Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] sank Napoleon's entire fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]] (August 1, 1798), trapping the French army as the [[Turkish]] main army approached. Napoleon attacked first, invading Syria and defeating the Turks in a bloody massacre. As he laid siege to Acre, plague broke out among his troops, forcing Napoleon to retreat back to Egypt. At the [[Battle of Aboukir]] (July 25, 1799), his 6000 men defeated a Turkish force three times as strong. Napoleon then slipped through the blockade and returned to France. <ref> The British defeated the French army in Egypt in 1801 and allowed it to return to France. </ref> Although he won great victories in Egypt, disease and the heat decimated his ranks. He left most of his forces in Egypt under the command of Jean-Baptiste Kleber, who continued to fight in Egypt for another two years.

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he forced the Council of 500 into electing a consular government as the executive branch. Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: there was no longer an elected representative government.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

==Diplomacy==
The long string of wars was broken by the Treaty of Amiens (1802), which proved to be only a 14 month pause. <ref> Historians often use the Treaty of Amiens to separate what they call the "French Revolutionary wars" from the "Napoleonic wars." The new wars were much more nationalistic and less ideological. John D. Grainger, ''The Amiens Truce: Britain and Bonaparte, 1801-1803.'' (2004)</ref> Napoleon used the interlude to make major territorial gains in Italy and Germany without firing a shot, an unexpected development that forced the British back to the battlefield.
===Slavery===
Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever. Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. Issn: 1539-3402 Fulltext: in Project Muse </ref> Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref> Englund p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>

==Military action to 1812==
[[Image:David - Napoleon.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Napoleon Crossing The Alps by [[Jacques Louis David]]--Napoleon actually rode a sure-footed mule over the Alps]]
Napoleon's basic military strategy was to identify and defeat the enemy's main force. The goal was to break the enemy's will to resist so that favorable negotiations followed; the conquest of territory was won in negotiations. "I see only one thing," Napoleon explained in 1797, "namely the enemy's main body. I try to crush it, confident that secondary matters will then settle themselves."<ref> Maximilian Yorck von Wartenburg, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CWwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22confident+that+secondary+matters+will+then+settle+%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 ''Napoleon as a General'' (1902) p. 39]</ref>

Less flamboyant was his close attention to selecting his generals, and his calculations of the logistical needs of a campaign. He also pioneered the use of the [[division]] as a combined arms formation, although he did not standardize their organization. Napoleon also made much more routine use of maps and accurate watches, for synchronizing operations, than had previous military commanders.

His spectacular failure in [[Russia]] in 1812 was due primarily to his bad logistical planning, a blunder historians have been unable to explain. In battle he paid close attention to the overall picture, but left the critical decisions to his marshals. He rarely issued detailed guidance on corps level tactical employment; instead he devised the overall battle plans, and directed the combined attacks of infantry, cavalry reserves, and massed batteries of guns. Since he was simultaneously head of the government, he integrated the military, political and diplomatic dimensions. He was an accurate judge of his opponents, except that is for Britain and Russia. He could never be at peace with Britain; with Russia he let his need for diplomatic prestige overcome his military judgment.

===Austerlitz, 1805===
The [[Battle of Austerlitz]] on 2 December 1805 is celebrated as Napoleon's greatest victory. The collapse of the Peace of Amiens led Britain to assemble the "Third Coalition" in April 1805, including Austria, Russia, and Sweden. After threatening to invade Britain, Napoleon sent 200,000 soldiers marching east. He used six army corps, each a self-contained, all-arms combat force. The [[corps]] was a Napoleonic invention, and each was strong enough to operate independently, allowing the army to advance along a broad front, which facilitated [[logistics]] (each army seized supplies in its region), and increased the speed of the advance. Napoleon commanded in person in Germany; relying on the support of most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians who had invaded [[Bavaria]]. On the upper Danube he concentrated his 200,000 men, reinforced by Bernadotte, and by allied from Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau. After the Austrians had been defeated in several engagements, their main army was surrounded at Ulm and surrendered 30,000 men on October 17, 1805 without a fight.

At the same time, "the French had captured most of Europe and intended to seize England, the final piece of the puzzle." [http://modelshipmaster.com/products/tall_ships/hms_Surprise.htm] (For a dramatic treatment of a great English-French naval encounter, see "[[Master and Commander]]".)

The British navy won a total victory under [[Horatio Nelson]] sinking the combined French and Spanish fleet at [[Trafalgar]] on October 21, 1805, permanently destroying Napoleon's sea power. On December 2, 1805, at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]], called "the battle of the three emperors," Napoleon split the enemy center, encircled the enemy left, and won a smashing victory over the united forces of Austria and Russia. Napoleon lost 9000 men, the enemy 26,000. Austria made peace; the Russians retreated.
The Peace of Pressburg deprived Austria of territory and forced her to pay an indemnity. Napoleon then turned his attention to Prussia, who was going to attack France but didn't mobilize in time for the fighting. Napoleon declared war after the conclusion of the Peace of Pressburg and destroyed the Prussian army at the battle of Jena-Aurstadt. Napoleon, remembering that Russia hadn't sued for peace after Austerlitz decided to pursue the retreating Russian army through Poland. He enjoyed early sucess, pushing the Russians back and capturing Warsaw but was weakened at a bloody stalemate at Eylau. Napoleon, determined on a "spring recovery" pushed the Russians further into Poland, delivering a crippling blow at the Battle of Friedland. The Peace of Tilsit between Prussia, Russia and France did little to the Russians, instead depriving Prussia of huge amounts of land while Russia only had to give up part of Poland. Aside from that, Prussia had to pay an indemnity and had its army restricted to a certain size while Russia only had outlaw British goods from its ports. Napoleon and the Tsar became close friends after the Treaty.

===Artillery===
The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry.<ref> Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(3): 617-640. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(200107)65%3A3%3C617%3ATROADN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z in Jstor]. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. </ref>

===Russia to 1812===
===The Polish issue===
[[File:Alejandro Walewski.jpg|thumb|left|His son Alexander Walewski.]]
In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. [[Poland]] had recently been divided up by its neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia; its Grand Duke was Napoleon's ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon appointed the intendants who ran the country. The 2.5 million Poles thrilled to the opportunity and by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon's armies, including about 90,000 who marched with him to Moscow. The Russians strongly opposed any move toward an independent Poland and to punish them Napoleon invaded in 1812. <ref> Riley (2000) p. 27-8. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815 and Poland would not be a state until 1918.</ref> Napoleon's impact on Poland was dramatic, including the Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.

== Moscow ==

===Collapse, 1813-1814===
The fiasco in Russia in 1812 wounded Napoleon's political prestige, emptied his treasury and encouraged his enemies to greater exertions and nations on the fence to turn against France. Diplomatic historians blame Napoleon's inflexibility and unwillingness to compromise when he was winning (before Russia), and, especially, when the odds had turned against him in 1813-14; in January 1813, Napoleon rejected Prussian terms; that summer he mishandled Austria; in early 1814 he fumbled the final offer of peace made at Chatillon in March 1814. That political failure doomed him. The Allies then signed a 20 year alliance (the Treaty of Chaumont), stuck together, and switched Bavaria away from Napoleon.<ref> Thompson ch 13-14</ref>

Military setbacks in Spain further weakened his cause and exposed France to an attack through Spain. While Napoleon could recruit replacement troops, the loss of experienced cavalry in 1812 meant that he could not exploit his victories at Luetzen and Bautzen in 1813.<ref> Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 77</ref> His army of raw and ill-equipped recruits was outnumbered and France was war-weary; on the other hand, the Allies were also exhausted, and had longer lines of communications and supply. Man for man, except for Wellington's British, the French probably remained better soldiers than their opponents to the very end.<ref> Schroeder (1996) p. 495-6</ref>

Napoleon mishandled the campaigns in north Germany in 1813. Instead of concentrating his forces for a decisive battle with the enemy's main force, Napoleon repeatedly detached large numbers of troops under ineffective commanders to capture the Prussian capital of Berlin. The heavy losses and strategic reverses sustained by the French in these questionable undertakings left Napoleon's Grande Armée vulnerable to the massive Allied coalition that met him at [[Leipzig]]. He won at [[Dresden]] but Napoleon's mistakes were uncharacteristic of him at a younger age; he now underestimated the strength of his enemies and overestimated his own, and he was driven less by calculation than by thirst for revenge against Prussia, a onetime ally who switched against him.<ref> Michael V. Leggiere, "From Berlin to Leipzig: Napoleon's Gamble in North Germany, 1813." ''Journal of Military History'' 2003 67(1): 39-84. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in [[Project Muse]] </ref>

Napoleon's decisive defeat came at the [[Leipzig, Battle of|Battle of Leipzig]], called "the battle of nations" in October 1813. Napoleon's 180,000 French and Saxon and Württemberg troops were overwhelmed by 320,000 Allies, comprising Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies. It was the biggest battle to date in European history, with 100,000 to 120,000 killed, wounded or captured on both sides.<ref>Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 80 </ref> Napoleon managed to escape to France with a portion of his army, but the disaster was almost as great as that in Russia in 1812 and even more irreparable; all the German states now joined the Allies, the Dutch expelled the French, and Denmark was forced to accept terms. In early January, 1814, 200,000 Allied troops invaded France. Napoleon scored some small victories but the Allies took Paris on March 31, his government declared him deposed, and his marshals deserted him. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile at Elba (an island north of Rome), as the old monarchy was brought back to France. The French army, now controlled by [[Louis XVIII]] numbered 460,000 men, but most were still loyal to Napoleon.

===100 Days to Waterloo, 1815===
In March 1815, Napoleon secretly landed in France and rallied his supporters. They flocked to his cause as the French royal officials lost control; Napoleon entered Paris in triumph and raised new armies.
[[Image:1815waterloo.jpg|thumb|375px]]

The Allies, meeting at a peace conference in [[Vienna]], sent a million soldiers to stop him. The largest contingents was a multinational force under the command of the Briton, the [[Duke of Wellington]]. Napoleon defeated the German army under Blücher at Ligny but had to turn and stop Wellington before he merged forces with Blücher. At a very hard and closely fought battle of [[Waterloo, Battle of|Waterloo]] on June 18, 1815, Blücher arrived at the last moment and Napoleon was finally and totally defeated. He surrendered to the British who sent him in exile to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic, where he died a prisoner in 1821. His relatives lost their royal positions; his imperial army, and particularly the legendary Imperial Guard, were disbanded, and Europe entered an era of peace.

==Impact on France==
Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by all-powerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal intendants of the ancient régime and had a long-term impact in unifying the nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>
===Law: Code Napoléon ===
Of permanent importance was the Code Napoléon (1806), created by eminent jurists under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its Gallic clarity, it spread rapidly throughout Europe and the world in general. The Code recognized the principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son inherited) and ruled that inheritances should be divided equally among all the children. The court system was standardized, with all judges appointed by Paris.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>
===Religion===
Religion had been a major issue during the [[French Revolution]], and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the [[Concordat of 1801]] (signed with Pope [[Pius VII]]), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants and atheists were tolerated.<ref> Sutherland (2003) ch 11</ref>
===Taxes===
The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiled aristocrats. Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow of revenues and made long-term financing possible.
===Conscription===
Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even as it was based on a core of careerist sergeants and talented officers. Before the Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by merit and achievement--every private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.<ref> Goubert (1991) ch 14</ref>

==Impact on Europe==
[[File:Napoleon, statue invalides.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Napoleon at l'Hotel des Invalides' Honor Courtyard, Paris.]]
Broers (1996) distinguishes the "inner" and "outer" empire. The "Inner" Empire included France itself and Belgium, the Netherlands, the Rhinelands, most of western Germany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. These areas were integrated into an efficiently administered and largely obedient bloc. Napoleon sought to rally hostile political factions of both right and left to his rule (ralliement), as well as to fuse them into a loyal administrative class. In return for their services and obedience, Napoleon offered this new elite social order a coherent legal code and protection of their property.

The "outer" empire, comprised the German Hanseatic territories, former Papal States, Illyrian provinces, and the kingdom of Spain (ruled by his brother Joseph Bonaparte). It displayed little enthusiasm for French occupation and resented the imposition of high taxes, enforcement of the Continental blockade against trade with England and [[America]], application of the Concordat with the Pope to protect the [[Catholic]] Church, and especially, conscription demands to supply troops for the Grande Armee, such as the 300,000 lost in Russia in 1812. In the Outer Empire banditry flourished, elites refused to cooperate with the occupier, and the forces of counterrevolution remained active. Napoleonic rule rested on an insecure alliance of local collaborators and French administrators, both of whom were unpopular with their subjects. Grab (1996) shows heart of the French occupation of Europe was a combination of reform and exploitation designed to extract men and money more efficiently from the subject states.<ref>Broers (1996) </ref>

Napoleon lifted all restriction on [[Jews]] in France and its empire. In Germany and Italy, especially, this marked a dramatic liberation from the ghetto.<ref> Frederic Cople Jaher, ''The Jews and the Nation: Revolution, Emancipation, State Formation, and the Liberal Paradigm in America and France'' (2002) pp 103-37.</ref>

After overcoming the forces of the coalition in 1807, Napoleon decided to create a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. He established the [[Grand Duchy of Warsaw]], which depended on France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted of lands seized in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. He gave some support to the Polish struggle with Russia, which wanted to keep [[Poland]] within its sphere of power. The addition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Czar Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated, and this was a factor that led to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.

==Personality==
[[File:Delaroche Bonaparte franchissant les Alpes 1848 WC PD.jpg|thumb|Paul Delaroche, Bonaparte franchissant les Alpes.]]
All historians agree that Napoleon's remarkable personality was one key to his influence.Although short and not physically imposing, in one-on-one situations he immediately had a hypnotic impact on people and seemingly bent the strongest leaders to his will. Second his intellectual powers were unrivaled. He had a photographic memory for facts, people, events, numbers, military units and maps. He devoured statistical information and reports, memorized maps, and had a perfect recall of a fantastic stock of information. He had a thorough command of military technology, as well as the financial and diplomatic secrets of France. He could instantly organize and integrate all that information, generating brilliant insights on complex situations. He could organize his own thoughts and rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to all his subordinates, keeping in mind where each major unit was expected to be at every future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays many moves ahead. Combined with his inexhaustible energy, he kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. Unlike many generals Napoleon did not turn to history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or whoever did in a similar situation. After 1812 Napoleon seems to have lost his old verve. On the great Russian campaign of 1812, with crisis after crisis at hand, he rarely rose to the occasion. After that debacle compatriots noticed a loss of the old flair. Some historians have suggested a physical deterioration, but others note that an impaired Napoleon was still a brilliant general. <ref> See Chandler, "General Introduction" to ''The Campaigns of Napoleon'' (1975). </ref>

In terms of impact on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. He chose outstanding generals, and stood by them. He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for great wars. Above all he inspired his men--Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers,<ref> Thompson, ''Napoleon Bonaparte'' (1951) p 285</ref> for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals. The force of his personality neutralized material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely win.<ref>Englund, ''Napoleon'' (2004) pp 379ff</ref>

Napoleon's ambition and drive inspired the term "[[Napoleonic Complex]]", which is used to describe a person who overcompensates for shortness or other physical deficiencies by excessive aggressiveness or will to dominate other people.

He married first [[Josephine Beauharnais]] (9 March 1796) and later Marie-Louise of Austria (11 March 1810). His only son, [[Napoleon II]] (1811 - 1832) the [[King of Rome]], died at the the age of 21.

=== Quote on Jesus ===

<blockquote>"[[Alexander]], [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Charlemagne]], and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. [[Jesus Christ]] founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him."<ref>http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/2505</ref></blockquote>

==Propaganda and memory ==
[[Image:David-Napoleon I.jpg|right|thumb|The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame by [[Jacques-Louis David|J. L. David]]]]
Napoleon's extensive and masterful use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling every aspect of the press, books, theater, and art, was only part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing desperately wanted peace and stability to France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and the atmosphere of Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his role as a general in the army and identification as a soldier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fostered an important, though uneasy, relationship with the contemporary art community, taking an active role in commissioning and controlling all forms of art production to suit his propaganda goals.<ref>Forrest (2004) </ref>
[[Image:Napoleon's Tomb.jpg|thumb|left|280px|The tomb of Napoleon at Les Invalides, in Paris.]]

The memory of Napoleon in Poland is highly favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.<ref> Andrzej Nieuwazny, "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55</ref>

Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon's image and memory is best understood as playing a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815-30. People from all walks of life and all areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 revolution. They spread rumors of Napoleon's return from St. Helena; many talked openly of Napoleon as the great inspiration for French patriotism and for individual and collective liberties. A pro-Napoleon political mobilization appeared in open displays of the tricolor and rosettes, as well as celebrations of anniversaries of Napoleon's triumphs. Royal celebrations were disrupted by raucous laughter and buffoonery as the many supporters of Napoleon worked, without any central coordination, to destabilize the Bourbon regime.<ref>See Hazareesingh (2004) </ref>

Datta (2005) shows that following the collapse of militaristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Concentrating on plays and novels from the period 1893-1913, Datta examines how writers and critics of the "Belle Epoque" exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends. Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon was not a world historical figure but an intimate one fashioned by each individual's needs and consumed as popular entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the processes of democratization that accompanied this new era of mass politics and culture.<ref>Venita Datta, "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071 Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

<blockquote>
''After being defeated by the British in 1815, the French Emperor was exiled to St. Helena--an island in the South Atlantic Ocean. Six years later, at the age of 52, Bonaparte whispered his last words, "Head of Army!"'' <ref>[http://www.livescience.com/history/070116_napoleon_bonaparte.html Mystery of Napoleon's Death Said Solved] </ref>
</blockquote>

<center>

[[File:Steuben Mort de Napoleon.jpg|thumb|420px|center|Death of Napoleon I at Santa Elena, May 5, 1821 by Charles de Steuben]]

</center>

==Basic further reading==
See the detailed Bibliography

* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best political biography [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0674018036/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197704843&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Harold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon'' (Penguin Lives) (2002) 208pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' (1963). 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986), Napoleon's ideas on warfare
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain

==Detailed bibliography==
===Major biographies===
* Asprey, Robert. ''The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte'' and ''The Reign of Napoleon Bonaparte''. (2002); 2 vol, 1200pp well-written popular biography focusing on the military [http://www.amazon.com/Rise-Napoleon-Bonaparte-Robert-Asprey/dp/0465048811/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736126&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Barnett, Corelli. ''Bonaparte'' (1978), hostile
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), to 1799
* Emsley, Clive. ''Napoleon'' 2003 142 pp, very succinct coverage of life, France and empire; little on warfare
* Cronin, Vincent. ''Napoleon'' (1971), favorable popular bio
* Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008), 672 pp; vol 1 of major new biography, to 1799 [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Path-Power-Philip-Dwyer/dp/0300137540/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210582016&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Ellis, Geoffry. ''Napoleon'' (1997)
* Englund, Steven. ''Napoleon: A Political Life.'' (2004). 575 pages; the best (and most advanced) political biography; thin on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Political-Life-Steven-Englund/dp/0684871424/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736235&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Fournier, August. ''Napoleon the First: A Biography'' (1903); 836 pages; excellent old biography [http://books.google.com/books?vid=02iZ1BDnhyMh95-cSu&id=jI0aAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy
* Johnson, Paul. ''Napoleon: A Penguin Life.'' (2002). 208 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Penguin-Lives-Paul-Johnson/dp/0670030783/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lefebvre, Georges: ''Napoleon,'' 1969, influential French perspective
* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' 1963. 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]
* McLynn, Frank. ''Napoleon: A Biography'' (2003) 752pp, stress on military [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Frank-McLynn/dp/1559706317/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736352&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rose, John Holland. ''The Life of Napoleon I: Including New Materials from the British Official Records,'' (2 vol 1903), old but solid scholarship; [http://books.google.com/books?id=7qIfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 1] [http://books.google.com/books?id=DIYfAAAAMAAJ&dq=napoleon+John+Holland+Rose&as_brr=1 online editon vol 2]
* Schom, Alan. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: A Life'' (1997), 944pp; very hostile; argues Napoleon was a paranoiac psychopath [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Bonaparte-Life-Alan-Schom/dp/0060929588/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736422&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain
* Tulard, Jean. ''Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour'' (1985), influential French biography
* Woloch, Isser. '' Napoleon and His Collaborators: the making of a dictatorship'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-His-Collaborators-Making-Dictatorship/dp/0393323412/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190736488&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===General reference===
* Chandler, David. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1993)
* Esposito, Vincent J. and John R. Elting, ''A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars'' (1999); textbook; includes the West Point maps
* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective; stress on history of ideas
* Greiss, Thomas E. ''West Point Atlas for the Wars of Napoleon'' (1986) 70pp; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/napoleon/napoleon%20war%20index.htm all maps are online]
* Nafziger, George F. ''Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era.'' 2002. 353 pp.
* Nicholls, David. ''Napoleon: A Biographical Companion.'' 1999. 300 pp.
* Pope, Stephen. ''Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars.'' (2000). 572 pp.
* Smith, Digby. ''The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book'' (1998); 582pp; data on 2000+ individual battles, clashes, sieges, raids, capitulations, and naval engagements

===Military studies===
* Adkin, Mark. ''The Waterloo Companion: The Complete Guide to History's Most Famous Land Battle'' (2002) 448pp [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Companion-Complete-Historys-Famous/dp/0811718549/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735456&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Arnold, James R. ''Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809 Campaign for Vienna.'' (1995). 247 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Conquers-Austria-Campaign-Vienna/dp/0275946940/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735487&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
*Bell, David A. ''The First Total War: Napoleon's Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/First-Total-War-Napoleons-Warfare/dp/0618919813/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244784677&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Chandler, David. ''The Campaigns of Napoleon: the Mind and Method of History's Greatest Soldier'' (1973), 1216 pp; experts call it the best military synthesis
* Cole, Juan. ''Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Egypt-Invading-Middle-East/dp/1403964319/ref=sr_1_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189485491&sr=1-5 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
* Connelly, Owen. ''Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns'' (2nd ed 2006) negative on Napoleon's skills
* Coote, Stephen. ''Napoleon and the Hundred Days.'' (2005). 320 pp.
* Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. ''Napoleon; A History of the Art of War'' (1904), old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0N7HWOuEzfsHb6vtWh&id=Y6kfAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition]
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Austerlitz, 1805'' (1999)
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Borodino and the War of 1812'' (1999).
* Elting, John R. ''Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armee'' (1997), influential study
* Epstein, Robert M. ''Napoleon's Last Victory and the Emergence of Modern War'' (1994) on Austrian war of 1809
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803-1815 '' (2008), 656pp [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleons-Wars-International-History-1803-1815/dp/0670020303/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244784677&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Esdaile, Charles J. ''The French Wars 1792-1815.'' (2001). 96pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102715226 online edition]
* Fisher, Todd. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2001-4) 3 vol; 96pp, short, well-illustrated operational history [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Essential-Histories-Specials/dp/1841768316/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 1]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-1805-1807-Essential-Histories/dp/1579583571/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search vol 2]; [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Empires-Strike-1808-1812/dp/1579583660/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735873&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 3]
* Forrest, Alan. ''Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire.'' 2002. 248 pp.
* Fortescue, J. W. ''A history of the British army'' (19v 1899-1930) [http://www.archive.org/details/historybritishp202fortuoft full text vol 4 pt2: 1789-1801][http://www.archive.org/download/britisharmy06fortuoft/britisharmy06fortuoft online edition vol 6: 1807-1809]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish07fortuoft/historyofbritish07fortuoft full text vol 7: 1809-1810]; [http://www.archive.org/download/historyofbritish08fortuoft/historyofbritish08fortuoft full text vol 8: 1810-1812]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish09fortuoft full text vol 9: 1813-1814]; [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofbritish10fortuoft full text vol 10: 1814-1815]
* Gates, David. ''The Napoleonic Wars, 1803-1815'' (1997) 304pp; attacks Connolly and says N's "brilliance as a military commander has rarely been equalled let alone surpassed"
* Gill, John. ''With Eagles to Glory: Napoleon and his German Allies in the 1809 Campaign'' (1992)
* Goetz, Robert. ''1805: Austerlitz; Napoleon and the Destruction of the Third Coalition'' (2005). 368pp
* Griffith, Paddy. ''The Art of War of Revolutionary France 1789-1802,'' (1998); 304 pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Art-War-Revolutionary-France-1789-1802/dp/1853673358/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735789&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hamilton-Williams, David. ''Waterloo: New Perspectives; The Great Battle Reappraised.'' (1994). 416 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Waterloo-Perspectives-Great-Battle-Reappraised/dp/0471145718/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735763&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Herold, J. Christopher. ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (1962) [http://ia331331.us.archive.org/2/items/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp/bonaparteinegypt001528mbp_djvu.txt online edition]
* Kagan, Frederick W. "Russia's Wars with Napoleon: 1805–1815," in ''The Military History of Tsarist Russia,'' ed. Frederick W. Kagan and Robin Higham (2002), 106–22.
* Kagan, Frederick W. ''The End of the Old Order: Napoleon And Europe, 1801-1805'' (2006) first of four promised volumes; covers the strengths and strategies of all the powers [http://www.amazon.com/End-Old-Order-Napoleon-1801-1805/dp/0306815451/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735729&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Leggiere, Michael V. ''Napoleon and Berlin: The Franco-Prussian War in North Germany, 1813.'' 2002. 384 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Berlin-Franco-Prussian-Campaigns-Commanders/dp/0806133996/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735699&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Liaropoulos, Andrew N. "Revolutions in Warfare: Theoretical Paradigms and Historical Evidence - the Napoleonic and First World War Revolutions in Military Affairs." ''Journal of Military History'' 2006 70(2): 363-384. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Lieven, Dominic. "Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon (1812–14)" ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' 7#2 (2006) 283-308 online in [[Project Muse]]
* Luvaas, Jay. '' Napoleon on the Art of War'' (2001) 288 pp. A synthesis, arrangement, and translation of Napoleon's thinking. [http://books.google.com/books?id=zq8GhdLeK_kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:luvaas&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=AlNZSLjJErW2iQG1rOH5Bg&sig=knBV3L0vr0dptGr0fOa32pMlZ6k excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–94'' (1984); influential analysis [http://www.amazon.com/Bayonets-Republic-History-Warfare/dp/0813329450/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735664&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Muir, Rory. ''Tactics and the Experience of Battle in the Age of Napoleon'' (2000), 466pp [http://www.amazon.com/Tactics-Experience-Battle-Age-Napoleon/dp/0300082703/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735639&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Nofi, Albert A. ''The Waterloo Campaign, June 1815.'' 1993. 333pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100857568 online edition]
* Nosworthy, Brent. ''With Musket, Cannon and Sword: Battle Tactics of Napoleon and His Enemies.'' (1996). 528 pp.
* Paret, Peter. "Napoleon and the Revolution of War," in Paret, ed. ''Makers of Modern Strategy'' (1986)
* Pericoli, Ugo.''1815: The Armies at Waterloo'' (1973)
* Riley, J. P. "How Good Was Napoleon?" ''History Today,'' (July 2007) 57#7 10pp in [[EBSCO]]
* Riley, J. P. ''Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting.'' (2000). 480 pp
* Riley, Jonathon. ''Napoleon As a General: Command from the Battlefield to Grand Strategy'' (2007)
* Rogers, H.C.B. ''Napoleon's Army'' (1974)
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Napoleonic Wars'' (2006) 240pp, well illustrated synthesis by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleonic-Wars-Smithsonian-History-Warfare/dp/006085121X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190735584&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rothenberg, Gunther. ''The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon'' 1978
* Schneid, Frederick C. ''Napoleon's Italian Campaigns: 1805-1815.'' (2002); 229pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101329281 online edition]
* Tarle, Eugene. ''Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812. 1942.'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6522304 online edition]

===Impact on France===
* Bergeron, Louis. ''France under Napoleon'' (1981), French viewpoint
* Forrest, Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimation of Power in Napoleonic France." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 426-445. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in OUP journals
* Furet, François. ''The French Revolution, 1770-1814'' (1996), pp 211-65 on Napoleon
* Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective
* Goubert, Pierre. ''The Course of French History.'' 1991; French textbook; ch. 14 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103458094 online edition]
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Paxton, John. ''Companion to the French Revolution'' (1987), hundreds of short entries.
* Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799'' (1984), short essays by scholars
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order'' (2nd ed 2003), comprehensive survey
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2003, 430pp [http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolution-Empire-Quest-Civic/dp/0631233636/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189597597&sr=1-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]

===Diplomacy and impact on Europe===
* Blanning, T.C.W. ''The French Revolutionary Wars 1787-1802'' (1996).
* Broers, Michael. ''Europe under Napoleon 1799-1815'' (1996) 291pp, covers everything except the battles
* Bruun, Geoffrey. ''Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814'' 1938. excellent survey of all of Europe
* Dwyer, Philip G. ed.''Napoleon and Europe,'' (2001), essays by scholars on each major power
* Ellis, Geoffrey. ''The Napoleonic Empire'' (1991)
* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Transformation-European-History-Perspective/dp/0333682742/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210581950&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hill, Peter P. ''Napoleon's Troublesome Americans: Franco-American Relations, 1804-1815'' (2005)
* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon and the Legacy of the Revolution'' (1994)
* Muir, Rory. ''Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807-1815.'' (1996). 466 pp.
* Parker, Harold T. "Why Did Napoleon Invade Russia? A Study in Motivation and the Interrelations of Personality and Social Structure," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 131–46. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(199004)54%3A2%3C131%3AWDNIRA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]
* Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History,'' Vol. 18, No. 4, (Spring, 1988), pp. 771-793 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-1953%28198821%2918%3A4%3C771%3ATOCAEO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]
* Rude, George F. and Harvey J. Kaye.''Revolutionary Europe, 1783-1815' (2000), scholarly survey
* Schroeder, Paul W. "Napoleon's Foreign Policy: A Criminal Enterprise," ''Journal of Military History'' 54 (April 1990): 147–62. Highly negative
* Schroeder, Paul. ''The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848.'' 1996; Elaborate detail; advanced history; very hostile to Napoleon; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=28171953 online edition]
* Woolf, Stuart. ''Napoleon's Integration of Europe'' (1991) 320pp [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103462796 online edition]
* ''Cambridge Modern History'' (1907) vol 9: Napoleon [http://books.google.com/books?id=gMgFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=Cambridge+Modern+History+napoleon+waterloo online edition], older articles by scholars, 900pp

==Historiography and Memory==
* Black, Jeremy. "Why the French Failed: New Work on the Military History of French Imperialism 1792-1815." ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(1): 105-115. Issn: 0265-6914 Fulltext: in Sage journals
* Datta, Venita. "'L'appel Au Soldat': Visions of the Napoleonic Legend in Popular Culture of the Belle Epoque." ''French Historical Studies'' 2005 28(1): 1-30. Issn: 0016-1071
* Dunne, John. "Napoleon: For or against ... and Beyond." ''History Review.'' Issue: 27. 1997. pp 17+. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000519459 online edition]
* Dwyer, Philip G. "Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour: Image, Rhetoric and Behaviour in the Construction of a Legend," ''French History'' 2004 18(4): 379-403,
* Forrest, Robert F. "Rumor into Myth: the Image of Napoleon among the Romanians, 1800-1848," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1992 21: 98-105
* Geyl, Pieter. ''Napoleon: For and Against'' (1949) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59600303 online edition], debates among scholars
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. ''The Legend of Napoleon'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Legend-Napoleon-Sudhir-Hazareesingh/dp/1862077894/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255822534&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Memory and Political Imagination: the Legend of Napoleon Revisited." ''French History,'' 2004 18(4): 463-483. Issn: 0269-1191 Fulltext: in Oxford up
* Hazareesingh, Sudhir. "Bonapartist Memory and Republican Nation-building: Revisiting the Civic Festivities of the Second Empire," ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 2003 11(3): 349-364
* Heit, Siegfried. "German Romanticism: an Ideological Response to Napoleon," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1980 1: 187-197. Argues that German opposition to Napoleon led German Romanticism to reject the chief ideals represented by the French Revolution and Napoleon. Uses the works of Arndt, Fichte, Jahn, Kleist, and Schleiermacher, to show how German Romanticism became identified with political reaction and nationalism, and how it opposed political liberalism, rationalism, neoclassicism, and cosmopolitanism.
* Horward, Donald D. "Napoleon and Beethoven," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Proceedings'' 1980 2: 3-13,
* Markham, J. David. "Napoleon and the Romantic Poets," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers'' 1998: 651-663,
* Newman, Edgar Leon. "Defanging the Revolution: How the Memory of the French Revolution Was Changed in French Working-class Poetry and Song, 1830-52," ''Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750-1850: Selected Papers'' 1995: 591-605,
* Nieuwazny, Andrzej. "Napoleon and Polish identity." ''History Today'', May 1998 v48 n5 pp. 50-55
* O'Brien, David. ''After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Painting and Propaganda under Napoleon'' (2006) 288p.
*{{cite book|last=Prendergast|first=Christopher|title=Napoleon and History Painting: Antoine-Jean Gros's La Bataille d'Eylau|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|location=Oxford|date=1997|isbn=0-19-817422-5}}
* Pinkney, David. ed., ''Napoleon: Historical Enigma'' (1969)
* Schönpflug, Daniel. "So Far, and Yet So Near: Comparison, Transfer and Memory in Recent German Books on the Age of the French Revolution and Napoleon," ''French History'' 2004 18(4): 446-462
* Stock, Paul. "Imposing on Napoleon: the Romantic Appropriation of Bonaparte," ''Journal of European Studies'' 2006 36(4): 363-388, deals with English Romantic writers
* Wilson-Smith, Timothy. ''Napoleon and His Artists'' (1996)

===Primary Sources===
* Dwyer, Philip G. and Peter Mcphee, eds. ''The French Revolution and Napoleon: A Sourcebook.'' (2002) 213pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108790059 online edition]

==Online resources==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#G. Richard Jensen, ed. ''Web Sources for Military History'' annotated links]
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap7a.html War, terror and Resistance]
* [http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=europeanhistory&cdn=education&tm=10&gps=150_217_766_469&f=10&tt=14&bt=1&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.napoleonbonaparte.nl/ Napoleon Bonaparte: Internet Guide]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bonaparte, Napoleon}}
[[Category:Military Commanders]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:French History]]
[[Category:Military History]]
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:French Revolution]]
[[Category:Conquerors]]

Benjamin Franklin

2012-01-10T23:29:21Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

{{Founding Fathers
|image=Benjamin.jpg
|State:=Pennsylvania
|Religion:=Christian- Episcopalian (Deist) <ref>http://www.adherents.com/gov/Founding_Fathers_Religion.html</ref>
|Founding Documents:=[[Declaration of Independence]], <br>[[United States Constitution]]
}}

'''Benjamin Franklin''' (January 17, 1706, [[Boston]] - April 17, 1790 [[Philadelphia]]), was an American [[polymath]], printer, inventor, statesman, and one of the most prominent scientists in the world of the [[Enlightenment]], famed for his discoveries in electricity.

He was known as "the First American" because his efforts were critical to the formation of a new nation, the success of the [[American Revolution]] and the unification of the 13 colonies into the United States of America. Serving as the American minister to France, he secured decisive military and financial support for the Revolution, while asserting the values of democracy and [[republicanism]]. He assisted [[Thomas Jefferson]] in writing the [[Declaration of Independence]] in 1776 and helped legitimize the [[U.S. Constitution]] in 1787. His effective diplomacy, creative nationalism, promotion of civic virtue and devotion to [[republicanism]] earned him the top tier as a [[Founding Father]].

==Early Life==
Franklin was born on January 17, 1706 in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]] into a Puritan family. His father was Josiah Franklin, a soap and candle maker, who was married twice and had 17 children. Benjamin briefly attended the very good South Grammar School (affiliated with the Boston Latin School), then at age 10 was pulled out by his father. He was apprenticed at age 12 to his brother James Franklin (1697-1735), one of the first American printers. James published ''[[New England Courant]]'' and it became Ben's first public forum for his essays, written under the pseudonym "Silence Dogood." Ben, pretending to be a widow, wrote 14 essays in 1722. The essays drew the anger of the local authorities, who prohibited James from publishing it, citing that it mocked religion. Ben, now aged 17, was under legal obligation to his brother but broke with him, and ran away to Philadelphia on his own. Franklin thus was an unhappy and rebelliousness teenager, who had to escape Boston to transform himself into an industrious young tradesman.<ref> Ben in 1733 visited his many relatives in Boston and reconciled with his brother, and when James died at the age of 38, Ben helped his widow and took charge of James' oldest son.</ref>

==Philadelphia Printer ==
Franklin found work at a print shop in Philadelphia and soon was patronized by governor William Keith, who persuaded Franklin that he needed to go into business for himself and offered him letters of credit in London to purchase equipment. When he arrived in London in December 1724, he learned that Keith's letters of credit were useless. Ben stayed in London, working in the local print shops. In 1726, he returned to Philadelphia and again worked in print shops. In 1728, Franklin partnered with Hugh Meredith to opened their own print shop. Franklin soon bought out Meredith and in 1730 began publishing ''The Pennsylvania Gazette'' newspaper, which he bought from his former employer, Samuel Keimer. Besides the newspaper and almanac, he was a job printer and churned out pamphlets, religious tracts, playbills, tickets, advertisements, legal forms, soap wrappers, election notices, currency, carrier addresses, government documents, book labels, and other ephemeral items. In his leisure moments he taught himself to read French, Spanish, Italian, and Latin.

===Almanack===
In late 1732, he began writing and publishing ''Poor Richard's Almanack'', under the guise of "Poor Richard Saunders" and his wife, Bridget, both fictional characters. The almanack provided useful information on the seasons while enlightening the reader with witty short sayings. Franklin had a knack for rewording and improving old proverbs in a wittier manner. The almanac appeared annually from 1732 to 1758, selling over 250,000 copies.

''Poor Richard's Almanack'' shaped provincial society by trumpeting the virtuous common man and by pushing such men into active roles in the public sphere. ''Poor Richard'' outsold competing almanacs published by Atkins, Leeds, Taylor, Jerman, Birkett, and Godfrey by appealing to and providing information for the masses. In the process, Franklin spread the Whig ideology that became American [[republicanism]] to his readers. He praised them for having a better intuitive political knowledge and devotion to republican virtue than those in higher social positions. While trying to open the public sphere to men of ability (like himself), Franklin closed it to women, the poor, and non-English nationalities and races. By discussing Pennsylvania politics and other issues, ''Poor Richard's Almanack'' sought to transform its readers into diligent citizens who would help develop a politically active private sphere within colonial America.<ref> William Pencak, "Politics and Ideololgy in Poor Richard's Almanack". ''Pennsylvania Magazine Ideologyof History and Biography'' 1992 116(2): 183-211</ref>
==National communications network==
One long-term project was creating a network of printers, especially using his own apprentices who would move to other cities to establish themselves. The network of allied printer-publishers extended from New England to the West Indies and lasted from 1729 to the 1790s. It composed his relatives and business associates. It financed printers, played a vital role in developing American journalism, and influenced American morals and ethics by widely disseminating Franklin's ideology of virtue.

Upon finding apprentices whose diligence, skill, and character impressed him, Franklin would make them partners, often setting them up in printing businesses of their own. Subsequently, he would use them to expand his business associations, and as deputy postmaster-general for North America he would set up his associates as postmasters in their local areas. Postmasters were the first to receive news and could communicate it quickly to Franklin through their free use of the postal system. By building and using his communications network Franklin was able to both keep abreast of important developments in the colonies and build a network of supporters and admirers who influenced public opinion in their own cities. As the revolutionary era began, Franklin opposed colonial independence from Britain. Network infighting ensued, pitting Loyalist printers Thomas Wharton and Joseph Galloway against pro-independence publisher William Goddard, who created a private system to deliver his papers that became a model for the US Postal Service. The Continental Congress later appointed Franklin postmaster general, and he, not Goddard, received credit for America's postal system. In 1768, reacting to the Stamp and Townshend acts, Franklin became an activist in the Patriot cause. Many network printers, such as David Hall and James Holt, followed suit, as the colonists polarized between Patriots and Loyalists. As revolt approached, network newspapers became influential foes of Britain. War, turmoil, and Franklin's diplomatic absence while in France caused the network eventually to dissolve, and be replaced by networks of party newspapers.<ref> Ralph Frasca, "'The Glorious Publick Virtue so Predominant in Our Rising Country': Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network During the Revolutionary Era." ''American Journalism'' 1996 13(1): 21-37. 0882-1127; Frasca, ''Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America'' (2006) [http://www.questia.com/read/111742668?title=Benjamin%20Franklin's%20Printing%20Network%3a%20Disseminating%20Virtue%20in%20Early%20America online edition]</ref>

==Marriage==
In September 1730, Franklin entered a common law marriage with Deborah Read. No legal ceremony was possible because Deborah was still legally married; her husband had deserted to avoid paying a debt. Around this time, Franklin fathered an illegitimate son by an unknown woman; [[William Franklin]] was raised in his new household. In 1732, his first son with Deborah, Francis died of smallpox at the age of 4, leading Franklin to become an advocate of vaccinations. Sarah Franklin, who went by Sally, was born 11 years later in 1743.

==Civic leader==
Franklin became Philadelphia's leading citizen, founding and leading many civic organizations. He was the founder of the American tradition of boosterism, as well as a systematic thinker who analyzed urban problems in the context of rapid population growth. Franklin's understanding of and solution for the urban problems of a growing Philadelphia shaped his later ideas about city-country relationships and his pessimism regarding the future of the United States. Beginning in the 1730s, Franklin actively and publicly addressed such issues as the link between the environment and disease, fire prevention, pollution from tanneries, and restoring the water system in the center of the city (called the Dock) through various engineering projects. Franklin helped improve fire safety and waste handling by mid-century, but manufacturing interests could not be controlled. Franklin believed America would eventually exhaust its vast supply of open, unpopulated land and become increasingly urbanized and demographically imbalanced, thereby making Philadelphia's problems the nation's.<ref> A. Michal McMahon, "'Small Matters': Benjamin Franklin, Philadelphia, and the 'Progress of Cities.'" ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 1992 116(2): 157-182. 0031-4587 </ref>

After 1727 Franklin typically operated through "the Junto", an informal club comprising friends, civil leaders and fellow tradesmen. He established America's first subscription library, the Library Company of Philadelphia, in 1731. In 1736, he organized the first volunteer fire department, the Union Fire Company. In 1743, he expanded the idea of the Junto to all of the colonies by organizing the [[American Philosophical Society]]. He helped fund the first hospital and planned a professional police force.
===Moral reform===
During the 1730s Franklin made a determined effort to use the emerging power of his press to clean up both private character and public space by writing against the excesses of drink, alehouses, fairs, gambling, and other idle pursuits. Franklin's focus on the body and its potential excess is reflective of a transformation in body image and self-image that was part of a broader range of religious, economic, and political transformations that emerged in the 18th century. All were part of a challenge to the traditional authority of church and state; the growth of commerce, the market, and the print public sphere; and the proliferation of a political ideology that presaged the Declaration of Independence. In his ''Autobiography'' (1771) Franklin utilized the body and its "inclinations" to drive his narrative. In contrast to [[Thomas Jefferson]], who appealed to abstract human rights, and [[John Adams]], who invoked historical precedent and English canon law, Franklin portrayed the Revolution as an ongoing struggle between inclination and reason.<ref> Betsy Erkkila, "Franklin and the Revolutionary Body." ''ELH'' (English Literary History) 2000 67(3): 717-741. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/30031934 in JSTOR]</ref>

Franklin did not derive his ideas on ethics and virtue from Puritan thought. The orthodox Puritans stressed the concept of a "double calling," one which distinguishes between an outward calling and an inward one. For the Puritan, the inward calling - through which man is justified by God's grace - took precedence over the outward calling - man's commitment to the world. [[Cotton Mather]]'s "Bonifacius," which Franklin cites as an influence in the development of his own philosophy, maintains this distinction. Franklin's commitment is to the outward calling. He rejects the central doctrines of Puritanism: Providence, Election, and Original Sin. Franklin actually retained few Puritan ideals.<ref>Campbell Tatham, "Benjamin Franklin, Cotton Mather and the Outward State." ''Early American Literature'' 1972 6(3): 223-233. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/25070534 in JSTOR]</ref>

Franklin's moral theories stemmed from a commonly held concept among 18th-century [[Enlightenment]] philosophers: that the development of habit can be used for achieving behavioral change. Franklin's approach to the gaining of moral progress was neopagan rather than Christian in its orientation. It stressed the gradual modification of the person's observable actions instead of an emphasis on internal spiritual change. In essence, Franklin's attitude toward habit and moral improvement was almost identical to that later espoused by [[John Stuart Mill]] and the utilitarian and associationist schools of philosophy.<ref>Norman S. Fiering, "Benjamin Franklin and the Way to Virtue". ''American Quarterly'' 1978 30(2): 199-223. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2712323 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Library===
Franklin was the main organizer of the Library Company of Philadelphia, founded in 1731 by middle class "artificers," (craftsmen, like printers, and owners of small businesses). They sought to improve their condition and status through self-education. The library reflected Franklin's belief that reading could change expectations and positions in society. The books at the library were extremely important in Franklin's intellectual development, and his experience there strengthened his beliefs about education. Through the library, members pursued many interests and became involved in natural science through Peter Collinson of London, who acted as its book agent. Nonmembers of both sexes also used the library.<ref>George Boudreau, "'Highly Valuable And Extensively Useful': Community and Readership among the Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia Middling Sort." ''Pennsylvania History'' 1996 63(3): 302-329.</ref>

===Education===
Franklin's 1749 "Proposals for the Education of Youth in Pensilvania," in which he proposes the formation of an academy and discusses its basically secular curriculum. Religion is to be taught under the rubric of history:
:"History ''will also afford frequent Opportunities of showing the Necessity of a ''Publick Religion,'' from its Usefulness to the Publick; the advantage of a Religious Character among private Persons; the Mischiefs of Superstition, &c. and the Excellency of the CHRISTIAN RELIGION above all others, ancient and modern."''

Not a college man, Franklin proposed educational changes that broke decisively with many traditional educational practices of his day. His proposals reflect his own view of the Enlightenment and its perception of the human mind. He helped establish of the "College of Philadelphia" (now the [[University of Pennsylvania. Unlike Harvard and Yale it was nonsectarian and did not primarily train clergy. Instead it educated students for careers in the professions and business and for public service. It established America's first modern liberal arts curriculum."<ref> George W. Boudreau, "'Done by a Tradesman': Franklin's Educational Proposals and the Culture Of Eighteenth-Century Pennsylvania." ''Pennsylvania History'' 2002 69(4): 524-557. 0031-4528; see [http://www.upenn.edu/about/heritage.php online]</ref>
===Militia===
Franklin helped create the Pennsylvania Militia, independent of the colonial government. The repeated [[French and Indian Wars]] were a threat to the frontier, as the French based in Canada organized and armed Indians who raided the frontier settlements. The government was controlled by the Penn family and the [[Quakers]], who refused to organize any military defense. In November 1747, Franklin wrote ''Plain Truth'' advocating the creation of a defense force, since the government would not do so. The pamphlet was enthusiastically received and Franklin organized the "Association" in 1747 to defend against attacks on settlements along the Delaware River. It was the first volunteer militia in Pennsylvania. By the end of 1747 ten volunteer regiments, composed of 124 volunteer companies (designed to have 50-100 men each), had been raised. But the militia was organized only after long debate, much of which involved biblical comparisons and religious justifications from both supporters (including Franklin) and opponents of military preparedness. The debate foreshadowed the ultimate demise of Quaker rule in Pennsylvania, since the Quaker legislators realized their refusal to defend the colony meant they had to resign office.<ref> Barbara A. Gannon, "The Lord is a Man of War, The God of Love and Peace: The Association Debate, Philadelphia 1747-1748." ''Pennsylvania History 1998'' 65(1): 46-61. </ref>

===Opposes multiculturalism===
Franklin had a vision of an ethnically homogeneous America, and so he had negative views on the large and expanding German community in Pennsylvania (usually called the "Pennsylvania Dutch.") Franklin's first contacts with the Pennsylvania Germans concerned business. In 1731 he printed two books in German for German Baptists; he also printed into pamphlet form a letter from Conrad Weiser, an Indian negotiator, to Christopher Sauer, a German-language publisher. However, in from the late 1740s into the 1750s, Franklin believed that the Germans could not be assimilated into Englishmen and thus would always be aliens. He disliked the failure of the Germans to assimilate--they had their own language, religion and customs, and showed no interest in becoming like Englishmen or in joining the militia. In "Observations on the Increase of Mankind" (1751), Franklin expressed his opposition toward German immigrants, whom he ridiculed:
:"why should the Palatine Boors be suffered to swarm into our Settlements and, by herding together, establish their Language and Manners, to the Exclusion of ours? Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a Colony of Aliens, who will shortly be so numerous as to Germanize us instead of our Angli-fying them .. .?"

Despite Franklin's fears, German settlers helped secure the colony's borders against France's Indian supporters during the French and Indian War. Franklin's 1751 remarks came back to haunt him during the 1764 election to determine whether Pennsylvania would remain a proprietary colony or become a royal one (as Franklin advocated) when Franklin's opponents used his comments about the German colonists to defeat his position. Franklin kept silent about the Germans. He was pleased that the Reformed and Lutheran Germans supported the French and Indian War (1757-63) and, even more important, the American Revolution (1775-1783), even as the numerous German pacifist sects like the Dunkers, Amish and Mennonites remained neutral. Franklin and the Germans finally were reconciled in 1787 when Franklin College (now Franklin and Marshall College), was established to promote an better knowledge of the German and English languages, and was named in his honor by the Germans.<ref> John B. Frantz, "Franklin and the Pennsylvania Germans" ''Pennsylvania History'' 1998 65(1): 21-34. 0031-4528; Glenn Weaver, "Benjamin Franklin and the Pennsylvania Germans," ''William and Mary Quarterly'' Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct., 1957), pp. 536-559 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918520 in JSTOR]</ref>

In response to British conquest of French-speaking Quebec in 1759, he wrote "The Canada Pamphlet." It stands as one of the most complex and sophisticated pieces of pre-Revolutionary American thought. In it, Franklin entertained ideas of a homogeneous American population in manners, language, and religion as a reaction against ethnic and political warfare within Europe. Drawing on the ideas of [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[David Hume]], and [[Baruch Spinoza]], Franklin believed that political and ethnic relations were exclusively dominated by power, leaving no room for multiculturalism in America, preferring instead the implementation of the British Crown model to foster internal peace in the colonies. Having a reputation as anti-German hurt Franklin politically, and he dropped the nativism after 1765.<ref> Alberto Lena, "Benjamin Franklin's 'Canada Pamphlet' or 'The Ravings of a Mad Prophet': Nationalism, Ethnicity and Imperialism." ''European Journal of American Culture'' 2001 20(1): 36-49. 1466-0407 </ref>
===Demography===
In 1751 Franklin wrote "Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, Etc." in which he both anticipated the [[Robert Malthus|Malthusian]] theory of population growth and quite accurately predicted the rate of American population increase for the following century and a half. He showed that the American population doubled every 25 years, while Europe and Asia were static or grew very slowly. England's population supposedly took 360 years to double. There is a paradox in Franklin's treatment of population. He maintained that the tendency of populations to expand until checked by the lack of subsistence was a cause of European miseries, yet he advocated rapid population growth for the American colonies. When his population theory is highlighted, he appears as a Malthusian pessimist; when his population values are highlighted, he appears as an ardent pro-natalist. <ref>Dennis Hodgson, "Benjamin Franklin on Population: From Policy to Theory," ''Population and Development Review,'' Vol. 17, No. 4 (Dec., 1991), pp. 639-661 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1973600 in JSTOR]; Alfred Owen Aldridge, "Franklin as Demographer," ''Journal of Economic History,'' Vol. 9, No. 1 (May, 1949), pp. 25-44 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2113719 in JSTOR] </ref>

==Science and invention ==
By age 42, Franklin was wealthy enough to retire from publishing and devote most of his time to his scientific pursuits, keeping in touch with the leading scientists in Britain and the Continent. Franklin combined commonsense empiricism, always paying very close attention to details and carefully recording his measurements. At the same time he was insatiably speculative, theoretical, and conjectural.

Franklin's numerous inventions include bifocal glasses<ref> see [http://www.antiquespectacles.com/topics/franklin/franklin.htm illustration]</ref>, the glass armonica, the flexible catheter, the odometer, and swimming fins.
===Stove===
In 1742 he invented a device inserted into a fireplace that gave more warmth at a lower fuel cost. His idea, worked out with his friend Robert Grace, consisted of a low stove, equipped with loosely fitting iron plates through which air circulated and was warmed before it entered the room. This "New Pennsylvania Fireplace" avoided drafts, gave more even temperatures throughout the room, and checked loss of heat through the chimney. It was an insert in an already existing hearth, and did not resemble what are now called "Franklin stoves".

===Meteorology===
The first contributions to scientific meteorology in America were Franklin's famous experiments regarding lightning, atmospheric electricity, cyclone theory, and ocean circulation, during the years from 1748 to 1775. Franklin designed the experiment that proved that electric sparks created artificially in the laboratory were similar to deadly and destructive lightning bolts, except in magnitude. He proved that there were electric charges in the atmosphere both in cloudy (or thunder) weather and in fine weather. Franklin showed that storms may move progressively "into the wind," by observing that a cyclonic storm with a northeast wind hit Philadelphia a day or so before it hit Boston, which lies to the northeast of Philadelphia. Finally, while crossing the Atlantic between 1746 and 1775, and after discussions with his cousin a ship captain, he reported there is a warm current off the New England coast setting to the northeast--the [[Gulf Stream]]--and was able to chart its boundaries fairly accurately.

===Discovering electricity===
Franklin's great scientific achievement came in his experiments and theories regarding [[electricity]]. He was first intrigued by the concept after meeting Archibald Spencer and witnessing his demonstrations on the creation of static electricity. In 1747, Spencer donated a glass tube and information on generating electricity to the Library Company. Franklin had several of these glass devices made for his experiments. He theorized that electricity was one "fluid." He discovered that when a "positive" charge is created that a "negative" charge is created as well, which became known as the [[conservation of charge]]. He also began using [[Leyden jar]]s, a glass jar with foil on the outside and a conductor such as water or metal on the inside that could be charged with a wire. Franklin determined that the charge was not stored in the conductor, as was previously thought, and was held in the glass.<ref>We now know that the Leyden jar is an early form of the [[capacitor]], that the charge is contained in a layer of the conductor facing the glass and that the glass (the [[dielectricum]]) increases the [[capacitance]] of the jar (amount of charge that can be held).</ref> Based on this knowledge, he invented the first electrical battery, which was a series of glass planks that were flanked by metal and wired together.
[[Image:Franklin - kite.jpg|left|360px]]
Franklin began noticing the similar properties of [[lightning]] and electrical sparks, which led to his most famous experiment. In 1750, Franklin outlined his proposal in two letters to Peter Collinson, which were published and presented to the Royal Society in London. On May 10, 1752 French scientist [[Thomas-François D'Alibard]] successfully performed Franklin's experiment outside of Paris. In June, before word of success had crossed the Atlantic, Franklin performed his kite and key experiment with his son, William, with similar success, which has become a popular part of American folklore.<ref> See [http://www.mos.org/sln/toe/kite.html], [http://www.thebakken.org/electricity/franklin-kite.html] and [http://www2.fi.edu/exhibits/permanent/electricity.php]</ref> This led to the invention of lightning rods [http://fi.edu/franklin/inventor/images/rod.jpg], which became widespread in the colonies, as well as Europe, bringing international fame to Franklin almost overnight. In 1753, he received honorary degrees from both Harvard and Yale, and the Royal Society in London awarded him the prestigious [[Copley Medal]].

Franklin is responsible for the nomenclature of "positive" and "negative" charge. He believed he could tell the direction in which electricity traveled by observing sparks. He was wrong; the electrons, which are the particles carrying ordinary [[electricity]], move in the opposite of the direction he thought they did. As a result, when electrons were discovered, according to Franklin's designation they had to be considered as having a negative charge.
===Controversies===
There were many rivalries among scientists of the day and Franklin joined in energetically. At every point of Franklin's career, rival scientists disputed his claims to inventions and disagreed with his scientific results. Abbé Nollet, the leader of the French scientific community, reported on experiments which he believed illustrated the shortcomings of Franklin's research on electricity. Nollet maintained that Franklin's lightning rods might ignite fires by attracting electricity. Various European scientists claimed to have thought of Franklin's kite or lightning rod experiments before Franklin. Leading British experimenter William Watson claimed that most of Franklin's ideas had their origins in his own work. Political controversy swirled in England in 1772 when members of the Royal Society debated whether lightning rods should be "points" or "blunts." George III entered the controversy by demanding that blunts should be placed on the royal palace after an official committee, of which Franklin was a member, recommended pointed rods to protect the government powder magazine.<ref> I. Bernard Cohen, "Franklin's Scientist Enemies: Real or Imagined" ''Pennsylvania History'' 1998 65(1): 7-20. 0031-4528 </ref>

==Albany Plan of Union 1754==
While Franklin thought of himself as a loyal subject, and was comfortable with monarchy and aritocracy, he did express an emerging sense of Americanism. In 1753, London promoted Franklin to the position of Deputy Postmaster for the Colonies. The industrious Franklin, who frequently took inspection tours throughout the colonies, revamped the postal system to be more efficient, speeding up delivery times and creating the home delivery system. From visiting the colonies first hand, coupled with the increasing need for frontier defense, Franklin realized that some form of unification of the colonies was necessary. In June 1754, a conference was called by the London Board of Trade to meet in Albany, New York to discuss a more unified defense. He proposed the "Albany Plan of Union", which would have united the colonies under a royal governor, and given the colonies the power to tax themselves. Delegates from several colonies had come together to discuss ways to restore harmonious relations with the Indians but soon found themselves debating Franklin's plan of union, which would have created a unified colonial entity. The Plan was approved by the conference but was unanimously rejected by the colonial assemblies and by London. It was twenty years too soon for the colonies to give up their smug complacency and dependence upon London, rather than each other. In 1754 colonists assumed Britain was a benevolent empire run for the benefit of colonists, but within twenty years realized their error. The Albany plan formed much of the basis for the later American governments established by the [[Articles of Confederation]] and the Constitution.

==Politician==
In 1751, after serving as a clerk 15 years, Franklin was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. He used his new position to advance civic projects such as pushing legislation to maintain and light the streets. One of the primary issues faced by the Assembly was keeping their frontier border safe from Indian attacks orchestrated by the French. There was frequent conflict between the Assembly and the Proprietary leadership of the Penn family. The Penns controlled a vast majority of the lands in Pennsylvania, however, forbid them to be taxed which hampered the Assembly's ability to build an adequate militia. Penn repeatedly fought the Penn family and tried, without success, to have the King take direct control of Pennsylvania.
==Colonial agent in London==

In 1757 Franklin was sent to London as the paid representative or lobbyist of the Pennsylvania Assembly to present the colony's side of its controversy with the Penn family, which still owned the colony.

His attempts to persuade this to both Thomas Penn and Parliament failed. Although his mission was over by 1758, Franklin lingered in London for another four years. He enjoyed his time meeting with the local intellectuals and political radicals, and with a touch of regret returned to Philadelphia in 1762. His return to Philadelphia was to be short-lived. In the 1764 elections, Franklin failed to be reelected after a vicious pamphlet war labeled him as anti-German and Scottish, which made up a majority of Pennsylvania's frontier population. He found this to be a blessing in disguise when the Assembly elected to send him back to London to serve as their agent once again. He tried and failed to obtain a recall of the Penn charter. Franklin also became the paid agent in London for Georgia in 1768, for New Jersey in 1769, and for Massachusetts in 1770. These appointments, together with his wide reputation, made Franklin a sort of ambassador extraordinary from the American colonies to Britain.

He remained abroad for eighteen years, not returning to American until 1775. He was invited to join the "Lunar Society" in [[Birmingham]], where he met many intellectuals and leaders of the emerging [[Industrial Revolution]]

===Stamp Act===
[[File:Benjamin Franklin 1767.jpg|thumb|Benjamin Franklin, 1767.]]
In 1765, he blundered by assuring British politicians that Americans would accept the [[Stamp Act]]. He sent a letter to Philadelphia that was made public urging the colonies to simply make the best of it, leading to the misconception that Franklin had something to do with authoring the Stamp Act. News of colonial protest caused him to reverse his position and he helped negotiated trepeal of the hated tax. Afterwards, Franklin regularly opposed British attempts to tax the colonies, arguing that the colonists had the same rights as other British subjects, with the ability to govern and tax through an elected legislature.

In June 1767, Parliament passed the [[Townshend Act]], another tax on colonial goods. Franklin, still loyal to the crown, took a moderate approach - simultaneously criticizing the rash colonials and the rash government. Increasing the great divide was representation in parliament. Americans had none.
===Hutchinson letters===
In 1773, Franklin somehow obtained the originals of secret letters written written 1767-1769 by Thomas Hutchinson when he was Chief Justice of Massachusetts to a member of the British government soliciting troops and urging abridgment of American liberties. Franklin sent the letters to friends in the colony, who in turn published them. His intent was to pin the blame on people like Hutchinson for encouraging the unpopular policies, which he hoped would promote a spirit of reconciliation with Britain. He misjudged the situation, however, which led to the Massachusetts Assembly demanding that Parliament remove Hutchinson from his governorship. London by now had lost all patience with the American colonies and had embarked on a series of punishments designed to humiliate the Americans and make them stay in their inferior places. London sent more troops to Boston and brought Franklin before the Privy Council where he was viciously humiliated in public on January 29, 1775. He was stripped of his position of postmaster.

Franklin's political roles in London in 1757-62 and 1764-75 reshaped his political views. Although he loved the scientists and intellectuals, he hated the politicians. He came to see Britain as vain and corrupt, and he returned to his native America in 1775 with the hope that in a still-uncorrupted republic virtue might prevail.<ref> Esmond Wright, "'The Fine and Noble China Vase, The British Empire': Benjamin Franklin's 'Love-Hate' View of England". ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History And Biography'' 1987 111(4): 435-464.</ref>

===Continental Congress===
Franklin arrived back in Philadelphia on May 5, 1775, and the next day was chosen a member of the Second Continental Congress. Fighting had broken out near Boston, and the New England militia had trapped the British army in the city. The Congress became the voice of the Americans, setting up shadow governments in each colony, getting ready for a major revolt. Militia units up and down the 13 colonies began drilling for war.

Franklin, following the lead of [[John Adams]], began preparing for independence. On July 21, 1775, he presented his scheme for the [[Articles of Confederation]], similar to his Albany Plan, which called for a strong central government and a congress with proportional representation. However, few of his ideas were included in the Articles Congress adopted in 1777. The Patriots now controlled every colony, and incited by the clever reasoning of [[Thomas Paine]], realized that their [[republican]] values and way of life were incompatible with conytrol by foreign aristocrats in London. As popular sentiment for independence swelled in late spring 1776, Franklin, joined [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[John Adams]], [[Roger Sherman]], and [[Robert Livingston]] as a committee to prepare a [[Declaration of Independence]]. Jefferson, the best writer, did the drafting, with Franklin offering his editorial commentary. A new nation emerged on July 4, 1776. It had driven out all the British officials. But they returned in force in August, 1776, seized New York City, and offered to negotiate on everything except independence. Patriots demanded independence and refused to negotiate any other terms. Help was needed from France, so in December of 1776 Franklin was sent to Paris, along with [[Silas Deane]] and [[Arthur Lee]], to secure aid for the new nation.

Along with being on the committee to draft the [[Declaration of Independence]], Franklin also proposed an idea for the national seal. His proposal was to have a picture of the Isaelites crossing the Red Sea and Pharaoh's army being destoyed by the water encircled by the phrase, "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God."

Franklin had made his illegitimate son William Franklin, the Royal Governor of [[New Jersey]], but he remained loyal to the Crown, and father and son never reconciled.

He understood the risks the [[Founding Fathers]] were taking and told them, "We must all hang together, or we shall hang separately."

==Ambassador==
[[Image:Franklin - France.jpg|right|340px]]
Franklin was America's first minister (ambassador) to King [[Louis XVI]] in [[France]], where where he was instrumental in obtaining military and economic support for the struggle against Britain. Franklin arrived to great fanfare in France. Already well-known for his lightning experiment, his flirtatious manner and wit made him a favorite among the courtiers. Franklin systematically mingled with scientists, writers, intellectuals and government officials in Paris. He avoided court costumes and cultivated the image of a rustic American, sometimes wearing a coonskin cap. The French loved every bit of it and his popularity helped in securing recognition, money and armies and navies to fight Britain.
===Diplomat===
Franklin proved himself to be a crafty diplomat. By the end of 1777, after the great American victory at [[Battle of Saratoga|Saratoga]], the French became confident the Americans were strong enough to prevail. The French favored an alliance with the Americans, but their ally Spain was opposed, fearing that anti-imperial republicanism might emerge ion Spain's many colonies. Franklin played on the traditional hatred between the British and the French, using the press to get his messages across. On February 5, 1778 he officially signed a treaty of alliance with France with the stipulation that the U.S. must have France's approval to negotiate peace with Britain. The American revolution was now a world war, and as the Netherlands and Spain joined France, and the rest remained neutral, Britain was outnumbered on land and sea and had little hope of defeating the Allies.

Franklin and John Adams did not get along. Adams that Franklin was "too old, too infirm, too indolent and dissipated for the discharge of all the important duties of ambassador, board of war, board of treasury, commissary of prisoners...." Adams did admit that the power of Franklin's name and fame made him essential, and historians generally agree Franklin did a very good job.<ref>Gorodon Wood, ''The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin'' (2004) p 192; Stacy Schiff, ''A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America'' (2005)</ref> French aid proved to be critical to the Americans success, most notably in the decisive victory at Yorktown in October 1781. The Revolutionary war was now won, but negotiations dragged on until the Peace of Paris was signed on Sept. 3, 1783. Franklin remarked, about this time: "There never was a good war nor a bad peace."

Franklin was the most traditional American diplomat of era in his tendency to approach diplomacy as a search for compromise, his use of diplomacy as a tool for peace, his insistence on working through proper channels, and his adherence to the norms of good manners and civility. He played a central role in the peace negotiations in Paris, and to the amazement of observers at the time--and historians ever since--won highly favorable terms from the British, especially ownership of all the lands east of the Mississippi River (except Florida, which went to France's ally Spain.) Assisted by diplomats [[John Jay]] and [[John Adams]], Franklin demonstrated great foresight and diplomatic aplomb in negotiating the treaty. While military victory certainly influenced the outcome, the envoys' tenacity and adroit craftsmanship nonetheless frustrated much of the great power intrigue aimed at blocking united American independence. By 1783, few European diplomats visualized an independent United States. The American emissaries, steeped in revolutionary fervor and confident after military victory, would not settle for less.<ref> Richard Morris, ''The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence'' (1965) is the definitive history.</ref>

===Disinherits his son===
In 1789 Franklin disinherited his only living son, William, who had been Franklin's close personal friend and, beginning in the 1750s, his political protégé. Franklin used his contacts in London to have William named royal governor of New Jersey, a lucrative and highly prestigious position. In 1774, when Franklin was fired as head of the American postal system and publicly humiliated at Whitehall, he believed his son would resign as governor to protest his father's treatment. When William failed to do this and even admonished his father to accept his fate and take a comfortable retirement, an irreparable breach was created between father and son, a rift widened by the son's loyalty to the British crown during the Revolutionary War. Although William attempted to reestablish a father-son relationship, Benjamin refused and could never forgive his son for the public nature of the humiliation he felt William had caused him.<ref>Sheila L. Skemp, "Benjamin Franklin, Patriot, and William Franklin, Loyalist." ''Pennsylvania History'' 1998 65(1): 35-45. </ref>

==Building a stronger nation==
Franklin returned home in September 1785. Like all nationalists he could see that the Articles of Confederation created a government that was too weak to survive in a dangerous world It had no president and no tax base, for example. Franklin's ideas for an American republic provided a reconciliation of classical republicanism and 18th-century economic life. Franklin's demographic view put America and Britain in contrast. He criticized the British emphasis on manufacturing for export, and he preferred agriculture as the best source of national wealth. Although favoring self-sufficiency, as a means for a virtuous independence, Franklin recognized the need for encouraging a vigorous foreign commerce (with free trade). Open space and open markets were essential for republicanism to work.<ref> Drew R. McCoy, "Benjamin Franklin's Vision of a Republican Political Economy for America." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 1978 35(4): 607-628. 0043-5597</ref>

Franklin can be compared favorably with [[Frederick Jackson Turner]] as a promoter of the [[Frontier Thesis]], the idea of the significance of the West in the shaping of American character. Franklin used the words frontier and West interchangeably and generally equated both of them with free land. He believed that the West was decisive in producing the phenomenal population growth of the society of his day and its "middle-class agrarianism." His frontier-inspired ideas had a demonstrable effect on public events and contributed to the coming of the American Revolution. Americans eagerly gave wide currency to Franklin's ideas. His political and diplomatic exertions contributed considerably to insure that the West would be a part of the new nation he was helping to create.<ref>James H. Hutson, "Benjamin Franklin and the West". ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 1973 4(4): 425-434. 0043-3810 </ref>

In 1787 the [[Constitutional Convention]] convened in Philadelphia to write a new Constitution. Franklin, at age 81 the oldest delegate, played an honorific role and his support helped legitimize the project.

==Slavery==
Franklin in the 1750s owned two slaves, whom he eventually freed, and also ran advertisements for slave sales in his ''Pennsylvania Gazette''. As a youth he had been a runaway himself. As a diplomat he supported slavery, but for Franklin slavery was always more of a political than a moral problem. Late in life he reversed directions and supported the abolition of the slavery trade (but not slavery itself). He joined the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and became their president in 1787; his was primarily honorific. The Society had hoped he would bring up the issue of slavery at the Constitutional Convention, which he declined to do, realizing that it would be too contentious of an issue. In November 1789, he published his ''Address to the Public'' which appealed for the emancipation of slaves and the further education of free blacks. <ref>David Waldstreicher, ''Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution''(2004)</ref>

==Death==
Franklin died on April 17, 1790 at the age of 84 and was buried at Christ Church in Philadelphia. Civic-minded to the end, Franklin's will established a 200 year trust fund for Boston and Philadelphia which was to be used to train and educate young craftsmen. Both cities have held true to Franklin's wishes, providing aid to students and establishing the Franklin Institute of Boston.

==Religious Beliefs==

Franklin progressed from a skepticism towards Puritanism as a youth to a strong belief in God and prayers for His intervention. At all times Franklin believed in God, but was unable to define what God meant for his soul; he never joined a church. Like most in Pennsylvania, he respected freedom of religion by others, but also emphasized the importance of religion in maintaining a society; much of his writing was designed to promote moral behavior. [[Liberals]] often like to bring up that he stated "lighthouses are more helpful than churches", as if that is some kind of "proof" that Franklin was only a Deist. It is merely [[liberal deceit]]. The British political system at the time of the American rebellion was based very firmly on Anglican Protestantism. Laws stated very clearly the monarch had to be a protestant, and also that they were the head of The Church of England; even Protestants who were not Anglican had to pay for their own priests and build their own churches. Catholics were still denied the vote. To gather enough support among the colonists to successfully achieve independence, their leaders had to offer them something different, and to belittle the Anglican church in particular, so as to undermine the foundation of the British political system that ruled the American colonies. So, Franklin was saying that functional, useful things (such as lighthouses) contributed more to the safety and well-being of the individual than buildings that provided spiritual things (such as churches). It was his clever means of motivation, not some far-reaching personal belief of his.

Young Ben was an avid reader. "From a child I was fond of reading, and all the little money that came into my hands was ever laid out in books. Pleased with the ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]],'' my first collection was of [[John Bunyan]]'s works in separate little volumes. My old favorite author, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress ... has been translated into most of the languages of Europe, and suppose it has been more generally read than any other book, except perhaps the Bible."''

In 1728, the twenty-two-year-old printer wrote "Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion," which Walters (1999) argues is the most crucial text of all Franklin’s religious writings.<ref> for the text see [http://www.beliefnet.com/resourcelib/docs/65/Articles_of_Belief_and_Acts_of_Religion_1p.html "Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion" by Benjamin Franklin, November 20, 1728]</ref> Franklin embraced a concept that sanctioned the value of different religions. Walters argues this “theistic perspectivism” is the key to understanding Franklin’s religion, for it allowed him to maintain his most basic belief in a divinity as the "First Cause" while also allowing him to understand different religions and sects as different ways to honor and serve the primary creator. Franklin’s lifelong advocacy of religious tolerance and his refusal to dogmatize resulted from his understanding that all religions helped bring the "First Cause" closer to humanity, bridging the immense gulf between Creator and creation.<ref> Kerry S. Walters, ''Benjamin Franklin and His Gods,'' (1999)</ref>

Franklin left behind the [[deism]] of his youth. In a draft autobiography written mostly in 1771, nearly 20 years prior to his death, Franklin described how he came to deism as a teenager. He recalled that his ''"parents had early given me religious impressions, and brought me through my childhood piously in the Dissenting way. But I was scarce fifteen, when, after doubting by turns of several points, as I found them disputed in the different books I read, I began to doubt of Revelation itself. Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's Lectures. It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist."'' <ref>http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=Fra2Aut.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=all The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, p.57</ref>

Franklin then abandoned his youthful deism in favor of a strong belief in an interventionist God, as reflected by his prayer request during a troubled period of the [[Constitutional Convention]]. In a letter dated March 9, 1790, the last letter Franklin ever wrote, he expressed his strong faith in God and the possibility of heaven:
:''"Here is my Creed: I believe in one God, Creator of the Universe. That he governs it by Providence. That he ought to be worshipped. That the most acceptable Service we render to him is doing good to his other Children. That the soul of Man is immortal, and will be treated with Justice in another Life respecting its conduct in in this. These I take to be the fundamental Principles of all sound Religion, and I regard them as you do in whatever sect I meet with them.

:''"As to Jesus of Nazareth, my Opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think the system of Morals and His Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw, or is likely to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupting Changes, and I have, with most of the present Dissenters in England, some doubt as to his Divinity; tho' it is a question I need not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble. I see no harm in its being believed, if that belief has the good Consequence, as probably it has, of making his Doctrines more respected and better observed; especially as I do not perceive, that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the Unbelievers in his Government of the world with any peculiar Marks of his Displeasure."'' <ref>http://personal.pitnet.net/primarysources/franklin-stiles.html</ref>
===Whitefield===
Franklin admired [[George Whitefield]], who first visited the colonies in 1738 and played a major role in the [[First Great Awakening]]. Franklin saw Whitefield as a fellow intellectual, but thought Whitefield's plan to run an orphanage in Georgia would lose money. Franklin published several of Whitefield's tract. He was intrigued and himself moved by Whitefield's ability to preach and speak with clarity and enthusiasm to crowds ranging in the thousands. Franklin was an ecumenist and approved of Whitefield's ability to appeal to members of many denominations. Franklin was not moved by the Methodist evangelist's revivals, but did conclude that religiosity was a good thing for other people, so at the Constitutional Convention in 1787, he proposed a prayer for divine intervention to aid the troubled proceedings. After one of Whitefield's sermons, Franklin noted the:
:"wonderful...change soon made in the manners of our inhabitants. From being thoughtless or indifferent about religion, it seem'd as if all the world were growing religious, so that one could not walk thro' the town in an evening without hearing psalms sung in different families of every street."<ref>''The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin,'' p.104-108; Samuel J. Rogal, "Toward a Mere Civil Friendship: Benjamin Franklin and George Whitefield." ''Methodist History'' 1997 35(4): 233-243. 0026-1238 </ref>

A lifelong close friendship developed between the revivalist preacher and the worldly, secular humanist. Looking beyond their public images, one finds a common charity, humility, and ethical sense embedded in the character of each man. True loyalty based on genuine affection coupled with a high value placed on friendship helped their association grow even stronger over time.

==Fame==
By 1776 Franklin was the most famous American in the world. He was one of the most prominent of the Founding Fathers, early political figures and statesmen of the [[United States]].

In the years immediately following his death, Franklin's reputation fell upon evil days. His political enemies, as well as [[Federalist Party]], journalists systematically emphasized the less attractive aspects of his character and minimized his achievements. The calumny was repeated until the 1850s, when the first real attempts were made to paint a broader portrait of this many-sided man. Franklin's "rags to riches" career had a natural attraction in the go-getter mood of the [[Gilded Age]] and he became the patron saint of "getting on," a role that he has not yet lost. The xenophobia of the period also affected the image of Franklin in that his prudential philosophy appeared less an expression of selfishness than a means of achievement expressive of the best in the American national character. The late 19th century also saw the beginning of real Franklin scholarship.<ref> Richard D. Miles, "The American Image of Benjamin Franklin" ''American Quarterly'' 1957 9(2): 117-143. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2710628 in JSTOR]</ref>

Franklin is one of the few non-presidents whose likeness appears on U.S. currency. Franklin graces the $100 bill while [[Alexander Hamilton]] appears on the $10 bill.

In 1933, Isamu Noguchi (1904-88) designed a monument to Franklin. For years, the project languished. It finally came to fruition in Philadelphia in 1984 as “Bolt of Lightning . . . Memorial to Ben Franklin.”

Franklin was highly regarded throughout Europe as a leader in science and diplomacy, and as the representative American and the symbol of the New World's integrity and progress. The intellectual, poltiical and scoial leaders of France viewed Franklin as the epitome of the enlightened legislator, a brilliant inventor, and perceptive economist. He inspired his contemporaries and successive generations of Frenchmen to eulogize him in the arts. His unassailable reputation also encouraged divergent political factions to claim Franklin as a mentor after his death in 1790. Franklin was a figure of the Enlightenment, two countries, and two revolutions and there are still reminders of him in France today.<ref> J. A. Leith, "Le Culte de Franklin en France avant et pendant la Révolution Française," ["France's Cult of Franklin before and during the French Revolution"]. ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française,'' 1976 226 48(4): 543-571. 0003-4436 </ref>

While most historians have admired Franklin's achievements, British literary critic [[D. H. Lawrence]] ridiculed Franklin as excessivelyt middle class. Lawrence spent time in the United States in the 1920s but came to dislike the country. He focused on Franklin as a personification of American culture in two essays. Lawrence's disdain for Franklin was based largely in their different philosophies. Franklin felt man was perfectable, and could excel through hard work, while Lawrence saw man as an imperfect, creative, fragmented being, for whom the body and emotions are central to achieving happiness.<ref> Ormond Seavey, "D. H. Lawrence and 'The First Dummy American'." ''Georgia Review'' 1985 39(1): 113-128. 0016-8386; D. H. Lawrence, ''Studies in Classic American Literature'' (1923), [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/LAWRENCE/dhlch02.htm online edition of ch. 2 on Franklin]</ref>
===Join or Die===
[[Image:Join-die.jpg|thumb|290px|left]]
The famous cartoon entitled "Join, or Die," printed on 9 May 1754 in Franklin's ''Pennsylvania Gazette'', shows a sliced up rattlesnake that forms a map of the colonies. It is impotent unless it joins together, as nature clearly intended. Rattlesnakes--powerful and dangerous creatures that were not found in Britain--were often used to represent America. Georgia, the newest colony, is missing, as is Delaware (then part of Pennsylvania). The cartoon alludes to an old myth that a snake that had been cut into pieces would come back to life if the sections were reassembled before sunset, Franklin based his cartoon on a 17th-century French emblem book by Nicolas Verrien which includes a snake divided into two parts with the motto: 'Se rejoindre ou mourir' ('Join or die').

While the idea behind the illustration was Franklin's, historians have not discovered who did the actual engraving. In form the illustration follows the plan of an emblem book illustration, with a motto, a symbolic picture, and an explanatory text; Franklin even referred to it in correspondence as an "emblem." Franklin was responsible for many visual creations, such as cartoons, designs for flags and paper money,
emblems and devices. He possessed an extraordinary knowledge of symbols and heraldry. The snake image may be a composite of those found in Mark Catesby's ''The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands'' (1731-43). The iconic image of national unity became widespread in political illustrations concerning the [[Stamp Act]] of 1765, the American Revolution, and both the Union and Confederate causes in the American Civil War.<ref>Karen Severud Cook, "Benjamin Franklin and the Snake that would not Die," ''British Library Journal'' 1996 22 (1): 88-112. 0305-5167; Mark Bryant, "The First American Political Cartoon," ''History Today'' v. 57#12 (December 2007) pp 58+. [http://www.questia.com/read/5024806593?title=The%20First%20American%20Political%20Cartoon online edition]</ref>

==Autobiography==
A year after Franklin's death, his unfinished draft autobiography, entitled "Memoires De La Vie Privee," was published in Paris in March of 1791, and portions soon appeared in English. The first complete edition appeares in 1868. It was one of the first and greatest American autobiographies and appears in many editions. Historians have treated the ''Autobiography'' as an allegory for the paradigm of American upward social mobility as well as representing the early economic and political success of America. Beyond this basic representativeness, it endorses the economic promise of free enterprise by using Franklin's life experience to advocate the new nation's economic potential and creditworthiness. Franklin aligns his own history with that of the fledgling United States, in effect equating his ability to successfully capitalize on credit with that of the nation. By depicting his own public credibility, Franklin was able to translate his reputation and promise of success into an endorsement of the viability of American life, intertwining self- and national promotion. In sharp contrast to Jefferson's glorification of the yeoman farmer as the carrier of republican virtue, Franklin looked to the cosmopolitan city for the advancement of mankind, as he tells how the youth arrives in the idyllic city of Philadelphia, where adherence to principles of independence, morality, and industry bring him success.<ref> Jennifer Jordan Baker, "Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography and the Credibility of Personality." ''Early American Literature'' 2000 35(3): 274-293. 0012-8163; James L. Machor, "The Urban Idyll of the New Republic: Moral Geography and the Mythic Hero of Franklin's Autobiography." ''Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography'' 1986 110(2): 219-236. </ref>

The ''Autobiography'' gave an incomplete view of Franklin. The persona that Franklin assumed here was merely another of the several public roles he adopted in his writings and political activities. He believed that personal growth could only be accomplished by surrendering to a public function, and that the public forum should be a community for discourse rather than a marketplace for personal competition and acquisition.

==Quotes==
* From a letter in April 1787: "Only a virtuous people are capable of freedom. As nations become corrupt and vicious, they have more need of masters." and "it would end in despotism, as other forms have done before it, when the people shall have become so corrupted as to need despotic government, being incapable of any other."

* "We must hang together, or most assuredly, we will hang separately." <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=7mgAwXas5xIC&pg=PA49&dq=We+must+hang+together,+or+we+will+assuredly+hang+separately.&ei=hqEySrf_N5jeyAThoNSCBg
Beyond political correctness: social transformation in the United States‎ - Page 49] by Michael S. Cummings</ref>

*"Work as if you were to live a hundred years. Pray as if you were to die tomorrow." <ref>[http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/quotable/quote29.htm The Quotable Franklin] USHistory.org</ref>

*"Words may show a man's wit but actions his meaning." <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=A5kEAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA601&dq=Words+may+show+a+man%27s+wit+but+actions+his+meaning&ei=Azw8SvyjM5-8zASKj7y6BQ The life of Benjamin Franklin‎ - Page 601] by Benjamin Franklin, John Bigelow</ref>

*"I think the best way of doing good to the poor, is not making them easy in poverty, but leading or driving them out of it." <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=SrIEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA430&dq=I+think+the+best+way+of+doing+good+to+the+poor,+is+not+making+them+easy+in+poverty,+but+leading+or+driving+them+out+of+it.&ei=VfNySvOGJ6bAygTw7q2TAw Memoirs of Benjamin Franklin‎ - Page 430]</ref>

==Basic readings==
* Becker, Carl Lotus. "Benjamin Franklin," ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1931) with hot links [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker online]
* Brands, Henry. ''The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin'' (2000)- excellent long scholarly biography [http://www.amazon.com/First-American-Times-Benjamin-Franklin/dp/0385495404/ref=pd_bbs_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203222697&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Isaacson, Walter. ''Benjamin Franklin: An American Life'' (2004) - good popular biography [http://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklin-American-Walter-Isaacson/dp/074325807X/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203222697&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ketcham, Ralph. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (1966) 228 pp[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=34300175 online edition], by short biography by a scholar
* Morgan, Edmund S. ''Benjamni Franklin'' (2003) the best short introduction [http://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklin-Yale-Nota-Bene/dp/0300101627/ref=pd_bbs_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203222697&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Van Doren, Carl. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (1938), standard older biography [http://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklin-Carl-Van-Doren/dp/193154185X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203222991&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Wright, Esmond. ''Franklin of Philadelphia'' (1986) - excellent scholarly study [http://www.amazon.com/Franklin-Philadelphia-Belknap-Esmond-Wright/dp/0674318102/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203223116&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

==Detailed Bibliography==
===Biographies===
* Becker, Carl Lotus. "Benjamin Franklin," ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1931) - vol 3, with hot links [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker online]
* Brands, Henry. ''The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin'' (2000)- excellent long scholarly biography [http://www.amazon.com/First-American-Times-Benjamin-Franklin/dp/0385495404/ref=pd_bbs_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203222697&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Isaacson, Walter. ''Benjamin Franklin: An American Life'' (2004) - well written popular biography [http://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklin-American-Walter-Isaacson/dp/074325807X/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203222697&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ketcham, Ralph. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (1966) 228 pp[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=34300175 online edition]
* Morgan, Edmund S. ''Benjamni Franklin'' (2003) the best short introduction [http://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklin-Yale-Nota-Bene/dp/0300101627/ref=pd_bbs_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203222697&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Van Doren, Carl. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (1938), standard older biography [http://www.amazon.com/Benjamin-Franklin-Carl-Van-Doren/dp/193154185X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203222991&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Wood, Gordon. ''The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin'' (2005), influential intellectual history by leading conservative historian. [http://www.amazon.com/Americanization-Benjamin-Franklin-Gordon-Wood/dp/0143035282/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236327205&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wright, Esmond. ''Franklin of Philadelphia'' (1986) - excellent scholarly study [http://www.amazon.com/Franklin-Philadelphia-Belknap-Esmond-Wright/dp/0674318102/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203223116&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

===Specialized Scholarly Studies===
* Anderson, Douglas. ''The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin'' (1997) - fresh look at the intellectual roots of Franklin
* Buxbaum, M.H., ed. ''Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin'' (1987)
* Chaplin, Joyce. ''The First Scientific American: Benjamin Franklin and the Pursuit of Genius.'' (2007)
* Cohen, I. Bernard. ''Benjamin Franklin's Science'' (1990) - Cohen, the leading specialist, has several books on Franklin's science
* Conner, Paul W. ''Poor Richard's Politicks'' (1965) - analyzes Franklin's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment and republicanism
* Dull, Jonathan. ''A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution'' (1985)
* Ford, Paul Leicester. ''The Many-Sided Franklin'' (1899) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-many-sided-franklin-by-paul-leicester-ford.jsp online edition] - collection of scholarly essays
* Lemay, J. A. Leo, ed. ''Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective'' (1993) - scholarly essays
* Lemay, J. A. Leo. ''The Life of Benjamin Franklin'' the most detailed scholarly biography, with very little interpetation; 3 volumes appeared before the author's death in 2008
** ''Volume 1: Journalist, 1706-1730'' (2005) 568pp [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Benjamin-Franklin-Journalist-1706-1730/dp/0812238540/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_b excerpt and text search]
** ''Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730-1747'' (2005) 664pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Benjamin-Franklin-Publisher-1730-1747/dp/0812238559/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_b excerpt and text search]
**''Volume 3: Soldier, Scientist, and Politician, 1748-1757'' (2008), 768pp [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Benjamin-Franklin-Scientist-Politician/dp/0812241215/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236306986&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McCoy, Drew R. "Benjamin Franklin's Vision of a Republican Political Economy for America." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 1978 35(4): 607-628. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1923207 in JSTOR]
* Skemp, Sheila L. ''Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist'' (1994)- Ben's son was a leading Loyalist

===Primary Sources===
* Franklin, Benjamin. ''Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin'', ed. L.W. Labaree et al. (1964) [http://www.earlyamerica.com/lives/franklin/ online edition] - there are many editions
* Franklin, Benjamin. ''Franklin: Writings'', ed. J.A. Leo Lemay, Library of America (1987) [http://www.amazon.com/Franklin-Writings-Library-America-Benjamin/dp/0940450291/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207333906&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; [http://infomotions.com/alex/?cmd=search&query=creator:Franklin complete text online free]
*Labaree, Leonard W., et al., eds., ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin'' 35 vols. to date (1959-2002) - definitive edition, through 1781. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in print form at large research libraries. [http://www.franklinpapers.org/franklin/index.jsp?src=g1&gclid=CJ6my-GEwpICFSgwiQodDQldrA the complete text, searchable, is online free from Yale] It is most useful for detailed research on very specific topics.
*[http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/ Yale edition of complete works of Benjamin Franklin]
*[http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fellows/bob_morse_04/ The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin] Collected by Robert A. Morse, 2004.
*[http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/family/lastwill.html Franklin's Last Will & Testament] Transcription.

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm "Guide to Benjamin Franklin" by Richard Jensen January 2007]
*[http://www.english.udel.edu/lemay/franklin/ Leo Lemay, ed. ''"Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History"]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Franklin, Benjamin}}

[[Category:Inventors]]
[[Category:Founding Fathers]]
[[Category:Journalists]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Authors]]
[[Category:Scientists]]
[[category:diplomacy]]
[[Category:Republicanism]]
[[Category:Enlightenment]]
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[[Category:Featured articles]]

Alexander Hamilton

2012-01-03T23:21:30Z

GeorgeWashington1776:

[[image:alexhamilton.jpg|300px|thumb|Alexander Hamilton by John Trumbull 1792.]]
'''Alexander Hamilton''' (January 11, 1757 - July 12, 1804) was one of the most important, and most conservative and nationalistic, of the [[Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States]]. After wartime service as chief of staff to General [[George Washington]], he became a leading lawyer in New York. He called for a strong new constitution to replace the weak national government, and in 1788 he wrote half the ''Federalist Papers'', which mobilized supporters of the Constitution and continues to be the single most influential interpretation of [[republicanism]] and what the Constitution means. He was a leading intellectual of his time, and the driving force of the Washington Administration that shaped the young nation.

Hamilton realized that the basis of British power was its system of centralized tax collection and its funded national debt together with its sophisticated banking structure and its open market in public securities. For a state to wage war successfully, it had to tax efficiently and borrow cheaply--To become a powerful nation, America had to follow the British financial example. Hamilton's conclusion horrified Jefferson and his followers--they saw a deliberate adoption of British methods as an evil corruption--a betrayal of the values of [[Republicanism]] inherent in the American Revolution.

Hamilton played a key role in:

* the continued success of George Washington as his top aide
* the ratification of the Constitution in 1788
* the interpretation of the Constitution to this day
* the policies that made the United States an economic power
* writing George Washington's [[Farewell Address]], which remains one of the finest statements of conservative principles
* the compromise that placed the nation's capital at Washington, D.C.
* the election of [[Thomas Jefferson]] as president rather than Aaron Burr in 1801

As the nation's first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]], Hamilton's far reaching vision put the United States on an stable financial basis and promoted national unity. His Treasury took over state debts as well as debts owed by the national government, and funded them with long-term national debt, which in turn was paid by a new tariff on imports and a tax on whiskey. He set up the Bank of the United States, a central bank to make liquidity in financial markets possible. The nation's business and financial communities for the first time became united in a single economy, and provided critical support for Hamilton. To mobilize that grass-roots support he founded the [[Federalist Party]], which operated in every state. It was the first popular political party in the world, but soon had competition from the [[Democratic-Republican Party]] founded by his great adversary [[Thomas Jefferson]]. In foreign affairs he was a strong supporter of Britain, and the well-balanced British political system. Working closely with Washington, Hamilton in 1795 secured the critical [[Jay Treaty]] over the intense opposition of Jeffersonians who favored France in its war with Britain. Despite an embarrassing sex scandal, Hamilton tried to keep control of the Federalist Party while [[John Adams]] was president, and orchestrated the creation of a powerful national army in 1798, which he and Washington were to head. Adams' achievement of peace with France frustrated Hamilton's plans, so he sabotaged Adams' reelection in 1800. Nevertheless he helped Jefferson become president when it appeared the scoundrel [[Aaron Burr]] might take the office. He was killed by Burr in a duel, and for most of the 19th century was a target of attacks by Democrats as undemocratic and even pro-monarchy. By the [[Progressive Era]] after 1900, however, Hamilton's nationalism, financial wizardry, and promotion of business and banking increasingly appealed to conservatives, who made Hamilton into a hero of their own. Hamilton was one of the great expositors of the American political creed of [[Republicanism]], and set up programs that proved a strong, effective government of the people could be made operational without an aristocracy or monarch.
==Early life==
Hamilton was born out of wedlock in the [[British West Indies]]. A prodigy, he was handling merchant accounts as a teenager, and his essay on a hurricane attracted patrons who paid his way to the American colonies. Some scholars have argued that Hamilton’s origins can be reflected in his later life, where, unlike much of the Revolutionary generation, his views were more nationalistic, rather than tied to the interests of a particular region or state.
==Revolution==
As a student at King's College (now Columbia University), Hamilton took a major role in the political debates over independence. Hamilton raised a company of artillery and was selected captain. Fighting the British invasion of new York City in late 1776, he came to the attention of [[George Washington]], commander in chief of the Continental Army. Washington promoted Hamilton to colonel and made him his senior aide--in effect the chief of staff (although that title was not in use. Hamilton had a combat command at the battle of Yorktown that ended the war in 1781. Hamilton may have alerted General Washington to the existence of the Newburgh Conspiracy, in which disgruntled officers might have become a threat to civilian government. Washington prevented that.
==New York==
Hamilton became a leading lawyer in New York City, and married into the rich and powerful Schuyler family. Along with his close friend [[John Jay]], he was active in anti-slavery movements. Hamilton was elected to the Continental Congress, the [[New York]] State assembly, and was chosen by the legislature as a delegate to the [[Philadelphia]] Constitutional in 1787/ he played a minor role in the convention.

Hamilton authored 51 of the 85 ''[[Federalist Papers]],'' while [[James Madison]] and [[John Jay]] composed the others. These essays, published anonymously in newspapers in New York and throughout the United States, helped turn popular opinion in favor of ratifying the Constitution, particularly in the decisive states of [[New York]] and [[Virginia]].
==Secretary of the Treasury==
Perhaps Hamilton's greatest contribution to the success of the United States occurred during his tenure as Washington’s Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795. Through a system of tariffs and excise taxes (some of which, as demonstrated by the [[Whiskey Rebellion]], caused a great deal of resentment), Hamilton placed the United States on sound financial footing. While Hamilton disliked taxes, he also realized that they were necessary. Hamilton not only favored close trade ties with [[Great Britain]], the world’s leading commercial power, but he believed that the United States should emulate their economic system. In his Report on Manufactures, Hamilton envisioned the United States as a nation that would rely on manufacturing and commerce in order to become a great power. This (among other things) put him at odds with [[Thomas Jefferson]], who envisioned the United States as an agrarian republic.
==Federalist Party==
Hamilton saw the need for political newspapers and subsidized numerous editors, most famously [[Noah Webster]]. In 1801, with $10,000 from investors, Hamilton started the ''New-York Evening Post''.<ref> It is currently published by Rupert Murdoch under the name [[New York Post]].</ref>

==Adams and Jefferson administrations==
==Republicanism==
Jefferson repeatedly attacked Hamilton as an enemy of American values--and Jeffersonians have echoed the criticism over the centuries. Jefferson said he was an enemy of popular government, did not believe in republicanism, admired the British system too much, and even wanted to set up a monarchy. Since the 1980s scholars have rescued rescue Hamilton from these interpretations and stressed his republicanism, arguing that Jefferson went too far in his attacks. Historians now portray Hamilton as a moderate, mainstream republican. They point to the ''Federalist Papers'' as a core statement of American values, and also Washington's "Farewell Address." One debate in the 1790s was whether true republican citizens should have "confidence" in their elected leaders, which was Hamilton's position, or maintain a "vigilant" scrutiny of them, which was Jefferson's. Hamilton stressed confidence in his vision of republican citizenship and freedom of the press. Hamilton's philosophy, argues Martin (2005), is best understood as an energetic, elitist reformulation of republicanism

Hamilton's conception of human nature shaped his political thought. His predominantly and radically liberal conception of human nature was based on John Locke's concept of liberty, Thomas Hobbes's concept of power, and Nicolò Machiavelli's concept of the 'effectual truth.' It thus stressed the necessary relation between self-interest and republican government and entailed the repudiation of classical republican and Christian political ideals. But Hamilton's love of liberty was nonetheless rooted in a sense of classical nobility and Christian philanthropy that simultaneously elevated and contradicted his liberalism. The complex relation between liberty, nobility, philanthropy, and power in Hamilton's conception of human nature, in effect, defined his thought and exposed the strengths and weaknesses of his ideology. That complexity formed the spirit of his liberal [[republicanism]].<ref>Michael J. Rosano, "Liberty, Nobility, Philanthropy, and Power in Alexander Hamilton's Conception of Human Nature". ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2003 47(1): 61-74 </ref>

==Affair==
In 1791 Alexander Hamilton was caught having an affair with Maria Reynolds, the wife of a Revolutionary War officer. Her husband, James Reynolds, found out about the affair and threatened to announce it to the public if he were not paid blackmail money. Hamilton conceded and paid James a monthly amount in return to continue sleeping with Maria.

Several years later, James (who was a professional con-man) was caught in a scheme where he and several others were speculating on unpaid back wages to Revolutionary War vererans. James then used his knowledge of Hailton's affair as a bargining tool to lessen his sentence. [[James Monroe]] and [[Frederick Muhlenburg]] who were the federal investigators decided to keep the matter between themselves and Hamilton until everything had been straitened out. Now Hamilton was faced with the choice to either admit his affair or say he was part of scheme with Reynolds. In the end, he announced his affair to Monroe and Muhlenburg and in letter to [[Thomas Jefferson]].

==Death==
Hamilton's long standing rivalry with [[Aaron Burr]] eventually lead to Burr accusing Hamilton of [[slander]]. Hamilton replied that the anti-Burr statements he had made were not slander, but were instead the truth. The resulting argument brought a lifetime of feuding to a head in the form of a duel. The duel took place on the 11th of July 1804 at Weehawken, New Jersey. Hamilton believed that a gentleman shoots over his target, and that honor is served.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/hamilton/filmmore/pt_2.html</ref> Burr had no such belief. Hamilton shot over Burr's head, but Burr's shot struck its target into Hamilton's body. Hamilton was taken away and after suffering horribly from the wound throughout the night, died the next day. <ref>[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000101 Biography]</ref> Hamilton's son, who was given the same advice by his father that a gentleman shoots over his target, had earlier died in a duel the same way.

==Reputation==
No figure in American history has had so many ups and down, so many champions and detractors as Hamilton over the last two centuries. Historians continue to ask, "Was he a closet monarchist or a sincere republican? A victim of partisan politics or one of its most active promoters? A lackey for British interests or a foreign policy mastermind? An economic genius or a shill for special interests? The father of a vigorous national government or the destroyer of genuine federalism? A defender of governmental authority or a dangerous militarist?"<ref>Ambrose and Martin, ed. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton'' (2006) p. 11 </ref>
==Trivia==

Hamilton, along with [[Benjamin Franklin]], is one of the very few non-presidents to be portrayed on American money. Hamilton's portrait is on the $10 bill, while Franklin is on the $100 bill.

==Quotes==
* "Those who stand for nothing fall for anything."

==Notes==
<references/>

==Further reading ==
* Ellis, Joseph J. ''Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation'' (2002), won Pulitzer Prize. [http://www.amazon.com/Founding-Brothers-Revolutionary-Joseph-Ellis/dp/0375405445/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ferling, John. ''A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic'' (Oxford University Press, 2003), good overview of the era
* Brookhiser, Richard. "Alexander Hamilton, American". (1999) biography [http://www.amazon.com/ALEXANDER-HAMILTON-American-Richard-Brookhiser/dp/0684863316/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083822&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Chernow, Ron. "Alexander Hamilton". (2004) full length detailed biography [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Ron-Chernow/dp/B000UENRQU/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196084039&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979), biography by leading conservative historian; focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Biography-Forrest-McDonald/dp/039330048X/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 complete edition online from Questia]
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]

===Biographies===
* Ambrose, Douglas, and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life and Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father.'' (2006) 310pp, essays by scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/Many-Faces-Alexander-Hamilton-Americas/dp/0814707149/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083971&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Cooke, Jacob E. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography.'' (1982) by leading scholar
* Flexner, James Thomas. "The Young Hamilton: A Biography". (1997)
* Hacker, Louis M. ''Alexander Hamilton in the American Tradition.'' (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95039628 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Biography'' (1979) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101665868 online edition] biography focused on intellectual history esp on AH's republicanism.
* McDonald, Forrest. "Hamilton, Alexander"; [http://www.anb.org/articles/02/02-00154.html; American National Biography Online 2000], 5000 words
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-length scholarly biography; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/alexander-hamilton-portrait-in-paradox-by-john-c-miller.jsp online edition]
* Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton'' (2 vols, 1957–62), the most detailed scholarly biography; [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33716230 online edition of vol 1]
** Mitchell, Broadus. ''Alexander Hamilton: A Concise Biography'' (1976), 395pp
* Nevins, Allan. "Alexander Hamilton" in ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934)
* Randall, Willard Sterne. "Alexander Hamilton: A Life". (2003) Popular. [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Willard-Sterne-Randall/dp/0060954663/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196083900&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===Political philosophy===
* Chan, Michael D. "Alexander Hamilton on Slavery." ''Review of Politics'' 66 (Spring 2004): 207-31. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1408953 in JSTOR]
* Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 2004 48(3): 429-444. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519908 in JSTOR]
* Horton, James Oliver. "Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation" ''New-York Journal of American History'' 2004 65(3): 16–24. [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:88cftz6zXJYJ:www.alexanderhamiltonexhibition.org/about/Horton%2520-%2520Hamiltsvery_Race.pdf+james+horton+%22alexander+hamilton%22+slavery&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 online version]
* Mason, Alpheus Thomas. "The Federalist--A Split Personality," ''American Historical Review'' 57 (1952): 625-43 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(195204)57%3A3%3C625%3ATFSP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z online at JSTOR]
* Martin, Robert W. T. "Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton's Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1): 21-46. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v025/25.1martin.html in Project Muse]
* Rossiter, Clinton. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution'' (1964)
* Sheehan, Colleen. "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion" ''American Political Science Review'' 2004 98(3): 405–424. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=245205 online abstract]
* Stourzh, Gerald. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government'' (1970),
* Staloff, Darren. "Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding." (2005)

===Politics===
* Bassett, John Spencer. ''The Federalist System, 1789-1801'' (1906) old scholarly survey; [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0qz0JCJMPjp9xrk7lF2zF07&id=LAoOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=bassett+%22federalist+system%22&sig=CPcsG1aOwgXiDZ7TIRpl1bKO4P0 online edition]
* Bowers, Claude G. ''Jefferson and Hamilton'' (1925), a slashing attack on Hamilton as unamerican aristocrat
* Charles, Joseph. "The Jay Treaty: The Origins of the American Party System," in ''William and Mary Quarterly'', (Oct., 1955), pp. 581-630. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1918627 online at JSTOR]
*Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism.'' (1993), the most advanced history of politics in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-age-of-federalism-by-stanley-elkins-eric-mckitrick.jsp online edition]
* Kurtz; Stephen G. ''The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800'' 1957 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14355519 online edition]
* Miller, John C. ''The Federalist Era: 1789-1801'' (1960), scholarly survey
* Nevins, Allan. ''The Evening Post: A Century of Journalism'' (1922) [http://books.google.com/books?id=q-F2daxBy1AC&pg=PA7&dq=inauthor:allan+inauthor:nevins&num=30&as_brr=1#PPA5,M1 online edition] ch 1 on Hamilton's ownership
* Sharp, James. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis.'' (1995), survey of politics in 1790s

===Finance===
* Edling, Max M. "'So Immense a Power in the Affairs of War': Alexander Hamilton and the Restoration of Public Credit." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2007 64(2): 287-326. in [[History Cooperative]]
* Flaumenhaft, Harvey. ''The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton'' Duke University Press, 1992 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=37077611 online edition]
* McDonald, Forrest. ''The Presidency of George Washington'' (1974).
* McNamara, Peter. ''Political Economy and Statesmanship: Smith, Hamilton, and the Foundation of the Commercial Republic.'' (Northern Illinois University Press, 1997). 256 pp.
* Nettels, Curtis P. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815'' (1962). general survey of economic history and policy
* White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists'' (1949), detailed coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.
* Wright; Robert E. ''Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic'' Praeger (2002) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102032054 online edition]

===Foreign Policy===
* Bemis, Samuel Flagg. ''Jay's Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/jays-treaty-a-study-in-commerce-and-diplomacy-by-samuel-flagg-bemis.jsp online edition]
* Coleman, Aaron N. "'A Second Bounaparty?': A Reexamination of Alexander Hamilton during the Franco–American Crisis, 1796–1801," ''Journal of the Early Republic,'' Volume 28, Number 2, Summer 2008, pp. 183-214 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_early_republic/v028/28.2.coleman.html in Project Muse]
* Combs, Jerald. A. ''The Jay Treaty: Political Background of Founding Fathers'' (1970) Combs dislikes Hamilton's quest for national power and a "heroic state" dominating the Western Hemisphere, but concludes the Federalists "followed the proper policy" because the treaty preserved peace with Britain
* Harper, John Lamberton. ''American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.'' (2004) [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=220511093955403 online review]
* Lycan, Gilbert L. ''Alexander Hamilton and American Foreign Policy: A Design for Greatness'' (1970),
* Smith, Robert W. ''Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy.'' (2004)
* Walling, Karl-Friedrich. ''Republican Empire: Alexander Hamilton on War and Free Government'' (1999),

===Personality===
* Ambrose, Douglas and Robert W. T. Martin, eds. ''The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life & Legacy of America's Most Elusive Founding Father '' (2006)
* Freeman, Joanne B. ''Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic'' (2001). essential on the meaning of duels; [http://www.common-place.org/vol-02/no-02/author/ online interview]
* Kennedy, Roger G. ''Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character'' Oxford UP, 2000 [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59887100 online edition]
* Knott, Stephen F. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth'' University Press of Kansas, (2002) (ISBN 0-7006-1157-6).
* Trees, Andrew S. "The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton." ''Reviews in American History'' 2005 33(1): 8-14. Issn: 0048-7511 Fulltext: in Project Muse
* Trees, Andrew S. ''The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character.'' (2004)

===Primary sources===
* Freeman, Joanne B., ed. ''Alexander Hamilton: Writings'' (2001), [http://www.loa.org The Library of America] edition, 1108 pages. Most of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters [http://www.amazon.com/Alexander-Hamilton-Writings-Library-America/dp/1931082049/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1220839663&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Syrett, Harold C. ed. ''The Papers of Alexander Hamilton'' (27 vol, Columbia University Press, 1961–87); includes all letters and writing by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive letterpress edition, heavily annotated by scholars; it is available in larger academic libraries; there is also a separate Law series.
* Morris, Richard. ed. ''Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation'' (1957), excerpts from AH's writings, by topic, 617pp
* Morton J. Frisch ed. ''Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton.'' (1985), 528pp. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58312678 online edition]
* ''The Works of Alexander Hamilton'' edited by Henry Cabot Lodge (1904) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC01013&id=R7TukmWbcrcC&printsec=toc full text online at Google Books] [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Author.php?recordID=0135 online in HTML edition]. This is the only online collection of Hamilton's writings and letters. Published in 10 volumes, containing about 1.3 million words. [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Hamilton%2C%20alexander%20works full text online at archive.org]
* ''Federalist Papers''] under the shared pseudonym "Publius" by Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), [[James Madison]] (28 articles) and [[John Jay]] (five articles)
* Cooke, Jacob E. ed., ''Alexander Hamilton: A Profile'' (1967), short excerpts from AH and his critics.
* Cunningham, Noble E. ''Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation'' (2000), short collection of primary sources with commentary.
* Taylor, George Rogers. ed, ''Hamilton and the National Debt'' 1950, excerpts from all sides in 1790s [http://www.questia.com/library/book/hamilton-and-the-national-debt-by-george-rogers-taylor.jsp online edition]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hamilton, Alexander}}

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