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Tokyo

2021-04-24T02:00:24Z

General Chunichi:

{{City
|picture =Tokyo 2.jpg
|picture2 =
|map =
|country =Japan
|state =
|region =Kanto
|island =Honshu
|settled =
|charter =
|population =37,400,000 (2020)
|area =3,178 sq mi
|density =11,768/sq mi
|mayor =
|governor =Yuriko Koike
|demonym =Tokyoite
|co-ordinates =35.6° N., 139.7° E.<ref>{{Cite book|date=1922|title=World Almanac and Book of Facts for 1923|url=https://archive.org/stream/worldalmanacbook1923unse#page/62/mode/2up/search/munich|series=series: World Almanac and Book of Facts|language=English|location=New York|publisher=Press Pub Co. (''The New York World'')|pages=63}} Rounded down toward zero.</ref>
}}
'''Tokyo''', the capital of [[Japan]], is the economic, political, educational and cultural center of Japan, and is situated on the eastern coast of the main island of [[Honshu]]. Prior to becoming the capital in 1868, the city was named Edo (江戸, meaning "estuary") and served as the power-base for the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]] between 1603 and 1868.

==Parks==
{{language box
|pic=Tokyo.jpg
|l=eastern capital
|kanji=東京都
|romaji=Tōkyō-shi
}}
Urban parks became an increasingly common feature of European and American cities in the 19th century and elicited the interest of visiting Japanese leaders. The concept of the urban public park was introduced to Japan by the country's new Meiji oligarchs within the context of the radical reshaping of Tokyo. Representative are two sites. The first is a hill in the north of the city with long-standing associations with the Tokugawa shogunate; the second is a parade ground next to the site of the castle-palace. The hill became a park in name but in practice remained a site for public celebration, while the parade ground was transformed with considerable difficulty and over many years into a consciously fashioned recreational space. The two show the contrasts and hesitations that surrounded changing understandings of the role of the capital city and its shifting symbolic landscapes, as well as the gradual process of domestication of the concept of a public park.<ref>Paul Waley, "Parks and Landmarks: Planning the Eastern Capital along Western Lines." ''Journal of Historical Geography'' 2005 31(1): 1-16. Issn: 0305-7488</ref>

==Culture==
===Museums===
The Horyuji Homotsukan [Hall of Horyuji Treasures] of the Tokyo National Museum displays items from the Horyuji temple in Nara Prefecture. Meiji officials sought to implement cultural policies modeled on those they had seen in action in Europe in the 1860s. Machida Hisanari (1839-97), "father" of the National Museum, served both these interests and used the collection to promote the restored monarchy.<ref> Hiroko T. McDermott, "The Horyuji Treasures and Early Meiji Cultural Policy." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 2006 61(3): 339-374. Issn: 0027-0741</ref>
===Education===
Under Tokugawa rule, a limited number of elite schools taught values of literary civilization to encourage discipline within the class of hereditarily-qualified office holders. Schools were storehouses of texts and patronized scholars, serving as waystations for bureaucratic candidates lacking office and for domainal students.

In the Meiji Era, consolidation of the government schools as Tokyo University in 1877 brought a strong emphasis upon introducing new forms of expertise, especially in science and technology. Advanced schools were transformed into centers for academic activities such as research and publication by experts often possessing national reputation. Control over education was delegated to the Ministry of Education, leaving the schools free to concentrate upon developing new forms of expertise. The university was gradually forced onto the stage of national politics. New nationalist epistemologies in the social sciences were introduced, and university scholars began to enter public debate as experts in many areas. The study of law developed rapidly at Tokyo University, making the university the foremost supplier of candidates for bureaucratic office. Thus by the 1880s the university had become an invaluable political instrument to the government bureaucracy.<ref>M. Pierce Griggs, "From Civilizing to Expertizing Bureaucracy: Changing Educational Emphasis in Government-Supported Schools of Tokyo (Edo) during the Tokugawa Period and Early Meiji Era." (PhD U. of Chicago 1997.)</ref>

==History==
[[File:Japan_map.gif|right]]
Tokyo, formerly known as Edo, lies on the Kanto plain, which was settled by the 3rd millennium BC.
Modern Tokyo still carries some local names of former villages. Hirakawa-mura, a farming and fishing village on the shores of the Hira river, had a strategic location, commanding land, sea, and river routes along the Kanto plain.

In the Yamahura period (c. 12th century), Edo Shigenaga, the military governor of a large Kanto province, erected his castle there, calling it Edojuku. The castle was rebuilt in 1456 by Ota Dokan, shrines and temples were established around it, and merchants developed nearby ferry and shipping routes. By 1590, when the shogun leader [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] selected Edo as his military headquarters, the settlement surrounding Edojuku boasted a mere hundred thatch-roofed cottages. Ieyasu assembled warriors and craftsmen, fortified the Edojuku castle with moats and bridges, and built up the town. After 1603, he became the effective ruler of Japan, Edo became a powerful and flourishing city as the effective national capital, though Japan's imperial seat and official capital remained in [[Kyoto]].

===Edo in the Tokugawa era (1603-1867) ===
The [[Tokugawa]] political system rested on both feudal and bureaucratic controls, so that Tokyo lacked a unitary administration. The typical urban social order was composed of warriors, peasants, artisans, and businessmen, the latter two classes organized in officially sanctioned guilds whose number increased with trade and population growth. Because businessmen were excluded from government office, they nurtured a culture of entertainment, making Edo a cultural as well as a political and economic center. Edo was one of the world's 10 largest cities in 1800, with a population estimated between 685,000<ref>[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201e.htm Top 10 Cities of the Year 1800]</ref> and 1.25 million in 1800.<ref>[http://www.energybulletin.net/node/5140 Japan's sustainable society in the Edo period (1603-1867)] Japan For Sustainability Newsletter, March 30, 2003</ref> Edo was a significant force in generating social change and economic growth in Japan during the final two centuries of Tokugawa rule. The city's demand for human and material resources resulted in an appreciable migration of people within Japan, the creation of new markets and marketing patterns, and generated improved standards of performance and new tastes for living better.<ref>Gilbert Rozman, "Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1974 1(1): 91-112.</ref>

The city had two type of land ownership bukechi and chochi. Bukechi was used exclusively by members of the samurai class for residential purposes. There was no system of private landownership, no sales or purchases, and therefore no recognized land value. Chochi, on the other hand, was used by ordinary townspeople, both merchants and craftsmen, for both residential and commercial purposes. Private landownership was recognized and chochi land had agreed values. In the 1870s the Meiji reformers put bukechi land under the same rules as chochi land, thereby sweeping all remnants of feudal class divisions.

Local government in each Edo district was organized under the two highest officials were the machi bugyó, who drew up and issued administrative orders. Next came three full-time administrators, called toshiyori, who were hereditary office-holders. The nanushi, or headmen, were responsible for up to a dozen machi. After 1720, the nanushi were organized into 20 guilds. The had the difficult challenge of protecting the overcrowded city, built of flimsy wood houses; in 1657 a huge fire razed two thirds of the city, causing 100,000 deaths.

Severe sanctions in Edo against those usually known as kawata (derogatorily labeled eta by others) and those labeled hinin (literally "nonhuman") were codified in law and backed by state force. In the city of Edo deliberate political and social processes led to the creation of the Burakumin outcast order in Japan. Even though ideologies of "pollution" and "impurity" may have played a role in determining who was targeted for discrimination, the production of a system of prejudice and intolerance was chiefly the result of deliberate political and economic policies of the ruling class.<ref>Gerald Groemer, "The Creation of the Edo Outcaste Order." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 2001 27(2): 263-293. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/3591967 in Jstor]</ref>

The Machikaisho of Tokyo was a warehouse for rice storage that was set up during the Kansei reform period, 1787-33, as a way of ruling Tokyo. This granary provided relief for famished city dwellers and low-interest loans to landowners. Important schools were established, such as Shoheiko (1790) for the study of Confucian classics, Kaiseigo (1885) for western learning, and Igakusho (1863) for the study of occidental medicine. In 1877 they merged to form [[Tokyo University]].

===Edo renamed to Tokyo (1868)===
An attack by imperial troops on Edo followed hard on the defeat of the Tokugawa forces at Toba-Fushimi in January 1868. Edo Castle surrendered in the early spring and the Tokugawa family and retainers were forced by the new regime to depart for Suruga. Edo was renamed Tokyo ["the eastern capital"] and the new Meiji boy emperor arrived in the fall. Bystanders to this political turmoil, the urban poor, caught between rising prices of rice and fish and the downfall of the old bakufu leadership, commented cynically and often humorously on their predicament through newspapers, broadsheets, handbills, and woodblock prints.<ref>M. William Steele, "Edo in 1868: The View from Below." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 1990 45(2): 127-155. Issn: 0027-0741 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2384846 in Jstor]</ref>

===The Meiji Period===
In the first two decades of the Meiji period (1868-1912) the country's leaders engaged in intense discussions about the future of the capital of Tokyo. The Fifty-Ward System, was part of the effort by the new government to strengthen control over the people. It preserved the Town Official System and the deliberative organ of representatives of Edo, but dissolved the ruling system of the headmen. It soon gave way to the Large and Small Ward System. Some planners argued for the importance of urban beautification, while others regarded changes in urban infrastructure and services as essential to maintenance and growth of the city. Many of the proposed changes were cloaked in the language of progress. Phillips (1996) examines the course taken by urban leaders of the first decades of the Meiji period in establishing planning policy, using planning documents, transcripts of planning committees, and on architectural and urban design data from completed urban improvement projects in Meiji Tokyo. Phillips (1996) focuses on two issues, (1) the extent to which the efforts of Japanese leaders focused the country on the goal of modernization, and (2) the extent to which efforts to achieve bunmei kaika, or cultural enlightenment, were superficial. He demonstrates how the concepts of modernity and the struggle to develop a modern urban structure altered previous notions of cities and city planning practices. Poor articulation of planning policy in the first decades of the Meiji period reflected a lack of consensus among Meiji leaders about the definition and course of modernization. Rather than reject traditional approaches to planning, urban leaders eventually incorporated these approaches into their new planning methodologies. Modernity in the Japanese context, consequently, did not require dismantling preexisting urban structures. Instead, it represented a marriage of the political motivations of the country's leaders with the modern urban needs for improved transportation networks and zoning mechanisms. Exposure of the political system to popular opinion entailed the shifting of planning discourse from the theoretical to the practical realm, as well as from the private to the public realm.<ref>David Peter Phillips, "Intersections of Modernity and Tradition: An Urban Planning History of Tokyo in the Early Meiji Period (1868-1888)." (PhD U. of Pennsylvania 1996)</ref>

===1923 Kanto earthquake===
Ar noon on Saturday 1 September 1923, the eathquake hit, registering 8.3 on the Richter scale. The epicentre was in Sagami Bay, about 80 km south of Tokyo. The earthquake was followed five minutes later by a huge tsunami, with a height of about 12 meters. As fires swept across the city, 75% of all buildings suffered severe structural damage. The quake cut most of the water mains. About 100,000 people were killed from an urban population of about 4.5 million.<ref>Estimates of deaths vary widely, from 70,000 to 140,000.</ref> Some 40,000 refugees died in one location at the Honjo Military Clothing Depot on the banks of the Sumida River. They were huddling together in the building as the cyclone of superheated air passed overhead and sucked out their air so that they died instantly of suffocation. Property damage came to two per cent of Japan's total national wealth. Two million people were homeless.

Angry Tokyoans took revenge on resident Koreans, killing hundreds, perhaps thousands. Animosity toward Koreans was fueled by rumors of Korean wrongdoing after the quake. Some non-Koreans were murdered as well, but Koreans became the specific targets because of their distinct Korean identity, rather than simply because they were not Japanese. The Japanese colonial occupation of Korea provided the backdrop to this extreme example of the explosion of racial prejudice into violence, based on a history of antagonism. To be a Korean in 1923 Japan was to be not only despised, but also threatened and potentially killed.

In contrast to London, where typhoid fever had been steadily declining since the 1870s, the decline in Tokyo did not begin until the late 1920s in Japan. Within the city of Tokyo, the rate of typhoid morbidity was higher in the upper-class residential northern and western districts than in the densely populated working-class eastern district. An explanation is the decline of waste disposal, which became particularly serious in the northern and western districts when traditional methods of waste disposal collapsed due to urbanization. The great Kanto earthquake (1923) had a major long-term impact on the city's rate of typhoid morbidity. Although the level of morbidity rose to a record high due to unsanitary conditions following the earthquake, it prompted the establishment of antityphoid measures and the building of urban infrastructure.<ref>Takeshi Nagashima, "Sewage Disposal and Typhoid Fever: the Case of Tokyo 1912-1940." ''Annales De Démographie Historique'' 2004 (2): 105-117. Issn: 0066-2062</ref>

n the rebuilding process, the one- and two-story wood structures were replaced by modern five- and six-story buildings of concrete and steel in the European style. Motorways were built. The first underground subway system opened in 1927 and a new airport in 1931. At 6.36 million, the city's population in 1935 was larger than before the earthquake; it was nearly as large as London or New York. The "secondary centers" or "satellite cities" of Shinjuku, Shibuya, and Ikebukuro grew rapidly. They and the entire surrounding Tokyo prefecture was incorporated into the city in 1943.

===World War II===

As a major wartime metropolis. The experience of everyday life in Tokyo dramatically changed with munitions-based heavy industrialization and the loss of liberties and urban culture as the state mobilized for total war. The sensitive issue of how to defend the capital from air attack then became a pressing concern for urban planners, government officials, and even fiction writers. While the government assigned Tokyoites the responsibility of protecting the Imperial capital, devastating American fire bombing raids revealed in an instant the impossibility of carrying out such a task.

Tokyo was bombed repeatedly. LeMay sent 325 [[B-29]]s over Tokyo on March 9–10 to drop 1665 tons of incendiaries. An unstoppable fire storm burned out 16 square miles and killed over 80,000, most of whom suffocated in bomb shelters when the firestorm consumed the oxygen. One fourth of the buildings in the entire city were destroyed. Half the 7.4 million residents fled to the countryside (which was not bombed). The raid marked a turning point in the American strategic air war against Japan. Previously, most raids were "precision" raids that used high explosives against industrial targets; thereafter, most raids were "area" raids that used incendiary bombs to burn Japanese cities and kill civilians. The strategic shift did not depart radically from the air war in Europe or from prewar planning. Headquarters had always intended for [[Curtis LeMay]] to lead the air campaign against Japan and had always viewed incendiary raids against cities and American policy since the 1930s had focused on the burning of Tokyon—and the killing of civilian war workers—as a way to destroy an enemy's industrial capability.<ref>Thomas R. Searle, "'It Made a Lot of Sense to Kill Skilled Workers': the Firebombing of Tokyo in March 1945." ''Journal of Military History'' 2002 66(1): 103-133. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2677346 in JSTOR]</ref>

After a long interval of silence, private memories of the catastrophic fire bombings became public when air raid survivors and others joined together to write a history of the raids and then attempt to build a museum from which to transmit the experience of war.<ref>Cary Lee Karacas, "Tokyo from the Fire: War, Occupation, and the Remaking of a Metropolis." (2006)</ref>

===1945-1970===

The destroyed metropolis became the base from which the United States under [[Douglas MacArthur]] administered Japan for several years. During this period there emerged two Tokyos. In one, the occupiers appropriated and transformed key sections of the city in ways that allowed them to partake in the spoils of war and live in luxury. In the other, Tokyoites struggled to stave off starvation and to secure housing and employment.

The population reached ten million in 1964 as the Summer Olympic Games that year left a deep impact on the national identity of Japan. The nation's wounded psyche and reputation from World War II was significantly healed. Rapid social changes, thematically staged in the Olympic ceremonies, enabled Japan to display an inclusive and comprehensive national pride, and underscored Japan's re-entry into the circle of developed industrial countries. The 1964 ancient arts exhibition put on by the Tokyo National Museum to coincide with the Tokyo Olympics provided an opportunity to promote Japan's traditional culture to foreign visitors and to the Japanese people themselves, as part of an effort to regain normalized status in the international community. Architect Tange Kenzo is most famous for the National Indoor Stadium, built in 1964 for the Olympics.<ref>Noriko Aso, "Sumptuous Re-past: the 1964 Tokyo Olympics Arts Festival." ''Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique'' 2002 10(1): 7-38. Issn: 1067-9847 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]</ref>

===1970 to present===

The vast majority of large companies, financial institutions, and government agencies continue to maintain their headquarters in the old center of the city, mainly in the Marunouchi area in the Chiyoda Ward.

====Land bubble of 1980s====

During the second half of the 1980s, Tokyo experienced a huge increase of urban land prices. This "[[economic bubble|land bubble]]" phenomenon led to new strategies in the urban development process. In order to preserve the profitability of real estate schemes, developers used several means of action to increase building density, namely the jiage system and urban renewal procedure. They also experimented with new methods to avoid land purchase, such as land deposit and short-term lease contracts. These new methods of development had a great impact on Tokyo's morphology. Skyscrapers and high-rise buildings were built in business zones instead of narrow "pencil buildings"; huge department stores surrounded by public squares flourished in the vicinity of middle-range railway stations; and modern concrete buildings progressively replaced old wooden houses within residential zones. However, this modernization process was not closely controlled by the public authorities, and it produced an anarchic collection of high-rise buildings throughout the capital city that increased road traffic and worsened parking problems.<ref>A. Sorensen, ''Land Readjustment and Metropolitan Growth: An Examination of Suburban Land Development and Urban Sprawl in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area'' (2000)</ref>

In early-21st-century Tokyo, the construction of luxury residential and commercial towers in neighborhoods along the Sumida River has accelerated dramatically, altering the social composition and cultural images associated with downtown Tokyo. The new buildings stand in contrast to the sinking economy and are markers of the growing gap between rich and poor. They also reflect the pattern of urban construction and destruction as well as the unobtainable desires promised by commodity capitalism.

The Japanese media have featured articles on the escalation of youth crime and discontent, as well as the many forms of corruption that teenagers are exposed to in transformed downtown Tokyo. The 2002 Naoki literary prize was awarded to a book that reacts to both urban development and the problems facing Tokyo adolescents - Ishida Ira's 4-Teen (2002). Ishida shows the effects of Tokyo's transformations on teenage social norms and uses descriptions of urban places to reveal contradictions embedded in these roles. This article examines the context of 4-Teen's publication and the awarding of the Naoki Prize and explores how stories that mix fiction and historical experience provide new ways of viewing the changes in Tokyo.<ref>Alisa Freedman, "Stories of Boys and Buildings: Ishida Ira's 4-teen in 2002 Toyko." ''Japan Forum'' 2006 18(3): 381-398. Issn: 0955-5803 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Kanto]], the region
*[[Honshu]], the island
*[[Japan]]
*[[History of Japan]]
*[[Fukushima]]

==External links==
* [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/ ''The Japan Times''] daily newspaper in English
* [http://www.asahi.com/english/ ''Asahi Shimbun''] daily newspaper, English edition
* [http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/tokyo/tokyo.htm Tokyo]

==Bibliography==
===Guides===
* DK. ''Tokyo'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Tokyo-EYEWITNESS-TRAVEL-GUIDE-Publishing/dp/0756632285/ref=pd_bbs_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Tokyo''(2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Tokyo-Complete-Beth-Reiber/dp/0470181559/ref=pd_bbs_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Waley, Paul. ''Tokyo Now and Then: An Explorer's Guide.'' (1984). 592 pp
* Yanagihara, Wendy. ''Lonely Planet Tokyo Encounter'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Tokyo-Encounter-Yanagihara/dp/1740595580/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===Contemporary ===
* Allinson, Gary D. ''Suburban Tokyo: A Comparative Study in Politics and Social Change.'' (1979). 258 pp.
* Bestor, Theodore. ''Neighborhood Tokyo'' (1989). [http://www.questia.com/read/91986553?title=Neighborhood%20Tokyo online edition]
* Bestor, Theodore. ''Tsukiji: The Fish Market at the Center of the World,'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/read/105652913?title=Tsukiji%3a%20%20The%20Fish%20Market%20at%20the%20Center%20of%20the%20World online edition]
* Fowler, Edward. ''San’ya Blues: Laboring Life in Contemporary Tokyo.'' ( 1996) ISBN 0801485703.
* Friedman, Mildred, ed. ''Tokyo, Form and Spirit.'' (1986). 256 pp.
* Jinnai, Hidenobu. ''Tokyo: A Spatial Anthropology.'' (1995). 236 pp.
* Reynolds, Jonathan M. "Japan's Imperial Diet Building: Debate over Construction of a National Identity." ''Art Journal.'' 55#3 (1996) pp 38+. [http://www.questia.com/read/5000419130?title=Japan's%20Imperial%20Diet%20Building%3a%20Debate%20over%20Construction%20of%20a%20National%20Identity online edition]
* Sassen, Saskia. ''The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo.''(1991). 397 pp.
* Sorensen, A. ''Land Readjustment and Metropolitan Growth: An Examination of Suburban Land Development and Urban Sprawl in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area'' (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/Land-Readjustment-Metropolitan-Growth-Examination/dp/0080437958/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207476468&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Waley, Paul. "Tokyo-as-world-city: Reassessing the Role of Capital and the State in Urban Restructuring." ''Urban Studies'' 2007 44(8): 1465-1490. Issn: 0042-0980 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
===History===
* Beard, Charles A. ''The Administration and Politics of Tokyo'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/read/556249?title=The%20Administration%20and%20Politics%20of%20Tokyo online edition]
* Brown, Arlo Ayres, III. "The Great Tokyo Riot: The History and Historiography of the Hibiya Incendiary Incident of 1905." PhD dissertation Columbia U. 1986. 425 pp. DAI 1986 47(3): 1025-A. DA8610746 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Cybriwsky, Roman. ''Tokyo: The Shogun's City at the Twenty-first Century.'' (1998). 260 pp.
* Edoin, Hoito. ''The Night Tokyo Burned.'' (1987). 272 pp. On March 1945
* Fiévé, Nicolas and Paul Waley, eds. ''Japanese capitals in historical perspective: place, power and memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo'' (2003)
* Freedman, Alisa D. "Tracking Japanese Modernity: Commuter Trains, Streetcars, and Passengers in Tokyo Literature, 1905-1935." PhD dissertation U. of Chicago 2002. 300 pp. DAI 2002 63(4): 1347-A. DA3048377 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Griggs, M. Pierce. "From Civilizing to Expertizing Bureaucracy: Changing Educational Emphasis in Government-Supported Schools of Tokyo (Edo) during the Tokugawa Period and Early Meiji Era." PhD dissertation U. of Chicago 1997. 303 pp. DAI 1998 58(10): 4031-A. DA9811860 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Hastings, Sally Ann. ''Neighborhood and Nation in Tokyo, 1905-1937'' (1995),
* Karacas, Cary Lee. "Tokyo from the Fire: War, Occupation, and the Remaking of a Metropolis." PhD dissertation U. of California, Berkeley 2006. 333 pp. DAI 2007 67(8): 3111-A. DA3228373 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* McClain, James L., John M. Merriman, and Ugawa Kaoru, eds. ''Edo and Paris: Urban Life and the State in the Early Modern Era'' (1994)
* Masai, Y. "Tokyo: From a feudal million city to a global supercity," ''Geographical Review of Japan'' (1990) 63(B-1): 1–16
* Miller, Ian Jared. "The Nature of the Beast: The Ueno Zoological Gardens and Imperial Modernity in Japan, 1882-1945." PhD dissertation Columbia U. 2004. 273 pp. DAI 2007 68(1): 304-A. DA3249167 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Phillips, David Peter. "Intersections of Modernity and Tradition: An Urban Planning History of Tokyo in the Early Meiji Period (1868-1888)." PhD dissertation U. of Pennsylvania 1996. 241 pp. DAI 1996 57(4): 1879-A. DA9627986 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Raz, Aviad E. ''Riding the Black Ship: Japan and Tokyo Disneyland.'' (1999). 240 pp.
* Rozman, Gilbert. "Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1974 1(1): 91-112. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/133438 in Jstor]
* Seidensticker, Edward. ''Low City, High City: Tokyo from Edo to the Earthquake'' (1983)
* Seidensticker, Edward. ''Tokyo Rising: The City since the Great Earthquake.'' (1990). 384 pp. [http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/papers/jhist4.htm online book review]
* Siebert, Loren. "Using GIS to Document, Visualize, and Interpret Tokyo's Spatial History." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(3): 536-574. Issn: 0145-5532 [http://writingwiki.org//html/24.3siebert.html online]
* Smith, Henry D., II. "Tokyo as an Idea: an Exploration of Japanese Urban Thought until 1945." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1978 4(1): 45-80. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/132072 in Jstor]
* Tajima, Kayo. "The Marketing of Urban Human Waste in the Edo/Tokyo Metropolitan Area: 1600-1935." PhD dissertation Tufts U. 2005. 189 pp. DAI 2005 66(3): 1123-A. DA3167536 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Takenaka-O'Brien, Akiko. "The Aesthetics of Mass-Persuasion: War and Architectural Sites in Tokyo, 1868-1945." PhD dissertation Yale U. 2004. 549 pp. DAI 2004 65(3): 730-A. DA3125312 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]

===Primary sources===
* Plutschow, Herbert E., ed. ''Reader in Edo period travel.'' (Global Oriental: 2006)
* Shirane, Haruo, ed. ''Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600– 1900.'' (2002). 1050 pp
* Smith II, Henry D. ed. ''Hiroshige: One Hundred Famous Views of Edo'' (1986),

====References====
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Japanese Cities and Towns]]

[[Category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Japanese History]]

Tokyo

2021-04-24T01:59:56Z

General Chunichi:

{{City
|picture =Tokyo 2.jpg
|picture2 =
|map =
|country =Japan
|state =
|region =Kanto
|island =Honshu
|settled =
|charter =
|population =37,400,000 (2020)
|area =3,178 sq mi
|density =11,768/sq mi
|mayor =
|governor =[[Yuriko Koike]]
|demonym =Tokyoite
|co-ordinates =35.6° N., 139.7° E.<ref>{{Cite book|date=1922|title=World Almanac and Book of Facts for 1923|url=https://archive.org/stream/worldalmanacbook1923unse#page/62/mode/2up/search/munich|series=series: World Almanac and Book of Facts|language=English|location=New York|publisher=Press Pub Co. (''The New York World'')|pages=63}} Rounded down toward zero.</ref>
}}
'''Tokyo''', the capital of [[Japan]], is the economic, political, educational and cultural center of Japan, and is situated on the eastern coast of the main island of [[Honshu]]. Prior to becoming the capital in 1868, the city was named Edo (江戸, meaning "estuary") and served as the power-base for the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]] between 1603 and 1868.

==Parks==
{{language box
|pic=Tokyo.jpg
|l=eastern capital
|kanji=東京都
|romaji=Tōkyō-shi
}}
Urban parks became an increasingly common feature of European and American cities in the 19th century and elicited the interest of visiting Japanese leaders. The concept of the urban public park was introduced to Japan by the country's new Meiji oligarchs within the context of the radical reshaping of Tokyo. Representative are two sites. The first is a hill in the north of the city with long-standing associations with the Tokugawa shogunate; the second is a parade ground next to the site of the castle-palace. The hill became a park in name but in practice remained a site for public celebration, while the parade ground was transformed with considerable difficulty and over many years into a consciously fashioned recreational space. The two show the contrasts and hesitations that surrounded changing understandings of the role of the capital city and its shifting symbolic landscapes, as well as the gradual process of domestication of the concept of a public park.<ref>Paul Waley, "Parks and Landmarks: Planning the Eastern Capital along Western Lines." ''Journal of Historical Geography'' 2005 31(1): 1-16. Issn: 0305-7488</ref>

==Culture==
===Museums===
The Horyuji Homotsukan [Hall of Horyuji Treasures] of the Tokyo National Museum displays items from the Horyuji temple in Nara Prefecture. Meiji officials sought to implement cultural policies modeled on those they had seen in action in Europe in the 1860s. Machida Hisanari (1839-97), "father" of the National Museum, served both these interests and used the collection to promote the restored monarchy.<ref> Hiroko T. McDermott, "The Horyuji Treasures and Early Meiji Cultural Policy." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 2006 61(3): 339-374. Issn: 0027-0741</ref>
===Education===
Under Tokugawa rule, a limited number of elite schools taught values of literary civilization to encourage discipline within the class of hereditarily-qualified office holders. Schools were storehouses of texts and patronized scholars, serving as waystations for bureaucratic candidates lacking office and for domainal students.

In the Meiji Era, consolidation of the government schools as Tokyo University in 1877 brought a strong emphasis upon introducing new forms of expertise, especially in science and technology. Advanced schools were transformed into centers for academic activities such as research and publication by experts often possessing national reputation. Control over education was delegated to the Ministry of Education, leaving the schools free to concentrate upon developing new forms of expertise. The university was gradually forced onto the stage of national politics. New nationalist epistemologies in the social sciences were introduced, and university scholars began to enter public debate as experts in many areas. The study of law developed rapidly at Tokyo University, making the university the foremost supplier of candidates for bureaucratic office. Thus by the 1880s the university had become an invaluable political instrument to the government bureaucracy.<ref>M. Pierce Griggs, "From Civilizing to Expertizing Bureaucracy: Changing Educational Emphasis in Government-Supported Schools of Tokyo (Edo) during the Tokugawa Period and Early Meiji Era." (PhD U. of Chicago 1997.)</ref>

==History==
[[File:Japan_map.gif|right]]
Tokyo, formerly known as Edo, lies on the Kanto plain, which was settled by the 3rd millennium BC.
Modern Tokyo still carries some local names of former villages. Hirakawa-mura, a farming and fishing village on the shores of the Hira river, had a strategic location, commanding land, sea, and river routes along the Kanto plain.

In the Yamahura period (c. 12th century), Edo Shigenaga, the military governor of a large Kanto province, erected his castle there, calling it Edojuku. The castle was rebuilt in 1456 by Ota Dokan, shrines and temples were established around it, and merchants developed nearby ferry and shipping routes. By 1590, when the shogun leader [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] selected Edo as his military headquarters, the settlement surrounding Edojuku boasted a mere hundred thatch-roofed cottages. Ieyasu assembled warriors and craftsmen, fortified the Edojuku castle with moats and bridges, and built up the town. After 1603, he became the effective ruler of Japan, Edo became a powerful and flourishing city as the effective national capital, though Japan's imperial seat and official capital remained in [[Kyoto]].

===Edo in the Tokugawa era (1603-1867) ===
The [[Tokugawa]] political system rested on both feudal and bureaucratic controls, so that Tokyo lacked a unitary administration. The typical urban social order was composed of warriors, peasants, artisans, and businessmen, the latter two classes organized in officially sanctioned guilds whose number increased with trade and population growth. Because businessmen were excluded from government office, they nurtured a culture of entertainment, making Edo a cultural as well as a political and economic center. Edo was one of the world's 10 largest cities in 1800, with a population estimated between 685,000<ref>[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201e.htm Top 10 Cities of the Year 1800]</ref> and 1.25 million in 1800.<ref>[http://www.energybulletin.net/node/5140 Japan's sustainable society in the Edo period (1603-1867)] Japan For Sustainability Newsletter, March 30, 2003</ref> Edo was a significant force in generating social change and economic growth in Japan during the final two centuries of Tokugawa rule. The city's demand for human and material resources resulted in an appreciable migration of people within Japan, the creation of new markets and marketing patterns, and generated improved standards of performance and new tastes for living better.<ref>Gilbert Rozman, "Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1974 1(1): 91-112.</ref>

The city had two type of land ownership bukechi and chochi. Bukechi was used exclusively by members of the samurai class for residential purposes. There was no system of private landownership, no sales or purchases, and therefore no recognized land value. Chochi, on the other hand, was used by ordinary townspeople, both merchants and craftsmen, for both residential and commercial purposes. Private landownership was recognized and chochi land had agreed values. In the 1870s the Meiji reformers put bukechi land under the same rules as chochi land, thereby sweeping all remnants of feudal class divisions.

Local government in each Edo district was organized under the two highest officials were the machi bugyó, who drew up and issued administrative orders. Next came three full-time administrators, called toshiyori, who were hereditary office-holders. The nanushi, or headmen, were responsible for up to a dozen machi. After 1720, the nanushi were organized into 20 guilds. The had the difficult challenge of protecting the overcrowded city, built of flimsy wood houses; in 1657 a huge fire razed two thirds of the city, causing 100,000 deaths.

Severe sanctions in Edo against those usually known as kawata (derogatorily labeled eta by others) and those labeled hinin (literally "nonhuman") were codified in law and backed by state force. In the city of Edo deliberate political and social processes led to the creation of the Burakumin outcast order in Japan. Even though ideologies of "pollution" and "impurity" may have played a role in determining who was targeted for discrimination, the production of a system of prejudice and intolerance was chiefly the result of deliberate political and economic policies of the ruling class.<ref>Gerald Groemer, "The Creation of the Edo Outcaste Order." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 2001 27(2): 263-293. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/3591967 in Jstor]</ref>

The Machikaisho of Tokyo was a warehouse for rice storage that was set up during the Kansei reform period, 1787-33, as a way of ruling Tokyo. This granary provided relief for famished city dwellers and low-interest loans to landowners. Important schools were established, such as Shoheiko (1790) for the study of Confucian classics, Kaiseigo (1885) for western learning, and Igakusho (1863) for the study of occidental medicine. In 1877 they merged to form [[Tokyo University]].

===Edo renamed to Tokyo (1868)===
An attack by imperial troops on Edo followed hard on the defeat of the Tokugawa forces at Toba-Fushimi in January 1868. Edo Castle surrendered in the early spring and the Tokugawa family and retainers were forced by the new regime to depart for Suruga. Edo was renamed Tokyo ["the eastern capital"] and the new Meiji boy emperor arrived in the fall. Bystanders to this political turmoil, the urban poor, caught between rising prices of rice and fish and the downfall of the old bakufu leadership, commented cynically and often humorously on their predicament through newspapers, broadsheets, handbills, and woodblock prints.<ref>M. William Steele, "Edo in 1868: The View from Below." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 1990 45(2): 127-155. Issn: 0027-0741 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2384846 in Jstor]</ref>

===The Meiji Period===
In the first two decades of the Meiji period (1868-1912) the country's leaders engaged in intense discussions about the future of the capital of Tokyo. The Fifty-Ward System, was part of the effort by the new government to strengthen control over the people. It preserved the Town Official System and the deliberative organ of representatives of Edo, but dissolved the ruling system of the headmen. It soon gave way to the Large and Small Ward System. Some planners argued for the importance of urban beautification, while others regarded changes in urban infrastructure and services as essential to maintenance and growth of the city. Many of the proposed changes were cloaked in the language of progress. Phillips (1996) examines the course taken by urban leaders of the first decades of the Meiji period in establishing planning policy, using planning documents, transcripts of planning committees, and on architectural and urban design data from completed urban improvement projects in Meiji Tokyo. Phillips (1996) focuses on two issues, (1) the extent to which the efforts of Japanese leaders focused the country on the goal of modernization, and (2) the extent to which efforts to achieve bunmei kaika, or cultural enlightenment, were superficial. He demonstrates how the concepts of modernity and the struggle to develop a modern urban structure altered previous notions of cities and city planning practices. Poor articulation of planning policy in the first decades of the Meiji period reflected a lack of consensus among Meiji leaders about the definition and course of modernization. Rather than reject traditional approaches to planning, urban leaders eventually incorporated these approaches into their new planning methodologies. Modernity in the Japanese context, consequently, did not require dismantling preexisting urban structures. Instead, it represented a marriage of the political motivations of the country's leaders with the modern urban needs for improved transportation networks and zoning mechanisms. Exposure of the political system to popular opinion entailed the shifting of planning discourse from the theoretical to the practical realm, as well as from the private to the public realm.<ref>David Peter Phillips, "Intersections of Modernity and Tradition: An Urban Planning History of Tokyo in the Early Meiji Period (1868-1888)." (PhD U. of Pennsylvania 1996)</ref>

===1923 Kanto earthquake===
Ar noon on Saturday 1 September 1923, the eathquake hit, registering 8.3 on the Richter scale. The epicentre was in Sagami Bay, about 80 km south of Tokyo. The earthquake was followed five minutes later by a huge tsunami, with a height of about 12 meters. As fires swept across the city, 75% of all buildings suffered severe structural damage. The quake cut most of the water mains. About 100,000 people were killed from an urban population of about 4.5 million.<ref>Estimates of deaths vary widely, from 70,000 to 140,000.</ref> Some 40,000 refugees died in one location at the Honjo Military Clothing Depot on the banks of the Sumida River. They were huddling together in the building as the cyclone of superheated air passed overhead and sucked out their air so that they died instantly of suffocation. Property damage came to two per cent of Japan's total national wealth. Two million people were homeless.

Angry Tokyoans took revenge on resident Koreans, killing hundreds, perhaps thousands. Animosity toward Koreans was fueled by rumors of Korean wrongdoing after the quake. Some non-Koreans were murdered as well, but Koreans became the specific targets because of their distinct Korean identity, rather than simply because they were not Japanese. The Japanese colonial occupation of Korea provided the backdrop to this extreme example of the explosion of racial prejudice into violence, based on a history of antagonism. To be a Korean in 1923 Japan was to be not only despised, but also threatened and potentially killed.

In contrast to London, where typhoid fever had been steadily declining since the 1870s, the decline in Tokyo did not begin until the late 1920s in Japan. Within the city of Tokyo, the rate of typhoid morbidity was higher in the upper-class residential northern and western districts than in the densely populated working-class eastern district. An explanation is the decline of waste disposal, which became particularly serious in the northern and western districts when traditional methods of waste disposal collapsed due to urbanization. The great Kanto earthquake (1923) had a major long-term impact on the city's rate of typhoid morbidity. Although the level of morbidity rose to a record high due to unsanitary conditions following the earthquake, it prompted the establishment of antityphoid measures and the building of urban infrastructure.<ref>Takeshi Nagashima, "Sewage Disposal and Typhoid Fever: the Case of Tokyo 1912-1940." ''Annales De Démographie Historique'' 2004 (2): 105-117. Issn: 0066-2062</ref>

n the rebuilding process, the one- and two-story wood structures were replaced by modern five- and six-story buildings of concrete and steel in the European style. Motorways were built. The first underground subway system opened in 1927 and a new airport in 1931. At 6.36 million, the city's population in 1935 was larger than before the earthquake; it was nearly as large as London or New York. The "secondary centers" or "satellite cities" of Shinjuku, Shibuya, and Ikebukuro grew rapidly. They and the entire surrounding Tokyo prefecture was incorporated into the city in 1943.

===World War II===

As a major wartime metropolis. The experience of everyday life in Tokyo dramatically changed with munitions-based heavy industrialization and the loss of liberties and urban culture as the state mobilized for total war. The sensitive issue of how to defend the capital from air attack then became a pressing concern for urban planners, government officials, and even fiction writers. While the government assigned Tokyoites the responsibility of protecting the Imperial capital, devastating American fire bombing raids revealed in an instant the impossibility of carrying out such a task.

Tokyo was bombed repeatedly. LeMay sent 325 [[B-29]]s over Tokyo on March 9–10 to drop 1665 tons of incendiaries. An unstoppable fire storm burned out 16 square miles and killed over 80,000, most of whom suffocated in bomb shelters when the firestorm consumed the oxygen. One fourth of the buildings in the entire city were destroyed. Half the 7.4 million residents fled to the countryside (which was not bombed). The raid marked a turning point in the American strategic air war against Japan. Previously, most raids were "precision" raids that used high explosives against industrial targets; thereafter, most raids were "area" raids that used incendiary bombs to burn Japanese cities and kill civilians. The strategic shift did not depart radically from the air war in Europe or from prewar planning. Headquarters had always intended for [[Curtis LeMay]] to lead the air campaign against Japan and had always viewed incendiary raids against cities and American policy since the 1930s had focused on the burning of Tokyon—and the killing of civilian war workers—as a way to destroy an enemy's industrial capability.<ref>Thomas R. Searle, "'It Made a Lot of Sense to Kill Skilled Workers': the Firebombing of Tokyo in March 1945." ''Journal of Military History'' 2002 66(1): 103-133. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2677346 in JSTOR]</ref>

After a long interval of silence, private memories of the catastrophic fire bombings became public when air raid survivors and others joined together to write a history of the raids and then attempt to build a museum from which to transmit the experience of war.<ref>Cary Lee Karacas, "Tokyo from the Fire: War, Occupation, and the Remaking of a Metropolis." (2006)</ref>

===1945-1970===

The destroyed metropolis became the base from which the United States under [[Douglas MacArthur]] administered Japan for several years. During this period there emerged two Tokyos. In one, the occupiers appropriated and transformed key sections of the city in ways that allowed them to partake in the spoils of war and live in luxury. In the other, Tokyoites struggled to stave off starvation and to secure housing and employment.

The population reached ten million in 1964 as the Summer Olympic Games that year left a deep impact on the national identity of Japan. The nation's wounded psyche and reputation from World War II was significantly healed. Rapid social changes, thematically staged in the Olympic ceremonies, enabled Japan to display an inclusive and comprehensive national pride, and underscored Japan's re-entry into the circle of developed industrial countries. The 1964 ancient arts exhibition put on by the Tokyo National Museum to coincide with the Tokyo Olympics provided an opportunity to promote Japan's traditional culture to foreign visitors and to the Japanese people themselves, as part of an effort to regain normalized status in the international community. Architect Tange Kenzo is most famous for the National Indoor Stadium, built in 1964 for the Olympics.<ref>Noriko Aso, "Sumptuous Re-past: the 1964 Tokyo Olympics Arts Festival." ''Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique'' 2002 10(1): 7-38. Issn: 1067-9847 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]</ref>

===1970 to present===

The vast majority of large companies, financial institutions, and government agencies continue to maintain their headquarters in the old center of the city, mainly in the Marunouchi area in the Chiyoda Ward.

====Land bubble of 1980s====

During the second half of the 1980s, Tokyo experienced a huge increase of urban land prices. This "[[economic bubble|land bubble]]" phenomenon led to new strategies in the urban development process. In order to preserve the profitability of real estate schemes, developers used several means of action to increase building density, namely the jiage system and urban renewal procedure. They also experimented with new methods to avoid land purchase, such as land deposit and short-term lease contracts. These new methods of development had a great impact on Tokyo's morphology. Skyscrapers and high-rise buildings were built in business zones instead of narrow "pencil buildings"; huge department stores surrounded by public squares flourished in the vicinity of middle-range railway stations; and modern concrete buildings progressively replaced old wooden houses within residential zones. However, this modernization process was not closely controlled by the public authorities, and it produced an anarchic collection of high-rise buildings throughout the capital city that increased road traffic and worsened parking problems.<ref>A. Sorensen, ''Land Readjustment and Metropolitan Growth: An Examination of Suburban Land Development and Urban Sprawl in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area'' (2000)</ref>

In early-21st-century Tokyo, the construction of luxury residential and commercial towers in neighborhoods along the Sumida River has accelerated dramatically, altering the social composition and cultural images associated with downtown Tokyo. The new buildings stand in contrast to the sinking economy and are markers of the growing gap between rich and poor. They also reflect the pattern of urban construction and destruction as well as the unobtainable desires promised by commodity capitalism.

The Japanese media have featured articles on the escalation of youth crime and discontent, as well as the many forms of corruption that teenagers are exposed to in transformed downtown Tokyo. The 2002 Naoki literary prize was awarded to a book that reacts to both urban development and the problems facing Tokyo adolescents - Ishida Ira's 4-Teen (2002). Ishida shows the effects of Tokyo's transformations on teenage social norms and uses descriptions of urban places to reveal contradictions embedded in these roles. This article examines the context of 4-Teen's publication and the awarding of the Naoki Prize and explores how stories that mix fiction and historical experience provide new ways of viewing the changes in Tokyo.<ref>Alisa Freedman, "Stories of Boys and Buildings: Ishida Ira's 4-teen in 2002 Toyko." ''Japan Forum'' 2006 18(3): 381-398. Issn: 0955-5803 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Kanto]], the region
*[[Honshu]], the island
*[[Japan]]
*[[History of Japan]]
*[[Fukushima]]

==External links==
* [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/ ''The Japan Times''] daily newspaper in English
* [http://www.asahi.com/english/ ''Asahi Shimbun''] daily newspaper, English edition
* [http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/tokyo/tokyo.htm Tokyo]

==Bibliography==
===Guides===
* DK. ''Tokyo'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Tokyo-EYEWITNESS-TRAVEL-GUIDE-Publishing/dp/0756632285/ref=pd_bbs_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Tokyo''(2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Tokyo-Complete-Beth-Reiber/dp/0470181559/ref=pd_bbs_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Waley, Paul. ''Tokyo Now and Then: An Explorer's Guide.'' (1984). 592 pp
* Yanagihara, Wendy. ''Lonely Planet Tokyo Encounter'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Tokyo-Encounter-Yanagihara/dp/1740595580/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207472114&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

===Contemporary ===
* Allinson, Gary D. ''Suburban Tokyo: A Comparative Study in Politics and Social Change.'' (1979). 258 pp.
* Bestor, Theodore. ''Neighborhood Tokyo'' (1989). [http://www.questia.com/read/91986553?title=Neighborhood%20Tokyo online edition]
* Bestor, Theodore. ''Tsukiji: The Fish Market at the Center of the World,'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/read/105652913?title=Tsukiji%3a%20%20The%20Fish%20Market%20at%20the%20Center%20of%20the%20World online edition]
* Fowler, Edward. ''San’ya Blues: Laboring Life in Contemporary Tokyo.'' ( 1996) ISBN 0801485703.
* Friedman, Mildred, ed. ''Tokyo, Form and Spirit.'' (1986). 256 pp.
* Jinnai, Hidenobu. ''Tokyo: A Spatial Anthropology.'' (1995). 236 pp.
* Reynolds, Jonathan M. "Japan's Imperial Diet Building: Debate over Construction of a National Identity." ''Art Journal.'' 55#3 (1996) pp 38+. [http://www.questia.com/read/5000419130?title=Japan's%20Imperial%20Diet%20Building%3a%20Debate%20over%20Construction%20of%20a%20National%20Identity online edition]
* Sassen, Saskia. ''The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo.''(1991). 397 pp.
* Sorensen, A. ''Land Readjustment and Metropolitan Growth: An Examination of Suburban Land Development and Urban Sprawl in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area'' (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/Land-Readjustment-Metropolitan-Growth-Examination/dp/0080437958/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207476468&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Waley, Paul. "Tokyo-as-world-city: Reassessing the Role of Capital and the State in Urban Restructuring." ''Urban Studies'' 2007 44(8): 1465-1490. Issn: 0042-0980 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
===History===
* Beard, Charles A. ''The Administration and Politics of Tokyo'' (1923) [http://www.questia.com/read/556249?title=The%20Administration%20and%20Politics%20of%20Tokyo online edition]
* Brown, Arlo Ayres, III. "The Great Tokyo Riot: The History and Historiography of the Hibiya Incendiary Incident of 1905." PhD dissertation Columbia U. 1986. 425 pp. DAI 1986 47(3): 1025-A. DA8610746 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Cybriwsky, Roman. ''Tokyo: The Shogun's City at the Twenty-first Century.'' (1998). 260 pp.
* Edoin, Hoito. ''The Night Tokyo Burned.'' (1987). 272 pp. On March 1945
* Fiévé, Nicolas and Paul Waley, eds. ''Japanese capitals in historical perspective: place, power and memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo'' (2003)
* Freedman, Alisa D. "Tracking Japanese Modernity: Commuter Trains, Streetcars, and Passengers in Tokyo Literature, 1905-1935." PhD dissertation U. of Chicago 2002. 300 pp. DAI 2002 63(4): 1347-A. DA3048377 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Griggs, M. Pierce. "From Civilizing to Expertizing Bureaucracy: Changing Educational Emphasis in Government-Supported Schools of Tokyo (Edo) during the Tokugawa Period and Early Meiji Era." PhD dissertation U. of Chicago 1997. 303 pp. DAI 1998 58(10): 4031-A. DA9811860 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Hastings, Sally Ann. ''Neighborhood and Nation in Tokyo, 1905-1937'' (1995),
* Karacas, Cary Lee. "Tokyo from the Fire: War, Occupation, and the Remaking of a Metropolis." PhD dissertation U. of California, Berkeley 2006. 333 pp. DAI 2007 67(8): 3111-A. DA3228373 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* McClain, James L., John M. Merriman, and Ugawa Kaoru, eds. ''Edo and Paris: Urban Life and the State in the Early Modern Era'' (1994)
* Masai, Y. "Tokyo: From a feudal million city to a global supercity," ''Geographical Review of Japan'' (1990) 63(B-1): 1–16
* Miller, Ian Jared. "The Nature of the Beast: The Ueno Zoological Gardens and Imperial Modernity in Japan, 1882-1945." PhD dissertation Columbia U. 2004. 273 pp. DAI 2007 68(1): 304-A. DA3249167 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Phillips, David Peter. "Intersections of Modernity and Tradition: An Urban Planning History of Tokyo in the Early Meiji Period (1868-1888)." PhD dissertation U. of Pennsylvania 1996. 241 pp. DAI 1996 57(4): 1879-A. DA9627986 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Raz, Aviad E. ''Riding the Black Ship: Japan and Tokyo Disneyland.'' (1999). 240 pp.
* Rozman, Gilbert. "Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1974 1(1): 91-112. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/133438 in Jstor]
* Seidensticker, Edward. ''Low City, High City: Tokyo from Edo to the Earthquake'' (1983)
* Seidensticker, Edward. ''Tokyo Rising: The City since the Great Earthquake.'' (1990). 384 pp. [http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/papers/jhist4.htm online book review]
* Siebert, Loren. "Using GIS to Document, Visualize, and Interpret Tokyo's Spatial History." ''Social Science History'' 2000 24(3): 536-574. Issn: 0145-5532 [http://writingwiki.org//html/24.3siebert.html online]
* Smith, Henry D., II. "Tokyo as an Idea: an Exploration of Japanese Urban Thought until 1945." ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' 1978 4(1): 45-80. Issn: 0095-6848 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/132072 in Jstor]
* Tajima, Kayo. "The Marketing of Urban Human Waste in the Edo/Tokyo Metropolitan Area: 1600-1935." PhD dissertation Tufts U. 2005. 189 pp. DAI 2005 66(3): 1123-A. DA3167536 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]
* Takenaka-O'Brien, Akiko. "The Aesthetics of Mass-Persuasion: War and Architectural Sites in Tokyo, 1868-1945." PhD dissertation Yale U. 2004. 549 pp. DAI 2004 65(3): 730-A. DA3125312 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]

===Primary sources===
* Plutschow, Herbert E., ed. ''Reader in Edo period travel.'' (Global Oriental: 2006)
* Shirane, Haruo, ed. ''Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600– 1900.'' (2002). 1050 pp
* Smith II, Henry D. ed. ''Hiroshige: One Hundred Famous Views of Edo'' (1986),

====References====
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Japanese Cities and Towns]]

[[Category:Capital Cities]]
[[Category:Urban History]]
[[Category:Japanese History]]

Japan

2020-10-20T06:12:59Z

General Chunichi:

{{Country
|name =Japan
|map =Japan rel96.jpg
|map2 =Japan location.png
|flag =Flag of Japan.png
|arms =Imperial Seal of Japan.jpg
|capital =Tokyo
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary democracy; Constitutional Monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Japanese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =Emperor [[Naruhito]]
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =[[Yoshihide Suga]]
|area =377,832 sq. miles
|pop =124,000,000 (2021)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$4.2 trillion
|gdp-year =2006
|gdp-pc =$33,100
|currency =Yen
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Japan''' is a nation that consists of a group of islands off the eastern coast of [[Asia]]. Its capital, [[Tokyo]], is the largest metropolitan area in the world. Japan is divided into a total of 47 [[prefecture]]s.<ref>Demographia - 50 Largest World Metropolitan Areas Ranked:
2000 Estimates,[http://www.demographia.com/db-world-metro2000.htm]</ref>

Japan has long suppressed [[Christianity]] and is now paying a hefty price for that, by suffering from a long-term population and economic decline.

In the August 2009 national elections, the [[Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) suffered a massive defeat as voters blamed it for the poor economy, numerous corruption scandals and Prime Minister [[Taro Aso]]'s uninspiring leadership. The LDP has ruled Japan for nearly all of the last 50 years and is generally conservative, but it lost two-thirds of its seats.

The opposition [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ) swept the nation, winning 302 of the 480 seats in the powerful lower house, compared to only 112 seats before. DPJ leader [[Yukio Hatoyama]] was installed as prime minister but was replaced by [[Naoto Kan]] in June 2010. Kan was succeeded by Yoshihiko Noda in September 2011.

The DPJ has promised massive spending programs will cost 16.8 trillion yen ($177 billion) annually when they are fully operational in 2013. That is a huge burden for a country that has a large and rapidly growing fiscal deficit caused by stimulus packages and bailouts that never seem to work. Japan's national debt has soared to nearly 190% of its annual GDP (gross domestic product). The nation was ranked #4 in the world in per capita income in 1989, just before its slump began; it is now down to #14. China, with ten times as many people, has almost the same total GDP and will soon surpass Japan.
{{language box
|kanji=日本国
|romaji=Nihon-koku
}}
==Geography==
[[Image:Cherry Blossom Japan.jpg|thumb|Cherry Blossoms and Mt. Fuji.]]
The islands of Japan are scattered between 24ºN and 45ºN latitude (roughly 1,800 miles, or [[Florida]] to [[Maine]]). As a result, the climate varies greatly. Japan extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The four main islands, running from north to south, are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]] (or the mainland), [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]. [[Okinawa]] Island is about 380 miles south-west of Kyushu. About 3,000 smaller islands are included in the archipelago. In total land area, Japan is slightly smaller than California. About 73% of the country is mountainous, with a chain running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is the world-famous [[Mount Fuji]] (or ''Fuji-san'') at 12,385 feet. Since so little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the summits. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific depth, frequent low intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.

Temperature extremes are less pronounced than in the United States, but the climate varies considerably. Sapporo, on the northernmost main island, has warm summers and long, cold winters with heavy snowfall. Tokyo, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, and Kobe, in central and western parts of the largest island of Honshu, experience relatively mild winters with little or no snowfall and hot, humid summers. Fukuoka, on the island of Kyushu, has a climate similar to that of Charleston, South Carolina, with mild winters and wet summers. Okinawa is subtropical.

The cherry blossom (Sakura) is Japan's unofficial national flower. It has been celebrated for many centuries and takes a very prominent position in [[Mono no aware|Japanese culture]].<ref>[http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2011.html Cherry Blossom]</ref>

==Demographics==
===Population===
Japan's population, currently some 127 million, has experienced a phenomenal growth rate during the past 100 years as a result of scientific, industrial, and sociological changes, but this has ended because of falling birth rates and a lack of immigration. In 2005, Japan's population declined for the first time, two years earlier than predicted. High sanitary and health standards and a diet of fish and rice produce a life expectancy exceeding that of the United States.
===Decline===
[[File:Niños japoneces.jpg|left]]
Japan's population peaked in 2006; the following year saw the second consecutive decline, with an official population of 127,053,471. The [[birth rate]] has now increased from 2006's record low, but this has been offset by an all-time-high in the [[death rate]]. 51% of the population is female, and people over 65 now make up 26.4% of the country.<ref>''[[Japan Times]]'': '[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/mail/nn20070803a2.html Population shrinks again despite increase in births]'. 3rd August 2007; "Japan's changing demography: Cloud, or silver linings?" ''Economist'' (Jul 26th 2007) at [https://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9539825].</ref>

In 1947 the proportion of Japanese over 65 was around 5% of the population, well below that in Britain, France or America. Today the elderly account for one-fifth of the population, and average lifespans have grown remarkably. Life expectancy today is 82, up from a little over 50 in 1947.

The baby boom came in 1947-1949, when 2.7m children a year were born. In 2007 the baby-boom generation began to retire (60 is the mandatory retirement age at most companies). Japan's birth rate fell below the replacement rate of 2.1 in the early 1970s. It slid to a low of 1.26 in 2005. In 2005 the population began to fall in absolute terms, despite increasing life expectancy. It is now shrinking at a pace unprecedented for any nation in peacetime. The National Institute of Population and Social Security Research estimates a total population of 95m by 2050, compared to 127m in 2007, with the elderly accounting by then for two-fifths of the total.<ref>"Japan's changing demography: Cloud, or silver linings?" ''Economist'' (Jul 26th 2007) at [https://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9539825].</ref>

===Policies===
The DPJ, elected in a landslide in 2009, has promised an ambitious social-spending plan that includes a child allowance of $3,300 a year. It is designed to encourage more births as a solution to Japan's declining population and rising average population age, as well as being a stimulus to spending to get the economy out of its long slump.

===Cities===
[[File:Kobe port.jpg|thumb|Port of Kobe.]]
Japan is an urban society with only about 4% of the labor force engaged in agriculture. Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities. About 80 million of the urban population is heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of Honshu and in northern Kyushu. Major population centers include: Metropolitan Tokyo with approximately 12.5 million; Yokohama with 3.6 million; Osaka with 2.6 million; Nagoya with 2.2 million; Sapporo with 1.9 million; Kyoto and Kobe with 1.5 million each; Kawasaki and Fu''''kuoka with 1.4 million each, and Saitama with 1.2 million. Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: overcrowded cities, congested roads, air pollution, and rising juvenile delinquency.
*Population (2007 est.): 127.5 million.
*Population growth rate (2007 est.): -0.088%.
*Ethnic groups: Japanese; Korean (0.5%).
*Religions: Shinto and Buddhist; Christian (about 0.7%).
*Language: Japanese.
*Education: Literacy—99%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate—2.8/1,000. Life expectancy—males 78 yrs., females 85 yrs.
*Work force (67 million, 2003): services—42%; trade, manufacturing, mining, and construction—46%; agriculture, forestry, fisheries—5%; government—3%.

===Religion===
[[Image:Nara.jpg|thumb|Great Buddha at Nara]]

Historically, the Japanese government has shifted between no official religion, [[Shinto|Shintō]], and [[Buddhism]].<ref name="WebJapanFactSheet">[http://web-japan.org/factsheet/ Web Japan Fact Sheet], sponsored by the [http://www.mofa.go.jp/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan]</ref> Modern Japan has no state religion.<ref>Article 20 of the [[Current Constitution of Japan (Full Text)|Japanese Constitution]] erects a legal barrier between political and religious entities.</ref>

Shintoism and Buddhism are Japan's two principal religions. Shintoism is founded on myths and legends emanating from the early animistic worship of natural phenomena. Since it was unconcerned with problems of afterlife which dominate Buddhist thought, and since Buddhism easily accommodated itself to local faiths, the two religions comfortably coexisted, and Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples often became administratively linked. Today many Japanese are adherents of both faiths. From the 16th to the 19th century Shintoism flourished.

Adopted by the leaders of the Meiji restoration, Shintoism received state support and was cultivated as a spur to patriotic and nationalistic feelings. Following World War II, state support was discontinued, and the emperor disavowed divinity. Today Shintoism plays a more peripheral role in the life of the Japanese people. The numerous shrines are visited regularly by a few believers and, if they are historically famous or known for natural beauty, by many sightseers. Many marriages are held in the shrines, and children are brought there after birth and on certain anniversary dates; special shrine days are celebrated for certain occasions, and numerous festivals are held throughout the year. Many homes have "god shelves" where offerings can be made to Shinto deities.
[[File:Daibutsu-den in Todaiji Nara.jpg|thumb|330px|left|Temple Daibutsu-den in Todaiji, [[Nara]].]]
Buddhism first came to Japan in the 6th century and for the next 10 centuries exerted profound influence on its intellectual, artistic, social, and political life. Most funerals are conducted by Buddhist priests, and many Japanese visit family graves and Buddhist temples to pay respects to ancestors.

Confucianism arrived with the first great wave of Chinese influence into Japan between the 6th and 9th centuries. Overshadowed by Buddhism, it survived as an organized philosophy into the late 19th century and remains today as an important influence on Japanese thought and values.

Christianity, first introduced into Japan in 1549, was virtually stamped out by the government a century later; it was reintroduced in the late 1800s and has spread slowly. Today Christianity has an estimated 3 million adherents throughout Japan.

Beyond the three traditional religions, many Japanese today are turning to a great variety of popular religious movements normally lumped together under the name "new religions." These religions draw on the concept of Shinto, Buddhism, and folk superstition and have developed in part to meet the social needs of elements of the population. The officially recognized new religions number in the hundreds, and total membership is reportedly in the tens of millions.

Japan has also spawned its share of [[cults]], including the exceptionally lethal but fortunately short-lived [[Aum Shinrikyo]] movement of the early 1990s, which in 1994 became the first non-state organization to kill people with [[nerve gas]].

== Art ==
[[Image:Birds Japanese painting.jpg|180px|right|Birds, Japanese painting]]
[[Image:Hokusai Sea Wave Kanagawa.jpg|180px|right|Behind the Great Wave off Kanagawa]]
Japanese art comes from prehistoric times. It has been influenced by [[Chinese]] art and Zen Buddhism, as well as by Western art. Painting (絵画) is one of the oldest Japanese art, and the most popular one. Main Painting Schools are: Suibokuga, Kanō, Rimpa, Tosa-ha, Nanga and Shijo.

Japanese interpretations and painters may be studied in the following periods:

* Ancient Japan
* [[Nara]] period
* Heian and [[Kamakura]] periods
* Muromachi period
: Josetsu (如拙) (1405 – 1423), the father of Japanese ink painting.
* Azuchi-Momoyama period
: Kanō Eitoku (狩野永徳) (1543 - 1590), prominent patriarch of the Kanō School.
* Edo period
: Tawaraya Sōtatsu (俵屋宗達) (c. 1600s), co-founder of the Rimpa School.
: [[Katsushika Hokusai]] (葛飾北斎) (1760 — 1849), Ukiyo-e (浮世絵) genre painter and printmaker. "Behind the Great Wave at Kanagawa" (c.1829) is one of the most renowned Japanese paintings.
* Meiji period
* Taisho period
* Showa period
: Ogura Yuki (小倉遊亀) (1895 - 2000), traditional female painter.
* Contemporary period
: Shinoda Toko (篠田桃紅) (b. 1913), female painter, sumi (ink) paintings and prints.
{{Clear}}

==Tourism==
Japan is a country that offers the tourist exotic beauty and marvelous attractions. It has so many outstanding places to visit that it is difficult to choose among them. Examples are [[Tokyo]] the capital, [[Nikko]], a pilgrimage site, [[Kamakura]], with one of Japan's best collections of shrines, temples, and monuments, [[Kyoto]] "The Thousand Year Capital", which was Japan's capital for years, [[Osaka]], [[Hiroshima]], [[Nara]], [[Nagasaki]] and [[Sapporo]]. It is said that the three most scenic spots of Japan are [[Itsukushima Shrine|Miyajima]] (Shrine Island), Amano Hashidate, located on the Tango Peninsula in the northern part of [[Kyoto]] Prefecture, and Matsushima, located in Miyagi Prefecture (3 hours from Tokyo); (Miyagi Prefecture (宮城県, Miyagi-ken) is located in the Tōhoku Region on [[Honshu]] island, northeastern Japan; [[Sendai]] is its capital).<ref>[http://www.thereareplaces.com/newguidebook/pdest/Asia/jppts.htm Best Places to Visit in Japan.]</ref>

<center>
<gallery>
File:Japan Miyajima s.jpg|Torii of [[Itsukushima Shrine]].
File:Amano Hasidate Japan.jpg|Amano Hasidate.
File:Matsushima Japan.jpg|Matsushima.
</gallery>
</center>

==Government and Political Conditions==
Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government. There is universal adult suffrage with a secret ballot for all elective offices. Sovereignty, previously embodied in the emperor, is vested in the Japanese people, and the Emperor is defined as the symbol of the state.
[[File:National Diet Tokyo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The National Diet, Tokyo.]]
Japan's Government is a parliamentary democracy, with a House of Representatives and a House of Councillors. Executive power is vested in a cabinet composed of a prime minister and ministers of state, all of whom must be civilians. The prime minister must be a member of the [[National Diet|Diet]] and is designated by his colleagues. The prime minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The judiciary is independent.

The five major political parties represented in the National Diet are the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ), the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Japan|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP), the New Clean Government Party (Komeito), the [[Japanese Communist Party]] (JCP) and the Social Democratic Party (SDP).

Japan's judicial system, drawn from customary law, civil law, and Anglo-American common law, consists of several levels of courts, with the Supreme Court as the final judicial authority. The Japanese constitution includes a bill of rights similar to the U.S. Bill of Rights, and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. Japanese courts do not use a jury system, and there are no administrative courts or claims courts. Because of the judicial system's basis, court decisions are made in accordance with legal statutes. Only Supreme Court decisions have any direct effect on later interpretation of the law.

Japan does not have a federal system, and its 47 prefectures are not sovereign entities in the sense that U.S. states are. Most depend on the central government for subsidies. Governors of prefectures, mayors of municipalities, and prefectural and municipal assembly members are popularly elected to 4-year terms.

====Recent Political Developments====
The post-World War II years saw tremendous economic growth in Japan, with the political system dominated by the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). That total domination lasted until the Diet lower house elections in July 1993, in which the LDP failed for the first time to win a majority. The LDP returned to power in 1994, with majorities in both houses of the Diet. In elections in July 2007, the LDP lost its majority in the upper house, with the DPJ now holding the largest number of seats but with no party possessing a clear majority. Currently, the LDP maintains a majority in the lower house.

Shinzo Abe was elected Prime Minister in a Diet vote in September 2006. Abe was the first prime minister to be born after World War II and the youngest prime minister since the war. However, Abe resigned abruptly on September 12, 2007, not long after the LDP lost control of the upper house in the July 2007 elections in which the LDP's handing of domestic issues was a leading issue. Yasuo Fu''''kuda of the LDP was elected prime minister by the Diet on September 25, 2007, to replace Abe. Fu''''kuda, whose father served as prime minister in the late 1970s, is known as a moderate and for his experience building consensus behind the scenes.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:Emperor Akihito Japan.jpg|thumb|Emperor Akihito.]]
*Head of State—Emperor Akihito
*Prime Minister (Head of Government)--Shinzo Abe
*Cabinet Secretary Takeo Kawamura
*Finance Minister Shoichi Nakagawa
*Defense Minister Yasukazu Hamada,
*Minister of Foreign Affairs Hirofumi Nakasone
*Permanent Representative to the UN Kenzo Oshima
{{Clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
Japan is the world's second-largest economy and a major economic power both in Asia and globally. Japan has diplomatic relations with nearly all independent nations and has been an active member of the United Nations since 1956. Japanese foreign policy has aimed to promote peace and prosperity for the Japanese people by working closely with the West and supporting the United Nations.
[[File:Japanese sailors.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Japanese sailors.]]
In recent years, the Japanese public has shown a substantially greater awareness of security issues and increasing support for the Self Defense Forces. This is in part due to the Self Defense Forces' success in disaster relief efforts at home, and its participation in peacekeeping operations such as in Cambodia in the early 1990s and Iraq in 2005-2006. However, there are still significant political and psychological constraints on strengthening Japan's security profile. Although a military role for Japan in international affairs is highly constrained by its constitution and government policy, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the 1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation or revision of Article 9 of the Japanese constitution. Prime Minister Abe made revising or reinterpreting the Japanese constitution a priority of his administration. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the Mutual Security Treaty for strategic protection.

While maintaining its relationship with the United States, Japan has diversified and expanded its ties with other nations. Good relations with its neighbors continue to be of vital interest. After the signing of a peace and friendship treaty with China in 1978, ties between the two countries developed rapidly. Japan extended significant economic assistance to the Chinese in various modernization projects and supported Chinese membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Japan's economic assistance to China is now declining. In recent years, however, Chinese exploitation of gas fields in the East China Sea has raised Japanese concerns given disagreement over the demarcation of their maritime boundary. Prime Minister Abe's October 2006 visits to Beijing and Seoul helped improve relations with China and South Korea that had been strained following Prime Minister Koizumi's visits to Yasukuni Shrine. At the same time, Japan maintains economic and cultural but not diplomatic relations with Taiwan, with which a strong bilateral trade relationship thrives.

Japanese officials believe the February 25, 2008 inauguration of Republic of Korea President Lee Myung-bak marks a "new era" in Japan-South Korea relations, as Tokyo and Seoul look to develop "future-oriented" ties while avoiding contentious historical differences. Those historical differences include territorial disputes involving the Liancourt Rocks, use of Korean females as "Comfort Women" during World War II, and historical and ethnic animosities that continue to complicate Japan's political relations with South Korea despite growing economic and cultural ties.

A surprise visit by Prime Minister Koizumi to Pyongyang, North Korea on September 17, 2002, resulted in renewed discussions on contentious bilateral issues—especially that of abductions to North Korea of Japanese citizens—and Japan's agreement to resume normalization talks in the near future. In October 2002, five abductees returned to Japan, but soon after negotiations reached a stalemate over the fate of abductees' families in North Korea. Japan's economic and commercial ties with North Korea plummeted following Kim Jong-il's 2002 admission that D.P.R.K. agents abducted Japanese citizens. Japan strongly supported the United States in its efforts to encourage Pyongyang to abide by the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and its agreements with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In 2006, Japan responded to North Korea's July missile launches and October nuclear test by imposing sanctions and working with the United Nations Security Council. The U.S., Japan, and South Korea closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, and Japan participates in the Six-Party Talks to end North Korea's nuclear arms ambitions. Tokyo, however, refuses to provide assistance called for under the February 13, 2007 Six-Party Talks agreement until North Korea takes satisfactory steps to resolve the abduction issue.

Japan's relations with Russia are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the islands that make up the Northern Territories (Southern Kuriles) seized by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II. The stalemate over territorial issues has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war between Japan and Russia. The United States supports Japan on the Northern Territories issue and recognizes Japanese sovereignty over the islands. Russian Coast Guard boats sometimes seize Japanese fishing vessels operating in waters surrounding the disputed area. In August 2006, a Russian patrol shot at a Japanese fishing vessel, claiming the vessel was in Russian waters, killing one crewmember and taking three seamen into custody. In October 2007, Russia raised objections to U.S.-Japan cooperation on missile defense, and in February 2008, Tokyo protested the incursion into Japanese airspace of a Russian bomber. Despite the lack of progress in resolving the Northern Territories and other disputes, however, Japan and Russia continue to develop other aspects of the overall relationship, including two large, multibillion-dollar oil-natural gas consortium projects on Sakhalin Island.

Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility that accompanies its economic strength. It has expanded ties with the Middle East, which provides most of its oil, and has been the second-largest assistance donor (behind the U.S.) to Iraq and Afghanistan. In 2006, Japan's Ground Self Defense Force completed a successful two-year mission in Iraq, and the Diet extended the Anti-Terrorism Special Measures Law which allowed for Japan's Maritime Self Defense Force refueling activities in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in the Indian Ocean. On July 10, 2007, the Japanese Government decided to extend the Air Self-Defense Force's (ASDF) airlift support mission in Iraq to July 31, 2008. Under the Iraq Special Measures Law a wing of the ASDF's C-130 transport planes, based in Kuwait, will continue to carry personnel and supplies for the U.S.-led multinational forces and the United Nations in Iraq. The law has been extended to July 31, 2009, and will be voted on again in 2008.

Japan increasingly is active in Africa and Latin America—recently concluding negotiations with Mexico and Chile on an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA)--and has extended significant support to development projects in both regions.

[[File:Mexico - Japan Business.jpg|center|thumb|280px|Mexico-Japan Business.]]
<blockquote>
Mexico and Japan implemented an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) on April 1st , 2005. The EPA is a comprehensive free trade agreement that has contributed to the expansion of commerce, investment, and tourism between the two countries. Japan represents the most important market for Mexican exports in Asia; and, Mexico is the most important destination for Japanese exports in Latin America. Moreover, cumulative Japanese company investments in Mexico total more than US$ 10 billion for the past decade, in sectors as diverse as automotive, electronics, electric, energy, agribusiness, transportation, real estate, and services.<ref>[http://www.mexicotradeandinvestment.com/]</ref>
</blockquote>

A Japanese-conceived peace plan became the foundation for nationwide elections in [[Cambodia]] in 1998. Japan's economic engagement with its neighbors is increasing, as evidenced by the conclusion of an EPA with Singapore and the Philippines, and its ongoing negotiations for EPAs with Thailand and Malaysia.

In May 2007, just prior to the G8 Summit in Heiligendamm, Prime Minister Abe announced an initiative to address greenhouse gas emissions and seek to mitigate the impact of energy consumption on climate. At the January 2008, [[World Economic Forum]] in Davos, Switzerland, Prime Minister Fu''''kuda reiterated his commitment to this plan. As host of the G8 Summit in July 2008, Japan will focus on four themes: environment and climate change, development and Africa, the world economy, and political issues including non-proliferation.

===Relations with the United States===
The U.S.-Japan alliance is the cornerstone of U.S. security interests in Asia and is fundamental to regional stability and prosperity. Despite the changes in the post-Cold War strategic landscape, the U.S.-Japan alliance continues to be based on shared vital interests and values. These include stability in the Asia-Pacific region, the preservation and promotion of political and economic freedoms, support for human rights and democratic institutions, and securing of prosperity for the people of both countries and the international community as a whole.
[[File:Surrender of Japan - USS Missouri.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Surrender of Japan - USS Missouri.]]
Japan provides bases and financial and material support to U.S. forward-deployed forces, which are essential for maintaining stability in the region. Under the U.S.-Japan Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security, Japan hosts a carrier battle group, the III Marine Expeditionary Force, the 5th Air Force, and elements of the Army's I Corps. The United States currently maintains approximately 50,000 troops in Japan, about half of whom are stationed in Okinawa.

Over the past decade the alliance has been strengthened through revised Defense Guidelines, which expand Japan's noncombatant role in a regional contingency, the renewal of our agreement on Host Nation Support of U.S. forces stationed in Japan, and an ongoing process called the Defense Policy Review Initiative (DPRI). The DPRI redefines roles, missions, and capabilities of alliance forces and outlines key realignment and transformation initiatives, including reducing the number of troops stationed in Okinawa, enhancing interoperability and communication between our respective commands, and broadening our cooperation in the area of ballistic missile defense.

Implementation of these agreements will strengthen our capabilities and make our alliance more sustainable. After the tragic events of September 11, 2001, Japan has participated significantly with the global war on terrorism by providing major logistical support for U.S. and coalition forces in the Indian Ocean.

Because of the two countries' combined economic and technological impact on the world, the U.S.-Japan relationship has become global in scope. The United States and Japan cooperate on a broad range of global issues, including development assistance, combating communicable disease such as the spread of HIV/AIDS and avian influenza, and protecting the environment and natural resources. Both countries also collaborate in science and technology in such areas as mapping the human genome, research on aging, and international space exploration. As one of Asia's most successful democracies and its largest economy, Japan contributes irreplaceable political, financial, and moral support to U.S.-Japan diplomatic efforts. The United States consults closely with Japan and the Republic of Korea on policy regarding North Korea. In Southeast Asia, U.S.-Japan cooperation is vital for stability and for political and economic reform. Outside Asia, Japanese political and financial support has substantially strengthened the U.S. position on a variety of global geopolitical problems, including the Gulf, Middle East peace efforts, and the Balkans. Japan is an indispensable partner on UN reform and the second largest contributor to the UN budget. Japan broadly supports the United States on nonproliferation and nuclear issues. The U.S. supports Japan's aspiration to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.

==Economy==
Japan was devastated by [[World War II]].<ref>World War II wiped out many of the gains Japan had made since 1868. About 40 percent of the nation's industrial plants and infrastructure were destroyed, and production reverted to levels of about fifteen years earlier.[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-7176.html Japan - Patterns of Development]</ref>
Yet Japan's economy recovered over the years 1950-1980 through a partnership between government and industry. The goal in 1950 was to become the world leader in textiles, which was achieved by 1959. The goal in 1960 was to become the world's top producer in steel by 1970, and the goal in 1970 was to become the world's leader in the production of automobiles. Each goal was achieved within one year of the target date.<ref>[http://www.nightingale.com/Offers/ziglar-goalsvideo.html?promo=intgooga660&org=intgooga660&gclid=CIPP8tG736QCFUpe7AodkGqbKw Source: Zig Ziglar's motivational talk on goal setting]</ref>
[[File:Tokyo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Tokyo.]]
Now Japan's industrialized, free market economy is the second-largest in the world. Its economy is highly efficient and competitive in areas linked to international trade, but productivity is far lower in protected areas such as agriculture, distribution, and services. After achieving one of the highest economic growth rates in the world from the 1960s through the 1980s, the Japanese economy slowed dramatically in the early 1990s, when the "bubble economy" collapsed, marked by plummeting stock and real estate prices. Together with the impact of the worldwide [[recession of 2008]], Japan's status as a global economic power is slipping fast, with China poised to supplant Japan as the world' second-largest economy by 2010 or 2011.

Japan's reservoir of industrial leadership and technicians, well-educated and industrious work force, high savings and investment rates, and intensive promotion of industrial development and foreign trade produced a mature industrial economy. Japan has few natural resources, and trade helps it earn the foreign exchange needed to purchase raw materials for its economy.

Japan's long-term economic prospects are considered good, and it has largely recovered from its worst period of economic stagnation since World War II. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1% yearly in the 1990s, compared to growth in the 1980s of about 4% per year. The Japanese economy is now in its longest postwar expansion after more than a decade of stagnation. Real growth in 2006 was 2.2% and was 1.9% in 2007.
*GDP (2007 est.): $5.103 trillion (official exchange rate); $4.34 trillion (PPP).
*Real growth rate (2007 est.): 1.9%.
*Per capita GDP (2007 est. PPP): $33,800.
*Natural resources: Fish and few mineral resources.
*Agriculture: Products—rice, vegetables, fruit, milk, meat, silk.
*Industry: Types—machinery and equipment, metals and metal products, textiles, autos, chemicals, electrical and electronic equipment.

====Agriculture, Energy, and Minerals====
Only 15% of Japan's land is arable. The agricultural economy is highly subsidized and protected. With per hectare crop yields among the highest in the world, Japan maintains an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 40% on fewer than 5.6 million cultivated hectares (14 million acres). Japan normally produces a slight surplus of rice but imports large quantities of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans, primarily from the United States. Japan is the largest market for U.S. agricultural exports.

Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency. Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from more than 75% in 1973 to about 52% in 2000. Other important energy sources are coal, liquefied natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower. Today Japan enjoys one of the most energy-efficient developed economies in the world.

Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry. Iron ore, [[Coke from coal|coke]], copper, and bauxite must be imported, as must many forest products.

====Labor====
Japan's labor force consists of some 66.07 million workers, 40% of whom are women. Labor union membership was estimated to be about 10 million in 2006.

====U.S./Japanese Economic Relations====
U.S. economic policy toward Japan is aimed at increasing access to Japan's markets and two-way investment, stimulating domestic demand-led economic growth, promoting economic restructuring, improving the climate for U.S. investors, and raising the standard of living in both the United States and Japan. The U.S.-Japan bilateral economic relationship—based on enormous flows of trade, investment, and finance—is strong, mature, and increasingly interdependent. Further, it is firmly rooted in the shared interest and responsibility of the United States and Japan to promote global growth, open markets, and a vital world trading system. In addition to bilateral economic ties, the U.S. and Japan cooperate closely in multilateral fora such as the WTO, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund, and regionally in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).
[[File:Japan US relations Obama Naoto.jpg|thumb|left|300px|President Obama and Prime Minister Naoto Kan.]]
Japan is a major market for many U.S. products, including chemicals, pharmaceuticals, films and music, commercial aircraft, nonferrous metals, plastics, and medical and scientific supplies. Japan also is the largest foreign market for U.S. agricultural products, with total agricultural exports valued at $10.1 billion in 2007, a 20% increase over the $8.39 billion in agricultural exports recorded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 2006. Revenues from Japanese tourism to the United States reached nearly $13 billion in 2005.

Trade between the United States and Japan remained strong in 2006. Total trade grew about 0.2% year-on-year. U.S. exports to Japan reached $62.7 billion in 2007, up from $59.6 billion in 2006. U.S. imports from Japan totaled $145.5 billion in 2007 ($148.1 billion in 2006).

U.S. foreign direct investment in Japan reached $91.8 billion in 2006, up from $79.3 billion in 2005, according to data compiled by the U.S. Department of Commerce's Bureau of Economic Analysis. New U.S. investment was especially significant in financial services, Internet services, and software, generating new export opportunities for U.S. firms and employment for U.S. workers.

==History==
[[File:Samourai photo 1867 PD.jpg|thumb|Samurai, photo 1867.]]
See [[History of Japan]]
====20th century====
The Showa Period (1926–89), under Emperor [[Hirohito]], was an era of incredible change from traditional villages to modern cities, from a great empire and early success in [[World War II]] to utter ruin and surrender. In 1931 seized Japan [[Manchuria]], and in 1937 it launched a full-scale invasion of [[History of China|China]]. The U.S. vehemently protested and insisted that Japan pull back, but it refused, so the U.S. stopped shipping it oil. Japan responded by attacking the U.S. at [[Pearl Harbor]] in December 1941, and soon conquered much of East and Southeast Asia. In a series of spectacular naval battles, such as the [[Battle of Midway]] (June 1942), Japan lost control of the Pacific and was subject to massive air raids culminating in nuclear attacks on [[Hiroshima]] and Nagasaki.

Japan, in utter ruins, was occupied by the U.S. until 1951, as Emperor Hirohito led a regime that Americanized the nation, modernized and liberalized its economy and polity, and become an economic superpower, staunch American ally, and a democracy that gave up all its empire and its military power. The emperor stepped down from his traditional godly status but remains the powerful symbol of national identity and unity. Political power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats, and business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major economic power, both in Asia and globally.

====Current Status====
Japan's modern economy has many world leading industries and companies, being driven by exports and a mastery of high technology. However, in the 1990s, the economy underwent a major slowdown in part because of overinvestment and an asset price [[economic bubble|bubble]] during the late 1980s. Japan has a huge government debt, which exceeds the Gross Domestic product (176% of GDP) and also faces the challenge of a low birth rate, low immigration and an aging of the population which will further increase the debts. [[China]] also is becoming a larger economy and a bigger international trading partner than Japan.

====2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami ====
[[File:Japan quake sendai.jpg|left|200px]]
A massive 9.0-magnitude earthquake and several powerful aftershocks struck the eastern coast of Japan on March 11, 2011 (12:46 a.m. in Washington), triggering a [[tsunami]] that devastated the coastline north of [[Tokyo]] with waves up to 20 meters (66 ft.) high. The earthquake epicenter was in the western Pacific Ocean, 130 kilometers east of [[Sendai]], [[Honshu]] island. The earthquake occurred along the subduction zone between two tectonic plates.
[[File:Japan radiation 2011.jpg|right|140px|Japanese radiation, 2011.]]
The Japan Meteorological Agency said the earthquake was the strongest in the country's history;<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2011/03/11/ST2011031100651.html?sid=ST2011031100651 Japan Quake - Tsunami]</ref> the death toll is around 16,000 people; Prime Minister Naoto Kan called it the nation's worst crisis since World War II.<ref>https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-03-13-japan-earthquake_N.htm</ref>

The [[earthquake]] has caused three nuclear power plant cooling systems to fail and those affected reactors. Thousands of residents were evacuated.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/03/11/japan-issues-emergency-nuke-plant-leak Radiation Levels Surge Outside Two Nuclear Plants in Japan.]</ref>
{{Clear}}

== See also ==
[[Image:Arbol japon.jpg|right|Japanese landscape]]
*[[Japan and America]]
*[[World War II]]
*[[Oriental art]]
*[[Matthew Perry]]
*[[Nikko]]
*[[Ainu]]
*[[Aomori]]
*[[Geisha]]
*[[Japanese painting]]
*[[Gallery of Japanese Painting]]
*[[Japanese dates]]
*[[Bonseki]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.japan-guide.com/ Traveling and living.] Japan - Guide.
*[http://www.iun.edu/~hisdcl/h207_2002/jecontakeoff.htm Japanese economic takeoff after 1945]
*[http://www.thereareplaces.com/newguidebook/pdest/Asia/jppts.htm Best Places to Visit in Japan.]
*[http://explainedwithmaps.com/japan-a-vanishing-nation/ Explained With Maps: Japan, a vanishing nation] (video documentary)

[[File:Tsurugaoka-hachimangu Shrine main shrine.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Tsurugaoka-hachimangu Shrine.]]

{{Clear}}

==Basic further reading==
{{See also|Bibliography of Japan}}

===References===
* Huffman, James L., ed. ''Modern Japan: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' (1998). 316 pp.
* Itasaka, Gen, ed. ''Japan Encyclopedia,'' 9 vols. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1983. with beautiful pictures
* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori.'' (1991). 410 pp.
* Stockwin, J. A. A. ''Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Japan.'' (2003). 291pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107546295# online edition]

===Guides===
* DK, '' Japan'' (Eyewitness Travel Guides) (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Japan-Eyewitness-Travel-Guides-Publishing/dp/0756628768/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Reiber, Beth, and Janie Spencer. ''Frommer's Japan'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Japan-Complete-Beth-Reiber/dp/0471763918/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Rowthorn, Chris et al. ''Lonely Planet Japan'' (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Japan-Chris-Rowthorn/dp/1740599241/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190467544&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
===History===
* Allinson, Gary D. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Japanese History.'' (1999). 259 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Columbia-Guide-Modern-Japanese-History/dp/0231111444/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394878&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Allinson, Gary D. ''Japan's Postwar History.'' (2nd ed 2004). 208 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Japans-Postwar-History-Second-Allinson/dp/0801489121/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394878&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Gordon, Andrew. ''A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103548936 online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Modern-History-Japan-Tokugawa-Present/dp/0195110617/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190394957&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hane, Mikiso. ''Modern Japan: A Historical Survey'' (2nd ed 1992), 474pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=57239340 online edition]
* Perez, Louis G. ''The History of Japan'' (1998) 244pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=93932879 online edition]

==References==
<references/>

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some content for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4142.htm]}}}.
|}

{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Japan]]
[[Category:Japanese History]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Buddhism]]

Jeb Bush

2020-09-28T09:04:20Z

General Chunichi:

{{Officeholder
|name=Jeb Bush
|image=JebBush.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=Columba Bush
|religion=[[Roman Catholic]] (see also: [[Jeb Bush's religious views]])
|offices=

{{Officeholder/governor
|state=Florida
|number=43rd
|terms=January 5, 1999 – January 2, 2007
|preceded=[[Kenneth Hood MacKay|Buddy MacKay]]
|succeeded=[[Charlie Crist]]
}}
}}

'''John Ellis "Jeb" Bush''' (born February 11, 1953), age {{age|1953|02|11}}, is a businessman and a former governor of the State of [[Florida]]. He is the third child and second son of former President [[George H. W. Bush]] and his wife, former [[First Lady]] [[Barbara Bush]]. He is the younger brother of former President [[George W. Bush]]. Jeb Bush was the first Republican to win a second term as Florida's governor, and he left office with a 60% approval rating.<ref name="WashTimes">[https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/dec/30/jeb-senate-bid-would-turn-on-rehabilitating-bush-b/ Jeb Bush Senate bid a GOP remedy?], ''[[Washington Times]]'' Dec. 30, 2008</ref>

It was reported by [[Breitbart]] on August 31, 2020 that former consultants for Bush were working for an [[anti-Trump]] group to help Joe Biden's [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign|2020 presidential campaign]].<ref>[https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2020/08/31/jeb-bush-consultants-work-help-biden-florida/ Jeb Bush Consultants Working to Help Joe Biden, Kamala Harris Win Florida]</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Bush was born in [[Midland]], [[Texas]] where his father ran an oil drilling company. When he was six years old, the family relocated to [[Houston]], Texas. He was a budding athlete, enjoying [[baseball]] and [[tennis]]. He went to a public elementary school, and later to a private school. When he was in eighth grade, George H. W. Bush won a seat in [[Congress]] and moved to Washington, DC. The Bush children stayed in Houston with another family to finish the school year, and spent most summers and holidays at the family estate, located at Kennebunkport, [[Maine]]. He then enrolled at Phillips Andover Academy in [[Massachusetts]], already attended by his brother, George. Jeb Bush made the honor roll his first year.<ref>[http://www.who2.com/jebbush.html Jeb Bush Biography]</ref>

== Private sector ==
Jeb Bush and his family moved to Florida in 1981, where he joined the Codina Group, a real estate development company.

== Political career ==
[[File:JebBush02.jpg‎|thumb|200px|Jeb Bush earlier in his career.]]
Bush became Secretary of Commerce under Governor [[Bob Martinez]] in 1987 and was the [[Republican]] nominee for governor in 1994, losing to incumbent Lawton Chiles. In 1998 he ran again and won, becoming governor of Florida at the same time his brother George W. was governor of Texas. He was re-elected in 2002, defeating [[Democrat]] William McBride (who had upset former [[Attorney General]] [[Janet Reno]] in the Democratic primary election). Bush could not run for re-election to a third term in 2006, because of term limits; another Republican, [[Charlie Crist]], was elected to succeed him. After eight years, Jeb Bush left office as one of the most popular and prominent governors in state history. While speculation and public support for a 2016 Presidential run still exists, it was significantly dampened when [[Barbara Bush]] stated in an April 2013 interview<ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/video/nightly-news/51667537#51667537 Barbara Bush: 'We've had enough Bushes' in White House], [[NBC News]]</ref> that she felt "We've had enough Bushes" and continuing "He's the most qualified, but I don't think he'll run."<ref>[http://www.christianpost.com/news/weve-had-enough-bushes-barbara-bush-urges-jeb-bush-not-to-run-in-2016-video-94733/ 'We've Had Enough Bushes': Barbara Bush Urges Jeb Bush Not to Run in 2016 (VIDEO)], [[The Christian Post]]</ref>

==2016 Presidential Campaign==
On December 16, 2014, Bush announced the formation of The Right to Rise PAC, a Super PAC intended to serve as an exploratory committee and fundraising mechanism for a potential candidacy. Bush used the maximum "one day less than six months" exploratory period to raise money without limits while being permitted to coordinate with his Super PAC.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/jeb-bush-exploits-huge-loophole-campaign-money-rule|title=Jeb Bush exploits major loophole in campaign finance rule|work=MSNBC|date=May 2, 2015|accessdate=Feb. 24, 2016}}</ref> On June 15, 2015, Bush announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination in the [[2016 presidential election]].<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2015/06/15/after-long-wind-up-bush-set-to-enter-2016-white-house-race/?intcmp=latestnews Jeb Bush enters 2016 White House race, ending the long wait], [[Fox News]]</ref> Bush enjoyed an early fundraising advantage, which may have discouraged other potential candidates including [[Mitt Romney]] from seeking the Republican nomination.

As the candidate favored by the [[Establishment]], Jeb Bush received endorsements from elected [[Republican]] officials. The attorney general and lieutenant governor of [[Georgia]] endorsed Jeb Bush in early August.<ref>https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/the-sweet-tea-primary-the-campaign-takes-an-early-southern-swing/2015/08/13/b8360688-4060-11e5-8d45-d815146f81fa_story.html</ref>

At first, Jeb Bush tried to distance himself from his brother, former President George W. Bush. However, as his poll numbers lagged, George W. Bush campaigned for his brother in the days prior to the South Carolina primary. During the debates, [[Donald Trump]] attacked Jeb Bush based on his brother's failures.

Bush finished sixth in the Iowa Caucuses with 2.8% of the vote and 1 delegate. He finished fourth in the New Hampshire Primary with 11.0% of the vote and 3 delegates. Finally, Bush finished fourth in the South Carolina Primary with 7.8% of the vote.

On February 20, 2016, Bush withdrew from the Presidential race after losing the Iowa caucus and the New Hampshire and South Carolina primaries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/02/20/jeb-bush-republican-presidential-race/80033408/|title=Jeb Bush drops out of Republican presidential race|work=USA Today|date=February 20, 2016|accessdate=February 20, 2016}}</ref> This was despite the fact he spent $130 million, much more than the other Republican candidates including Trump, showing that liberal fears about ''[[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission|Citizens United v. FEC]]'' are wrong.<ref>Sarlin, Benjy (February 23, 2016). [http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/campaign-finance-activists-try-explain-jeb-bushs-130-million-fail Campaign finance activists try to explain Jeb Bush’s $130 million fail]. ''MSNBC''. Retrieved October 30, 2016.</ref>

===Views on homosexuality===
During the 2016 campaign, issues relating to the [[homosexual agenda]] received much attention.

On a visit to [[Silicon Valley]] on July 16, Jeb Bush was asked by a homosexual employee of Thumbtack about discrimination, and Bush replied:<ref>http://www.mercurynews.com/politics-government/ci_28494595/jeb-bush-takes-tough-questions-while-wooing-tech</ref>
{{cquote|I don't think you should be discriminated (against) because of your sexual orientation -- period, over and out.}}

Bush added that [[Christian]]s should be able to follow their [[faith]] in opposing [[same-sex marriage]].

== Post-political career ==

Bush joined the board of directors of Tenet Healthcare, the biggest publicly-traded hospital company in the United States, in April 2007.<ref>[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/economy/2007-05-10-3254091799_x.htm Jeb Bush joins Tenet Healthcare's board], [[USA Today]], May 10, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.floridatoday.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070412/BREAKINGNEWS/70412027/1086 Florida Today]</ref>

After losing the 2016 GOP primary, Bush continued to criticize President Trump's policies.<ref>Lee, Tony (June 12, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/06/12/jeb-bush-blasts-trump-border-wall-america-first/ Jeb Bush Blasts Trump Border Wall Plan, ‘America First’ Doctrine]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved June 12, 2017.</ref> He also took cheap shots at Trump, such as by saying that after losing the Republican primary in South Carolina he returned home to kids who "actually love me."<ref>Nolte, John (March 29, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/03/29/jeb-bush-attacks-trump-family-kids-actually-love-trump-sons-respond/ Jeb Bush Blasts Trump Family: My Kids ‘Actually Love Me’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved March 29, 2018.</ref><ref>Pappas, Alex (March 29, 2018). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2018/03/29/donald-trump-jr-unloads-on-jeb-bush-for-quip-about-having-kids-who-actually-love-me.html Donald Trump Jr. unloads on Jeb Bush for quip about having kids who 'actually love me']. ''Fox News''. Retrieved March 29, 2018.</ref><ref>Chasmar, Jessica (March 29, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/mar/29/trump-kids-slam-jeb-bush-after-joke-his-children-a/ Trump kids slam Jeb Bush after joke that his children ‘actually love’ him]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved March 29, 2018.</ref>

== Personal life ==

Bush met his wife, Columba, while teaching English as part of a university exchange program in Leon, Guanajato, [[Mexico]] in 1971. Columba was born in Leon in 1954. The two were married on February 23, 1974, shortly after Bush graduated from the [[University of Texas]] with a degree in Latin American Affairs. They have three children: George (known as George P., born 1976), Noelle (born 1977) and John (known as Jebby, born 1983). The couple currently resides in Coral Gables, [[Florida]].

==See also==
*[[Jeb Bush's religious views]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[https://www.jeb2016.com/?lang=en Jeb Bush 2016 campaign website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bush, John Ellis "Jeb"}}
[[Category:Florida Governors]]
[[Category:Republican Governors]]
[[Category:2016 Presidential Candidates]]
[[Category:RINO Backers]]
[[Category:Pro Second Amendment]]

Mao Zedong

2020-09-12T10:45:58Z

General Chunichi:

{{Dictator bio
| image =[[Image:Ncvjgfu.jpg|200px]]
| name =Mao Zedong
| birth =December 26, 1893 Shaoshan, Xiangtan, Hunan, China
| parents =Mao Jen-sheng Wen Chi-mei
| religion =[[Confucianism]] (rejected) [[Buddhism]] (rejected) [[Atheism]]
| education =Hunan Normal School Peking University
| spouse =Luo Yixiu (married 1907-1910) Yang Kaihui (married 1921-1927) He Zizhen (married 1928-1939) Jiang Qing: (married 1939-1976)
| children =Mao Anying (from Yang) Mao Anqing (from Yang) Li Min (from He) Li Na (from Jiang)
| death =September 9, 1976 Beijing, China
| deathmanner =Complications after heart attack
| burial =Chairman Mao Memorial Hall, Beijing, China
| country =[[People's Republic of China]]
| military =[[People's Liberation Army]]
| rank =Grand Marshal
| polbeliefs =Communism Maoism [[Mao Zedong Thought]]
| party =[[Communist Party of China]]
| dictatordate =October 1, 1949
| war =[[Chinese Civil War]] [[Great Leap Forward]] [[Cultural Revolution]]
| deathnumber =Great Leap Forward (low estimate 8,000,000, Deng Xiaoping claimed 16,000,000; Mao: The Unknown Story claimed 38,000,000)
Cultural Revolution (low estimate is 20,000,000; Mao: The Unknown Story claimed 35,000,000)
}}
{{language box
|c=毛泽东
|p=Máo Zédōng
|w=Mao Tse-tung
}}
'''Mao Zedong''' (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976), also known as '''Mao Tse-tung''', was the leader of Chinese Communism and a ruthless [[Atheism|atheist]] dictator after he came to power in 1949. While not the founder, he was an early member of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] in 1921. In 1935, Mao was elected to the Executive Committee of the [[Comintern]] in Moscow and remained on this committee until it was publicly disbanded in 1943. Mao is regarded as perhaps the most prolific [[mass murder]]er in human history, not even counting the inummerable unborn female fetuses whom he [[abortion|callously slaughtered]].<ref>[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/20TH.HTM "20th Century Democide"]. ''hawaii.edu''. Retrieved on 20 October 2015.</ref>

==Soviet national liberation movement==
[[Edgar Snow]], an admirer of the Chinese communists, introduced Mao and [[Zhou Enlai]] to American readers in 1937 in his book, ''Red Star Over China'', shortly after the [[Chinese Red Army]]'s rout by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] in 1934 and their year long retreat to [[Yenan]] known as the [[Long March]]. Snow wrote, "The political ideology, tactical line and theoretical leadership of the Chinese Communists have been under the close guidance, if not positive detailed direction, of the [[Communist International]], which during the last decade has become virtually a bureau of the Russian Communist Party." And he further declared that the CCP had to subordinate itself to the "strategic requirements of [[Soviet Russia]], under the leadership of [[Stalin]]."<ref>''Red Star Over China'' by Edgar Snow, New York, 1937.</ref> In 1957, in ominous foreshadowing of his true callous nature, Mao Zedong boasted in his "American Imperialism is a Paper Tiger" speech regarding the prospect of China entering [[nuclear war]] that:

{{Quotebox|"I’m not afraid of nuclear war. There are 2.7 billion people in the world; it doesn’t matter if some are killed. China has a population of 600 million; even if half of them are killed, there are still 300 million people left. I’m not afraid of anyone."<ref>https://www.theepochtimes.com/maos-nuclear-mass-extinction-speech-aired-on-chinese-tv_4758.html</ref>}}

Mao defeated [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s Nationalists, taking control of the Chinese mainland and establishing the so-called [[People's Republic of China]].

==Three Years of Disasters==
As the leader of China, Mao initiated the [[Great Leap Forward]], an economic plan intended to rapidly industrialize China's then largely rural economy. This led to an unprecedented famine. [[Deng Xiaoping]] claimed the death toll to be 16 million, while the lowest estimate is 8 million <ref>Mao: The Real Story by Alexander P. Pantsov with Steven I. Levine, pg. 472</ref> One cause was his 'Four Pests' campaign, which listed [[rats]], [[flies]], [[mosquitoes]], and sparrows. Because killing the sparrows encouraged insects to take out more crops, ornithologist Tso-hsin Cheng asked him to stop.

==Cult of personality==
''The East Is Red'' is a song that was the de facto anthem of the People's Republic of China during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s.
{{quotebox|The East is Red, the sun is rising.
From China, appears Mao Zedong.
He strives for the people's happiness,
Hurrah, he is the people's great saviour!

Chairman Mao loves the people,
He is our guide
to building a [[New China]]
Hurrah, lead us forward!

The Communist Party is like the sun,
Wherever it shines, it is bright
Wherever the Communist Party is
Hurrah, the people are liberated!}}

==Cultural Revolution==
From 1966 to 1976, Mao instigated the [[Cultural Revolution]], in which those disloyal to the Chairman were killed or humiliated in order to solidify Mao's control. The low estimate for the death toll is 20 million.

==Mass Murder==
Estimates vary for the death toll of Mao's regime, as the low estimate for the Great Leap Forward is 8 million though Deng Xiaoping claimed 16 million, as the low estimate for the Cultural Revolution is 20 million.

According to ''[[The Washington Post]]'' (7/14/94):
{{Quotebox|While most scholars are reluctant to estimate a total number of "unnatural deaths" in China under Mao, evidence shows he was in some way responsible for at least 40 million deaths and perhaps 80 million or more. This includes deaths he was directly responsible for and deaths resulting from disastrous policies he refused to change.}}
{{Quotebox|One government document that has been internally circulated and seen by a former Communist Party official now at Princeton University says that 80 million died unnatural deaths – most of them in the famine following the Great Leap Forward. This figure comes from the Tigaisuo, or the System Reform Institute, which was led by Zhao Ziyang, the deposed Communist Party chief, in the 1980s to study how to reform Chinese society.}}
{{quotebox|In comparison, [[Hitler]] is blamed for 12 million concentration camp deaths and at least 30 million other deaths associated with World War II, while Stalin is believed responsible for between 30 million and 40 million “unnatural deaths,” including millions from a famine he created.}}
[[File:Maoist Anita Dunn.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|[[Obama]] [[White House]] Communications Director and [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign]] manager [[Anita Dunn]] was a great admirer of Chairman Mao and was deeply inspired by [[Maoist Thought]].<ref>https://legalinsurrection.com/2019/04/back-to-the-future-biden-hires-anita-dunn-former-obama-adviser-who-praised-mao/</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qDsrfy-Zvg Video of Obama Communications Director Claiming Mao One of Her Favorite Political Philosophers'] Video, YouTube. Retrieved October 29, 2009.</ref> ]]
The article also added:
{{quotebox|Sources of new information on the famine indicate it was more widespread than long believed and could have been avoided.}}
{{quotebox|— An article appearing last year in the Shanghai University journal Society stated that at least 40 million died from 1959 to 1961. Previous estimates have ranged from 10 million to 30 million. The article noted a mistake in government population statistics for 1960 that led to an underestimation of "unnatural deaths." Authorities later banned this issue of the journal and withdrew it from circulation.}}
{{quotebox|— In another study, National Defense University professor Cong Jin estimated that 40 million died between 1959 and 1961.}}
{{quotebox|— Chen Yizi of Princeton University’s Center for Modern China did research for years in China, first as a student and then as a government official, and determined that 43 million had died in the famine, a figure recently matched by a report from a think tank in Shanghai. According to Chen, this made the total number of Chinese who died as a result of Mao’s policies 80 million.<ref>[http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/china/deaths1.html "Uncounted Millions"]. ''paulbogdanor.com''. Retrieved on 20 October 2015.</ref>}}
Chairman Mao bluntly said,
{{quotebox|“What can Emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] brag about? He only killed 460 [[Confucius|Confucian]] scholars, but we killed 46,000 intellectuals. There are people who accuse us of practicing dictatorship like Emperor Qin Shi Huang, and we admit to it all. It fits the reality. It is a pity that they did not give us enough credit, so we need to add to it.”<ref>http://www.ninecommentaries.com/english-3</ref>}}
This confirms the accuracy of democide analyst R.J. Rummel's research on China, who was citing the book ''Mao: The Unknown Story'' by Jung Chung and Jon Halliday. Taking every available estimate of Chinese democide by category and time period; averaging them out and adding them together; repeating the process several times; doing the same with other Communist states and comparing the results; Rummel estimated 77,000,000 Chinese were killed by Mao Tse-Tung, assuming 38 million famine-dead from 1959–61.<ref>[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/20TH.HTM "20th Century Democide"]. ''hawaii.edu''. Retrieved on 20 October 2015.</ref> Mao was responsible for more deaths than [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], [[Pol Pot]], [[Nicolae Ceausescu|Ceausescu]], and [[Tito]] ''combined''. Despite this massive body count, Mao remains an icon for certain segments of the far-left. For example, his likeness and books are often seen at [[Occupy Wall Street]] events.
[[Image:Little red book.jpg|right|thumb|During the so-called [[Cultural Revolution|"Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution"]], it was required for every Chinese citizen to own, read, and carry at all times ''Quotations from Chairman Mao'', also known as "the little red book".]]

==Little Red Book==
Mao is the author of ''[[Quotations from Chairman Mao]],'' published in 1966, informally known as "the little red book." During his lifetime, almost everyone in the [[People's Republic of China]] was expected to have a copy. One of his most well known statements was that "political power grows out of the barrel of a gun".

==Legacy==
In their book ''Mao: The Unknown Story'', authors Jung Chang and Jon Halliday state that in his first five years of power, 700,000 were claimed by Mao to be dead, but another 700,000 died in local excesses and 700,000 committed suicide out of fear of Mao. During the Great Leap Forward, Mao deliberately killed peasants by shipping food to the USSR and Eastern Europe in exchange for aid in building arms plants. As well, Mao's plans for peasants to make steel and build canals meant that in 1959-60 nobody grew any food. Thus, the worst famine in history occurred. Huge numbers were killed by puppets of Mao in the Cultural Revolution, which actually was launched to get rid of Mao's rivals in the Chinese Communist Party.

Despite killing far more people than Stalin and Hitler combined, Mao Zedong has often been held in high-regard by various leftists, with French Existential philosopher [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] claiming his revolution was "profoundly moral", and French feminist [[Simone de Beauvoir]] claiming that his actions were little different from [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]'s policies in an approving tone.<ref>https://www.christianpost.com/news/chairman-mao-s-reign-of-terror-151-finally-the-truth-comes-out-6475/</ref> Infamously, his image has even been used, similar to another leftist icon [[Che Guevara]], in various merchandising, including a restaurant in Hollywood called "Mao's Kitchen." Kai Chen, a Chinese basketball player who fled China, has stated that the promotion of Mao was tasteless, stating it's like someone deciding to open a restaurant called [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler's Kitchen]].<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tPl9Go3hHDI</ref>

== Mao Zedong and Traditional Chinese medicine ==

''See also:'' [[Atheism and medicine]] and [[Atheism and health]]
The efficacy of Chinese herbal medicine is poorly researched and supported.<ref>Shang, A.; Huwiler, K.; Nartey, L.; Jüni, P.; Egger, M. (2007). "Placebo-controlled trials of Chinese herbal medicine and conventional medicine comparative study". International Journal of Epidemiology. 36 (5): 1086–92. doi:10.1093/ije/dym119. PMID 17602184.</ref>

Mao Zedong revived and heavily promoted [[Traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM) in China. He didn't believe in it himself, but pushed it as a cheap alternative to real medicine.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevensalzberg/2018/10/01/who-endorses-tcm-expect-deaths-to-rise/#1f0c61f16418 WHO Endorses Traditional Chinese Medicine. Expect Deaths To Rise] by Steven Salzberg, Forbes magazine</ref>

China has been aggressively promoting TCM on the international stage both for expanding its global influence and for profit.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevensalzberg/2018/10/01/who-endorses-tcm-expect-deaths-to-rise/#1f0c61f16418 WHO Endorses Traditional Chinese Medicine. Expect Deaths To Rise] by Steven Salzberg, Forbes magazine</ref>

==Quotes==
*"If we were to add up all the landlords, rich peasants, counterrevolutionaries, bad elements and rightists, their number would reach thirty million... Of our total population of six hundred million people, these thirty million are only one out of twenty. So what is there to be afraid of? ... We have so many people. We can afford to lose a few. What difference does it make?"<ref>Li Zhisui, The Private Life of Chairman Mao [Random House, 1994], p. 217.</ref>
*"You’d better have less conscience. Some of our comrades have too much mercy, not enough brutality, which means that they are not so Marxist. On this matter, we indeed have no conscience! Marxism is that brutal.”<ref>Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story [Jonathan Cape, 2005], p. 411.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Darwin-Stalin connection]]
* [[List of dictators]]
* [[Friendly dictator]]
* [[Dictatorship of the proletariat]]
* [[List of Communist States]]
* [[List of Socialist States]]
* [[Death toll of communism]]
* [[Far Left]]
* [[Cult of personality]]
*[[Long march through the institutions]]
* [[Mobocracy]], [[Social Effects of the Theory of Evolution]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Chang, Jung and Jon Halliday. ''Mao: The Unknown Story,'' (2005), 814 pages, ISBN 0-679-42271-4
* Clark, Paul. ''The Chinese Cultural Revolution: A History'' (2008), a favorable look at artistic production [https://www.amazon.com/Chinese-Cultural-Revolution-History/dp/0521875153/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214281188&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Dietrich, Craig. ''People's China: A Brief History,'' 3d ed. (1997), 398pp [https://www.amazon.com/Peoples-China-History-Craig-Dietrich/dp/0195106288/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197238522&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Esherick, Joseph W.; Pickowicz, Paul G.; and Walder, Andrew G., eds. ''The Chinese Cultural Revolution as History.'' (2006). 382 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Cultural-Revolution-Shorenstein-Asia-Pacific-Research/dp/0804753504/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197221379&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. ''China: A New History.'' (2nd ed. 2006). 640 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/China-New-History-Second-Enlarged/dp/0674018281/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197346975&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hsü, Immanuel Chung-yueh. ''The Rise of Modern China,'' 6th ed. (1999), highly detailed coverage of 1644–1999, in 1136pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Rise-Modern-China-Immanuel-Hsu/dp/0195125045/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197238178&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Jian, Guo; Song, Yongyi; and Zhou, Yuan. ''Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Cultural Revolution.'' (2006). 433 pp.
* MacFarquhar, Roderick and Fairbank, John K., eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 15: The People's Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966-1982.'' (1992). 1108 pp.
* MacFarquhar, Roderick and Michael Schoenhals. ''Mao's Last Revolution.'' (2006).
* MacFarquhar, Roderick. ''The Origins of the Cultural Revolution. Vol. 3: The Coming of the Cataclysm, 1961-1966.'' (1998). 733 pp.
* Meisner, Maurice. ''Mao's China and After: A History of the People’s Republic,'' 3rd ed. (1999), dense book with theoretical and political science approach. [https://www.amazon.com/Maos-China-After-History-Republic/dp/0684856352/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197238473&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Schoppa, R. Keith. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History.'' Columbia U. Press, 2000. 356 pp. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-columbia-guide-to-modern-chinese-history-by-r-keith-schoppa.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]]
* Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China'' (1991), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1980s [https://www.amazon.com/Search-Modern-China-Jonathan-Spence/dp/0393307808/ref=pd_sim_b_title_2 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98946348 complete edition online at [[Questia]]]
* Spence, Jonatham. ''Mao Zedong'' (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/Mao-Zedong-Penguin-Life-Lives/dp/0670886696/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200477500&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Shuyun, Sun. ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)
* Taylor, Jay. ''The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-Shek and the Struggle for Modern China'' (2009), 722 pp. highly favorable scholarly biography of Mao's great enemy
* Wang, Ke-wen, ed. ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' (1998). 442 pp.
* Xia, Yafeng. "The Study of Cold War International History in China: A Review of the Last Twenty Years," ''Journal of Cold War Studies''10#1 Winter 2008, pp. 81–115 in [[Project Muse]]
* Yan, Jiaqi and Gao, Gao. ''Turbulent Decade: A History of the Cultural Revolution.'' (1996). 736 pp.
* [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/chinesehistory/pgp/index.html Studies of Modern Chinese History: Reviews and Historiographical Essays]

{{Communism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mao Zedong}}
[[Category:Atheists]]
[[Category:Chinese Politics]]
[[Category:Chinese History]]
[[Category:Communists]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
[[Category:Marxism]]
[[Category:Dictators]]
[[Category:People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Police State]]
[[Category:SJWs]]
[[Category:Welfare State]]
[[Category:Anti-American]]

Karafuto

2020-09-11T14:55:22Z

General Chunichi: Redirected page to Sakhalin

#REDIRECT [[Sakhalin]]

Sakhalin

2020-09-11T14:54:51Z

General Chunichi:

'''Sakhalin''' (Сахалин) is an [[island]] in the [[East Asia]] (North Sakhalin is [[Russia|Russian Far East]]), north of [[Hokkaido]]. It has a population of nearly 600,000, and the people there include Russians, Ukrainians, Koreans, Japanese. Indigenous peoples are Ainu, Uilta, Nivkh The island is a part of Sakhalinskaya Oblast' (Сахалинская область), which also includes the [[Kuril Islands]]. The capital is [[Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk]]/[[Toyohara]] (Russian:Южно-Сахалинск / Japanese:豊原).

The island was a part of Japan during the early 20th century until [[World War II]], during which it was called '''Karafuto''' (樺太) in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Most of the 500,000 Japanese were deported after the war's end but some of the descendants of the deportees have started returing to Sakhalin, as late as the 21st century.

==The Shootdown of KAL 007==
On Sept. 1, 1983, [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]], carrying 269 passengers and crew, including Cong. [[Larry McDonald]], was shot down by the Soviets just after it had entered international waters having crossed over Sakhalin Island. It was from Sakhalin's air bases of the Soviet Air Defence forces that the shootdown of KAL 007 was ordered and the missions to Moneron ordered.
These airbases were Smirnykh, Dolinsk-Sokol, and Khomutovo.
[[Image:Sukhoi15.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sukhoi-15 TM interceptor]]

General Anatoly Kornukov, Commander Sokol Air Base, (to Military District Headquarters-Gen. Kamenski): (5:47) "...simply destroy [it] even if it is over neutral waters? Are the orders to destroy it over neutral waters? Oh, well." Kamenski: We must find out, maybe it is some civilian craft or God knows who." Kornukov: "What civilian? [It] has flown over Kamchatka! It [came] from the ocean without identification. I am giving the order to attack if it crosses the State border."

18:21-22 - Kornukov: "Gerasimenko, cut the horesplay at the command post, what is that noise there? I repeat the combat task: fire missiles, fire on target 60-65."

Gerasimenko: "Wilco"

Kornukov: "Comply and get Tarasov here. Take control of the Mig-23 from Smirnykh, call sign 163, call sign 163, he is behind the target at the moment. Destroy the target!"

Gerasimenko: "Task received. Destroy target 60-65 with missile fire, accept control of fighter from Smirnykh"

Kornukov: "Carry out the task, destroy [it]!"

[[Image:Mi-8.jpg|Soviet Mi-8 Rescue Helicopter|right|thumb|200px]]

"Lt. Col. Novoseletski: So, the task. They say it has violated the State border again now? Titovnin: Well, it is the area of Moneron, of course, over our territory. Novoseletski: Get it! Get it! Go ahead bring in the MiG 23."

Lt. Col. Novoseltski,Acting Chief of Staff, Smirnykh Air Base, (18:47): Prepare whatever helicopters there are. Rescue helicopters. Lt. Col. Titovnin: Rescue? Novoseltski: Yes...Novoaleksandrovska must be brought to readiness and Khomutovo...the border guards and KGB are at Khomutovo.

Gen. Strogov, Deputy Commander for the Far East Military District (18:55): "The border guards. What ships do we now have near Moneron Island, if they are civilians, send [them] there immediately.".

==See also==
*[[KAL 007: Soviet stalk, shoot down, and rescue mission orders transcripts]]
*[[Moneron Island]]
*[[Anatoly Kornukov]]
*[[Rinzō Mamiya]] - Discoverers
*[[Mitsuo Senda]] - A Japanese actor/comedian from Maoka(Kholmsk).

[[Category:Russian Islands]]
[[Category:Japanese Islands]]
[[Category:Russian History]]
[[Category:Japanese History]]

Chunichi Shimbun

2020-09-04T06:45:12Z

General Chunichi:

'''Chūnichi Shimbun'''(中日新聞, <del>China and Japan News</del> Central Japan News) is a Japanese left-wing newspaper.

The headquarters is in Nagoya, and the total circulation of the group newspapers is the third largest after [[Yomiuri Shimbun]] and [[Asahi Shimbun]].

Aichi Prefecture is the political ground of the [[Democratic Party of Japan]]<ref>Currently it is divided into the [[Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan]] and the [[Democratic Party for the People]].</ref>.

== Overview ==
First published under the newspaper control of 1942 by integrating Shin-Aichi and the Nagoya Shimbun.

== People ==
Chunichi Shimbun reporter [[Isoko Mochizuki]] is the owner of the left-wing idea and strongly opposed the [[LDP]] [[Shinzo Abe]] administration. Repression has been received from the official residence.

== Baseball ==
Owns [[Chunichi Dragons]]. The father of Japanese baseball is the socialist leftist activist [[Isoo Abe]].

== See also ==
*[[Tokyo Metropolitan Television]] - Group broadcasting station

[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Liberal Media]]
[[Category:Liberal News Organizations]]
[[Category:Socialism]]

Chunichi Dragons

2020-09-04T06:44:37Z

General Chunichi: Created page with "'''Chunichi Dragons'''(中日ドラゴンズ) is a Japanese progressional baseball team. The parent company is the left-wing newspaper Chunichi Shimbun."

'''Chunichi Dragons'''(中日ドラゴンズ) is a Japanese progressional baseball team. The parent company is the left-wing newspaper [[Chunichi Shimbun]].

Nintendo

2020-09-04T06:42:05Z

General Chunichi:

[[Image:765px-Nintendo svg.png|right|thumb|Nintendo logo.]]
'''Nintendo''' is commonly known as one of the major [[video game]] [[hardware]] and [[software]] manufacturers in the world. It is also one of the few video game companies to have remained largely apolitical until recently,<ref>http://www.cbc.ca/news/thenational/video-games-get-political-1.4163448</ref> when in June 2020, the American branch was listed as one of numerous companies that have gone "[[woke]]" and now support the criminal rioters of [[Antifa]] and [[Black Lives Matter]] in the wake of the [[2020 leftist riots]].<ref>[https://gab.com/a/posts/104311289660016704 Here Are The Companies That Support Antifa, Black Lives Matter, and Want You Dead] at Gab.com</ref> Kyoto, where the head office is located, is one of the domestic [[progressive]] regions where the [[Japanese Communist Party]] is strong.

==Origins==
Nintendo got its start in [[Japan]] in 1889, as a company manufacturing cards for [[Hanafuda]], a Japanese [[card game]]. In the 1960s, it diversified into a number of ultimately unsuccessful product lines, including a [[toy]] company. In the 1970s, it moved into electronic gaming, where it was ultimately successful.

In 1981, it created the popular arcade game "[[Donkey Kong]]", which brought it international attention, and introduced Nintendo to the [[United States|American]] market. Nintendo's products in the United States are released through Nintendo of America, their American subsidiary. They are largely responsible for saving the console video game industry after the video game crash of 1983 with the creation of the Famicom (Known as the Nintendo Entertainment System outside of Japan).

The word 'Nintendo' (任天堂株式会社) is said by the companies own sources to literally translate to 'leave luck to [[heaven]]'.<ref>Touch Generations: [http://www.touchgenerations.com/enGB/discover_nintendo/what_nintendo_means.php What Nintendo Means]</ref> The term has its origins in [[gambling]] done with Hanafuda cards.

==Early restrictions on content==
Before the days of [[ESRB]] video game ratings, Nintendo maintained a strict policy banning the inclusion of pornography in games made for it's consoles as they feared "their name would be forever tarnished." Nintendo of America and Nintendo of Europe also banned games containing blood, graphic or domestic violence, drug use, and political messages. However, NOA and NOE also were alleged to ban religious symbols in games, although in Legend of Zelda, religious symbols were still shown. These policies vanished when ESRB started rating video games.

==Nintendo Video game systems==
[[Image:Bible_adventures.jpg|right|190px|thumb|An unlicensed NES game cartridge.]]
*[[NES]] - Nintendo Entertainment System.
*[[Game Boy]] - A classic handheld games console.
*[[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] - Super Nintendo, a 16-bit console.
*[[Virtual Boy]] - A mobile system which utilised 2 screens to provide a 3D view.
*[[N64]] - [[Nintendo 64]], Nintendo's first 64bit console.
*[[GBC]] - Game Boy Color, evolution of the original with a color screen.
*[[GBA]] - Game Boy Advance, a 32-bit handheld.
*[[GBA SP]]- Game Boy Advance SP, an upgraded version of the Game Boy Advance.
*[[GameCube]] - Nintendo's entry to the console war with Sony's PS2 ([[Playstation2]]) & Microsoft [[Xbox]]. Despite succeeding a 64-bit system, it was actually 32-bit.
*[[DS]] - An innovative 32-bit handheld.
*[[DS Lite]] - Nintendo DS Lite, an improved version of the original.
*[[DSi]] - vastly improved version of the DS, with a completely updated [[Operating System]] and featuring, two cameras, downloadable content available for free or real world money (includes a free internet web
browser), and an SD card expansion slot.
*[[Wii]] - Nintendo's seventh generation console which competed with the Mircosoft[[Xbox 360]] & the Sony[[Playstation 3]].<ref>http://nexgenwars.com/</ref>
*[[Nintendo 3DS]]- New version of the DS with stereoscopic 3D graphic (true 3D) capabilities and new game library with DS backward compatibility.
*[[Wii U]]- Nintendo's eighth generation console.
*[[Nintendo Switch|Switch]] - Nintendo's ninth generation console. It also functions as a handheld system.
===Nintendo Entertainment System===
The '''Nintendo Entertainment System''', commonly known as the NES for short and as the '''Famicom''' (short for '''Family Computer''') in [[Japan]], is an 8-bit [[video game]] console manufactured by the Japanese company Nintendo, first released in 1985. In Japan later on, an upgrade called the '''Famicom Disk System''' was released. The NES was released by [[Hyundai]] in [[South Korea]] as the '''Comboy'''. The NES was the first console released by Nintendo and was the best selling console of its time. Nintendo released the NES after successes in the arcade with games such as ''Donkey Kong'' and ''Popeye''. The NES is known for revitalizing the video game industry after its 1983 crash. The NES came with a copy of ''[[Super Mario Bros.]]'' and ''Duck Hunt''.

The main competitor of the NES was Sega who, after the Genesis was released, created a promotional campaign ''Genesis Does What Nintendon't''. Soon after that, Nintendo released the [[SNES]].

Unlicensed clones, dubbed Famiclones, are sold due to the lack of original hardware remaining. The first Famiclones were illegal and sold while the NES was produced in markets where the NES was not introduced. They were introduced in North America by companies such as Yobo and Retro Duo and are considered legitimate, due to NES hardware patents expiring. They have mixed compatibility rates, but Yobo and Retro Duo units function well.

'''Notable Games'''
*''[[Bible Adventures]]''
*''[[Bomberman]]''
*''[[Dr. Mario]]''
*''[[Kirby's Adventure]]''
*''[[The Legend of Zelda]]''
*''[[Metroid]]''
*''[[StarTropics]]''
*''[[Super Mario Bros.]]''
*''Super Mario Bros. 2''
*''Super Mario Bros. 3''
*''[[Donkey Kong (game)|Donkey Kong]]''
*''Metal Gear''

===Game Boy===
'''Game Boy''' is a line of portable [[video game]] systems developed by Nintendo. However, the term "Game Boy" usually refers to the original Nintendo Game Boy.

The original Game Boy made its debut in 1989, and was about [[inch|4″ x 7″]] in size. In 1996, the Game Boy Pocket was released, measuring at a reduced 3″ x 5″. In 1998, the Game Boy Color was released, succeeding the monochrome original. In 2001 a complete update was made to the line with the Game Boy Advance. The Advance included a new shape, improved sound, and more complex graphics (from 8 bit to 32 bit). Due to complaints over the Advance's lack of a back light, the upgraded Game Boy Advance SP was released in 2003; the SP had a folding case, an LCD screen with back light, and a rechargeable lithium battery. Currently, Nintendo's stake in the portable gaming market is based on the [[Nintendo DS]] (2005).

'''Notable Games'''

*''Tetris''
*''Super Mario Land''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening''
*''Donkey Kong Land''
*''Pokemon''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Seasons''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Ages''
*''Metroid Fusion''
*''Metroid: Zero Mission''
*''Golden Sun''
*''The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap''

===Super Nintendo Entertainment System===
The '''Super Nintendo Entertainment System''' ('''SNES''', '''Super NES''' or '''Super Nintendo''' for short), known as the '''Super Famicom''' in [[Japan]], and the '''Super Comboy''' in [[South Korea]] is a 16-bit [[video game]] console first released in 1991 by Nintendo. It was the successor to the company's [[NES|Nintendo Entertainment System]] and predecessor to the [[Nintendo 64]]. Although the hardware is extremely similar, each have a regional lockout chip to prevent a console from one region from playing games from another. The SNES was the best-selling console of the 16-bit era of video games, despite having a late start against its main competitor, the [[Sega Genesis]].

'''Notable Games'''
*''[[Chrono Trigger]]''
*''[[EarthBound]]''
*''[[Final Fantasy II]]''
*''[[Final Fantasy III]]''
*''[[The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past]]
*''[[Star Fox]]''
*''[[Street Fighter II]]''
*''Super Mario All-Stars''
*''[[Super Mario World]]''
*''[[Super Mario Kart]]''
*''[[Super Metroid]]''

===Nintendo 64===
The '''Nintendo 64''' is a gaming console released by Nintendo in 1996. The console gained acute popularity with first-party titles. The Nintendo 64 was the third home console released by Nintendo and succeeded the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]]. The console's main competitor was the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation]], and it had a major advantage over the N64 because the PlayStation used discs rather than cartridges like the N64 and garnered much more third-party support. Despite this, Nintendo produced some of their most notable gaming classics for this system.

'''Notable Games'''

*''Super Mario 64''
*''Mario Kart 64''
*''Star Fox 64''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask''
*''GoldenEye 007''
*''Donkey Kong 64''
*''Super Smash Bros.''
*''Pokemon Stadium''
*''Star Wars: Rogue Squadron''

===Nintendo GameCube===
The '''Nintendo GameCube''' is Nintendo's fourth home [[video game console]], belonging to the sixth generation era. The GameCube is the most compact and least expensive of the sixth generation era consoles. It is the successor to the [[Nintendo 64]] and the predecessor of the [[Wii]]. The home console was released on September 14, 2001 in [[Japan]]; November 18, 2001 in [[North America]]; May 3, 2002 in [[Europe]]; and May 17, 2002 in [[Australia]]. It was Nintendo's first console without a launch title starring Mario.

'''Notable Games'''

*''Super Mario Sunshine''
*''Luigi's Mansion''
*''Super Smash Bros. Melee''
*''Metroid Prime''
*''Metroid Prime 2: Echoes''
*''Star Fox Adventures''
*''The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess'' (Also available on Nintendo Wii)
*''Mario Kart: Double Dash''
*''Paper Mario: The Thousand Year Door''
*''Resident Evil 4''
*''Animal Crossing''

===Nintendo DS===
The '''Nintendo DS''' is a [[video game]] system created by Nintendo. Its main features are its two screens (its name is an [[acronym]] for "Dual Screens" or "Developer System") and the touch-sensitivity of the bottom screen. Notable games include:

* ''Super Mario 64 DS''
* ''[[Mario Kart]] DS''
* ''[[New Super Mario Bros.]]''
* ''The Legend of Zelda: The Phantom Hourglass''
* ''The Legend of Zelda: Spirit Tracks''
* ''[[Pokemon Diamond and Pearl]]''
* ''Nintendogs''
* ''[[Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney]]''

A new version of the DS, the 'DS Lite' (which is slimmer and weighs less) has been released and an even newer version, the 'DSi' (featuring an internet browser among other features) has been released in Japan in 2008 and was released in the rest of the world in 2009.

The Nintendo 3DS is a video game system created by Nintendo.It is an updated version of the [[DS]]. It has the ability to show 3D visuals, watch Netflix, has 3 cameras (2 in back and 1 in front), motion sensors, Miis, and a circle pad (similar to an analog stick on a controller). It can play DS games via game card and [[Gameboy]], [[Gameboy Color]], and [[Gameboy Advance]] games via the Virtual Console service. It is able to have the connect to WiFi (with Key) and connect with people around you while in sleep mode with a feature called Street Pass. It was released February 2011 in Japan and March everywhere else.

===Nintendo Wii===
[[Image:Wii.png|thumb|right|200px|Click for a high resolution view.]]
The '''Nintendo Wii''' is a video game console launched on November 2006 and has sold 50 million units worldwide. Its major selling point is the inclusion of motion sensitive controllers the "Wiimote" and "Nunchuk". That ability is to ''swing'' at golf, ''throw'' a bowling ball, and ''punch'' with boxing provides the virtual game challenge experience. Since your fingers do not operate a game controller like all previous platforms to date, this truly becomes a next generation console. It is a physical experience and provides good cardiovascular movements. Recently, Nintendo has introduced the Wii ''"Fit"'' title along with it a balance board. This extended functionality allows the user to do [[yoga]], ski, hoola-hoop, hit soccer balls with your head, and strength training. In July 2009, the ''"Wiimote"'' received a boost of improved sensitivity with the addition of a remote device extension. Increased range of motion games are offered with the Wii Resort package which include canoe races and ping-pong. The console is truly backwards compatible, allowing games of previous Nintendo consoles to play on the Wii such as GameCube games.

Game characters/players are crafted by the user called ''Mii''. This personalized experience allows you to art design your avatar for use throughout the series of games. Gather enough skills and earn professional status. As you achieve better results with the Wii, Nintendo makes your Mii's challenge harder.

Nintendo provides an online service, Wii ''"Connect24"'' for game downloads, device updates, weather, contests and other community oriented features. Points purchased at neighborhood stores unlock Wii ''"Shop"'' downloads. The console has built-in WiFi for access to the Internet.

Nintendo has always catered to [[family-friendly]] entertainment. The Wii console comes with Parental Controls. The next-generation consoles from [[Microsoft]] and [[Sony]] have much more detailed, hi-resolution images and increased processing power with which to play hundreds of blood-and-guts games. By comparison, of the tens-of-hundreds of games available from Nintendo, only two Wii games have mature PG17 content. In addition, Nintendo has drawn-in millions of new ''gamers'' who would not have stepped into the experience if it were not for the Wii. Women, elderly men, children have an easy time grasping the simplified means of operating the console. It is not uncommon to find these consoles in use at pubs, conventions, holiday gatherings, for hospital physical therapy, the gym and more. The result has been enormous success in sales versus their competitors.

The design is roughly the size of an external DVD player making it highly portable. Due to the Wii's widespread adoption by the public, stories of injuries began making news cycles recently. Also, stories of flying ''Wiimotes'' and smashed flat screen TV's are common.

'''Notable Games'''

*''Super Mario Galaxy''
*''Super Mario Galaxy 2''
*''New Super Mario Bros. Wii''
*''Super Smash Bros. Brawl''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword''
*''Metroid Prime 3: Corruption''
*''Mario Kart Wii''
*''No More Heroes''
*''Mad World''
*''Wii Sports''

===Wii U===

Nintendo release their latest console, the Wii U on November 18, 2012. Although a more powerful system than it's predecessor, it has not sold well. This is mainly due to lack of third-party support as well as lack of first party games (i.e. Mario, Zelda, Star Fox, Metroid). On January 31, 2017, Nintendo discontinued production of the Wii U. ''The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild'' was announced as Nintendo's last game for Wii U.

'''Notable Games'''

*''Super Mario 3D World''
*''Mario Kart 8''
*''New Super Mario Bros. U''
*''Super Mario Maker''
*''Splatoon''
*''The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker HD''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess HD''
*''Star Fox Zero''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild''

===Switch===

Nintendo's successor to the Wii U, called the Switch, was released on March 3, 2017. It is both a home console and handheld system. On September 20, 2019, Nintendo came out with the Switch Lite, which was a smaller version of the system. The Switch Lite was handheld only, and had no output to a television. It launched with ''The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening.''

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, video game systems became sparse at retail stores, particularly the Nintendo Switch. Although the Switch Lite had been somewhat easier to find, the regular version had been known to sell out within minutes of a store having some in stock.

'''Notable Games'''

*''The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild''
*''The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim''
*''Super Mario Odyssey''
*''Mario Kart 8 Deluxe''
*''Splatoon 2''
*''Arms''
*''Super Smash Bros. Ultimate''
*''Fire Emblem: Three Houses''
*''The Witcher III: Wild Hunt''
*''Luigi's Mansion 3''
*''Pokemon: Sword and Shield''
*''The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening''
*''Paper Mario: The Origami King''

==Notable series of Videogames by Nintendo==
===Nintendogs===
'''Nintendogs''' is a [[virtual pet]] [[video game]] created by Nintendo for the [[Nintendo DS]]. The game involves caring for one or more virtual [[dog]]s. Four versions were released, [[Dachsund]] and Friends, [[Labrador]] and Friends, [[Chihuahua]] and Friends, and [[Dalmation]] and Friends. However, all breeds are available in all versions.
The dogs can be taught tricks or actions, including unorthodox ones (for instance, by using the stylus to pull a dogs leg into the air, you can teach it a trick akin to a salute). These tricks are performed by the dog upon the shouting of a command (set by the player) into the DS microphone.

[[Category:Video Games]]
[[Category:Nintendo]]
[[File:Wii sports.jpg|right|200px]]
===Wii Sports===
'''''Wii Sports''''' ([[ESRB]] rating: E) is a [[video game]] that formerly came packaged with the [[Wii|Nintendo Wii]] (and now is sold separately as part of Nintendo's hit line up). Nintendo has sold 50 million Wii's, so by far the most popular Wii game in widespread use. It contains five games: [[Baseball]], [[Tennis]], [[Bowling]], [[Golf]], and [[Boxing]]. Also, unique training sessions for each sport. Up to four people can play at once with or without four Wiimotes. Also, you can measure your skill and stamina with the Wii Fitness Challenge, this will assign you a Wii fitness age.

Utilizing the Wiimotes motion-sensor technology instead of a game controller, you become a first person virtual reality athlete. In golf, you swing the Wiimote the same as you would a golf club. In bowling, you are tossing a ball (while holding onto the Wiimote). In Tennis, you are paired exclusively with a partner for matches. You may choose to go it alone in the tennis training session. In baseball, you are limited to hitting and pitching. Also, there are only three innings per game.

As your skills improve, the Wii responds by increasing the challenge. It is an excellent cardiovascular workout that is simple to operate. The English Queen Elizabeth has played Wii Sports.<ref>[http://www.people.co.uk/news/tm_headline=make-way-for-the-q-wii-n%26method=full%26objectid=20276099%26siteid=93463-name_page.html MAKE WAY FOR THE Q Wii N, People UK, January 6, 2008]</ref>

A sequel to ''Wii Sports'' was introduced called ''Wii Sports Resort''. It features an array of new games such as jousting, basketball, cycling, frisbee, archery, and the return of bowling and golf from the original game, with new improvements. This game was also the first game to use the Wii MotionPlus add-on.

===[[Mario (series)|Super Mario Bros.]]===
Considered the mascot of Nintendo, Mario has become synonymous with video games. The character first appeared in 1981's Donkey Kong. In 1983, the character, along with his brother, Luigi, appeared in Mario Bros. 1985 saw the release of Super Mario Bros.
===[[The Legend of Zelda]]===
===[[Metroid]]===
===[[Pokemon]]===
===[[Super Smash Bros.]]===
===[[Star Fox]]===
===[[Animal Crossing]]===
===[[Fire Emblem]]===

== See also ==

*[[Japanese animation]]
*[[Sony]]
*[[Microsoft]]

==References==

<references />

[[Category:Japanese Companies]]
[[Category:Nintendo]]
[[Category:Liberal Companies]]
[[Category:SJWs]]

Tokyo Shimbun

2020-09-04T06:29:44Z

General Chunichi: Redirected page to Chunichi Shimbun

#REDIRECT [[Chunichi Shimbun]]

Chunichi Shimbun

2020-09-04T06:28:32Z

General Chunichi:

'''Chūnichi Shimbun'''(中日新聞, <del>China and Japan News</del> Central Japan News) is a Japanese left-wing newspaper.

The headquarters is in Nagoya, and the total circulation of the group newspapers is the third largest after [[Yomiuri Shimbun]] and [[Asahi Shimbun]].

Aichi Prefecture is the political ground of the [[Democratic Party of Japan]]<ref>Currently it is divided into the [[Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan]] and the [[Democratic Party for the People]].</ref>.

== Overview ==
First published under the newspaper control of 1942 by integrating Shin-Aichi and the Nagoya Shimbun.

== People ==
Chunichi Shimbun reporter [[Isoko Mochizuki]] is the owner of the left-wing idea and strongly opposed the [[LDP]] [[Shinzo Abe]] administration. Repression has been received from the official residence.

== Baseball ==
Owns Chunichi Dragons. The father of Japanese baseball is the socialist leftist activist [[Isoo Abe]].

== See also ==
*[[Tokyo Metropolitan Television]] - Group broadcasting station

[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Liberal Media]]
[[Category:Liberal News Organizations]]
[[Category:Socialism]]

Chunichi Shimbun

2020-09-04T06:26:34Z

General Chunichi: New article created

'''Chūnichi Shimbun'''(中日新聞, <del>China and Japan News</del> Central Japan News) is a Japanese left-wing newspaper.

The headquarters is in Nagoya, and the total circulation of the group newspapers is the third largest after [[Yomiuri Shimbun]] and [[Asahi Shimbun]].

Aichi Prefecture is the political ground of the [[Democratic Party of Japan]]<ref>Currently it is divided into the [[Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan]] and the [[Democratic Party for the People]].</ref>.

== Overview ==
First published under the newspaper control of 1942 by integrating Shin-Aichi and the Nagoya Shimbun.

== People ==
Chunichi Shimbun reporter [[Isoko Mochizuki]] is the owner of the left-wing idea and strongly opposed the [[LDP]] [[Shinzo Abe]] administration. Repression has been received from the official residence.

== Baseball ==
Owns Chunichi Dragons. The father of Japanese baseball is the socialist leftist activist [[Isoo Abe]].

== See also ==
*[[Tokyo Metropolitan Television]] - Group broadcasting station

{{Communism}}
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Liberal Media]]
[[Category:Liberal News Organizations]]
[[Category:Socialism]]