Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Battle of Britain

2010-03-31T15:19:10Z

Gemmmz:

The '''Battle of Britain''' was a battle in [[World War Two]] fought between the German [[Luftwaffe]] and the British [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF), after France and the Low Countries had fallen to the armies of Nazi Germany. The battle was fought between 10th July and 31 October 1940, and is regarded as the Nazis' first major defeat.

The Battle of Britain was essentially a contest for air superiority. German air superiority was considered a necessary prelude for the planned land invasion ([[Operation Sea Lion]]). The Germans initially attempted to destroy British airfields. They did not succeed in this: RAF 'Hurricane' and 'Spitfire' aircraft piloted by 'The Few' ([[Winston Churchill]]'s name for RAF fighter pilots) caused them to have heavy casualties, in spite of the Luftwaffe's superior numbers. The [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]] fighter that the Luftwaffe had as its main escort for the twin-engined Heinkel, Dornier and Junkers bombers was at the limit of its range. In addition, the German fighters were restricted by the need to stick close to their bombers, while the British pilots had more tactical flexibility.

In September, the Luftwaffe switched to targeting British cities. [[London]] and many other cities suffered air raids in [[The Blitz]] and [[Coventry]], an historic city in the English Midlands, was almost destroyed by a firestorm. This strategy caused heavy civilian casualties, but took theObama is a jedi bitches.
pressure off the RAF air bases, giving Fighter Command vital breathing space.

By the end of May 1941, the RAF had lost 788 aircraft, while the Luftwaffe's losses were 1294 aircraft, mostly bombers.<ref>''The Seventy Great Battles in History'', by Jeremy Black, 2005</ref>
[[File:WW2-hurricane.jpg|thumb|275px|The British "Hurricane" was a winning weapon]]
The [[Battle of Britain]] was not the totality of German air operations against Britain, but it was of utter strategic significance after the fall of France. Germany believed that it could defeat Britain only by physical invasion, codenamed [[Operation Sea Lion]]. The British Army rescued its soldiers at Dunkink but lost most of its equipment and weapons, and was no match for the fully equipped German army.

German capabilities to launch an invasion were primitive--many small boats and transport ships with a very thin layer of naval warships. The German Army and Navy realized an invasion could succeed only if the Luftwaffe could guarantee the Royal Navy would not be able to attack the landing force. To do so, the Royal Air Force had to be defeated. The Battle of Britain decided whether an invasion was possible.

===Radar===
Radar was the secret weapon that made possible effective RAF counterattacks against invading Luftwaffe planes. The Germans were several years behind in development, and in any case radar was a defensive weapon and would not be much help top German bombers.

===Battle of Britain===
[[File:Spitfire.jpg|thumb|350px|British Supermarine Spitfire ooutfought the Luftwaffe Messerschmitt 109E]]
The [[Battle of Britain]], August to September. 1940, was fought for air supremacy over Britain. After the fall of France in June, 1940, Germany believed that it could defeat Britain only by physical invasion, codenamed [[Operation Sea Lion]]. Hitler at least wanted to threaten an invasion, perhaps to force a peace. German [[amphibious warfare]] tactics and capabilities were primitive, and the German Army and Navy believed an invasion could succeed only if the German Air Force could guarantee the Royal Navy would not be able to attack the landing force. To do so, the Royal Air Force had to be defeated. <ref>An invasion was unlikely to succeed; over a third of the days were bad flying weather that grounded most flights. On those days the Royal Navy battleships could plow through the storms and sink the entire invasion fleet.</ref> The Luftwaffe used 1300 medium bombers guarded by 900 fighters; they made 1500 sorties a day from bases in France, Belgium and Norway. The RAF had 650 fighters, with more coming out of the factories every day. Thanks to its new radar system, the British knew where the Germans were, and could concentrate their counterattacks. The Germans used their strategic bombing doctrine to focus on RAF airfields and radar stations. After the RAF bomber forces (quite separate from the fighter forces) attacked Berlin and other cities, Hitler swore revenge and diverted the Luftwaffe to attacks on London. The success the Luftwaffe was having in rapidly wearing down the RAF was squandered, as the civilians being hit were far less critical than the airfields and radar stations that were now ignored.<ref> Civilian deaths were 300 to 600 a day, plus 1000 to 3000 injured. London was not a factory city and aircraft production went up.</ref> The last German daylight raid was September 30; the Luftwaffe was taking unacceptable losses and broke off the attack; occasional blitz raids hit London and other cities from time to time before May 1941, killing some 43,000 civilians. The Luftwaffe lost 1733 planes, the British, 915. The British showed more determination, had better radar, and better ground control, while the Germans violated their own doctrine with wasted attacks on London.

The British surprised the Germans with their high quality airplanes; flying close to home bases where they could refuel, and using radar as part of an integrated air defense system, they had a significant advantage over German planes operating at long range. The Hawker Hurricane fighter plane played a vital role for the Royal Air Force (RAF) in winning the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. A fast, heavily armed monoplane that went into service in 1937, the Hurricane was effective against both German fighters and bombers and accounted for 70-75% of German losses during the battle. The Germans immediately pulled out their Stukas, which were so slow they were child's play for the Hurricanes and Spitfires. The Battle of Britain showed the world that Hitler's vaunted war machine could be defeated.
Churchill's tribute to the Royal Air Force is eloquent:
:''Never, in the course of human events, have so many, owed so much, to so few.''

But it was misleading. The Battle of Britain was won by hundreds of thousands of factory workers, mechanics, engineers. technicians, radar operators, generals and colonels, sergeants and privates, both men and women --and not merely the heroic RAF pilots.

==Factors in the British Victory==
===Radar===
The British worked feverishly in the 1930s to invent and install a network of [[radar]] stations. Through radar they knew exactly where the German formations were, and could send fighter interceptions to the optimal location, not wasting precious minutes looking for the German aircraft.

===Geography===
The German fighter planes had much smaller fuel capacities than the German bombers, and it was estimated that they could only spend five minutes in a dogfight with the British before they had to turn around for home. Often the German bombers were left unescorted for the last stretch to the target, leaving them vulnerable to attack from British planes.
[[File:Ww2-stuka.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Stuka was a dive bomber that frightened people on the ground but it was too slow in the air and the British shot most of them down]]

===Poor German Leadership===
Goering was in charge of the Luftwaffe. Not interested in tactics or strategy, he was surrounded by visions of a glorious great battle in which the RAF was completely destroyed by the Luftwaffe's superior numbers. He did not realise the significance of radar. He finally got his wish - a great battle above the skies of Britain - and it did not go as he expected. In order to create a massive formation of aircraft, the German fighters were left circling in the air above their airfields waiting for the bombers to arrive - wasting more precious fuel, which Goering failed to realize. In the battle which was to follow, not only was the RAF not destroyed, but the bombers failed to hit their targets. After their fighter escort were either destroyed or forced to turn back early, many of the bombers were either shot down or jettisoned their bombs and joined their escorts in flight back to the coast of France.

==see also==
* [[World War II in the Air‎]]

==References==
<references/>

==Links==
*[http://www.battleofbritain.net/ The Battle of Britain Historical Society]
*[http://www.battleofbritainmemorial.org/ The Battle of Britain Memorial]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Britain, Battle of}}
[[Category:World War II Battles]]
[[Category:Air Power]]
[[Category:British History]]

Cerebral cortex

2010-03-31T15:19:04Z

Gemmmz:

The '''cerebral cortex''' is the outer most layer of the [[vertebrate]] [[brain]]. Its is most highly developed in [[humans]], it is the source of much of the thoughts and behaviors uniquely attributed to man. It is functionally [[modular]] and is divided into four distinct regions. These are labeled based on the [[cranial bones]] that overlay them as the: [[frontal lobe]], [[parietal lobe]], [[temporal lobObama is a jedi bitches.
e]], and [[occipital lobe]]. The cerebral cortex is predominantly [[grey matter]].

==References==

* Martin, JH (2003). Neuroanatomy text and atlas 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill.

* Kandel, ER; Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (2000). Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8385-7701-6.

[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Neuroscience]]

Pharaoh

2010-03-31T15:19:00Z

Gemmmz:

[[Image:Tuthmosis III.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Thutmose III of the 18th Dynasty. This statue depicts him in a way that perfectly displays the official iconographic conventions of Egyptian art and ideology, with the Pharaoh as eternally serene, young and beautiful. The statue is considered a masterpiece of Egyptian sculpture. Greywacke, from Karnak Temple Cachette, now in Luxor Museum.]]
'''Pharaoh''' is the term generally used today to refer to the Kings of [[Ancient Egypt]], including the [[Hyksos]] and [[Ptolemaic]] rulers, but usually not the [[Persian]] rulers, though many of them did have a formal Egyptian royal titulary drawn up.
Obama is a jedi bitches.

== Etymology of the Word ==

The term "pharaoh" derives from the Egyptian word ''pr-'3'', reconstructed as "per-'aa" and literally translates as "Great House", i.e. the royal palace. The word itself occurs from the Old Kingdom onward, but only within that context, i.e. ''smr pr '3'' "Courtier of the Great House", rather than referring to the ruler in person.

Towards the end of the 12th Dynasty, the context has shifted somewhat, being used in blessing or as a wish "Great House, may it liver, prosper and be in health", which although still referring to the palace the context appears to be shifting somewhat. It is from the late 18th Dynasty onward in the Amarna Letters that we obtain the first clear usage of the term ''pr-'3'' to refer to the person of the King himself, and from the 19th dynasty onwards it is used in exactly the same manner as "His Majesty" (''Hm.f''). The term continues to be used into the Greco-Roman era, where it even finds use in temple inscriptions.

== The Divine Kingship ==

The Pharaoh was a divine [[King]] (sometimes referred to as a God-King), who ruled as an [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarch]]. He was associated with numerous [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian gods]], but the most significant relationship was the Pharaoh being the living image or earthly incarnation of [[Horus]]. This was an extremely important foundation for Pharaonic ideology, as Horus is closely associated with the ideals of Kingship in theology, being the rightful successor to the murdered [[Osiris]]. It is also the oldest of the divine associations, dating back at least as far as the reign of [[menes|Narmer]], at the beginning of the Dynastic period. The Horus name in the royal titulary links directly to this association.

The Pharaoh was also the Son of [[Ra]], as explicitly stated in the royal titulary from the reign of [[Djedfra]] (4th Dyn.) onward. This was a very important association in the [[old kingdom|Old]] and [[Middle Kingdom]], when [[Ra]] was the supreme state god, and remained significant throughout Pharaonic history. When Amun became solarised in the 18th dynasty as [[Amun-Ra]], the Pharaoh came to be seen as the son of this combined form of the [[sun god]] as well.

The Pharaoh was also considered to be the son of [[Geb]], [[Nut]], [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], and [[Hathor]]. In addition he was also imbued with the traits of others gods at particular times. On the battlefield, [[Thutmose III]] was likened to the Theban war god [[Montu]], and [[Ramesses II]] to [[Sekhmet]], the avenging [[Eye of Ra]].

The Pharaoh could also be directly worshipped as an independent god in his own right, and it is known that temples to Senusret III, Ahmose I, Amunhotep II, Amunhotep III, and Ramesses II existed. In addition to these, every Pharoh was worshipped after his death in a mortuary cult, the central temple of which was the pyramid complex in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and the mortuary temple in later periods. These cults were state sponsored, sometimes for centuries following the death of the ruler concerned. Several Pharaohs were also worshipped outside [[Egypt]].

== The Dual Kingship ==

Egyptian philosophy was highly dualistic in nature, seeing two aspects being necessary to form a whole picture. For example, order could not exist without chaos, perhaps best seen in the Contendings of Horus and Set. The role of the Pharaoh was seen in a similar way, and by extension Egypt as a whole. Egypt was the “Two Lands”, which has is generally seen today as Upper and Lower Egypt, reflecting both philosophical view and political history. The title Lord of the Two Lands was an important part of the royal titulary, and is reflected in the idea of the dual crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt (red crown, white crown, and joined crowns), and also the “two ladies” name of the royal titulary. The two ladies were the vulture goddess [[Nekhbet]] (patron of Upper Egypt) and cobra goddess [[Wadjet]] (patron of Lower Egypt). The latter reared up upon the brow of the Pharaoh to spit and strike at his enemies, and quite commonly the head of Nekhbet was depicted alongside her, as on the mask of [[Tutankhamun]].

The idea of the Two Lands, as well as fitting in the with Egyptian thinking regarding the nature of the universe also preserved the historic memory of the original act of unification of Egypt into one nation circa 3200 – 3100 BC. Although unified, the administration maintained some divisions, including having two national treasuries, though usually under one treasurer.

== The Royal Names ==

The Pharaoh had five sets of royal names and titulary, as well as additional epithets and titles not discussed here. The main five names and titles were:

* The Horus Name: The oldest title, dating from the 1st Dynasty, links the Pharaoh to the god Horus. It is written in a serekh. This name was given to the Pharaoh upon his ascension to the throne, and was his “official” name during the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods.
* The Nebty Name: Sometimes called the “Two Ladies” name, links the Pharaoh with the patron goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt. Used first by Den of the 1st Dynasty, and clearly states that the Pharaoh is ruler of all Egypt. It was taken upon coronation.
* Golden Horus Name: It’s exactly symbolism is disputed, but apart from the obvious link to the Pharaoh as the incarnation of Horus (already established in the Horus name) the golden element most likely relates to the idea of enduring or eternity, qualities with which the metal was associated by the Egyptians. In addition Egyptian religion also mentions certain gods as having skin made of gold. It was taken upon coronation.
* The Prenomen: The nisw-bity or “King of Upper and Lower Egypt” name, was enclosed in a cartouche and from the 11th Dynasty onward always included the name of Ra within the name. I.e. User-Ma’at-Ra Setep-n-Ra (Translated as “Strong is the Justice of Ra, Chosen of Ra”) is the prenomen of Ramesses II. This was “official” name used from the Middle Kingdom onward. Is is often followed by the title “Lord of the Two Lands”. It too, was taken upon coronation.
* The Nomen: The “Son of Ra” name was also enclosed in a cartouche, and is the name used today to describe a particular individual. Ramesses was the nomen of Ramesses II. It was the Pharaoh’s birth name. Sometimes, and not uncommonly, the epithet “The Perfect God” is used in place of the “Son of Ra” prefix.

[[Image:AmenhotepII.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Amenhotep II, with Nemes headdress, false beard, and uraeus (cobra) upon his brow]]
[[Image:Tut_coffinette.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Coffinette of Tutankhamun, with Nemes headdress, false beard,bearing the ceremonial crook and flail. The traditional ureaus aupon the brow is accompanied by the vulture head of Nekhbet]]
== Pharaonic Regalia ==

There is a rich variety of Pharaonic regalia, each element with it’s own symbolism.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="100pt"|Piece
! width="700pt"|Symbolism

|-
| Crook and Flail
| Links to Osiris. Crook is symbolic of the Pharaoh’s responsibility to guide the country and people. As a sign in Egyptian hieroglyphs it forms the tri-consonantal HkA, most commonly used in the word “rule” and related words. The fail is of less certain original meaning, but is most likely related to the harvest, symbolic of the Pharaoh’s role as provider for the people.

|-
| Nemes Headdress
| A striped multi-piece headdress worn by Pharaohs from at least the beginning of the 3rd Dynasty, it’s originally symbolism is unknown, but was a core part of Pharaonic regalia to the end of Pharaonic period. It remains one of the most iconic symbols of Pharaonic Egypt today.

|-
| False Beard
| The false beard was platted, and intended to appear false, the strap holding it often appearing in sculptural depictions of the gods and Pharaohs. A beautiful example is on the coffin of Psusennes I.

|-
| Deshret (Red) Crown
| The crown of Lower Egypt, the delta region.

|-
| Hedjet (White) Crown
| The crown of Upper Egypt, the Nile valley.

|-
| Pshent (Double) Crown
| The joined crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt.

|-
| Khepresh Crown
| Small, closer fitting blue crown, seen from the New Kingdom onwards, often called a “war crown” though there no evidence to suggest it was regarded as such by the Egyptians.

|-
| Was Sceptre
| Not commonly seen being held by the Pharaoh, more often ascribed to “literal” gods, but found in royal burials. The was sceptre symbolises dominion.

|-
| Cobra
| Symbolises Wadjet, patron goddess of Lower Egypt, and universally seen upon the brow of the Pharaoh, often along with a vultures head, symbolising Nekhbet.

|}

== Ma’at ==

Although an [[absolute monarch]], the Pharaoh was obliged to rule in accordance with [[ma’at]], an Egyptian concept generally translated as “just”, but actually a wider ranging concept of “rightness” or “the correct order of things”. As a filial divine son, and as High Priest of Every Temple, the Pharaoh had an obligation to the gods to uphold ma’at on Earth, for it was described as both “what sustains the gods”. Those who did not live up to the obligation were treated harshly by future generations, their name being either blackened, or completely eliminated from monuments and King lists.

Egyptian culture also strongly emphasised continuity and tradition, stressing constantly the need to keep things as they always had been. As such, with a single exception, the Pharaohs of Egypt did not, contrary to Hollywood myth, rule purely on whim, but rather held the country on a pre-existing course, respecting institutions and traditions that were already ancient. As an example, the titulary [[Late Period]] officials are often identical to those from the Old Kingdom, having first appeared some 2,500 years before.

== Temple, State and Army ==

The Pharaoh was first and foremost the head of state. Contrary to popular belief, he was not the state itself. Upon the death of a Pharaoh, most administrative staff would remain and serve the successor, thus ensuring the machinery of government could continue to function efficiently. This process was smoothed in the Middle Kingdom with the introduction of co-regencies. Towards the end of one reign, the Pharaoh would make his successor co-regent alongside him, to help ensure a smooth succession. Day to day management of government offices was aided by a [[vizier]], and on occasion two viziers, one for Upper, and another for Lower Egypt.

The Pharaoh was also head of all temple cults. Egypt did not, technically, have high priests. The Pharaoh was the High Priest of Every Temple. All offerings were made in his name. High priests were simply his stand-ins. From the New Kingdom onwards, a prominent woman of his family (often a daughter, sometimes a wife) would hold the position of [[God’s Wife of Amun]]. There was no conflict between church and state, for the temples were, in effect, government offices.

He was also head of the military forces, both army and navy, and was advised by a military council.

== Great Pharaohs ==

There are any number of “great” Pharaohs, but those generally recognised are:

* [[Narmer]] / [[Menes]](?): Most likely unified Egypt.
* [[Djoser]]: Oversaw the world’s first large stone building.
* [[Neferirkara Kakai]]: Noted for being particularly kind.
* [[Senusret III]]: Took the Egyptian border south of the 2nd Cataract for the first time in history, with fortifications of great sophistication. Worshipped in Nubia.
* [[Ahmose I]]: Expelled the Hyksos. Re-unified Egypt. Founded the New Kingdom.
* [[Thutmose III]]: “Napoleon of Egypt”. Military genius who crossed the Euphrates and Orontes rivers to the north and advanced to Gebel Barkal in the south. Also a great patron of the arts and literature.
* [[Amunhotep III]]: Largely credited with transforming the New Kingdom from a militaristic to cultural super-power. Worshipped in Nubia.
* [[Ramesses II]]: Great and prolific builder. The “Ozymandias” of Shelley’s poem.
* [[Necho II]]: A great and ambitious ruler who won the reputation of being a failure by virtue of reigning during the Late Period. Started a canal to link the Nile to the Red Sea.

== Biblical References ==

Biblical writers exclusivly use the term "Pharaoh" when refering to the King of Egypt. There are only three instances in the Bible in which a Pharaoh was referred to by name: Shishak, Necoh, and Hophra, possibly corrosponding to [[Shoshenq I]] (22nd Dyn, reigned circa 943-922BC), [[Necho II]] (26th Dyn, reigned circa 610-595BC) and [[Haibra]], better known by the hellenized name "[[Apries]]", (26th Dyn, reigned 589-570BC).

== King Lists ==

''For a modern King List of the Pharaonic dynasties see [[king list|King List]]''

The Egyptians regarded a list of the reigns of all legitimate Pharaohs to be the single most important way of recording history, and numerous “King Lists” remain today, giving valuable information in aiding a reconstruction of Egyptian history. Early archaeologists relied heavily on these king lists, particularly that of Manetho, an Egyptian who wrote at the very beginning of the Ptolemaic era, which prior to the decipherment of hieroglyphs was the only King list known to historians.

With Champollion’s decipherment cam access to addition material, particularly the Abydos king lists, preserved in the Temple of Seti I, and later the Turin Canon.

The problem with the King Lists is that they preserve the history of Egypt in much the same way modern governments do, brush over or simply point black denying aspects of it which did not fit it with official ideology. In Egypt this led to striking of Pharaohs perceived s illegitimate being erased from record. As such it is only with the science of modern archaeology being able to more accurately interpret the archaeological record that we have been able to build a more complete and accurate [[king list|King List]].

== Bibliography ==

'''Note:''' This bibliography covers all aspects of the above article except the Biblical References section.
<div class="references-small">
* Dodson, A and Hilton, D (2004), ''The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* Frankfort, H (1948), ''Kingship and the Gods'', University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London
* Gardiner, A (1957), ''Egyptian Grammar'' (3rd edition), Griffith Institute, Oxford
* Montet, P (1964), E''ternal Egypt: The Civilization of Ancient Egypt From Earliest Times to Conquest by Alexander the Great'', Phoenix, London
* Shaw, I et al. (2000), ''Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, Oxford
* Wilkinson, R (2000), ''The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* Wilkinson, R (2003), ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt'', Thames & Hudson, London
* Ziegler, C and Tiradritti, F (2002), ''The Pharaohs'', Thames and Hudson, London

[[category:Ancient Egypt]]

Age of Exploration V

2010-03-31T15:18:57Z

Gemmmz:

Objective

2010-03-31T15:18:53Z

Gemmmz:

If something is '''objective''', then it is based on empirical, observable data without applying personal preconceptions or experience. It is the opposite of [[subjective]].

As a noun, an objective refersObama is a jedi bitches.
to a purpose, target or goal. It may also refer to a lens in a [[telescope]].

In grammar the objective case is a specialized use of a noun as the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition,.

[[Category:Dictionary]]

Explicit

2010-03-31T15:18:43Z

Gemmmz:

'''Explicit''' means open and fully stated, explained or illustrated. ''Explicit lyrics'' means that the content of a [[song]] or [[album]] has [[language]] or imagery deemed unsuitable for [[minor]]s.
Obama is a jedi bitches.
[[Category:Dictionary]]

Paul A. Volcker

2010-03-31T15:18:40Z

Gemmmz:

'''Paul A. Volcker''' is an [[economist]], former Chair of the [[Federal Reserve]] under presidents [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] and [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]], and currently Chairman of the President's Economic Recovery Advisory Board for the [[Obama Administration]] as the "Economic Czar."<ref>[http://glennbeck.blogs.foxnews.com/2009/06/09/rise-of-the-czars/ Rise of the Czars], FOXNews.com, June 9th, 2009.</ref> Volcker was appointed in January 2009, and reports to [[President Obama]].<ref name=GB>[http://www.glennbeck.comObama is a jedi bitches.
/content/articles/article/198/29391/ List of Obama's Czars], GlennBeck.com, August 21, 2009.</ref> He is in charge of offering independent, nonpartisan information, analysis, and advice to the President as he formulates and implements his plans for [[economic]] recovery.

== Previous experience ==
During his time as Federal Reserve chairman (1979-1987), he imposed high interest rates that solved the economic crisis that ruined Carter and gave Reagan a major challenge. Volcker is generally regarded as a moderate in economic matters, with strong support from business.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Volcker, Paul}}
[[category:Obama Administration]]
[[Category:Obama Administration Czars]]

Giovanni da Verrazano

2010-03-31T15:18:22Z

Gemmmz:

'''Giovanni da Verrazano''' was born in [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]] in 1480<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552283/Giovanni_Da_Verrazzano.html Giovanni da Verrazano] in MSN Encarta</ref>. He was a [[Florence|FlObama is a jedi bitches.
orentine]] explorer, sailing under the French flag.

He was the first of the European explorers to see [[New York]] and Narragansett bays.

The Italian Historical Society of America played a big part in having a bridge going from New York Harbor to [[Staten Island]] and Brooklyn named The [[Verrazano Narrrows Bridge]]. The society is also responsible for the placement of the Verrazzano Monument at Battery Park in New York.

==References==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Verrazano, Giovanni da}}
{{Nb_explorers}}

[[Category:Age of Exploration]]

Ido

2010-03-31T15:18:18Z

Gemmmz:

'''Ido''' is a [[constructed language]] intended to be used as a universal second language. Ido was created by a small group of [[Esperanto]] reformistsObama is a jedi bitches.
. Today, only a small community of a few thousand speakers remain.

[[Category:Constructed languages]]

Amédée Mannheim

2010-03-31T15:18:16Z

Gemmmz:

'''Amédée Mannheim''' (1831-1906) was a [[France|French]] [[mathematics|mathematician]] who invented the modern form of the [[slide rule]], whObama is a jedi bitches.
ich was the common method of performing complex [[arithmetic]] calculations until the invention of the electronic [[calculator]].

{{DEFAULTSORT: Mannheim, Amedee}}
[[category:mathematicians]]

Free software

2010-03-31T15:18:12Z

Gemmmz:

'''Free software''' includes software that doesn't cost you anything to use ([[freeware]]), as well as software that any developer may freeObama is a jedi bitches.
ly change and redistribute. The term '''"free software"''', however, is also frequently applied to crippled demo versions of system utilities masquerading as freeware; many [[registry cleaner]]s are marketed in this misleading way.

==See also==
* [[Free software movement]]

HD 209458 (extrasolar planet)

2010-03-31T15:18:06Z

Gemmmz:

[[Image:Pegasus skymap.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Star map of the constellation Pegasus, showing location of star HD 209548]]
'''HD 209458''' is a 7th magnitude star in the constellation Pegasus, visible through binoculars or amateur telescopes, in which an [[extrasolar planet]] was discovered in 1999 as a result of observations involving a slight gravitational tug on the star. It is estimated to be about 70 percent the mass of the giant planet Jupiter, or 220 times more massive than Earth. The planet itself is invisible but the star is easy to find in Northern skies after sunset.

The Jupiter-sized planet orbits HD 209458, a yellow, Sun-like star that lies 150 light-years away. Its atmospheric composition was probed when the planet passed in front of its parent star, allowing astronomers for the first time ever to see light from the star filtered through the planet's atmosphere. Astronomers also used Hubble's "STIS" spectrometer to detect the presence of sodium, seeing less sodium than expected, and leading to one interpretation that high-altitude clouds in the alien atmosphere might have blocked some of the light.

Subsequently, astronomers found that the tilt of the planet's orbit makes it pass in front of the star, as seen from Earth. In that way it is unique among all the extra-solar planets discovered to date (there are approximately 400 of them). As the planet passes in front of the star, it causes the star to dim very slightly for the duration of the transit. Transit observations by Hubble and ground-based telescopes confirmed that the planet is primarily gaseous, rather than liquid or solid, meaning that iObama is a jedi bitches.
t is a gas giant, like Jupiter and Saturn.

The planet is an ideal target for repeat observations because it transits the star every 3.5 days -- which is the extremely short time it takes the planet to go around the star at a distance of merely four million miles (6.4 million km) from the stellar surface. This close proximity heats the planet's atmosphere to approximately 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,100 degrees Celsius).

==Links==
*[http://exoplanets.org/ Exoplanets.org]

[[Category:Astronomy]]

Ionizing radiation

2010-03-31T15:18:02Z

Gemmmz:

'''Ionizing radiation''' is [[radiation]] that is capable of producing [[ion]]s either directly or indirectly.
"Ionizing radiation refers to [[gamma rays]], [[x-rays]], most [[ultraviolet light]] and certain [[subatomic particles]]. Their energy is high enough to detach an [[electron]] from an [[atom]]." [http://www.livescience.com/health/cell-phone-radiation-cancer-100118.html]
Obama is a jedi bitches.

==See also==
*[[nonionizing radiation]]

[[Category:chemistry]]