Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Engineering

2011-08-19T01:49:18Z

GEPalade: more accurate

[[Image:Wankel_Engine.jpg|right|200px|Wankel engine]]
'''Engineering''' is the application of [[science|scientific]] principles and advanced problem solving to create solutions to human needs. There are many diverse fields of engineering, including but not limited to:

*[[Biological engineering|Biological Engineering]]
**[[Genetic Engineering]]
*[[Chemical Engineering]]
*Civil Engineering
*Electrical Engineering
*Industrial Engineering
*[[Mechanical engineering|Mechanical Engineering]]
*[[Nuclear Engineering]]
*[[Computer engineering|Computer Engineering]]

The people who engage in engineering are typically [[college]] graduates and called [[engineer]]s. A few engineering fields, most notably civil engineering, have some sort of professional certification program, but complete certification is generally achieved well into the engineer's career.

Engineering has produced some of the most spectacular feats of taming the wild earth, such as suspension [[bridge|bridges]] to cross wide rivers and valleys, dams to control [[flood]]ing and generate [[electricity]], [[skyscraper]]s to better utilize ground space in dense cities, rockets and equipment to explore the [[solar system]], and [[computer|micro-electronics]] and large machinery to help us achieve our goals.

<center>
[[File:Vejle Fjord Bridge.jpg|Vejle Fjord Bridge.jpg]]

Vejle Fjord Bridge, Denmark.
</center>
== See also ==
[[Image:Machine.jpg|right|170px]]
*[[Technology]]
*[[Steam power]]
*[[Wankel engine]]
*[[Engine]]
*[[Skyscraper]]
*[[Industrial revolution]]
*[[Physical Science Terms]]
{{Clear}}

== External links ==

*[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm Engineers] U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
*[http://www.creatingtechnology.org/history.htm History of engineering]
*[http://www.creatingtechnology.org/history3.htm Engineering the information age]
*[http://www.cs.colorado.edu/~kena/classes/5828/s99/comments/srinivasan/01-29-1999.html An early history of software engineering] by Robert L. Glass.
*[http://whatiscivilengineering.csce.ca/history_engineering.htm Engineering in history]
*[http://www.greatachievements.org/ Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century]

[[Category:Engineering]]

Biological engineering

2011-08-19T01:43:28Z

GEPalade: added link

'''Biological engineering''' (or '''bioengineering''') is a science-based discipline founded upon the [[biology|biological sciences]] in the same way that [[chemical engineering]], electrical engineering, and [[mechanical engineering]] are based upon [[chemistry]], [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]], and classical [[mechanics]], respectively<ref>Cuello JC, Engineering to biology and biology to engineering, The bi-directional connection between engineering and biology in biological engineering design, Int J Engng Ed 2005, 21, 1-7</ref>. While traditional engineering applies physical and [[mathematical]] sciences to analyze, design and manufacture inanimate tools, structures and processes, biological engineering uses the same sciences, as well as the rapidly-developing body of knowledge known as [[molecular biology]], to study many aspects of living [[organisms]].

In general, biological engineers attempt to either mimic biological systems to create products or modify and control biological systems so that they can replace, augment, or sustain chemical and mechanical processes. Bioengineers can apply their expertise to other applications of [[engineering]] and [[biotechnology]], including [[genetic]] modification of [[plants]] and [[microorganisms]], bioprocess engineering, and biocatalysis. Sub-disciplines of biological engineering include:
*'''Bioprocess Engineering''' deals with the design and development of equipment and processes for the manufacturing of products such as food, feed, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, chemicals, and polymers and paper from biological materials.
*'''Genetic Engineering''' is the direct human manipulation of an organism's genome using modern DNA technology.
*'''Cellular Engineering''' uses engineering principles to understand and construct cellular and molecular circuits with useful properties.
*'''Biomedical Engineering''' combines the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical science to improve healthcare diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.
*[[biomimicry|'''Biomimetics''']] is the use of knowledge gained from evolved living systems to solve difficult design problems in artificial systems.

Although engineered biological systems have been used to manipulate information, construct materials, process chemicals, produce energy, provide food, and help maintain or enhance human health and our environment, our ability to quickly and reliably engineer biological systems that behave as expected is at present less well developed than our mastery over mechanical and electrical systems.<ref> Endy D, Foundations for engineering biology. Nature 438,449-4 2005, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7067/full/nature04342.html</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Engineering]]

Biological engineering

2011-08-19T01:41:27Z

GEPalade: categorized

'''Biological engineering''' (or '''bioengineering''') is a science-based discipline founded upon the [[biology|biological sciences]] in the same way that [[chemical engineering]], electrical engineering, and [[mechanical engineering]] are based upon [[chemistry]], [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]], and classical [[mechanics]], respectively<ref>Cuello JC, Engineering to biology and biology to engineering, The bi-directional connection between engineering and biology in biological engineering design, Int J Engng Ed 2005, 21, 1-7</ref>. While traditional engineering applies physical and [[mathematical]] sciences to analyze, design and manufacture inanimate tools, structures and processes, biological engineering uses the same sciences, as well as the rapidly-developing body of knowledge known as [[molecular biology]], to study many aspects of living [[organisms]].

In general, biological engineers attempt to either mimic biological systems to create products or modify and control biological systems so that they can replace, augment, or sustain chemical and mechanical processes. Bioengineers can apply their expertise to other applications of [[engineering]] and [[biotechnology]], including [[genetic]] modification of [[plants]] and [[microorganisms]], bioprocess engineering, and biocatalysis. Sub-disciplines of biological engineering include:
*'''Bioprocess Engineering''' deals with the design and development of equipment and processes for the manufacturing of products such as food, feed, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, chemicals, and polymers and paper from biological materials.
*'''Genetic Engineering''' is the direct human manipulation of an organism's genome using modern DNA technology.
*'''Cellular Engineering''' uses engineering principles to understand and construct cellular and molecular circuits with useful properties.
*'''Biomedical Engineering''' combines the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical science to improve healthcare diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.
*'''Biomimetics''' is the use of knowledge gained from evolved living systems to solve difficult design problems in artificial systems.

Although engineered biological systems have been used to manipulate information, construct materials, process chemicals, produce energy, provide food, and help maintain or enhance human health and our environment, our ability to quickly and reliably engineer biological systems that behave as expected is at present less well developed than our mastery over mechanical and electrical systems.<ref> Endy D, Foundations for engineering biology. Nature 438,449-4 2005, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7067/full/nature04342.html</ref>

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Engineering]]

Fictional technology

2011-08-19T01:40:06Z

GEPalade:

A '''fictional technology''' is a technology which currently does not exist, but has been hypothesized or proposed either for entertainment purposes or in order to explore a philosophical or scientific issue.

Fictional Technologies arise in the following contexts:

* Exploratory scientific work, in areas such as [[Weapons Research]] which seeks to harvest emerging technologies in order to score real or [[propaganda]] victories against an enemy.
* [[Science fiction]], which embeds the technology within a fictional future setting.
* [[Futures Studies]] which attempts to assess the impact of yet-to-be developed technologies on society and explores [[ethics|ethical]] and [[morality|moral]] implications or objections.

It is sometimes the case that fictional technologies eventually develop into real technologies.

Some examples technologies which are ''currently'' fictional are:
* General Purpose [[Robot]]s, such as in the 2004 film [[I, Robot]]
* The [[Star Wars]] defense program as promoted by [[Ronald Reagan]] in the 1980s
* Transporter and replicator technology as used in the [[Star Trek]] series
* Faster than light travel, used universally throughout science fiction
* [[Time Travel]], as use, for example in the [[Dr. Who]] series
* [[Simulation Argument|Simulated Reality]], as seen in [[The Matrix]] films or on the [[Holodeck]] in Star Trek
* [[Nanotechnology]] which is illustrated by 'Seven of Nine' in the star trek Films

It is interesting to note that some fictional technologies from previous eras, such as [[powered flight]] and [[mobile communicator]]s are now part of our accepted way of life. The following technologies were fictional until quite recently:
* [[Human Cloning]]
* [[Biological engineering]]

[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Technology]]

Agrophysics

2011-08-19T01:36:34Z

GEPalade: categorized

'''Agrophysics''' is a branch of [[science]] bordering on agronomy and [[physics]], whose objects of study are the agroecosystem - the biological objects, biotope and biocoenosis affected by human activity, studied and described using the methods of physical sciences<ref>[http://www.springer.com/life+sciences/agriculture/book/978-90-481-3585-1?link=general ''Encyclopedia of Agrophysics''] in series: Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series edts. Jan Glinski, Jozef Horabik, Jerzy Lipiec, '''2011''', Publisher: Springer, ISBN 978-90-481-3585-1</ref>. Agrophysics is closely related to [[biophysics]], but is restricted to the [[biology]] of the [[plants]], [[animals]], [[soil]] and an [[atmosphere]] involved in agricultural activities and [[biodiversity]]. It is different from biophysics in having the necessity of taking into account the specific features of biotope and biocoenosis, which involves the knowledge of nutritional science and agroecology, agricultural technology, biotechnology, and genetics.

Agrophysics is close to certain fundamental sciences like biology, whose methods and knowledge it utilizes (especially in the field of environmental ecology and plant physiology), and physics, from which it acquires the research methods, especially that of physical experimentation and modelling. Physical modelling, closely related to biophysics, can be used to solve global or local problems in complex ecosystems.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Physics]]

Physics

2011-08-19T01:04:21Z

GEPalade: /* Contemporary Physics */ added agrophysics

'''Physics''' is the branch of [[physical science]] that traditionally deals with [[matter]], [[energy]], [[force]], and [[motion]]. These concepts can be applied to virtually any area of the physical sciences; therefore, physics is often considered to be the most fundamental branch of science. Indeed, according to [[reductionism|reductionist]] thought, all other branches of science are specialized subdivisions of physics.

Physics can be broadly divided into two major categories: [[classical physics]] and [[modern physics]]. Physicists generally take one of two approaches to their research: they either practice [[experimental physics]] or [[theoretical physics]].

== Classical and Modern Physics ==
[[Classical physics]] generally encompasses all areas of physics that were well-understood by the end of the 19th century (i.e., before the events that led to the advent of the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics). It is applicable to problems on an "everyday" scale; that is, situations in which energies are large enough to permit one to neglect quantum effects, but small enough to neglect relativistic effects. Areas of study within classical physics include

*[[Mechanics]], the study of forces acting on bodies and the motion of them.
*[[Thermodynamics]], the study of energy, heat, work, entropy and its transformations.
*[[Electricity and magnetism]], the study of the electric and magnetic phenomena.

Most kinds of [[wave]] behavior are also considered to lie within the classical domain. Therefore, the studies of [[sound]] (which may be considered a subset of mechanics) and the wavelike nature of [[light]] (a subset of electricity and magnetism) are classical pursuits.

[[Modern physics]] generally includes areas of study within physics that surfaced after 1900, the year in which [[Max Planck]] proposed a "quantum hypothesis" to explain the properties of light emitted by [[black body|hot, dark objects]]. The two major aspects of modern physics are

*[[Relativity]], a new physical theory that stated that space and time are not absolute concepts
*[[Quantum mechanics]], a probabilistic description of the discrete behavior of matter and energy at tiny length and energy scales

One trouble with this distinction is that electromagnetism of the 1860s is a relativistic theory. In modern terminology, magnetism is a relativistic effect of electricity.

==History==

=== Physics in Antiquity ===
Ancient [[Greek]] scholars, such as [[Democritus]] and [[Aristotle]], thought of the material [[universe]] as being composed four different [[elements]]--[[earth]], [[air]], [[fire]], and [[water]]. Motion and interactions between objects were explained by the concept of a "natural state" for each element. Bodies tended to move towards their natural state, and remained motionless when they attained it. For example, a rock fell to the ground after being tossed in the air because it was composed mostly of earth; as such, it moved toward its natural state at the center of the Earth as much as it was able. Democritus proposed that matter was made of indivisible atoms. The Greeks also made advances in [[astronomy]]; Aristotle showed that the Earth was round; [[Ptolemy]] developed a [[Geocentric theory|geocentric]] (Earth-centered) model of the solar system; and Aristarchus developed a [[heliocentric]] (Sun-centered) model.

=== Medieval Advances ===

Little progress in physics was made in Europe during the middle ages. However, the scientific tradition of the ancient greeks continued in islamic regions during this age. Advancement in physics occurred in the fields of optics, magnetism, mechanics and astrophysics. In general, muslim physicists in this period placed a greater emphasis on experimentation than the ancient greeks, who placed more enphasis in reason. Ibn Al-Haytam is considered the most important physicist of this period. Islamic influence on science dropped when the scientific revolution started in Europe.

===Scientific Revolution===
[[Image:Nicolaus Copernicus.jpg|thumb|[[Nicolaus Copernicus]].]]
As [[scientific method|scientific methodology]] became further developed, the Aristotelian view came under scrutiny. Europe became the the leading centre of scientific research by the 16th century. Force and motion had become topics of interest among scientists of the day. [[Galileo Galilei]] performed a series of experiments involving rolling balls down inclined planes, and [[Johannes Kepler]] found [[Kepler's laws|mathematical relations]] governing the motion of the [[planet]]. [[Isaac Newton]] was able to explain the results of Galileo and Kepler through the use of three succinct [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] and an expression that accounted for [[gravity|gravitational]] force. Newton also made important contributions to the field of [[optics]] and suggested that light consisted of tiny corpuscles (particles).

===Further Development of Classical Physics===
Newtonian mechanics was expanded by several other scientists, notably [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] and [[Joseph-Louis Lagrange]]. As Newton's laws became the dominant tool in physical science, they began to be applied to phenomena other than gravitational interactions. During the first half of the 19th century, several laws governing electricity and magnetism were discovered. In the mid-1860s, [[James Clerk Maxwell]] unified these individual laws into a single set of [[Maxwell's Equations|equations]]. Maxwell was able to derive a [[wave equation]] from his new set of equations, and found that the speed of the waves predicted by the equation was close to the measured [[speed of light]]. [[Thomas Young]] had [[double-slit experiment|demonstrated]] in 1801 that light had wavelike properties, but Maxwell's result provided the new insight that light waves were oscillating [[electric field|electric]] and [[magnetic field]]s.

Thermodynamics also came of age during roughly the same era. Advances by [[James Joule]], [[Sadi Carnot]], and [[Lord Kelvin]], among many others, led to a better understanding of heat and entropy, and the formulation of the laws of thermodynamics. Later, attempts to relate the behavior of particles on the atomic and molecular level to the properties of large aggregates of such particles led to the development of [[statistical mechanics]].

===The Modern Era===
By the close of the 19th century, the study of physics was widely thought to be essentially complete, with the exception of only a few "loose ends"--minor unsolved problems to be dealt with.{{cite-fact}} As a solution to the so-called [[ultraviolet catastrophe]] problem, which involved light emission from [[black body|hot, dark objects]], Max Planck proposed in 1900 that the sources of light could be represented by small individual oscillators. Planck referred to the individual oscillators as ''quanta''. In 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] published a heuristic explanation for the [[photoelectric effect]] problem: light could be thought of as being composed of very small, discrete packets (quanta), as opposed to the classical representation of light as a collection of waves. By the end of the 1930s, [[quantum mechanics]] -- the name given to the new theory that applied to matter and energy on atomic scales -- was well-established. Other physicists began applying the theory to more specific aspects of physics, resulting in quantum mechanical descriptions of electricity and magnetism, the [[weak force|weak]] and [[strong force|strong]] atomic forces, [[condensed matter]] physics, and many other areas.

Also in the early 1900s, [[Poincare]] published his discovery of what became known as the [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]], which gave new insights on the relation between [[space]] and [[time]]. Others later extended the concept to non-inertial [[reference frames]], which resulted in the [[general relativity|general theory of relativity]], an improved description of [[gravity|gravitational]] interactions.

=== Contemporary Physics ===
Like all other modern sciences, areas of interest in contemporary physics encompass an enormous variety of general and specialized subjects. Today's professional physicists can generally be categorized into two types: theoretical physicists, who are trained extensively in [[mathematics]] and work to develop or enhance physical theories; and experimental physicists, who obtain and analyze data in laboratory or laboratory-like settings. Theorists and experimentalists often collaborate in attempts to reconcile theoretical predictions with experimental results. Both types of physicists conduct research on a plethora of unsolved problems.

Some of the active areas of research on fundamental universal laws are listed below.

*The [[Standard Model]] of particle physics has been extremely successful insofar as it has been tested; particle physicists are working to test it at higher energy levels.
*Evidence suggests that the matter in the universe that humans can currently detect directly is only a fraction of the matter that actually exists. Attempts to discover the nature of the as-yet-undetectable [[dark matter]] are underway.
*The universe is known to be expanding at an accelerated rate. Such acceleration requires energy, but the form and source of this [[dark energy]] is not well-understood.
*General relativity predicts the existence of gravitational waves, but none have been conclusively detected. Due to the weakness of the gravitational interaction, extremely sensitive detectors are required. The [[LIGO]] project is an example of current efforts to detect such waves.

More applied areas of contemporany physical research include:

* Condensed matter physics, which is the study of the macroscopic properties of matter, and is fundamental for the development of new materials.
* [[Biophysics]]
**Medical Physics
* Geophysics, the study of Earth processes from a physical point of view
*[[Agrophysics]]

==External Links==

*[http://www.relativitycalculator.com/models_universe.shtml Early Models of the Universe]

[[Category: Science]]
[[Category: Physics]]

Physics

2011-08-19T00:51:05Z

GEPalade: /* Contemporary Physics */ added biophysics

'''Physics''' is the branch of [[physical science]] that traditionally deals with [[matter]], [[energy]], [[force]], and [[motion]]. These concepts can be applied to virtually any area of the physical sciences; therefore, physics is often considered to be the most fundamental branch of science. Indeed, according to [[reductionism|reductionist]] thought, all other branches of science are specialized subdivisions of physics.

Physics can be broadly divided into two major categories: [[classical physics]] and [[modern physics]]. Physicists generally take one of two approaches to their research: they either practice [[experimental physics]] or [[theoretical physics]].

== Classical and Modern Physics ==
[[Classical physics]] generally encompasses all areas of physics that were well-understood by the end of the 19th century (i.e., before the events that led to the advent of the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics). It is applicable to problems on an "everyday" scale; that is, situations in which energies are large enough to permit one to neglect quantum effects, but small enough to neglect relativistic effects. Areas of study within classical physics include

*[[Mechanics]], the study of forces acting on bodies and the motion of them.
*[[Thermodynamics]], the study of energy, heat, work, entropy and its transformations.
*[[Electricity and magnetism]], the study of the electric and magnetic phenomena.

Most kinds of [[wave]] behavior are also considered to lie within the classical domain. Therefore, the studies of [[sound]] (which may be considered a subset of mechanics) and the wavelike nature of [[light]] (a subset of electricity and magnetism) are classical pursuits.

[[Modern physics]] generally includes areas of study within physics that surfaced after 1900, the year in which [[Max Planck]] proposed a "quantum hypothesis" to explain the properties of light emitted by [[black body|hot, dark objects]]. The two major aspects of modern physics are

*[[Relativity]], a new physical theory that stated that space and time are not absolute concepts
*[[Quantum mechanics]], a probabilistic description of the discrete behavior of matter and energy at tiny length and energy scales

One trouble with this distinction is that electromagnetism of the 1860s is a relativistic theory. In modern terminology, magnetism is a relativistic effect of electricity.

==History==

=== Physics in Antiquity ===
Ancient [[Greek]] scholars, such as [[Democritus]] and [[Aristotle]], thought of the material [[universe]] as being composed four different [[elements]]--[[earth]], [[air]], [[fire]], and [[water]]. Motion and interactions between objects were explained by the concept of a "natural state" for each element. Bodies tended to move towards their natural state, and remained motionless when they attained it. For example, a rock fell to the ground after being tossed in the air because it was composed mostly of earth; as such, it moved toward its natural state at the center of the Earth as much as it was able. Democritus proposed that matter was made of indivisible atoms. The Greeks also made advances in [[astronomy]]; Aristotle showed that the Earth was round; [[Ptolemy]] developed a [[Geocentric theory|geocentric]] (Earth-centered) model of the solar system; and Aristarchus developed a [[heliocentric]] (Sun-centered) model.

=== Medieval Advances ===

Little progress in physics was made in Europe during the middle ages. However, the scientific tradition of the ancient greeks continued in islamic regions during this age. Advancement in physics occurred in the fields of optics, magnetism, mechanics and astrophysics. In general, muslim physicists in this period placed a greater emphasis on experimentation than the ancient greeks, who placed more enphasis in reason. Ibn Al-Haytam is considered the most important physicist of this period. Islamic influence on science dropped when the scientific revolution started in Europe.

===Scientific Revolution===
[[Image:Nicolaus Copernicus.jpg|thumb|[[Nicolaus Copernicus]].]]
As [[scientific method|scientific methodology]] became further developed, the Aristotelian view came under scrutiny. Europe became the the leading centre of scientific research by the 16th century. Force and motion had become topics of interest among scientists of the day. [[Galileo Galilei]] performed a series of experiments involving rolling balls down inclined planes, and [[Johannes Kepler]] found [[Kepler's laws|mathematical relations]] governing the motion of the [[planet]]. [[Isaac Newton]] was able to explain the results of Galileo and Kepler through the use of three succinct [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] and an expression that accounted for [[gravity|gravitational]] force. Newton also made important contributions to the field of [[optics]] and suggested that light consisted of tiny corpuscles (particles).

===Further Development of Classical Physics===
Newtonian mechanics was expanded by several other scientists, notably [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] and [[Joseph-Louis Lagrange]]. As Newton's laws became the dominant tool in physical science, they began to be applied to phenomena other than gravitational interactions. During the first half of the 19th century, several laws governing electricity and magnetism were discovered. In the mid-1860s, [[James Clerk Maxwell]] unified these individual laws into a single set of [[Maxwell's Equations|equations]]. Maxwell was able to derive a [[wave equation]] from his new set of equations, and found that the speed of the waves predicted by the equation was close to the measured [[speed of light]]. [[Thomas Young]] had [[double-slit experiment|demonstrated]] in 1801 that light had wavelike properties, but Maxwell's result provided the new insight that light waves were oscillating [[electric field|electric]] and [[magnetic field]]s.

Thermodynamics also came of age during roughly the same era. Advances by [[James Joule]], [[Sadi Carnot]], and [[Lord Kelvin]], among many others, led to a better understanding of heat and entropy, and the formulation of the laws of thermodynamics. Later, attempts to relate the behavior of particles on the atomic and molecular level to the properties of large aggregates of such particles led to the development of [[statistical mechanics]].

===The Modern Era===
By the close of the 19th century, the study of physics was widely thought to be essentially complete, with the exception of only a few "loose ends"--minor unsolved problems to be dealt with.{{cite-fact}} As a solution to the so-called [[ultraviolet catastrophe]] problem, which involved light emission from [[black body|hot, dark objects]], Max Planck proposed in 1900 that the sources of light could be represented by small individual oscillators. Planck referred to the individual oscillators as ''quanta''. In 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] published a heuristic explanation for the [[photoelectric effect]] problem: light could be thought of as being composed of very small, discrete packets (quanta), as opposed to the classical representation of light as a collection of waves. By the end of the 1930s, [[quantum mechanics]] -- the name given to the new theory that applied to matter and energy on atomic scales -- was well-established. Other physicists began applying the theory to more specific aspects of physics, resulting in quantum mechanical descriptions of electricity and magnetism, the [[weak force|weak]] and [[strong force|strong]] atomic forces, [[condensed matter]] physics, and many other areas.

Also in the early 1900s, [[Poincare]] published his discovery of what became known as the [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]], which gave new insights on the relation between [[space]] and [[time]]. Others later extended the concept to non-inertial [[reference frames]], which resulted in the [[general relativity|general theory of relativity]], an improved description of [[gravity|gravitational]] interactions.

=== Contemporary Physics ===
Like all other modern sciences, areas of interest in contemporary physics encompass an enormous variety of general and specialized subjects. Today's professional physicists can generally be categorized into two types: theoretical physicists, who are trained extensively in [[mathematics]] and work to develop or enhance physical theories; and experimental physicists, who obtain and analyze data in laboratory or laboratory-like settings. Theorists and experimentalists often collaborate in attempts to reconcile theoretical predictions with experimental results. Both types of physicists conduct research on a plethora of unsolved problems.

Some of the active areas of research on fundamental universal laws are listed below.

*The [[Standard Model]] of particle physics has been extremely successful insofar as it has been tested; particle physicists are working to test it at higher energy levels.
*Evidence suggests that the matter in the universe that humans can currently detect directly is only a fraction of the matter that actually exists. Attempts to discover the nature of the as-yet-undetectable [[dark matter]] are underway.
*The universe is known to be expanding at an accelerated rate. Such acceleration requires energy, but the form and source of this [[dark energy]] is not well-understood.
*General relativity predicts the existence of gravitational waves, but none have been conclusively detected. Due to the weakness of the gravitational interaction, extremely sensitive detectors are required. The [[LIGO]] project is an example of current efforts to detect such waves.

More applied areas of contemporany physical research include:

* Condensed matter physics, which is the study of the macroscopic properties of matter, and is fundamental for the development of new materials.
* [[Biophysics]]
**Medical Physics
* Geophysics, the study of Earth processes from a physical point of view.

==External Links==

*[http://www.relativitycalculator.com/models_universe.shtml Early Models of the Universe]

[[Category: Science]]
[[Category: Physics]]

Agrophysics

2011-08-19T00:43:20Z

GEPalade: basic outline

Engineering

2011-08-19T00:07:33Z

GEPalade: added category

[[Image:Wankel_Engine.jpg|right|200px|Wankel engine]]
'''Engineering''' is the application of [[science|scientific]] principles and advanced problem solving to create solutions to human needs. There are many diverse fields of engineering, including but not limited to:

*[[Biological engineering|Biological Engineering]]
*[[Chemical Engineering]]
*Civil Engineering
*Electrical Engineering
*[[Genetic Engineering]]
*Industrial Engineering
*[[Mechanical engineering|Mechanical Engineering]]
*[[Nuclear Engineering]]
*[[Computer engineering|Computer Engineering]]

The people who engage in engineering are typically [[college]] graduates and called [[engineer]]s. A few engineering fields, most notably civil engineering, have some sort of professional certification program, but complete certification is generally achieved well into the engineer's career.

Engineering has produced some of the most spectacular feats of taming the wild earth, such as suspension [[bridge|bridges]] to cross wide rivers and valleys, dams to control [[flood]]ing and generate [[electricity]], [[skyscraper]]s to better utilize ground space in dense cities, rockets and equipment to explore the [[solar system]], and [[computer|micro-electronics]] and large machinery to help us achieve our goals.

<center>
[[File:Vejle Fjord Bridge.jpg|Vejle Fjord Bridge.jpg]]

Vejle Fjord Bridge, Denmark.
</center>
== See also ==
[[Image:Machine.jpg|right|170px]]
*[[Technology]]
*[[Steam power]]
*[[Wankel engine]]
*[[Engine]]
*[[Skyscraper]]
*[[Industrial revolution]]
*[[Physical Science Terms]]
{{Clear}}

== External links ==

*[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm Engineers] U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
*[http://www.creatingtechnology.org/history.htm History of engineering]
*[http://www.creatingtechnology.org/history3.htm Engineering the information age]
*[http://www.cs.colorado.edu/~kena/classes/5828/s99/comments/srinivasan/01-29-1999.html An early history of software engineering] by Robert L. Glass.
*[http://whatiscivilengineering.csce.ca/history_engineering.htm Engineering in history]
*[http://www.greatachievements.org/ Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century]

[[Category:Engineering]]

Biophysics

2011-08-19T00:04:05Z

GEPalade: updated link

'''Biophysics''' is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of [[physical science]] to study [[biological]] systems<ref>Careers in Biophysics brochure, Biophysical Society https://www.biophysics.org/Portals/1/PDFs/Career%20Center/Careers%20In%20Biophysics.pdf</ref>. Studies included under the branches of biophysics span all levels of biological organization: from the molecular scale to whole [[organisms]] and [[ecosystems]]. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with [[biochemistry]], [[nanotechnology]], [[biological engineering|bioengineering]], [[agrophysics]] and [[systems biology]].

Molecular biophysics typically addresses biological questions that are similar to those in biochemistry and [[molecular biology]], but the questions are approached quantitatively. Scientists in this field conduct research concerned with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a [[cell]], including the interactions between [[DNA]], [[RNA]] and [[protein]] biosynthesis, as well as how these interactions are regulated. A great variety of techniques are used to answer these questions.

Examples of questions in biophysics include:
*how molecular motors like kinesin move
*allometry, or the relationship between metabolism and organismal size
*questions relating to the movement of fluids in small environments, and how this affects nutrient availability
*error-proofing mechanisms in the construction of DNA and RNA
*how biological structures like Holliday junctions and indentations in [[plasma membrane]]s form
*how cell signaling and transport are viable on small scales

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Physics]]

Biological engineering

2011-08-19T00:01:04Z

GEPalade: added info and references; basic outline

'''Biological engineering''' (or '''bioengineering''') is a science-based discipline founded upon the [[biology|biological sciences]] in the same way that [[chemical engineering]], electrical engineering, and [[mechanical engineering]] are based upon [[chemistry]], [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]], and classical [[mechanics]], respectively<ref>Cuello JC, Engineering to biology and biology to engineering, The bi-directional connection between engineering and biology in biological engineering design, Int J Engng Ed 2005, 21, 1-7</ref>. While traditional engineering applies physical and [[mathematical]] sciences to analyze, design and manufacture inanimate tools, structures and processes, biological engineering uses the same sciences, as well as the rapidly-developing body of knowledge known as [[molecular biology]], to study many aspects of living [[organisms]].

In general, biological engineers attempt to either mimic biological systems to create products or modify and control biological systems so that they can replace, augment, or sustain chemical and mechanical processes. Bioengineers can apply their expertise to other applications of [[engineering]] and [[biotechnology]], including [[genetic]] modification of [[plants]] and [[microorganisms]], bioprocess engineering, and biocatalysis. Sub-disciplines of biological engineering include:
*'''Bioprocess Engineering''' deals with the design and development of equipment and processes for the manufacturing of products such as food, feed, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, chemicals, and polymers and paper from biological materials.
*'''Genetic Engineering''' is the direct human manipulation of an organism's genome using modern DNA technology.
*'''Cellular Engineering''' uses engineering principles to understand and construct cellular and molecular circuits with useful properties.
*'''Biomedical Engineering''' combines the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical science to improve healthcare diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.
*'''Biomimetics''' is the use of knowledge gained from evolved living systems to solve difficult design problems in artificial systems.

Although engineered biological systems have been used to manipulate information, construct materials, process chemicals, produce energy, provide food, and help maintain or enhance human health and our environment, our ability to quickly and reliably engineer biological systems that behave as expected is at present less well developed than our mastery over mechanical and electrical systems.<ref> Endy D, Foundations for engineering biology. Nature 438,449-4 2005, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7067/full/nature04342.html</ref>

==References==
<references/>

Talk:Biophysics

2011-08-18T23:36:32Z

GEPalade: Created page with "== Category Suggestion == Would it be possible to add a category? While this is a subset of physics, it is heavily biological in nature. In fact, at most universities (including..."

== Category Suggestion ==

Would it be possible to add a category? While this is a subset of physics, it is heavily biological in nature. In fact, at most universities (including the one I attend), the Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry is located in the biology department. All professors of biophysics (with a few exceptions) are biologists. I suggest adding this to the biology category or emphasizing the importance of biology. Any suggestions? [[User:GEPalade|GEPalade]] 19:36, 18 August 2011 (EDT)

Biophysics

2011-08-18T23:32:11Z

GEPalade: links

'''Biophysics''' is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of [[physical science]] to study [[biological]] systems<ref>Careers in Biophysics brochure, Biophysical Society https://www.biophysics.org/Portals/1/PDFs/Career%20Center/Careers%20In%20Biophysics.pdf</ref>. Studies included under the branches of biophysics span all levels of biological organization: from the molecular scale to whole [[organisms]] and [[ecosystems]]. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with [[biochemistry]], [[nanotechnology]], [[bioengineering]], [[agrophysics]] and [[systems biology]].

Molecular biophysics typically addresses biological questions that are similar to those in biochemistry and [[molecular biology]], but the questions are approached quantitatively. Scientists in this field conduct research concerned with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a [[cell]], including the interactions between [[DNA]], [[RNA]] and [[protein]] biosynthesis, as well as how these interactions are regulated. A great variety of techniques are used to answer these questions.

Examples of questions in biophysics include:
*how molecular motors like kinesin move
*allometry, or the relationship between metabolism and organismal size
*questions relating to the movement of fluids in small environments, and how this affects nutrient availability
*error-proofing mechanisms in the construction of DNA and RNA
*how biological structures like Holliday junctions and indentations in [[plasma membrane]]s form
*how cell signaling and transport are viable on small scales

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Physics]]

Biophysics

2011-08-18T23:28:19Z

GEPalade: reworded; added info and reference

'''Biophysics''' is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physical science to study biological systems<ref>Careers in Biophysics brochure, Biophysical Society https://www.biophysics.org/Portals/1/PDFs/Career%20Center/Careers%20In%20Biophysics.pdf</ref>. Studies included under the branches of biophysics span all levels of biological organization: from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with [[biochemistry]], nanotechnology, bioengineering, agrophysics and systems biology.

Molecular biophysics typically addresses biological questions that are similar to those in biochemistry and molecular biology, but the questions are approached quantitatively. Scientists in this field conduct research concerned with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis, as well as how these interactions are regulated. A great variety of techniques are used to answer these questions.

Examples of questions in biophysics include:
*how molecular motors like kinesin move
*allometry, or the relationship between metabolism and organismal size
*questions relating to the movement of fluids in small environments, and how this affects nutrient availability
*error-proofing mechanisms in the construction of DNA and RNA
*how biological structures like Holliday junctions and indentations in [[plasma membrane]]s form
*how cell signaling and transport are viable on small scales

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Physics]]

Organic chemistry

2011-08-18T23:05:04Z

GEPalade: spelling

'''Organic chemistry''' is the study of [[organic]] [[molecule]]s (that is, compounds containing [[carbon]]), their properties, and the [[chemical reaction]]s they perform. Almost all chemical reactions involving living matter fall under the realm of organic chemistry. Most experiments involving abiogenesis also fall within the realm of organic chemistry.

==History==
Organic chemistry started as a modern science in the 1700's when differences were noticed between reactions using components from living sources and those involving [[mineral]]s. [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist Torbern Bergman noticed these differences and coined the terms ''organic'' and ''inorganic''<ref name="mcmurry">McMurry, John. ''Organic Chemistry, 6e''. Brooks/Cole: 2004.</ref> Until 1816, scientists believed that there was some missing "vital force" only found in natural organisms which causes organic reactions to happen. This was disproved when chemist Michael Chevreul found that he could separate [[soap]], which is created by adding a [[base]] to animal [[fat]], into [[fatty acid]]s and [[glycerin]] without the help of a "vital force".

==See Also==
*[[inorganic chemistry]]
*[[functional group]]s

==References==
<references />

[[category:Organic Chemistry]]

User:GEPalade

2011-08-18T22:59:44Z

GEPalade:

== Hi, Conservapedia! ==

My name is George, and I'm fiscally conservative but more of a libertarian 
on social issues. I have always been passionate about science, and I am 
completely unashamed to call myself a 'nerd'. I'm interested in expanding 
(or creating) articles related to the following fields: 
*Molecular Biology
*Biochemistry
*Biophysics
*Cell Biology
*Developmental Biology
*Neuroscience

User:GEPalade

2011-08-18T22:53:01Z

GEPalade:

Hi, Conservapedia! My name is George, and I'm interested in expanding 
(or creating)articles related to the following fields:
-Molecular Biology
-Biochemistry
-Biophysics
-Cell Biology
-Developmental Biology
-Neuroscience

User:GEPalade

2011-08-18T22:51:10Z

GEPalade: Created page with "Hi, Conservapedia! My name is George, and I'm interested in expanding (or creating) articles related to the following fields: -Molecular Biology -Biochemistry -Biophysics -Cell..."

Hi, Conservapedia! My name is George, and I'm interested in expanding (or creating)
articles related to the following fields:
-Molecular Biology
-Biochemistry
-Biophysics
-Cell Biology
-Developmental Biology
-Neuroscience