Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

National Health Service

2009-01-14T14:19:10Z

FrankL:

The '''National Health Service (NHS)''' is the [[United Kingdom]]'s nationalised [[health]] care system. It was established in 1948 as part of [[Clement Attlee]]'s post-[[World War II]] [[Labour Party|Labour]] government's socialist program, and has been supported by politicians of every party since then.

The NHS is nominally funded out of "National Insurance contributions", a form of personal taxation comparable to the US [[Social Security]] system. The NHS revenue stream is, in theory, entirely separate in operation from income tax.<ref>http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1394285&</ref> In practice, the NHS is funded from general taxation, and is accepted by the British electorate as being funded in this way. NHS treatment is available to all residents of the UK. Most services, including complex and expensive surgical procedures and drugs, are free at the point of use, and those that are not (such as the provision of glasses and dental care) are free to people on low incomes. This ensures that everyone is able to be treated, no matter what their individual wealth or means may be.<ref>http://www.nhs.uk/England/AboutTheNhs/Default.cmsx</ref> "Private" (i.e. non-NHS) doctors and hospitals do exist in Britain, but fewer than 10% of Britons choose to buy private health insurance in preference to using the NHS. (The big exception to this is in the area of dental care: NHS dentists are relatively difficult to find in many areas, and many people are forced to "go private", even if uninsured.)

As a result of its comprehensive coverage, the resources of the NHS have been consistently tightly stretched for many years, leading to consequences such as lengthy waiting lists for surgery. This was the case in the 1980s and 1990s in particular. Since 1997, the NHS has benefited from substantially increased spending under the Labour Party, but there is a perception among many in Britain that the extra money has not been well spent or delivered appropriate improvements. However, it is noteworthy that when individuals are surveyed regarding their own experience of the NHS, the vast majority report positive experiences.

==All party support==
The NHS is supported by politicians of all parties in the UK, but is widely regarded as the child of the Labour Party, and inspires particular affection in the supporters of this party. All post [[World war II|war]] governments have consistently supported the National Health Service. British voters can see that it works well. Even [[Margaret Thatcher]] worked to reform the National Health Service and make it more efficient. <Ref>http://www.margaretthatcher.org/essential/biography.asp#ess87-90</Ref> Currently the Conservative website attacks the Labour party because they feel it is underinvesting in the health service.

==References==

<references/>

::[http://www.nhs.uk/ NHS Official Homepage]

[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:United Kingdom]]

Socialism

2009-01-14T14:07:52Z

FrankL: /* Communal Socialism */

[[Image:Backrdv12n2.jpg|right|400px|thumb|The caption reads, "Long live the great undefeatable flag of Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin!" This is Leninism]]

'''Socialism''' is a system of government, by which the means of production and distribution are tightly controlled by government rather than individuals. This denies the right to [[private property]]. There are three main kinds of Socialism, but all of them are built on the premise that national government, has superior claims on all property. The most brutal forms (as in the Soviet Union, China, North Korea, Vietnam and Cuba) are atheistic and undemocratic.

==Leninism==
First there is Marxian Socialism or '''Leninism''' as revised by Lenin and practiced in the Soviet Union by [[Stalin]] (and his successors) and in China by [[Mao Zedong]] (but not by his successors), as well as Cuba, North Korea and Vietnam. The first version is totalitarian, with no democracy and all decision made by the leaders of the Communist party. Virtually all property (apart from clothes and some personal possessions) is controlled by the Party, as are all jobs and all economic activity. Conservatives have been very hostile. China after Mao's death remained politically totalitarian under the Communist party, but allows a vibrant capitalism and free enterprise system.

Socialism in Communist countries such as the old [[Soviet Union]], [[China]] in the 1949-1980 period, [[Cuba]], [[North Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] had government ownership practically everything. That led to severe inefficiency and widespread shortages of basic goods and services. These Communist countries used an "[[Iron Curtain]]" to keep their citizens from emigrating and an elaborate, brutal secret police to ensure there was no freedom of ideas or action.

==Democratic Socialism==
The second form (sometimes called "Revisionism") prevailed in Western Europe down to the 1970s, and is typified by the British Labour Party. It was democratic and closely linked to labor unions that had real power. The goal was for the government to own ("nationalize") major industries such as coal mining, railways, steel making, shipbuilding, airlines, and banking. Small businesses remained private. The Socialists were well organized and after 1918 they bitterly fought the breakaway faction that became the [[Communist]] movement. In recent years major Socialist parties (in Europa and Canada) have largely dropped the long-standing demands for state ownership of the means of production and have mostly accepted capitalism. However they remain tied to labor unions and favor liberal policies regarding high taxes and public spending. Conservatives have been negative toward the economics of the second form of socialism, but they have praised its vigorous anti-Communism. Conservatives complain socialists use government power to redistribute wealth.

In countries such as [[Sweden]], a form of democratic socialism has been much more successful, leading to high social equity and a burgeoning economy, as well as general content. Although this acts as a drag on the economy, in democratic countries of the industrialized west, some socialist ideas have been put into practice with varying degrees of success.

==Communal Socialism==
The third form of Socialism has nothing to do with Marx or government ownership, and emphasizes the importance of the community over the individual. Sometimes that has led to totalitarianism, as in [[National Socialism]] practiced by the German Nazis.<ref>"National Socialism" in German means something like "national society", with "national" meaning Aryan-and-not-Jewish; it called for an overwhelmingly powerful government alongside capitalism. </ref> Usually it means small communities sharing most of their possessions and striving t o follow the example of the apostles in [[Jerusalem]] who had all things in commmon. The most famous examples are the religious [[Shakers]] of the 19th century (a conservative group), and the new-left communes that briefly existed in the 1960s and 70s.

==Controversy==
The ideology of '''Socialism''' is subject to a variety of interpretations. From a conservative perspective, Marxist socialism is an economic system whereby the means of production are seized and monopolized by the government sometimes without compensation to the builders of the [[capital]], and where investments, production, distribution, income, prices, and economic justice are administered by a government [[nomenklatura]] that regulate the transfer of money, goods (including capital goods), and services primarily through taxation and regularized and institutionalized aggressive coercion. However, the majority of socialists would reject this description. Democratic socialists advocate a system of governance based on the principles of [[solidarity]], [[equality]] and [[liberty]], viewing these principles as interconnected, with increased socio-economic equality associated with increased practical freedom to fulfill human potential. In many countries, such as Britain, socialist movements have been built on Christian, democratic and co-operative bases, embracing the notion that individuals should 'treat others as they would wish to be treated', and arguing that all individuals have a moral responsibility for the welfare of other members of their society. Socialism seeks to prioritize human welfare over other goals, such as profit and wealth accumulation by elites; it views increased redistribution of wealth as vital to securing greater freedom and happiness for the bulk of the people, and deplores the devastating effects of gross inequality on society in terms of increased crime, mental illness, unhappiness and lack of life chances.

==Key elements==

As a political ideology based on the expropriation of wealth, socialism stresses the privileges of the nomenklatura over the rights of workers and earners. Many of the most notoriously oppressive dictatorships have been socialist, such as the [[Soviet Union]] and China under Mao Zedong. Private wealth was seized and the owners executed.
===Welfare state===
As an economic theory, democratic socialism calls for equalization of incomes, through taxation of private wealth coupled with welfare state spending. The [[nationalization]] of major industries is primarily a device to allow the unionized workers to control their own wages and working conditions, cutting out the capitalistic owners.

State [[pension]]s and unemployment insurance were not brought in by Socialists--they were first introduced by arch-conservative Chancellor [[Bismark]] in Germany in the 1870s. In Britain they were introduced about 1910 by [[Winston Churchill]] and [[David Lloyd George]] of the [[Liberal Party]], and in the U.S. were part of the [[New Deal]] in the 1930s. Welfare state ideas such as [[universal health care]], and state control of key industries have been common throughout the developed world in the modern era. However, the United States has always rejected socialism as an ideological position, with a few exceptions such as the [[TVA]].

===Religion===
Some forms of socialism have often been [[atheistic]] in character, and many leading socialists (most prominently Karl Marx) have been critical of the role of religion - and conservative religion in particular - which they criticize for lending support to an unjust social order. Other Socialists have been Christians, and there has been considerable interplay between Christian and Socialist ideas. [[Christian socialists]] have asserted that early Christian communities, in particular, displayed certain traits, such as the holding of possessions in common,<ref>Acts 2:44: "Everyone was filled with awe, and many wonders and miraculous signs were done by the apostles. All the believers were together and had everything in common. Selling their possessions and goods, they gave to anyone as he had need."</ref> the rejection of conventional sexual mores and gender roles, the provision for communal education, etc., that could be considered similar to socialism. See, for instance, Arnold Toynbee, the British historian, has responded to this,
:"the Marxian excerpt from a Christian Socialism is an experiment which is doomed to failure because it has denied itself the aid of the spiritual power which alone is capable of making Socialism a success. ….'Christianity', they say, 'is the opiate of the People'; and, in the [[Soviet Union]]… Christianity or of any other theistic religion have been debarred… from admission to membership of the All-Union Communist Party. In fact, Communism has been definitely and militantly anti-Christian. Thus the campaign against Christianity which is to-day an integral part of the propaganda of [[Marxian Socialism]] is a challenge to the living generation of Christians …we latter-day Christians may still turn a Marxian attack upon Christianity to good account … a re-awakening of the Christian social conscience has been the one great positive practical achievement of Karl Marx" <ref>Arnold Toynbee, ''A Study of History'', Annex II to Vol. V, Part C (i) (c) 2, p. 585-586, Marxism, Socialism, and Christianity.</ref>

Communist persecution notwithstanding, the earliest Christians were decidedly living in a manner consistent with the aims of socialism. Acts 4:32-5:11 not only describes community redistribution of property, but describes punishment of a husband and wife for failing to completely share the proceeds from selling their land.

[[Marx, Karl|Karl Marx]] considered socialism to be a transitory stage between capitalism and communism. In his view, socialism is summed up by the expression: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." A major criticism of socialism is that it infringes individual rights in favor of the populace. In a very real sense, politics in the western world throughout the 20th century was shaped by the conflict between socialist and capitalist governmental policies.

Although socialist parties are common in Europe, the leading examples all currently embrace some free enterprise, individual property rights and certain other aspects of capitalism although leading European Socialists are very critical of America. In many European countries socialism has been changing to [[Social democracy]].

== Britain, the Labour Party and socialism ==

At its inception, the [[Labour Party]] borrowed socialist ideas by committing itself to a program of nationalization under 'Clause 4' of their Constitution, but was always fundamentally committed to the British State and the [[Westminster model]] of parliamentary government. Clause 4 was formally dropped after the election of [[Tony Blair]] as Party leader, signaling the creation of 'New' Labour.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/21/newsid_2515000/2515825.stm</ref> The British governments of 1945-1950 and 1950-1951 under [[Clement Attlee]] implemented the nationalization of several industries and utilities, including coal, steel, water, railways and electricity. Former owners of nationalized industries were compensated. The best known example is the [[nationalization of health care]] to create the [[National Health Service]] (NHS). This made - literally overnight - health care "free" at the point of delivery for everybody in Britain.

Since the election to government of the Labour Party in 1997, many "[[progressive]]" measures have been introduced, such as the Minimum Wage, Child Tax Credits, union recognition legislation, increased maternity and paternity leave, the Child Trust Fund, refurbishment of [[council housing]], free bus travel for the elderly, increased paid leave for all workers, free nursery-school places, and large cuts in unemployment.<ref>[http://www.towerhamlets.labour.co.uk/a1c1ce9b-1488-7bb4-a528-14436f084ba3]</ref> In addition, over a million children and a million pensioners have been [[lifted out of poverty]]; however, many in the [[Labour Movement]] are extremely critical of [[New Labour]]'s tentative approach to reducing [[inequality]], and are frustrated that the government has not been more willing to make the case to the public for the [[redistribution of wealth]].

== Criticism of socialism ==
Socialism is often criticized by conservatives such as [[Bill O'Reilly]]. In his book ''''Culture Warrior'''' O'Reilly starts the book out by painting a bleak picture of what America would look like with a socialistic government. He states problems such as lawlessness, lack of morals and ethics and an overbearing politically correct "feel good" government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XPY4AAAACAAJ&dq=Culture+Warrior |title=Google books |accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref>

==Past Socialist Countries==
===Chile===
Marxist socialist leader [[Salvador Allende]] was popularly elected in Chile in 1970 under the Popular Unity Party. Allende's economic policy, known as the Vuskovic Plan, sought to achieve transition to socialism by democratic means. Strongly influenced by [[John Maynard Keynes]], the Vuskovic Plan involved nationalization of large foreign enterprises, land redistribution to farmers, and redistribution of income.

In the first year of Allende's, the economic policy showed decidedly positive results, including a 12% industrial growth an 8.6% increase in GDP, as well as major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). However, these gains were only temporary due to American intervention. American copper interests in Chile, which controlled 80% of Chile's copper production, reacted violently to Allende's nationalization. The United States set about placing an economic stranglehold on Chile designed to, in a famous quote by Richard Nixon, "make the (Chilean) economy scream". Classified documents have also revealed the extent of the United States' involvement in the 1973 coup d'etat that overthrew Allende, installing and supporting dictator [[Augusto Pinochet]] in power. Pinochet is known to have detained and tortured thousands of domestic dissidents by its secret police.<ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8i.htm</ref>

==Other Socialist Countries (Current )==
===[[Cuba]]===
Communist leader [[Fidel Castro]] violently overthrew the Cuban government in the 1950's and has declared Cuba to be Communist since then. Today, Cuba faces copious economic problems and the people lack their Fundamental Rights. ([[Raul Castro]] now runs the country, having taken it over from his ailing brother Fidel.)

===North Korea===

North Korea's form of communism is in the form of "Juche" - a doctrine established by Kim Il Sung and carried on by current leader Kim Jong Il. The country has little to no electrical power at night outside the capital, which can be verified by looking at nighttime satellite photos. <ref>http://epod.usra.edu/archive/epodviewer.php3?oid=87488</ref>

==Different Strands of Socialism==
*[[Communism]]
*[[Social democracy]]
*[[Welfare state]]

==Bibliography==
* Jude P. Dougherty, "Socialist Man: A Psychological Profile," ''Modern Age'' Volume 46, Number 1-2; Winter/Spring 2004 [http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_1-2/dougherty.pdf online edition], a conservative critique
* Malia, Martin. ''Soviet Tragedy: A History of Socialism in Russia'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Soviet-Tragedy-History-Socialism-Russia/dp/0684823136/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228761853&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Muravchik, Joshua. ''Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism'' (2003) by conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Heaven-Earth-Rise-Fall-Socialism/dp/1893554783/ref=sr_1_21?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228761601&sr=1-21 excerpt and text search]
* Novak, Michael. ''Capitalism and Socialism: A Theological Inquiry '' (1988) [http://www.amazon.com/Capitalism-Socialism-Theological-Michael-Novak/dp/0844721549/ref=sr_1_19?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228761601&sr=1-19 excerpt and text search], bu leading conservative scholar

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mises.org/etexts/hayekintellectuals.pdf The Intellectuals and Socialism], By F.A. Hayek, ''The University of Chicago Law Review'', (Spring 1949), pp. 417-420, 421-423, 425-433.
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109587/socialism Socialism] Encyclopædia Britannica.
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/socialism/ What Liberals Say - Category: Socialism], [[Accuracy In Media]]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_countries]

[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Socialism]]

Prophet

2008-12-18T15:10:25Z

FrankL:

{{Bible}}
A '''prophet''' is one who speaks for God through divine revelation. Prophets in the [[Bible]] usually predict future events and the words of a prophet must always come to pass. If they do not, then he is a false prophet and must be put to death according to the book of [[Deuteronomy]].

Prophets in the [[Old Testament]] also have the distinction of being largely ignored by the Jewish people who they are trying to reach.

A large portion of the Bible deals with prophets and prophecy, including two sections of the books of the Bible, the Major Prophets and the Minor Prophets. Note that the Minor Prophets is in reference to the length of their texts, not that they themselves were less of a prophet than the Major Prophets.

The Major Prophets:

* Isaiah
* Jeremiah
* Ezekiel

The Minor Prophets:

* Daniel
* Deborah
* Hosea
* Joel
* Amos
* Obadiah
* Jonah
* Micah
* Nahum
* Habakkuk
* Zephaniah
* Haggai
* Samuel
* Zechariah
* Malachi

There are other prophets in the Bible as well that don't have books named after them, such as [[Elijah]] and [[Elisha]]. Furthermore, while discussion of prophets is less pronounced in the [[New Testament]] of the Bible than it is in the [[Old Testament|Old]], there are prophets in the New Testament as well, such as [[Agabus]].

== Prophets outside the Bible ==

Many religions that were set up after [[Jesus]] have labeled their founders as prophets, such as [[Islam]] with [[Mohammed]].

The [[Mormon]] Church believes in a succession of [[Prophets (Mormon)|Later Day Prophets]] who have come in modern times.

[[Charismatic Church|Charismatic]] preachers, especially in the faith movement, will often refer to themselves as prophets.

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Religion]]

Bible prophecy

2008-12-18T15:07:40Z

FrankL:

'''Biblical prophecy''' is a general term for the [[prophet]]ic statements of the Men of [[God]] in the [[Bible]]. There were also women of God like [[Deborah]]. These prophets spoke to the children of [[Israel]], usually concerning some [[sin]]ful or false way they had fallen into.

Seventeen of the books of the [[Old Testament]] are the writings of prophets, from [[Isaiah]] to [[Malachi]]. Other important biblical prophets are [[Elijah]] (considered the greatest of all) and his successor [[Elisha]].

Many of the prophecies in the Old Testament are fulfilled in the [[New Testament]], through the deeds of [[Jesus]]. However, it is unclear whether others have yet been fulfilled, especially since the language is often very [[metaphor]]ical and [[allusive]]. Much biblical scholarship is devoted to determining the exact meanings of such prophecies, and even trying to use them to predict future world events, particularly apocalyptic happenings.

[[Category:Bible]]

Bible prophecy

2008-12-18T15:06:25Z

FrankL:

'''Biblical prophecy''' is a general term for the [[prophet]]ic statements of the Men of [[God]] in the [[Bible]]. T here were also women of God like [[Deborah]]. These prophets spoke to the children of [[Israel]], usually concerning some [[sin]]ful or false way they had fallen into.

Seventeen of the books of the [[Old Testament]] are the writings of prophets, from [[Isaiah]] to [[Malachi]]. Other important biblical prophets are [[Elijah]] (considered the greatest of all) and his successor [[Elisha]].

Many of the prophecies in the Old Testament are fulfilled in the [[New Testament]], through the deeds of [[Jesus]]. However, it is unclear whether others have yet been fulfilled, especially since the language is often very [[metaphor]]ical and [[allusive]]. Much biblical scholarship is devoted to determining the exact meanings of such prophecies, and even trying to use them to predict future world events, particularly apocalyptic happenings.

[[Category:Bible]]

The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy

2008-12-18T14:49:54Z

FrankL:

{{merge|The Hitchhiker's Guide to The Galaxy}}
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy was a humorous radio play written by [[Douglas Adams]] and first broadcast by the BBC in the 1970s. It was later published as a novel and spawned four sequels, as well as being made into a television series and eventually a film.

The story starts with the Earth being destroyed by aliens called The Vogons, who were clearing the way through the solar system for an interstellar highway. The sole human survivor, Arthur Dent, with his human-looking alien friend, Ford Prefect and Ford Prefect's cousin, Zaphod Beeblebrox then endure a series of comedic adventures and colorful characters. Later they stumble upon the realisation that the Earth was, in fact, a giant supercomputer designed to work out the ultimate question to life the universe, and everything.

All the while, Arthur Dent, still dressed in the bed clothes he was wearing before escaping the Earth, is trying to find out how to get a nice cup of tea, just like the quintessential English man he is. This trait, amongst others, appears to perplex all of the alien life forms he meets.

The title of the story refers to a Conservapedia-like online encyclopedia, carried by Ford Prefect that contains information on just about anything in the universe.

The novel, and its sequels, ''The Restaurant at the End of the Universe'', ''Life the Universe and Everything'', ''So Long and Thanks for All the Fish'' and ''Mostly Harmless'' were all hugely successful, while the TV series and the film versions were criticised for their poor realisations of the story. Afficionados of the material claim that the original radio plays were the best versions.

[[Category:Novels]]

Christian socialism

2008-12-16T14:01:03Z

FrankL:

'''Christian socialism''' was a movement in the 1800s by Protestants in Europe, especially Britain, calling for more government investigation and regulation to alleviate the disress of the poor, which they blamed on unrestrained capitalism. Supporters claimed that [[Socialism]] was compatible with Christianity, as the early apostles in Jerusalem had all things in common. Their goal was to build God's Kingdom on earth. A few Americans joined the movement, although the [[Social Gospel]] was much more important in the U.S. in the era of the [[Third Great Awakening]]. The movement originated before [[Karl Marx]] and had little in common with Marxist socialism.

Critics accused social gospel preachers of focusing on this world rather than focusing on goal of saving souls. Christian socialists felt that they were doing God's will when they worked to improve conditions for their fellow human beings on Earth. Doing God's will would help to save souls. The Christian socialists formed a small part of the larger [[Social Gospel]] movement. It appealed to ministers and labor activists, but won few followers among actual workers.

==Britain==
Frederick D. Maurice (1805-72), a professor of theology at King's College, London, until 1853, provided the initial leadeforship to a group who called themselves Christian Socialists, with ''The Kingdom of Christ'' (1838).

By 1870, Anglicans acknowledged that a 'theological transformation' had taken place which made the Incarnation central to Anglican thought. High Church organizations such as the Guild of St. Matthew, founded in 1877, embraced Maurice's theology of the Incarnation, and the Christian Socialists planned a new course for the church in its relations with society, social reform, and the rights of the working class.

Rev. [[Charles Kingsley]] (1819-75) played a leading role in the Christian Socialist movement in Britain in the mid-19th century; he was chaplain to [[Queen Victoria]] and later a canon of Westminster Cathedral. He explained that "Christian Socialism," meant cooperative enterprise and morality in social action. He published ''Politics for the People'' and ''The Christian Socialist.'' Kingsley, Anglican rector of Eversley in Hampshire, became the ardent and often controversial spokesman for the movement, and called on the upper classes to take part in this. His series in ''The Christian Socialist'' on 'Bible Politics' aimed to show that democracy is an idea from the Bible and is in the cause of God.

[[Gertrude Himmelfarb]], a conservative historian, points out that "the generic form of Christian socialism ... was present among all the late-Victorian socialist groups, including the most radical of them." She notes that [[Keir Hardie]], the late nineteenth-century trade unionist who became the first leader of the parliamentary [[Labour party]] early in the 20th century, described socialism as "the embodiment of Christianity in our industrial system." Himmelfarb finds that while these reformers tried to secularize religion, "that transference was rarely complete. What remained, for many socialists, was a spirit that transcended man, a moral idea rooted in religion which provided the ultimate rationale for socialism.<ref> Himmelfarb, ''Poverty and Compassion,'' (1991) p. 336</ref> Himmelfarb notes that a frequent complaint was that it appealed more to the upper class than the working class, or as one critic snapped, "Christian Socialism is the holy water with which the priest consecrates the heart-burnings of the aristocrat."<ref> Himmelfarb, ''Poverty and Compassion,'' (1991) p. 335</ref>
==Hungary==
In Hungary, the Hungarian Christian Socialist Movement was active from 1895 to 1918, with ties to the agrarian movement and the Catholic People's Party; its leaders were theologian Ottokár Prohászka (1858-1928) and Sándor Giesswein (d. 1923), canon of Györ.

==21st century==
[[Image:Csmlogo.gif|left]]
In the 21st century, the Christian Socialist Movement in England is a movement of Christians with a radical commitment to social justice, to protecting the environment and to fostering peace and reconciliation. It is holding a joint event on Cut The Carbon with Christian Aid at Labour Party Conference. Labour Party leader and former prime minister [[Tony Blair]] calls himself an 'ecumenical Christian' and has tied to Christian Socialism, though he led the Labour party to renounce its traditional commitment to government ownership of industry. "Christianity helped to inspire my rejection of Marxism," Blair explained. <ref> Irwin M. Stelzer, "Christian Socialism in Britain." ''Public Interest'' 1996 (124): 3-11 </ref>

==Bibliography==
* Boyer, John. ''Culture and Political Crisis in Vienna: Christian Socialism in Power, 1897-1918.'' (1995) 702p. [http://www.amazon.com/Culture-Political-Crisis-Vienna-Christian/dp/0226069613/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1227328093&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Cort, John C. ''Christian Socialism: An Informal History.'' (1988) 402p
* Hopkins, Charles Howard. ''The Rise of the Social Gospel in American Protestantism, 1865-1915'' (1940) (Chap. X "Christian Socialism") [http://www.questia.com/read/87098233?title=The%20Rise%20of%20the%20Social%20Gospel%20in%20American%20Protestantism%2c%201865-1915%20(Chap.%20X%20%22Christian%20Socialism%22) online edition]
* Phillips, Paul T. ''A Kingdom on Earth: Anglo-American Social Christianity, 1880-1940.'' (1996) 303p.
===Primary sources===
* Charles Kingsley. ''The Works of Charles Kingsley'' (1899) 339 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=K53M7IGeFm8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:charles+inauthor:Kingsley&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 online edition]
* Frances Eliza Grenfell Kingsley. ''Charles Kingsley: His Letters and Memories of His Life'' (1877) 502 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=_uP32Zdvb3cC&pg=PA34&dq=inauthor:charles+inauthor:Kingsley&lr=&num=30&as_brr=3 online edition]
* Gray, John. ''The Life of Frederick Denison Maurice: Chiefly Told in His Own Letters'' (1885) 707pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=llNFAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:Frederick+inauthor:Maurice&lr=&as_brr=3 online edition]

== External links ==

*[http://www.anglocatholicsocialism.org/acslinks.html Old Values, New Frontiers]

====notes====
<references/>
[[Category:Christian Movements]]
[[Category:economics]]
[[Category:politics]]

Tokyo Rose

2008-12-16T13:53:44Z

FrankL: /* The Hunt for "Tokyo Rose" */

[[Image:Iva Toguri mug shot.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A mug shot of Iva Toguri, taken at Sugamo Prison on 7 March, 1946. A caption on the reverse of the photograph reads, "Captain Denton took me to Iva Toguri's house and made her wear the light tan coat and had her put on her rimless glasses. I recognized her as the same girl who broadcast on the Zero Hour program. (Signed) Emi Matsuda.", 03/07/1946]]

'''Tokyo Rose''', so named by Allied forces,<ref name="several">By 1943, American soldiers had already adopted "Tokyo Rose" as a nickname describing several female announcers on Japanese propaganda broadcasts. [http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2006/may/29/20060529-115535-6055r/?page=2 Veterans embrace 'Tokyo Rose'] May, 2006 - [[Washington Times]] </ref>
was one of at least twelve, and possibly more, English-speaking women who made [[propaganda]] broadcasts on behalf of the Japanese Imperial Forces, during [[World War II]]. They taunted the American soldiers, highlighting their hardships and sacrifices, and playing familiar music from home, in an attempt to demoralize them.<ref>During World War II, a dozen female broadcasters, collectively dubbed “Tokyo Rose” by U.S. troops, provided a diversion from the horrors of war. Set up by the Japanese military and using the powerful signal of Radio Tokyo, these Tokyo Roses were on the air nightly, broadcasting English-language shows designed to make American soldiers and sailors nostalgic and homesick. One such Tokyo Rose, U.S. citizen Iva Ikuki Toguri D’Aquino, described her August 14, 1944, broadcast as “sweet propaganda” and played tunes whose titles (for example, “My Resistance Is Low”) were designed to demoralize her listeners. Although some soldiers and sailors may have felt the occasional twinge of homesickness while listening to Tokyo Rose’s broadcasts, most simply ignored the propaganda and insults while hoping to hear their favorite popular songs. [http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5140/ “Hello, You Fighting Orphans”: “Tokyo Rose” Woos U.S. Sailors and Marines] - History Matters, a project of the American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning of the City University of New York and the Center for History and New Media at George Mason University </ref>

The women used for this purpose were mostly of American or Canadian descent. Included amongst them were the American Ruth Hayakawa, Canadian June Suyama, known as "The Nightingale of Nanking", who also broadcast on [[NHK|NHK's]] Radio Tokyo. There was Foumy Saisho, who broadcast as "Madame Tojo", Margaret Yaeko Kato, Katherine Fujiwara, Katherine Morooka, Mieko Furova, and Mary Ishiti, as well as Myrtle Lipton, Radio Manila's "Little Margie".<ref>Lipton was never arrested, and never stood trial, as did the others. It was rumoured that she disappeared, along with the US Colonel sent to question her. What is know, is that she was never seen again, after the recapture of Manila.</ref> However, none ever actually broadcast using the pseudonym "Tokyo Rose".

The name has, however, become synonymous with American-born Iva Ikuko Toguri D'Aquino (4 July 1916 - 26 September 2006), who broadcast on Radio Tokyo's "Zero Hour" program, using the name "Orphan Ann". She was arrested after the war and tried for treason in 1949. The jury found her innocent on seven of the counts of treason against her and guilty on one count, for which she was sentenced to ten years in prison and a $10,000 fine. In addition, she was stripped of her US citizenship.

Subsequent investigations after her release, during which time she had to work to pay back the outstanding amount of the $10,000 fine, revealed that she had assisted Allied POW's working at the station, and had been abused and threatened by the Japanese Secret Police because she had refused to relinquish up her US citizenship and accept Japanese citizenship. Throughout the war, she had been hoping for, and confident of, an Allied victory.

It also transpired that several Japanese witnesses, who had testified at her trial, later admitted to perjuring themselves. However, these admissions only came after the occupying forces no longer had jurisdiction over Japan, thus exempting them from the threat of US prosecution. On the grounds of this new evidence, President [[Gerald Ford]] granted her a full pardon on 19 January 1977 and reinstated her US citizenship.

==Early Life==

Iva Ikuko Toguri was born in south-central [[Los Angeles]] on 4 July 1916, the daughter of a [[Japan|Japanese]] immigrant. This made her a ''nisei'' (二世 lit. "Second generation", or a first generation American citizen, of Japanese descent). Her mother was crippled because of diabetes. She was raised a [[Methodist]], joined the local Girl Scouts, and dreamed of becoming a medical doctor, fuelled in part by having to care for her mother.

She graduated from [[UCLA]], with a Bachelor’s Degree in Zoology in 1941. Her aunt Shizu, who lived in Japan, then took ill and Iva was chosen to go to Japan to represent the Toguri family at her aunt's bedside. Her travel documents listed her occupation as "pre-med student".

She sailed for Japan on 5 July 1941, aboard the ''Arabia Maru''. However, she left with no passport. The State Department refused to issue one on such short notice and instead, gave her a Certificate of Identification, saying that this document would be sufficient to get her to and from Japan. However, when she applied to return to the U.S. in November 1941, becoming more fearful of the situation in Japan, she was refused on the grounds that there was no evidence that she was an American citizen, and the document provided by the State Department was unacceptable. She was thus left stranded in Japan when war broke out in December.

==Alone in a Hostile Land==

As a foreign national, Iva was regarded as an enemy alien by the Japanese authorities, who instructed her to renounce her American citizenship and register as a Japanese citizen. She refused, requesting instead to be sent to an interment camp along with other foreign nationals. Her request was refused, because of her gender and also because she was of Japanese descent. Alone, frightened and unable to read and barely able to speak Japanese, she returned to live with her uncle.

However, problems arose when she was overheard expressing happiness at the [[James Doolittle#The Doolittle Raid|Doolittle Raid]] and neighbours accused her uncle of harbouring an enemy spy. In order to protect them, she left their house, renting a small apartment. She gave piano lessons to pay the rent, as well as for Japanese lessons.

She found employment at the Domei News Agency, working as a typist, transcribing English-language news broadcasts for the agency. It was here that she saw the report containing the names of her family in America, who had been shipped off to Gila River Interment Camp in Arizona. Already shocked by this news, she returned home one night, to find her room being searched by the dreaded ''Kempeitai'' Military Police. At this point, Iva again requested to be interned, but this too was declined and she was told, with typical Japanese efficiency, that it would cost too much to feed her, especially when she was perfectly capable of earning a salary.

Shortly thereafter, Iva was hospitalized for six weeks, suffering from malnutrition, pellagra, and beriberi. In order to pay the hospital bill, she had to borrow money from her landlady, as well as from a Portuguese national, Felipe d’Aquino, who shared her pro-American feelings, and with whom she had struck up a friendship. In order to pay them back, she took on a second job, working as a typist for Radio Tokyo. Her job was to type up English-language scripts, drafted by the Japanese Propaganda Ministry, which would then be broadcast to the Allied troops in the Pacific war zone.

It was at this moment that she met three Allied POWs, Major Charles Cousens, an Australian and a former Radio Sydney celebrity, who was captured at the fall of [[Singapore]], and his two associates, the American Captain Wallace Ince and the Filipino Lieutenant Normando Reyes, both of whom had been captured after the fall of [[Corregidor]].

Their haggard and underfed state touched Iva and she decided she would try to assist the soldiers who were fighting for her side. Initially, they were suspicious of her attempts at friendship and pro-American attitude, and thought she was a spy planted by the ''Kempeitai''. However, they came to trust her after she began to smuggle food and medicine to them. The result of this is that when Radio Tokyo instructed Cousens to add a female DJ to the "Zero Hour" show, he immediately requested Iva by name.

==Orphan Ann==
{{cquote|Hello you fighting orphans of the Pacific. How's tricks? This is after her weekend off, Annie is back on the air, strictly under union hours. Reception OK? Well, it better be, because this is all request night and I've got a pretty nice program for all my favorite little family, the wandering boneheads of the Pacific Islands. The first request is for none other than the boss, and guess what? - he wants Ronnie Baker and 'My resistance is low'. My, what taste you have sir.}}
(The opening lines of the “Orphan Ann” segment of the "Zero Hour" show, broadcast on 14 August 1944)

Meanwhile, the three Allied POWs had been using their "Zero Hour" programme to wage a covert sabotage campaign, undermining the Japanese propaganda efforts. They did this by fluffing their lines on-air, and making use of innuendo, double entendre, sarcasm, or rushed or muffled delivery of their lines. After their overseers caught onto their ruse, they reverted to delivering their lines in a mechanical monotone, sounding like they were being forced to read what was in front of them. Now that a fourth member was to be added to the team and thus their conspiracy, they needed somebody they could trust. In their current circumstances, that person was Iva Toguri.

She agreed to join them, although reluctantly at first and on the condition that she broadcast anonymously. However, when the authorities insisted that all announcers had to have a name, she chose "Ann", taking the name from the abbreviation of "announcer" - ANN - that appeared in front of her lines in the script. Cousens added the "Orphan" and 'Orphan Ann" was born. They created a personality to go with the name, combining Iva's natural bubbly personality with that of the popular "Little Orphan Annie" radio character and tied in with her phrase "Orphans of the Pacific”, which described her audience of Allied GIs. Cousens' genius was in managing to transform a propaganda broadcast into a joke shared between himself and the GIs.

Iva's portion of the 75-minute show only lasted twenty minutes a day, and she spent the rest of her time on her original job, typing up scripts, as well as scavenging for black-market food and medicine for “her” POWs. During her 20-minute slot, Iva would play records, mostly English dance tunes and light classics, which Cousens chose, because he reasoned that these songs would not make American GIs homesick. The remaining time was used to read messages from POWs, play some jazz records, and read a news bulletin, focusing on bad news from the U.S. The show's theme song was chosen by Iva - it was "Strike Up the Band", the battle song of her alma mater, UCLA.

However, things were starting to change for the worse. As the tide of war continued to turn against Japan, Iva's ongoing pro-American stance began to cause problems with her co-workers. She resigned from the Domei News Agency after Felipe d’Aquino, whom she was now dating, became embroiled in a fight, because of something she had said. She took up a position at the Danish embassy and received a portion of her salary in luxury items from the embassy's diplomatic rations. These she later traded on the black market for more food for the POWs.

As for the "Zero Hour", Cousens had suffered a heart attack and was taken off air; as was Ince, who was removed for insubordination. Reyes had been declared a "friendly alien", following Japan's annexation of the Philippines. This left Iva, who carried on, re-writing Cousens' old scripts to keep the feel (and subversive elements) of the show.

Despite the upheaval in the "Zero Hour" team, the show was seen as a success by the Japanese Army. This was based on reports they received from the neutral Portuguese and Swedish embassies in Japan that American forces were following the broadcasts of "Tokyo Rose". However, nobody at Radio Tokyo knew whom "Tokyo Rose" was, but nevertheless, officials were happy the enemy were listening.

===Orphan Ann was not Tokyo Rose===

Post-war interviews with servicemen revealed some interesting disparities in just who "Tokyo Rose" was. Their descriptions of the content of the shows, suggested that they were listening to “Orphan Ann”, but their descriptions of the voice seemed to point more towards Foumy Saisho’s “Madame Tojo” or Ruth Hayakawa’s “Nightingale of Nanking” - certainly not Iva's somewhat unprofessional (as she had no formal training) delivery style. Whilst many of those interviewed, recalled listening to - and enjoying - the "Zero Hour", they also recalled being especially fond of a Sunday program hosted by a female Japanese DJ, whom they knew as "Tokyo Rose".

This, however, confuses the issue even more, because although "Zero Hour" aired every day at 6:00 p.m., Iva did not work on Sundays, and was usually replaced by Ruth Hayakawa. However, Hayakawa's voice did not match the low-pitched, seductive voice GIs attributed to "Tokyo Rose", nor did her broadcast contain information about impending air attacks or warnings to male listeners that their wives and girlfriends back home were cheating on them, both of which "Tokyo Rose" was said to do with relish, and was more a feature of "Madame Tojo's" broadcasts.

In addition, the first recorded print version of the name "Tokyo Rose" appeared in YANK Magazine's 20 August, 1943 issue, which reported that "Tokyo Rose" had jeered Lt. Edward
H. “Butch” O’Hare’s feat of shooting down five enemy planes in a day. The article read, “The Japs jeered. Butch O’Hare was a one-battle fighter, they said. He was afraid to return to the Pacific. Tokyo Rose, Japan’s Lady Haw-Haw, declared that he was probably dead.”<ref>World War II Chronicles; Quarterly Publication of the World War II Veterans Committee; Issue XXVII; Winter 2004-05; Pg 7</ref> Iva only started work at Radio Tokyo on 23 August 1943, and then only as a part-time typist. She only began broadcasting in November of that year.

==End of the War==

By now, Iva and Felipe were living together, and Iva was avoiding going to work at Radio Tokyo as much as possible. Iva and Felipe were married, following Iva's quick conversion to Catholicism, although the ceremony was interrupted by an air raid.

Iva was forced to return to work, after being threatened by a plain-clothes member of the ''Kempeitai'', but by then the writing was on the wall and within three months, she was cheering as Emperor [[Hirohito]] broadcast Japan's unconditional surrender. She began to make plans to return to America, but unfortunately, events conspired against her.

==The Hunt for "Tokyo Rose"==

Following the Japanese surrender in September 1945, the search began for Japanese military leaders and others who may have committed war crimes. The military took the lead in this, with the press joining in the hunt, often following, but sometimes beating the military in tracking down the suspects.

Two of these reporters, Henry Brundidge, from Cosmopolitan, and Clark Lee, from INS, set out to find “Tokyo Rose", unaware that no such person existed and the name was created by ''American'' troops. Still, their investigations - and the offer of $250 <ref>In post-War Japan, the $250 reward was equal to ¥3,750, or about three year’s income. Likewise, $2,000 was worth over ¥30,000 - a sizeable fortune back then</ref> for information leading to Tokyo Rose - eventually led them to Iva Ikuko Toguri d’Aquino. Iva's name was provided to them by Leslie Nakashima, a ''nisei'' working at Radio Tokyo and Clark Lee promptly released this information to the public at large.

Upon meeting Iva, Brundidge and Lee offered her $2,000, which they later reneged on paying, for exclusive rights to interview her. Iva agreed, and signed a contract that identified her as “the one and only ''Tokyo Rose''”.

However, not only did Brundidge's editor at Cosmopolitan reject the story, he also refused to authorise the $2,000 payment. The only way Brundidge could avoid paying the money out of his own pocket was to void the contract. He presented Lee's comprehensive notes to 8th Army Counter Intelligence Corps commander General Elliot Thorpe, claiming that she should be arrested for treason and the notes contained her confession. At the same time, he arranged for Iva to hold a joint press conference with some 300 journalists, thus negating the terms of his own "exclusive" contract and saving him $2,000.

Unaware of Brundidge’s double-dealing, both Iva and the press corps agreed and the conference was held at the Yokohama Bund Hotel. She also gave interviews to "Yank" and "Pacific Stars & Stripes" and even recorded mock "Orphan Ann" broadcasts for the newsreels. Ignorant of the brewing trouble (news that “Tokyo Rose” was an American citizen, who intended to return to her home in California, had sparked a series of angry protests), Iva was under the impression that “Tokyo Rose” was the GI's popular darling, exactly as "Orphan Ann" was intended to be. Under the misguided impression that she was now a radio celebrity, she signed autographs and posed for pictures as “Tokyo Rose.”

Iva was taken into custody on 17 October 1945, and upon her arrival at the 8th Army HQ brig, was informed that she was under arrest, although no warrant had been issued and no charges were filed.
[[Image:Tokyo Rose.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Another mug shot of Iva Toguri, taken at Sugamo Prison on 7 March, 1946. It bears the same caption as the photograph above.]]
Even though Iva’s arrest for treason had been publicly announced, she was never informed why she was being held. After a month in the brig, she was transferred to Sugamo Prison, where she was placed in a cell on "Blue Block", where diplomats and women accused of war crimes were held. here she spent the next eleven and a half months, locked in a 6 by 9 cell. Her husband was allowed one 20-minute visit a month and she could take a bath once every three days. At the same time, she learned of her mother’s death whilst ''en route'' to the Gila River Interment Camp in Arizona and her family’s subsequent move to [[Chicago]].

While this was going on, Major Cousens was tried for and acquitted of treason by the Australian Army for his work for the Japanese, whereupon he returned to work at Radio Sydney. Similarly, not only was Captain Ince cleared of all wrongdoing, but he was also promoted to Major.

Iva meanwhile, was interrogated by the [[FBI]] and Army CIC. There was overwhelming evidence that "Tokyo Rose" was a composite figure and that Iva had not committed treason. Despite this the interrogators refused to believe anything she told them, even ignored copies of her scripts which were presented to them.

Finally, on 25 October 1946, having spent a year, a week and a day in military custody without ever being charged, Iva was released "without condition". She left the prison flanked by an honour guard and carrying a bouquet of flowers, presented by the Sugamo Prison commandant, Colonel Hardy.

One again, she tried to apply for a passport to return home, but the same lack of documentation that had left her stranded there in the first place, continued to frustrate her efforts. At the same time, she lost her first child, shortly after he was born in January 1948. It is possible her long confinement contributed to the baby's death.

==The Treason Trial==

In the U.S., pressure was mounting to either have “Tokyo Rose” brought back to stand trial, or be prevented from ever returning as a citizen. Brundidge, who had since joined the Nashville Tennessean, together with former FBI Special Agent John B. Hogan, an attorney with the Immigration & Naturalization Service Division, persuaded the U.S. Department of Justice to support their efforts to have Iva sign Clark Lee’s notes. Brundidge returned to Japan and confronted Iva, who was still recovering from the loss of her son. Mentally and physically exhausted, and wanting only to return home, she signed the document. Two months later, word of her "confession" spread when Brundidge published a 10-part series, that opened with, "Arrest of “Tokyo Rose” Nears: She Signs Confession To “Sell-Out”. Three months later, in June 1948, Attorney General Tom Clark formally announced that Iva Toguri d’Aquino would be tried for treason in the 12th District Court in San Francisco.

Iva was re-arrested at her Ikejiri apartment and was presented with a warrant charging her with “treasonable conduct against the U.S. government” during World War 2. She was shipped off to San Fransisco, leaving behind her husband, whom she never saw again. The ship docked at San Fransisco harbour on 25 September, 1948. She had lost 30 pounds during the sea voyage and was suffering from chronic dysentery. Despite this, she was taken to the San Fransisco county jail, where she spent the next nine months, being held without bail, where she was charged with eight counts of treason, for "adhering to, and giving aid and comfort to, the Imperial Government of Japan during World War II".

During this time, she received legal representation for the first time since her initial arrest in 1946 and her lawyer, Wayne Mortimer Collins, was able to intercede and stop attempts by the FBI to remove her from jail and interrogate Iva without counsel. Normando Reyes, who attending university in the U.S., was subpoenaed as a witness against her.

The treason trial lasted thirteen weeks, and at the time was the most expensive trial in U.S. history, costing some $750,000.<ref>$750,000 in 1949 would be worth approximately $6 million today</ref> General consensus amongst people who knew Iva was that she was not guilty and even the local press corps voted 9-to-1 amongst themselves in favour of acquittal.

The prosecution presented a total of 46 witnesses, many of whom were flown in from Japan at government expense and who received $10 per-diem allowance. Iva's defense, paid for by Iva’s father, could only afford to present depositions from witnesses in Japan, many of whom had already been visited by the FBI and CIC. Evidence of perjury in the Grand Jury that had indicted Iva was ruled inadmissible by the judge, because the alleged perjurer (Brundidge) was not testifying at the actual trial. Brundidge never did testify at Iva's trial, due to this taint of perjury, nor was he prosecuted for subornation of perjury. Recordings of the shows, which were present in the courtroom were never entered into evidence, nor played to the jury and all references to Iva’s work with the POWs was also ruled inadmissible as being irrelevant to the question of treason. Most of the witnesses proved to be ineffective, and their stories were picked apart during cross-examination by Collins. Even the Japanese Army’s chief of propaganda at Radio Tokyo, Major Tsuneishi, admitted on the stand that "Zero Hour" never was the morale-draining propaganda weapon he had envisioned it to be.

However, the most damning evidence against her came from two former co-workers, Kenkichi Oki and George Mitsushio. Both were former ''nisei'', both of whom had given up their American citizenship. They worked on "Zero Hour" with Iva and the POWs, although Iva was never close to them, due to their renouncing of their citizenship. Both were bought in to testify, because a person can only be convicted of treason if there have been at least two witnesses to each overt act of treason. Their testimony was clearly well-prepared, almost identical in wording and devastating for the defence. Both claimed that during a broadcast following the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], she made reference to the loss of U.S. ships during the battle and had spoken the following words into the microphone: "Now you fellows really have lost all your ships. Now you really are orphans of the Pacific. How do you think you will ever get home?" Iva denied ever speaking these words, or even writing them in her script, during her testimony and she appeared clearly shocked by their testimony. <ref>World War II Chronicles; Quarterly Publication of the World War II Veterans Committee; Issue XXVII; Winter 2004-05; Pg 15</ref>

The defence was bolstered, however, by the arrivals of Charles Cousens, who flew from Australia at his own expense, and Wallace Ince. Both delivered glowing testimony in her favour. In addition, Normando Reyes recanted his earlier testimony for the prosecution and claimed his statements had been coerced.

Sent to consider their verdict, the jury remained hung, unable to unanimously declare Iva's guilt or innocence. The judge issued the jury with an "[[Allen charge|Allen Charge]]", informing them - in contravention of the guidelines of such a charge - that the trial had already cost the U.S. government over half a million dollars, before instructing them to resume deliberation and bring in a verdict.

In their final determination, the jury found Iva not guilty on seven of the eight counts, returning a guilty verdict on one count (Count VI), which read, "That on a day during October, 1944, the exact date being to the Grand Jurors unknown, said defendant, at Tokyo, Japan, in a broadcasting studio of The Broadcasting Corporation of Japan, did speak into a microphone concerning the loss of ships." This verdict was based on the testimony detailed above. This charge carried a minimum possible sentence of five years imprisonment and a $5,000 fine; the maximum penalty was death. Once again, going against the consensus, who were expecting the minimum penalty, the judge sentenced Iva to 10 years in prison and a $10,000 fine, with Collins, her lawyer, describing the verdict as "Guilty without evidence". At the time, her conviction made her only the seventh U.S. citizen to be convicted of treason.

She was sent to the Federal Reformatory for Women at Alderson, West Virginia, where as Prisoner 9380-W, her official classification was as a “notorious offender”. Despite this, and initial hostility from the inmates (which included Kathryn Kelly, the wife of George “Machine-Gun” Kelly), Iva was soon regarded as a model prisoner for her work around the prison and her recently discovered official prison record <ref>[http://www.dyarstraights.com/orphan_ann/alderson.html A copy of Iva Ikuko Toguri D'Aquino's prison record]</ref> found in the Bureau of Prisons “Notorious Offenders” files in the National Archives, speaks most eloquently for itself. For a time she shared a cell with Mildred Gillars Sisk, who was serving a 10 to 30 year sentence for treason, for her “Axis Sally” radio propaganda broadcasts from Berlin.

Iva was denied parole whenever she became eligible for it, on the advice of the FBI and Justice Department, but earned an early release after serving six years and two months of her sentence, having accumulated 1,200 days of "meritorious good time". News of her early release sparked a renewed public outcry, and as she walked free on 28 January 1956, she was handed a deportation notice, ordering her back to Japan.

==Aftermath and Vindication==

It took two years for her attorney, Wayne Mortimer Collins, who had originally defended her at her trial, to successfully oppose the deportation order, during which time Iva lived under his roof. Happy that the nightmare was finally over, Iva moved to Chicago to be with her family again and disappeared from the public eye.

Although she had gone to ground, people were starting to speak up on her behalf. Among the first of these was the former AP Japanese Bureau Chief, Rex Gunn. Later, Petitions for a Presidential Pardon were filed with the Eisenhower administration in 1954, the Johnson administration in 1968, and the Nixon/Ford administration in 1976.

Although the first two applications were unsuccessful, new evidence came to light, which led to the 1976 application. Ron Yates, a [[Chicago Tribune]] correspondent in Tokyo from 1974 to 1977, had been reviewing her case, since a reader's letter had informed him that "Tokyo Rose" was living in Chicago. As he read the documentation, he became increasingly aware that something did not seem right with the way the trial had been conducted. As he said in a later interview, "The evidence and the trial itself didn't seem to be done in the right way. If you take it out of the context of the time, you think, 'Why didn't anybody see this?' Well, at the time, three years after the war, 1948, there was a lot of hatred toward the Japanese. A lot of people had lost sons and mothers and fathers. You could kind of get some sense about why she was being prosecuted. But even so, even when you allow for the temper of the time, there seemed to be something wrong."

Now based in Tokyo, Yates tracked down the two men whose testimony had effectively sent Iva to jail. He met with Kenkichi Oki and George Mitsushio in a Tokyo bar in early 1976. After chatting generally, Yates decided to probe the "Tokyo Rose" affair, asking them, "What’s the real story behind Iva Toguri?" He recorded their response and the subsequent conversation that followed in his follow-up article "Tokyo Rose: The Legend, The Woman": <ref>http://yates.ds.uiuc.edu/new/articles_books/tokyorose-2006_07_09.pdf</ref>
{{cquote|
“What do you mean?” Oki asked, in response to my question. 
“I mean, the evidence against her seems too flimsy, too contrived,” I said. 
Oki and Mitsushio looked at one another and for an instant a mutual, unspoken covenant was established between them. They would finally tell the truth. 
Oki cleared his throat. “She didn’t do anything wrong,” he said. He looked at Mitsushio, who nodded. “That’s right, Iva is innocent,” Mitsushio said. 
Shocked by what I was hearing, I said, “I’m not sure I understand. It was your testimony that convicted her, wasn’t it?” 
“That’s right,” Oki said. “But we didn’t exactly tell the truth.” 
“You mean you lied... perjured yourselves?” I responded. 
Following a long silence, Mitsushio finally spoke, “We had to do it,” he said. “We were told by the occupation police and the FBI that if we didn’t cooperate, Uncle Sam might arrange a
trial, or worse, for us too.”|}}
Oki then burst into tears and said, "She never said those words. I can say that now. Iva never said anything like that. She never did anything wrong, she never uttered a treasonous word, not once. She wouldn’t even work on Sundays or American holidays."

Armed with this new information, "60 Minutes" went on to broadcast a segment highlighting the plight of Iva Toguri D'Aquino, and the movement to have Iva pardoned became public knowledge. A third application was successful and President Ford, as one of his last acts in office, signed the Presidential Pardon on 19 January 1977. At the same time, her U.S. citizenship was restored to her.

Iva reluctantly divorced Felipe d’Aquino in 1980, having never seen each other since she was shipped back to the U.S. in 1948. Iva refused to leave the U.S. again, fearing that if she did, she would not be allowed back in. Felipe, meanwhile, was forbidden entry as he had been declared "an undesirable alien". Her family said she had never stopped loving him, and his death in November 1996 devastated her.

Iva Ikuko Toguri D'Aquino passed away in Chicago on 26 September, 2006.

It was Ron Yates, the man who helped Iva clear her name, who probably offered the best summation of Iva's life: "Her entire life was destroyed by a miscarriage of justice, and you couldn't be more American than she was."<ref>http://archive.japantoday.com/jp/quote/1860/all</ref>

==Also see==

* [[Lord Haw-Haw]]

==Bibliography==

* Masayo Umezawa; ''Tokio Roze, Koji no Taiheiyou'' (トキオロゼ、孤児の太平洋); Kodansha Japan
* Peter Duus; Tokyo Rose - Orphan of the Pacific; Kodansha International/USA; 1979 (a translation of his wife's original work above)
* Russell Warren Howe; The Hunt For Tokyo Rose; Madison Books; 1990; ISBN 0-8191-7456-4
* Stephan G. Christianson; The Tokyo Rose Trial: 1949; included in Great American Trials (ed. Edward W. Knappman; Gale Research; 1994
* Yates, Ronald E; The Legend of Tokyo Rose; The News Gazette; 9 July 2006 (available at http://yates.ds.uiuc.edu/new/articles_books/tokyorose-2006_07_09.pdf)

==External Links==

* [http://www.washingtontimes.com/culture/20060529%2D115535%2D6055r.htm Veterans Embrace "Tokyo Rose"]
* [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/famcases/rose/rose.htm FBI Famous Cases - Tokyo Rose]
* [http://www.kensmen.com/tokyorosea.html H. K. Anderson, 64th SQ, provides a perspective on Iva Ikuko Toguri d'Aquino]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20020207051158/foia.fbi.gov/rose.htm The FBI's official records of its 1948 Espionage investigation of the “Tokyo Rose” case, released under the FOI Act]
* [http://www.earthstation1.com/Tokyo_Rose.html Recordings of some of Orphan Ann's broadcasts, as well as a full "Zero Hour" episode]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

[[category:World War II]][[category:Japan]]

Mennonite

2008-12-05T14:28:38Z

FrankL:

{{stub}}A '''Mennonite''' is an adherent to an [[Anabaptist]] movement begun in the 1500's by [[Menno Simons]]. They practice adult [[baptism]], [[pacifism]], simple living and have an emphasis on community. Mennonites reject the notion of [[sola scriptura]], believing instead that the Bible was inspired when it was written and therefore must be inspired when it is read.

Mennonites can be found in all parts of the globe, although they are chiefly to be found in [[North America]] (including Latin America), South America (Argentina) and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].

Some Old Order Mennonites have a simply way of living, wear traditional clothes and avoid modern technology. Other Mennonites use the same types of technology and wear the same types of clothes as other modern people. Some Mennonites shun the [[Amish]].

==Disaster relief==

Mennonites are strongly involved with disaster relief, particularly through the [[Mennonite Central Committee]] and [[Mennonite Disaster Services]].

[[Category:Christianity]]

Neologism

2008-12-05T13:46:45Z

FrankL:

A '''neologism''' is a newly-formed word or term. Neologisms are frequently coined to describe new articles or processes in expanding areas such as information technology:-
*The word ''[[internet]]'' is itself a neologism, being the combination of the words interconnected and network.
*[[Blog]] is a combination of Web and Log.

[[category:linguistics]]
[[Category:Dictionary]]

Neologism

2008-12-05T13:40:46Z

FrankL:

A '''neologism''' is a newly-formed word or term. Neologisms are frequently coined to describe new articles or processes in expanding areas such as information technology:-
*The word ''[[internet]]'' is itself a neologism, being the combination of the words interconnected and network.
*Blog is a combination of Web and Log.

[[category:linguistics]]
[[Category:Dictionary]]

Neologism

2008-12-05T13:40:17Z

FrankL:

A '''neologism''' is a newly-formed word or term. Neologisms are frequently coined to describe new articles or processes in expanding areas such as information technology:-
*The word ''[[internet]]'' is itself a neologism, being the combination of the words interconnected and network.
Blog is a combination of Web and Log.

[[category:linguistics]]
[[Category:Dictionary]]

Geology Terms Q

2008-11-28T12:58:47Z

FrankL:

{{Geology Index}}

[[Quartz]]

[[Quartz Arenite]]

[[Quartzite]]

[[Quartzose Sandstone]]

[[Category:Geology Terms]]

Quartzite

2008-11-28T12:57:27Z

FrankL: New page: '''Quartzite''' is different from the rock quartz. Quartzite is a metamorphic rock that forms when sandstone is heated under pressure deep within the Earth. When quartzite is pur...

'''Quartzite''' is different from the rock quartz. Quartzite is a [[metamorphic rock]] that forms when sandstone is heated under pressure deep within the [[Earth]]. When quartzite is pure is most often white or greyish. Ironoxide can be reddish or pinkish is Iron oxide is present. Different mineral impurities can give quartzite different colours. [[Fossil]]s are rare in quartzite. Quartzite resists chemical weathering and therefore forms ridges and hilltops when less resistant rocks round it have eroded away. Quartzite does not form good soils therefore quartzite ridges are likely to be bare or to have poor soil and sparse vegetation.

Quartz Arenite

2008-11-17T15:09:27Z

FrankL: New page: '''Quartz Arenite''' is a type of sandstone with a very high percentage of Quarz. Quarz resists erosion and Quartz Arenite is frequently a rock where materials other than quarz ha...

'''Quartz Arenite''' is a type of [[sandstone]] with a very high percentage of [[Quarz]]. Quarz resists erosion and Quartz Arenite is frequently a rock where materials other than quarz have eroded away. The quarz collects in sedidments and later turns to rock.

X-ray diffraction

2008-11-17T15:00:14Z

FrankL: New page: '''X-ray diffraction''' is the term for a range of techniques that analyse materials by firing X-ray beams at the sample. How the sample alters the X-ray enables scientists to find o...

'''X-ray diffraction''' is the term for a range of techniques that analyse materials by firing [[X-ray]] beams at the sample. How the sample alters the X-ray enables scientists to find out the properties of the material.

Xenolith

2008-11-17T14:54:02Z

FrankL: New page: A '''Xenolith''' is a smaller piece of rock that is encorporated into a larger rock. Xenoliths form when magma flows round a piece of rock and hardens. Xenoliths are clearly differ...

A '''Xenolith''' is a smaller piece of rock that is encorporated into a larger rock. Xenoliths form when [[magma]] flows round a piece of rock and hardens. Xenoliths are clearly different from the rock that surounds them.

User:FrankL

2008-11-17T14:21:43Z

FrankL: New page: I hope I'll like it here.

I hope I'll like it here.