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Evolution and creation

2019-10-24T22:05:31Z

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{{About|evolution in biology|related articles|Outline of evolution|other uses}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{short description|change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations}}
{{See introduction}}
{{Evolutionary biology}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}

'''Evolution''' is change in the [[Heredity|heritable]] [[Phenotypic trait|characteristics]] of biological [[population]]s over successive [[generation]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Hall|Hallgrímsson|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jrDD3cyA09kC&pg=PA4 4–6]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Evolution Resources |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]] |year=2016 |url=http://www.nas.edu/evolution/index.html |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603230514/http://www.nas.edu/evolution/index.html |archivedate=2016-06-03}}</ref> These characteristics are the expressions of [[gene]]s that are passed on from parent to offspring during [[reproduction]]. Different characteristics tend to exist within any given population as a result of [[mutation]], [[genetic recombination]] and other sources of [[Genetic variability|genetic variation]].<ref name="Futuyma2017c">{{harvnb|Futuyma|Kirkpatrick|2017|pp=79–102|loc=Chapter 4: Mutation and Variation}}</ref> Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as [[natural selection]] (including [[sexual selection]]) and [[genetic drift]] act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population.<ref name="Scott-Phillips">{{cite journal |last1=Scott-Phillips |first1=Thomas C. |last2=Laland |first2=Kevin N. |last3=Shuker |first3=David M. |last4=Dickins |first4=Thomas E. |last5=West |first5=Stuart A. |author-link5=Stuart West |date=May 2014 |title=The Niche Construction Perspective: A Critical Appraisal |journal=[[Evolution (journal)|Evolution]] |volume=68 |issue=5 |pages=1231–1243 |doi=10.1111/evo.12332 |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=24325256 |pmc=4261998 |url-status=live |quote=Evolutionary processes are generally thought of as processes by which these changes occur. Four such processes are widely recognized: natural selection (in the broad sense, to include sexual selection), genetic drift, mutation, and migration (Fisher 1930; Haldane 1932). The latter two generate variation; the first two sort it.}}</ref> It is this process of evolution that has given rise to [[biodiversity]] at every level of [[biological organisation]], including the levels of [[species]], individual [[organism]]s and [[molecular evolution|molecules]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hall|Hallgrímsson|2008|pp=3–5}}</ref><ref name="Voet2016a">{{harvnb|Voet|Voet|Pratt|2016|pp=1–22|loc=Chapter 1: Introduction to the Chemistry of Life}}</ref>

The [[scientific theory]] of evolution by natural selection was proposed independently by [[Charles Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' (1859).<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859}}</ref> Evolution by natural selection was first demonstrated by the observation that more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive. This is followed by three observable [[fact]]s about living organisms: 1.) traits vary among individuals with respect to their morphology, [[physiology]] and behaviour ([[Phenotype#Phenotypic variation|phenotypic variation]]), 2.) different traits confer different rates of survival and [[reproduction]] (differential [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]]) and 3.) traits can be passed from generation to generation ([[heritability]] of fitness).<ref name="Lewontin70">{{cite journal |last=Lewontin |first=Richard C. |authorlink=Richard Lewontin |date=November 1970 |title=The Units of Selection |url=http://joelvelasco.net/teaching/167/lewontin%2070%20-%20the%20units%20of%20selection.pdf |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics]] |volume=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245 |jstor=2096764 |issn=1545-2069 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206172942/http://joelvelasco.net/teaching/167/lewontin%2070%20-%20the%20units%20of%20selection.pdf |archivedate=2015-02-06}}</ref> Thus, in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the [[offspring|progenies]] of parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their respective [[biophysical environment|environments]]. In the early 20th century, other [[Alternatives to evolution by natural selection|competing ideas of evolution]] such as [[mutationism]] and [[orthogenesis]] were [[Superseded scientific theories|refuted]] as the [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|modern synthesis]] reconciled [[Darwinism|Darwinian evolution]] with [[classical genetics]], which established [[Adaptation|adaptive evolution]] as being caused by natural selection acting on [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendelian]] genetic variation.<ref name="Futuyma2017a">{{harvnb|Futuyma|Kirkpatrick|2017|pp=3–26|loc=Chapter 1: Evolutionary Biology}}</ref>

All [[life]] on Earth shares a [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA)<ref name="Kampourakis2014">{{harvnb|Kampourakis|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RKroAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127–129]}}</ref><ref name="Doolittle_2000">{{cite journal |last=Doolittle |first=W. Ford |authorlink=Ford Doolittle |date=February 2000 |title=Uprooting the Tree of Life |url=http://shiva.msu.montana.edu/courses/mb437_537_2004_fall/docs/uprooting.pdf |journal=[[Scientific American]] |issn=0036-8733 |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=90–95 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90 |pmid=10710791 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907081933/http://shiva.msu.montana.edu/courses/mb437_537_2004_fall/docs/uprooting.pdf |archivedate=2006-09-07 |accessdate=2015-04-05|bibcode=2000SciAm.282b..90D}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glansdorff |first1=Nicolas |author2=Ying Xu |last3=Labedan |first3=Bernard |date=July 9, 2008 |title=The Last Universal Common Ancestor: emergence, constitution and genetic legacy of an elusive forerunner |journal=[[Biology Direct]] |volume=3 |page=29 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-3-29 |issn=1745-6150 |pmc=2478661 |pmid=18613974}}</ref> that lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago.<ref name="Origin1" /> The [[fossil|fossil record]] includes a progression from early [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]],<ref name="NG-20131208" /> to [[microbial mat]] fossils,<ref name="AP-20131113" /><ref name="TG-20131113-JP" /><ref name="AST-20131108" /> to fossilised [[multicellular organism]]s. Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by repeated formations of new species ([[speciation]]), changes within species ([[anagenesis]]) and loss of species ([[extinction]]) throughout the [[evolutionary history of life]] on Earth.<ref name="Futuyma04">{{harvnb|Futuyma|2004|p=33}}</ref> [[morphology (biology)|Morphological]] and [[biochemistry|biochemical]] traits are more similar among species that share a more [[Most recent common ancestor|recent common ancestor]], and can be used to reconstruct [[phylogenetic tree]]s.<ref name="The Cell by Panno">{{harvnb|Panno|2005|pp=xv-16}}</ref><ref>[[#NAS 2008|NAS 2008]], [http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11876&page=17 p. 17] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630042457/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11876&page=17 |date=2015-06-30}}</ref>

[[Evolutionary biology|Evolutionary biologists]] have continued to study various aspects of evolution by forming and testing [[Hypothesis|hypotheses]] as well as constructing theories based on [[empirical evidence|evidence]] from the field or laboratory and on data generated by the methods of [[mathematical and theoretical biology]]. Their discoveries have influenced not just the development of [[biology]] but numerous other scientific and industrial fields, including [[agriculture]], [[medicine]] and [[computer science]].<ref name="Futuyma99">{{cite web |url=http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~ecolevol/fulldoc.pdf |title=Evolution, Science, and Society: Evolutionary Biology and the National Research Agenda |year=1999 |editor-last=Futuyma |editor-first=Douglas J. |editor-link=Douglas J. Futuyma |publisher=Office of University Publications, [[Rutgers University|Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey]] |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |type=Executive summary |oclc=43422991 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131174727/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~ecolevol/fulldoc.pdf |archivedate=2012-01-31 |accessdate=2014-11-24}}</ref>

== History of evolutionary thought ==
[[File:Lucretius Rome.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lucretius]]]]
[[File:Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alfred Russel Wallace]]]]
[[File:Thomas Robert Malthus Wellcome L0069037 -crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Robert Malthus]]]]

[[File:Charles Darwin aged 51.jpg|thumb|upright|In 1842, [[Charles Darwin]] penned his first sketch of ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1909|p=53}}</ref>]]
{{Main|History of evolutionary thought}}
{{further|History of speciation}}

=== Classical times ===
The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first [[pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] Greek [[philosopher]]s, such as [[Anaximander#Origin of humankind|Anaximander]] and [[Empedocles#Cosmogony|Empedocles]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kirk|Raven|Schofield|1983|pp=100–142, 280–321}}</ref> Such proposals survived into Roman times. The [[poet]] and philosopher [[Lucretius]] followed Empedocles in his masterwork ''[[De rerum natura]]'' (''On the Nature of Things'').<ref>{{harvnb|Lucretius}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sedley |first=David |authorlink=David Sedley |year=2003 |title=Lucretius and the New Empedocles |url=http://lics.leeds.ac.uk/2003/200304.pdf |journal=Leeds International Classical Studies |volume=2 |issue=4 |issn=1477-3643 |accessdate=2014-11-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823062637/http://lics.leeds.ac.uk/2003/200304.pdf |archivedate=2014-08-23}}</ref>

=== Medieval ===
In contrast to these [[Materialism|materialistic]] views, [[Aristotelianism]] considered all natural things as [[potentiality and actuality|actualisations]] of fixed natural possibilities, known as [[Theory of forms|forms]].<ref name="Torrey37">{{cite journal |last1=Torrey |first1=Harry Beal |last2=Felin |first2=Frances |date=March 1937 |title=Was Aristotle an Evolutionist? |journal=[[The Quarterly Review of Biology]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1086/394520 |issn=0033-5770 |jstor=2808399}}</ref><ref name="Hull67">{{cite journal |last=Hull |first=David L. |authorlink=David Hull |date=December 1967 |title=The Metaphysics of Evolution |journal=[[The British Journal for the History of Science]] |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] on behalf of [[British Society for the History of Science|The British Society for the History of Science]] |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=309–337 |doi=10.1017/S0007087400002892 |jstor=4024958}}</ref> This was part of a medieval [[teleology|teleological]] understanding of [[Nature (philosophy)|nature]] in which all things have an intended role to play in a [[divinity|divine]] [[cosmos|cosmic]] order. Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the [[Middle Ages]] and were integrated into [[Christianity|Christian]] learning, but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one-for-one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be.<ref>{{harvnb|Mason|1962|pp=43–44}}</ref>

=== Pre-Darwinian ===
In the 17th century, the new [[scientific method|method]] of [[History of science#Modern science|modern science]] rejected the Aristotelian approach. It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of [[physical law]]s that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order. However, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. [[John Ray]] applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types, "species", to plant and animal types, but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayr|1982|pp=256–257}}
* {{harvnb|Ray|1686}}</ref> The biological classification introduced by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html |title=Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) |last=Waggoner |first=Ben |date=July 7, 2000 |website=Evolution |publisher=[[University of California Museum of Paleontology]] |location=Berkeley, California |type=Online exhibit |accessdate=2012-02-11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430160025/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html |archivedate=2011-04-30}}</ref>

Other [[Natural history|naturalists]] of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws. In 1751, [[Pierre Louis Maupertuis]] wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=73–75}}</ref> [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon]] suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms, and [[Erasmus Darwin]] proposed that all warm-blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism (or "filament").<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/Edarwin.html |title=Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) |date=October 4, 1995 |website=Evolution |publisher=University of California Museum of Paleontology |location=Berkeley, California |type=Online exhibit |accessdate=2012-02-11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119004316/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/Edarwin.html |archivedate=2012-01-19}}</ref> The first full-fledged evolutionary scheme was [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]'s "transmutation" theory of 1809,<ref>{{harvnb|Lamarck|1809}}</ref> which envisaged [[spontaneous generation]] continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency, and postulated that on a local level, these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents.<ref name="Nardon_Grenier91">{{harvnb|Nardon|Grenier|1991|p=162}}</ref><ref name="Gould02">{{harvnb|Gould|2002}}{{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> (The latter process was later called [[Lamarckism]].)<ref name="Nardon_Grenier91" /><ref name="ImaginaryLamarck">{{cite journal |last=Ghiselin |first=Michael T. |authorlink=Michael Ghiselin |date=September–October 1994 |title=The Imaginary Lamarck: A Look at Bogus 'History' in Schoolbooks |url=http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.htm |journal=The Textbook Letter |oclc=23228649 |accessdate=2008-01-23 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212174536/http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.htm |archivedate=2008-02-12}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Magner|2002}}{{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref><ref name="Jablonka07">{{cite journal |last1=Jablonka |first1=Eva |authorlink1=Eva Jablonka |last2=Lamb |first2=Marion J. |authorlink2=Marion J. Lamb |date=August 2007 |title=Précis of Evolution in Four Dimensions |journal=[[Behavioral and Brain Sciences]] |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=353–365 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X07002221 |pmid=18081952 |issn=0140-525X}}</ref> These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support. In particular, [[Georges Cuvier]] insisted that species were unrelated and fixed, their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs. In the meantime, Ray's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by [[William Paley]] into the ''[[Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity]]'' (1802), which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin.<ref name="Darwin91">{{harvnb|Burkhardt|Smith|1991}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/entry-2532 |title=Darwin, C. R. to Lubbock, John |website=[[Correspondence of Charles Darwin#Darwin Correspondence Project website|Darwin Correspondence Project]] |publisher=[[University of Cambridge]] |location=Cambridge |accessdate=2014-12-01 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215213940/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/entry-2532 |archivedate=2014-12-15}} Letter 2532, November 22, 1859.</ref><ref name="Sulloway09">{{cite journal |last=Sulloway |first=Frank J. |authorlink=Frank Sulloway |date=June 2009 |title=Why Darwin rejected intelligent design |journal=[[Journal of Biosciences]] |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=173–183 |doi=10.1007/s12038-009-0020-8 |issn=0250-5991 |pmid=19550032}}</ref><ref name="Dawkins90">{{harvnb|Dawkins|1990}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref>

=== Darwinian revolution ===
The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by [[Charles Darwin]] in terms of variable populations. Darwin used the expression "'''descent with modification'''" rather than "evolution".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/search-results?pagesize=50&sort=date-ascending&pageno=0&freetext=descent+with+modification&allfields=&searchid=&name=Darwin+Charles+Robert&dateafter=&datebefore=&searchtitle=&description=&place=&publisher=&periodical= |title=Search results for "descent with modification" - The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online}}</ref> Partly influenced by ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'' (1798) by [[Thomas Robert Malthus]], Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished. In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism.<ref name="Sober09">{{cite journal |last=Sober |first=Elliott |authorlink=Elliott Sober |date=June 16, 2009 |title=Did Darwin write the ''Origin'' backwards? |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.]] |volume=106 |issue=Suppl. 1 |pages=10048–10055 |bibcode=2009PNAS..10610048S |doi=10.1073/pnas.0901109106 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=19528655 |pmc=2702806}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Mayr|2002|p=165}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=145–146}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sokal |first1=Robert R. |authorlink1=Robert R. Sokal |last2=Crovello |first2=Theodore J. |date=March–April 1970 |title=The Biological Species Concept: A Critical Evaluation |journal=[[The American Naturalist]] |volume=104 |issue=936 |pages=127–153 |doi=10.1086/282646 |issn=0003-0147 |jstor=2459191}}</ref> Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject when [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858. Their [[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|separate papers]] were presented together at an 1858 meeting of the [[Linnean Society of London]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Darwin |first1=Charles |authorlink1=Charles Darwin |last2=Wallace |first2=Alfred |authorlink2=Alfred Russel Wallace |date=August 20, 1858 |title=On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F350&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |journal=[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology]] |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=45–62 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x |issn=1096-3642 |accessdate=2007-05-13 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714042318/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F350&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |archivedate=2007-07-14}}</ref> At the end of 1859, Darwin's publication of his "abstract" as ''On the Origin of Species'' explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of [[Darwinism|Darwin's concepts of evolution]] at the expense of [[Alternatives to evolution by natural selection|alternative theories]]. [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] applied Darwin's ideas to humans, using [[paleontology]] and [[comparative anatomy]] to provide strong evidence that humans and [[ape]]s shared a common ancestry. Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the [[universe]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Desmond |first=Adrian J. |authorlink=Adrian Desmond |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277746/Thomas-Henry-Huxley |title=Thomas Henry Huxley |accessdate=2014-12-02 |date=July 17, 2014 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |location=Chicago, Illinois |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150119231241/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277746/Thomas-Henry-Huxley |archivedate=January 19, 2015}}</ref>

=== Pangenesis and heredity ===
The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of [[pangenesis]].<ref name="Liu09">{{cite journal |author1=Y. -S. Liu |author2=X. M. Zhou |author3=M. X. Zhi |author4=X. J. Li |author5=Q. L. Wang |date=September 2009 |title=Darwin's contributions to genetics |journal=Journal of Applied Genetics |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=177–184 |doi=10.1007/BF03195671 |issn=1234-1983 |pmid=19638672}}</ref> In 1865, [[Gregor Mendel]] reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the [[Mendelian inheritance#Law of Independent Assortment (the "Second Law")|independent assortment]] and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory.<ref name="Weiling">{{cite journal |last=Weiling |first=Franz |date=July 1991 |title=Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884 |journal=[[American Journal of Medical Genetics]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–25; discussion 26 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320400103 |pmid=1887835}}</ref> [[August Weismann]] made the important distinction between [[germ cell]]s that give rise to [[gamete]]s (such as [[sperm]] and [[egg cell]]s) and the [[somatic cell]]s of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only. [[Hugo de Vries]] connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the [[cell nucleus]] and when expressed they could move into the [[cytoplasm]] to change the [[Cell (biology)|cell]]'s structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline.<ref name="Wright84">{{harvnb|Wright|1984|p=480}}</ref> To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed [[Mutationism|a mutation theory]] that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.<ref name="Gould02" /><ref>{{harvnb|Provine|1971}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stamhuis |first1=Ida H. |last2=Meijer |first2=Onno G. |last3=Zevenhuizen |first3=Erik J. A. |date=June 1999 |title=Hugo de Vries on Heredity, 1889-1903: Statistics, Mendelian Laws, Pangenes, Mutations |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=238–267 |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |doi=10.1086/384323 |jstor=237050 |pmid=10439561}}</ref> In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of population genetics, such as [[Ronald Fisher]], [[Sewall Wright]] and [[J. B. S. Haldane]] set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and [[Mendelian inheritance]] was thus reconciled.<ref>{{harvnb|Quammen|2006}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref>

=== The 'modern synthesis' ===
{{main|Modern synthesis (20th century)}}
In the 1920s and 1930s the so-called [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|modern synthesis]] connected natural selection and population genetics, based on Mendelian inheritance, into a unified theory that applied generally to any branch of biology. The modern synthesis explained patterns observed across species in populations, through [[Transitional fossil|fossil transitions]] in palaeontology, and complex cellular mechanisms in [[developmental biology]].<ref name="Gould02" /><ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|1989}}{{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> The publication of the structure of [[DNA]] by [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] with contribution of [[Rosalind Franklin]] in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.<ref name="Watson53">{{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=J. D. |authorlink1=James Watson |last2=Crick |first2=F. H. C. |authorlink2=Francis Crick |date=April 25, 1953 |title=Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid |url=http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/B/Y/W/_/scbbyw.pdf |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=171 |issue=4356 |pages=737–738 |bibcode=1953Natur.171..737W |doi=10.1038/171737a0 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=13054692 |accessdate=2014-12-04 |quote=It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material. |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823063212/http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/B/Y/W/_/scbbyw.pdf |archivedate=2014-08-23}}</ref> [[Molecular biology]] improved understanding of the relationship between [[genotype]] and [[phenotype]]. Advancements were also made in phylogenetic [[systematics]], mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of [[Phylogenetic tree|evolutionary trees]].<ref name="Hennig99">{{harvnb|Hennig|1999|p=280}}</ref><ref name="Wiley11">{{harvnb|Wiley|Lieberman|2011}}{{page needed|date=December 2013}}</ref> In 1973, evolutionary biologist [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]] penned that "[[Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution|nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution]]," because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent [[Explanation|explanatory]] body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.<ref name="Dobzhansky73">{{cite journal|last=Dobzhansky|first=Theodosius|authorlink=Theodosius Dobzhansky|date=March 1973|title=Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution|url=http://www.phil.vt.edu/Burian/NothingInBiolChFina.pdf|journal=The American Biology Teacher|volume=35|issue=3|pages=125–129|doi=10.2307/4444260|via=|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023161423/http://www.phil.vt.edu/Burian/NothingInBiolChFina.pdf|archivedate=2015-10-23|df=|jstor=4444260|citeseerx=10.1.1.324.2891}}</ref>

=== Further syntheses ===
Since then, the modern synthesis has been further extended to explain biological phenomena across the full and integrative scale of the [[Biological organisation|biological hierarchy]], from genes to species. One extension, known as [[evolutionary developmental biology]] and informally called "evo-devo," emphasises how changes between generations (evolution) acts on patterns of change within individual organisms ([[Developmental biology|development]]).<ref name="Kutschera">{{cite journal |last1=Kutschera |first1=Ulrich |authorlink1=Ulrich Kutschera |last2=Niklas |first2=Karl J. |authorlink2=Karl J. Niklas |date=June 2004 |title=The modern theory of biological evolution: an expanded synthesis |journal=[[Naturwissenschaften]] |volume=91 |issue=6 |pages=255–276 |bibcode=2004NW.....91..255K |doi=10.1007/s00114-004-0515-y |issn=1432-1904 |pmid=15241603}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cracraft|Bybee|2005}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Avise10">{{cite journal |last1=Avise |first1=John C. |authorlink1=John Avise |last2=Ayala |first2=Francisco J. |authorlink2=Francisco J. Ayala |date=May 11, 2010 |title=In the light of evolution IV: The human condition |url=http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/johncavise/files/2011/03/311-intro-to-ILE-IV.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=107 |issue=Suppl. 2 |pages=8897–8901 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1003214107 |pmid=20460311 |pmc=3024015 |issn=0027-8424 |accessdate=2014-12-29 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823063532/http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/johncavise/files/2011/03/311-intro-to-ILE-IV.pdf |archivedate=2014-08-23}}</ref> Since the beginning of the 21st century and in light of discoveries made in recent decades, some biologists have argued for an [[extended evolutionary synthesis]], which would account for the effects of non-genetic inheritance modes, such as [[epigenetics]], [[Maternal effect|parental effects]], ecological inheritance and [[Dual inheritance theory|cultural inheritance]], and [[evolvability]].<ref name="beyonddna">{{cite journal |last1=Danchin |first1=Étienne |last2=Charmantier |first2=Anne |last3=Champagne |first3=Frances A. |author-link3=Frances Champagne |last4=Mesoudi |first4=Alex |last5=Pujol |first5=Benoit |last6=Blanchet |first6=Simon |date=June 2011 |title=Beyond DNA: integrating inclusive inheritance into an extended theory of evolution |journal=[[Nature Reviews Genetics]] |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=475–486 |doi=10.1038/nrg3028 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=21681209}}</ref><ref name="eesbook">{{harvnb|Pigliucci|Müller|2010}}</ref>

== Heredity ==
{{Further|Introduction to genetics|Genetics|Heredity|Reaction norm}}
[[File:ADN static.png|thumb|upright|[[DNA]] structure. [[nucleobase|Bases]] are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a [[Nucleic acid double helix|double helix]].]]
Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable traits—the inherited characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example, [[Eye color|eye colour]] is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of their parents.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sturm |first1=Richard A. |last2=Frudakis |first2=Tony N. |date=August 2004 |title=Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Genetics]] |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=327–332 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2004.06.010 |issn=0168-9525 |pmid=15262401}}</ref> Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's [[genome]] (genetic material) is called its genotype.<ref name="Pearson_2006">{{cite journal |last=Pearson |first=Helen |date=May 25, 2006 |title=Genetics: What is a gene? |journal=Nature |volume=441 |issue=7092 |pages=398–401 |bibcode=2006Natur.441..398P |doi=10.1038/441398a |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=16724031}}</ref>

The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype. These traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Visscher |first1=Peter M. |last2=Hill |first2=William G. |authorlink2=William G. Hill |last3=Wray |first3=Naomi R.|authorlink3=Naomi Wray |date=April 2008 |title=Heritability in the genomics era — concepts and misconceptions |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=255–266 |doi=10.1038/nrg2322 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=18319743}}</ref> As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example, [[sun tanning|suntanned]] skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in genotypic variation; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of [[albinism]], who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to [[sunburn]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oetting |first1=William S. |last2=Brilliant |first2=Murray H. |last3=King |first3=Richard A. |date=August 1996 |title=The clinical spectrum of albinism in humans |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Molecular Medicine Today]] |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=330–335 |doi=10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9 |issn=1357-4310 |pmid=8796918}}</ref>

Heritable traits are passed from one generation to the next via DNA, a [[molecule]] that encodes genetic information.<ref name="Pearson_2006" /> DNA is a long [[biopolymer]] composed of four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specify the genetic information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence. Before a cell divides, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called [[chromosome]]s. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a [[locus (genetics)|locus]]. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism.<ref name="Futuyma_2005">{{harvnb|Futuyma|2005}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by [[quantitative trait locus|quantitative trait loci]] (multiple interacting genes).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Patrick C. |date=November 2008 |title=Epistasis—the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=855–867 |doi=10.1038/nrg2452 |issn=1471-0056 |pmc=2689140 |pmid=18852697}}</ref><ref name="Lin">{{cite journal |author1=Rongling Wu |author2=Min Lin |date=March 2006 |title=Functional mapping — how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=229–237 |doi=10.1038/nrg1804 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=16485021}}</ref>

Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that cannot be explained by changes to the sequence of [[nucleotide]]s in the DNA. These phenomena are classed as [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] inheritance systems.<ref name="Jablonka09">{{cite journal |last1=Jablonka |first1=Eva |last2=Raz |first2=Gal |date=June 2009 |title=Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance: Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Implications for the Study of Heredity and Evolution |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=131–176 |doi=10.1086/598822 |issn=0033-5770 |pmid=19606595|url=http://compgen.unc.edu/wiki/images/d/df/JablonkaQtrRevBio2009.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.617.6333}}</ref> [[DNA methylation]] marking [[chromatin]], self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by [[RNA interference]] and the three-dimensional [[Protein structure|conformation]] of [[protein]]s (such as [[prion]]s) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.<ref name="Bossdorf10">{{cite journal |last1=Bossdorf |first1=Oliver |last2=Arcuri |first2=Davide |last3=Richards |first3=Christina L. |last4=Pigliucci |first4=Massimo |authorlink4=Massimo Pigliucci |date=May 2010 |title=Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' |journal=Evolutionary Ecology |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=541–553 |doi=10.1007/s10682-010-9372-7 |issn=0269-7653|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/318722/files/10682_2010_Article_9372.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jablonka|Lamb|2005}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in [[gene regulatory network|genetic networks]] and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in [[developmental plasticity]] and [[Canalisation (genetics)|canalisation]].<ref name="Jablonka02">{{cite journal |last1=Jablonka |first1=Eva |last2=Lamb |first2=Marion J. |date=December 2002 |title=The Changing Concept of Epigenetics |journal=[[Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences]] |volume=981 |issue=1 |pages=82–96 |bibcode=2002NYASA.981...82J |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04913.x |issn=0077-8923 |pmid=12547675}}</ref> Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of [[niche construction]] is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors.<ref name="Laland06">{{cite journal |last1=Laland |first1=Kevin N. |last2=Sterelny |first2=Kim |authorlink2=Kim Sterelny |date=September 2006 |title=Perspective: Seven Reasons (Not) to Neglect Niche Construction |journal=[[Evolution (journal)|Evolution]] |volume=60 |issue=9 |pages=1751–1762 |doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x |issn=0014-3820}}</ref> Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of [[Dual inheritance theory|cultural traits]] and [[symbiogenesis]].<ref name="Chapman98">{{cite journal|last1=Chapman |first1=Michael J. |last2=Margulis |first2=Lynn |authorlink2=Lynn Margulis |date=December 1998 |title=Morphogenesis by symbiogenesis |url=http://www.im.microbios.org/04december98/14%20Chapman.pdf |journal=[[International Microbiology]] |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=319–326 |issn=1139-6709 |pmid=10943381 |accessdate=2014-12-09 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823062546/http://www.im.microbios.org/04december98/14%20Chapman.pdf |archivedate=2014-08-23}}</ref><ref name="Wilson07">{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=David Sloan |authorlink1=David Sloan Wilson |last2=Wilson |first2=Edward O. |authorlink2=E. O. Wilson |date=December 2007 |title=Rethinking the Theoretical Foundation of Sociobiology |url=http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Rethinking-sociobiology.pdf |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=327–348 |doi=10.1086/522809 |issn=0033-5770 |pmid=18217526 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511235639/http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Rethinking-sociobiology.pdf |archivedate=2011-05-11}}</ref>

== Variation ==
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Biston.betularia.7200.jpg |image2=Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg|width=200|caption1=White [[peppered moth]] |caption2=Black morph in [[peppered moth evolution]]}}
{{main|Genetic variation}}
{{Further|Genetic diversity|Population genetics}}
An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence from the environment it has lived in. A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation.<ref name="Lin" /> The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of [[fixation (population genetics)|fixation]]—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.<ref name="Amos">{{cite journal |last1=Amos |first1=William |last2=Harwood |first2=John |date=February 28, 1998 |title=Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] |volume=353 |issue=1366 |pages=177–186 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1998.0200 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=1692205 |pmid=9533122}}</ref>

Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough [[genetic variation]] in a population. Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was [[blending inheritance]]. But with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural selection implausible. The [[Hardy–Weinberg principle]] provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. The frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift.<ref name="Ewens W.J. 2004">{{harvnb|Ewens|2004}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref>

Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through [[sexual reproduction]] and migration between populations ([[gene flow]]). Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Butlin |first1=Roger K. |last2=Tregenza |first2=Tom |date=February 28, 1998 |title=Levels of genetic polymorphism: marker loci versus quantitative traits |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=353 |issue=1366 |pages=187–198 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1998.0201 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=1692210 |pmid=9533123}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Butlin |first1=Roger K. |last2=Tregenza |first2=Tom |date=December 29, 2000 |title=Correction for Butlin and Tregenza, Levels of genetic polymorphism: marker loci versus quantitative traits |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=355 |issue=1404 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.2000 |issn=0962-8436 |quote=Some of the values in table 1 on p. 193 were given incorrectly. The errors do not affect the conclusions drawn in the paper. The corrected table is reproduced below. |pages=1865}}</ref> However, even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype: for example, chimpanzees and humans differ in only about 5% of their genomes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wetterbom |first1=Anna |last2=Sevov |first2=Marie |last3=Cavelier |first3=Lucia |last4=Bergström |first4=Tomas F. |date=November 2006 |title=Comparative Genomic Analysis of Human and Chimpanzee Indicates a Key Role for Indels in Primate Evolution |journal=[[Journal of Molecular Evolution]] |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=682–690 |doi=10.1007/s00239-006-0045-7 |issn=0022-2844 |pmid=17075697|bibcode=2006JMolE..63..682W}}</ref>

=== Mutation ===
{{Main|Mutation}}
[[File:Gene-duplication.svg|thumb|upright|Duplication of part of a [[chromosome]]]]
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome. When mutations occur, they may alter the [[gene product|product of a gene]], or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect. Based on studies in the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', it has been suggested that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70% of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sawyer |first1=Stanley A. |last2=Parsch |first2=John |author3=Zhang Zhi |last4=Hartl |first4=Daniel L. |date=April 17, 2007 |title=Prevalence of positive selection among nearly neutral amino acid replacements in ''Drosophila'' |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=16 |pages=6504–6510 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.6504S |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701572104 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1871816 |pmid=17409186}}</ref>

Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming [[gene duplication|duplicated]] (usually by [[genetic recombination]]), which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hastings |first1=P. J. |last2=Lupski |first2=James R. |authorlink2=James R. Lupski |last3=Rosenberg |first3=Susan M. |last4=Ira |first4=Grzegorz |date=August 2009 |title=Mechanisms of change in gene copy number |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=551–564 |doi=10.1038/nrg2593 |issn=1471-0056 |pmc=2864001 |pmid=19597530}}</ref> Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|Grenier|Weatherbee|2005}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> This is important because most new genes evolve within [[gene family|gene families]] from pre-existing genes that share common ancestors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Paul M. |last2=Gerstein |first2=Mark |authorlink2=Mark Bender Gerstein |date=May 17, 2002 |title=Studying Genomes Through the Aeons: Protein Families, Pseudogenes and Proteome Evolution |journal=[[Journal of Molecular Biology]] |volume=318 |issue=5 |pages=1155–1174 |doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(02)00109-2 |issn=0022-2836 |pmid=12083509}}</ref> For example, the human [[eye]] uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for [[Cone cell|colour vision]] and one for [[Rod cell|night vision]]; all four are descended from a single ancestral gene.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bowmaker |first=James K. |title=Evolution of colour vision in vertebrates |date=May 1998 |journal=Eye |volume=12 |issue=3b |pages=541–547 |doi=10.1038/eye.1998.143 |issn=0950-222X |pmid=9775215}}</ref>

New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function. This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the [[Gene redundancy|redundancy]] of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gregory |first1=T. Ryan |authorlink1=T. Ryan Gregory |last2=Hebert |first2=Paul D. N. |authorlink2=Paul D. N. Hebert |date=April 1999 |title=The Modulation of DNA Content: Proximate Causes and Ultimate Consequences |url=http://genome.cshlp.org/content/9/4/317.full |journal=[[Genome Research]] |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=317–324 |doi=10.1101/gr.9.4.317 |issn=1088-9051 |pmid=10207154 |accessdate=2014-12-11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823063412/http://genome.cshlp.org/content/9/4/317.full |archivedate=2014-08-23|doi-broken-date=2019-10-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hurles |first=Matthew |title=Gene Duplication: The Genomic Trade in Spare Parts |date=July 13, 2004 |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |volume=2 |issue=7 |page=e206 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020206 |issn=1545-7885 |pmc=449868 |pmid=15252449}}</ref> Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Na |last2=Okamura |first2=Katsutomo |last3=Tyler |first3=David M. |last4=Phillips |first4=Michael D. |last5=Chung |first5=Wei-Jen |last6=Lai |first6=Eric C |date=October 2008 |title=The evolution and functional diversification of animal microRNA genes |journal=Cell Research |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=985–996 |doi=10.1038/cr.2008.278 |issn=1001-0602 |pmc=2712117 |pmid=18711447 |display-authors=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Siepel |first=Adam |authorlink=Adam C. Siepel |date=October 2009 |title=Darwinian alchemy: Human genes from noncoding DNA |journal=Genome Research |volume=19 |issue=10 |pages=1693–1695 |doi=10.1101/gr.098376.109 |issn=1088-9051 |pmc=2765273 |pmid=19797681}}</ref>

The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orengo |first1=Christine A. |last2=Thornton |first2=Janet M. |authorlink2=Janet Thornton |date=July 2005 |title=Protein families and their evolution—a structural perspective |journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry |volume=74 |pages=867–900 |doi=10.1146/annurev.biochem.74.082803.133029 |issn=0066-4154 |pmid=15954844}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Long |first1=Manyuan |last2=Betrán |first2=Esther |last3=Thornton |first3=Kevin |last4=Wang |first4=Wen |date=November 2003 |title=The origin of new genes: glimpses from the young and old |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=865–875 |doi=10.1038/nrg1204 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=14634634}}</ref> When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing parts, [[protein domain|domains]] act as modules with simple independent functions, which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Minglei |last2=Caetano-Anollés |first2=Gustavo |authorlink2=Gustavo Caetano-Anolles |date=January 14, 2009 |title=The Evolutionary Mechanics of Domain Organization in Proteomes and the Rise of Modularity in the Protein World |journal=[[Structure (journal)|Structure]] |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=66–78 |doi=10.1016/j.str.2008.11.008 |issn=1357-4310 |pmid=19141283}}</ref> For example, [[polyketide synthase]]s are large [[enzyme]]s that make [[antibiotics]]; they contain up to one hundred independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process, like a step in an assembly line.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weissman |first1=Kira J. |last2=Müller |first2=Rolf |date=April 14, 2008 |title=Protein–Protein Interactions in Multienzyme Megasynthetases |journal=[[ChemBioChem]] |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=826–848 |doi=10.1002/cbic.200700751 |issn=1439-4227 |pmid=18357594}}</ref>

=== Sex and recombination ===
{{Further|Sexual reproduction|Genetic recombination|Evolution of sexual reproduction}}
In [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] organisms, genes are inherited together, or ''linked'', as they cannot mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction. In contrast, the offspring of [[sex]]ual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment. In a related process called [[homologous recombination]], sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Radding |first=Charles M. |date=December 1982 |title=Homologous Pairing and Strand Exchange in Genetic Recombination |journal=[[Annual Review of Genetics]] |volume=16 |pages=405–437 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ge.16.120182.002201 |issn=0066-4197 |pmid=6297377}}</ref> Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.<ref name="Agrawal">{{cite journal |last=Agrawal |first=Aneil F. |date=September 5, 2006 |title=Evolution of Sex: Why Do Organisms Shuffle Their Genotypes? |journal=[[Current Biology]] |volume=16 |issue=17 |pages=R696–R704 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2006.07.063 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=16950096|bibcode=1996CBio....6.1213A |citeseerx=10.1.1.475.9645}}</ref> Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=Andrew D. |last2=Otto |first2=Sarah P. |date=June 2003 |title=Liberating genetic variance through sex |journal=[[BioEssays]] |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=533–537 |doi=10.1002/bies.10291 |issn=0265-9247 |pmid=12766942}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goddard |first1=Matthew R. |last2=Godfray |first2=H. Charles J. |authorlink2=Charles Godfray |last3=Burt |first3=Austin |date=March 31, 2005 |title=Sex increases the efficacy of natural selection in experimental yeast populations |journal=Nature |volume=434 |issue=7033 |pages=636–640 |bibcode=2005Natur.434..636G |doi=10.1038/nature03405 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=15800622}}</ref>

[[File:Evolsex-dia1a.png|thumb|upright=1.15|This diagram illustrates the ''twofold cost of sex''. If each individual were to contribute to the same number of offspring (two), ''(a)'' the [[sex]]ual population remains the same size each generation, where the ''(b)'' [[Asexual reproduction]] population doubles in size each generation.]]

The two-fold cost of sex was first described by [[John Maynard Smith]].<ref name="maynard">{{harvnb|Maynard Smith|1978}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young. (This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many [[invertebrate]]s.) The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50% of its genes to any individual offspring, with even less passed on as each new generation passes.<ref name="ridley">{{harvnb|Ridley|1993}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms. The [[Red Queen hypothesis]] has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to [[coevolution]] with other species in an ever-changing environment.<ref name="ridley" /><ref name="red">{{cite journal |last=Van Valen |first=Leigh |authorlink=Leigh Van Valen |year=1973 |title=A New Evolutionary Law |url=https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/18310184/evolutionary-theory/vol-01/Vol.1%2CNo.1%2C1-30%2CL.%20Van%20Valen%2C%20A%20new%20evolutionary%20law..pdf |journal=Evolutionary Theory |volume=1 |pages=1–30 |issn=0093-4755 |accessdate=2014-12-24 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222094258/https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/18310184/evolutionary-theory/vol-01/Vol.1%2CNo.1%2C1-30%2CL.%20Van%20Valen%2C%20A%20new%20evolutionary%20law..pdf |archivedate=2014-12-22}}</ref><ref name="parasite">{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=W. D. |authorlink1=W. D. Hamilton |last2=Axelrod |first2=Robert |authorlink2=Robert Axelrod |last3=Tanese |first3=Reiko |date=May 1, 1990 |title=Sexual reproduction as an adaptation to resist parasites (a review) |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=87 |issue=9 |pages=3566–3573 |bibcode=1990PNAS...87.3566H |doi=10.1073/pnas.87.9.3566 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=2185476 |pmc=53943}}</ref><ref name="Birdsell">{{harvnb|Birdsell|Wills|2003|pp=113–117}}</ref>

=== Gene flow ===
{{Further|Gene flow}}
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species.<ref name="Morjan C, Rieseberg L 2004 1341–56">{{cite journal |last1=Morjan |first1=Carrie L. |last2=Rieseberg |first2=Loren H. |authorlink2=Loren H. Rieseberg |date=June 2004 |title=How species evolve collectively: implications of gene flow and selection for the spread of advantageous alleles |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=1341–1356 |pmid=15140081 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02164.x |issn=0962-1083 |pmc=2600545}}</ref> It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species. Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms, as might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations, or the movement of [[pollen]] between heavy-metal-tolerant and heavy-metal-sensitive populations of grasses.

Gene transfer between species includes the formation of [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] organisms and [[horizontal gene transfer]]. Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among [[bacteria]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boucher |first1=Yan |last2=Douady |first2=Christophe J. |last3=Papke |first3=R. Thane |last4=Walsh |first4=David A. |last5=Boudreau |first5=Mary Ellen R. |last6=Nesbo |first6=Camilla L. |last7=Case |first7=Rebecca J. |last8=Doolittle |first8=W. Ford |date=December 2003 |title=Lateral gene transfer and the origins of prokaryotic groups |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=37 |pages=283–328 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.37.050503.084247 |issn=0066-4197 |pmid=14616063 |display-authors=3}}</ref> In medicine, this contributes to the spread of [[antibiotic resistance]], as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species.<ref name="GeneticEvolution">{{cite journal |last=Walsh |first=Timothy R. |date=October 2006 |title=Combinatorial genetic evolution of multiresistance |journal=[[Current Opinion (Elsevier)|Current Opinion in Microbiology]] |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=476–482 |doi=10.1016/j.mib.2006.08.009 |issn=1369-5274 |pmid=16942901}}</ref> Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' and the adzuki bean weevil ''[[Callosobruchus chinensis]]'' has occurred.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kondo |first1=Natsuko |last2=Nikoh |first2=Naruo |last3=Ijichi |first3=Nobuyuki |last4=Shimada |first4=Masakazu |last5=Fukatsu |first5=Takema |date=October 29, 2002 |title=Genome fragment of ''Wolbachia'' endosymbiont transferred to X chromosome of host insect |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=99 |issue=22 |pages=14280–14285 |bibcode=2002PNAS...9914280K |doi=10.1073/pnas.222228199 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=137875 |pmid=12386340 |display-authors=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sprague |first=George F., Jr. |date=December 1991 |title=Genetic exchange between kingdoms |journal=[[Current Opinion (Elsevier)|Current Opinion in Genetics & Development]] |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=530–533 |doi=10.1016/S0959-437X(05)80203-5 |issn=0959-437X |pmid=1822285}}</ref> An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic [[Bdelloidea|bdelloid rotifers]], which have received a range of genes from bacteria, [[fungus|fungi]] and plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gladyshev |first1=Eugene A. |last2=Meselson |first2=Matthew |authorlink2=Matthew Meselson |last3=Arkhipova |first3=Irina R. |date=May 30, 2008 |title=Massive Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bdelloid Rotifers |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=320 |issue=5880 |pages=1210–1213 |bibcode=2008Sci...320.1210G |doi=10.1126/science.1156407 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=18511688|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3120157}}</ref> [[Virus]]es can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across [[Domain (biology)|biological domains]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baldo |first1=Angela M. |last2=McClure |first2=Marcella A. |date=September 1999 |title=Evolution and Horizontal Transfer of dUTPase-Encoding Genes in Viruses and Their Hosts |journal=[[Journal of Virology]] |volume=73 |issue=9 |pages=7710–7721 |issn=0022-538X |pmc=104298 |pmid=10438861}}</ref>

Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic cells]] and bacteria, during the acquisition of [[chloroplast]]s and [[Mitochondrion|mitochondria]]. It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and [[archaea]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rivera |first1=Maria C. |last2=Lake |first2=James A. |authorlink2=James A. Lake |date=September 9, 2004 |title=The ring of life provides evidence for a genome fusion origin of eukaryotes |journal=Nature |volume=431 |issue=7005 |pages=152–155 |bibcode=2004Natur.431..152R |doi=10.1038/nature02848 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=15356622}}</ref>

== Mechanisms ==
[[File:Mutation and selection diagram.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Mutation]] followed by natural selection results in a population with darker colouration.]]
From a [[Neo-Darwinism|neo-Darwinian]] perspective, evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms,<ref name="Ewens W.J. 2004" /> for example, the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common. Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow and mutation bias.

=== Natural selection ===
{{Main|Natural selection}}
{{Further|Sexual selection}}
Evolution by means of natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It has often been called a "self-evident" mechanism because it necessarily follows from three simple facts:<ref name="Lewontin70" />
* Variation exists within populations of organisms with respect to morphology, physiology, and behaviour (phenotypic variation).
* Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).
* These traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness).

More offspring are produced than can possibly survive, and these conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction. Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.<ref name="Hurst">{{cite journal |last=Hurst |first=Laurence D. |authorlink=Laurence Hurst |title=Fundamental concepts in genetics: genetics and the understanding of selection |date=February 2009 |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=83–93 |doi=10.1038/nrg2506 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=19119264}}</ref> This [[teleonomy]] is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are [[teleology in biology|seemingly fitted]] for the [[function (biology)|functional]] roles they perform.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=477 Chapter XIV]}}</ref> Consequences of selection include [[Assortative mating|nonrandom mating]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Otto |first1=Sarah P. |author-link1=Sarah Otto |last2=Servedio |first2=Maria R. |authorlink2=Maria Servedio|last3=Nuismer |first3=Scott L. |title=Frequency-Dependent Selection and the Evolution of Assortative Mating |journal=Genetics |date=August 2008 |volume=179 |issue=4 |pages=2091–2112 |issn=0016-6731 |doi=10.1534/genetics.107.084418 |pmc=2516082 |pmid=18660541}}</ref> and [[genetic hitchhiking]].

The central concept of natural selection is the [[fitness (biology)|evolutionary fitness]] of an organism.<ref name="Orr">{{cite journal |last=Orr |first=H. Allen |authorlink=H. Allen Orr |date=August 2009 |title=Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=531–539 |doi=10.1038/nrg2603 |pmc=2753274 |pmid=19546856 |issn=1471-0056}}</ref> Fitness is measured by an organism's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation.<ref name="Orr" /> However, fitness is not the same as the total number of offspring: instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism's genes.<ref name="Haldane">{{cite journal |last=Haldane |first=J.B.S. |authorlink=J. B. S. Haldane |date=March 14, 1959 |title=The Theory of Natural Selection To-Day |journal=Nature |volume=183 |issue=4663 |pages=710–713 |bibcode=1959Natur.183..710H |doi=10.1038/183710a0 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=13644170}}</ref> For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.<ref name="Orr" />

If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each generation this allele will become more common within the population. These traits are said to be "selected ''for''." Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased [[fecundity]]. Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele becoming rarer—they are "selected ''against''."<ref name="Lande">{{cite journal |last1=Lande |first1=Russell |authorlink1=Russell Lande |last2=Arnold |first2=Stevan J. |date=November 1983 |title=The Measurement of Selection on Correlated Characters |journal=Evolution |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=1210–1226 |doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1983.tb00236.x |pmid=28556011 |issn=0014-3820 |jstor=2408842}}</ref> Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic; if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful.<ref name="Futuyma_2005" /> However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form (see [[Dollo's law of irreversibility|Dollo's law]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Emma E. |last2=Igić |first2=Boris |date=November 2008 |title=On phylogenetic tests of irreversible evolution |journal=Evolution |volume=62 |issue=11 |pages=2727–2741 |doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00505.x |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=18764918}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Collin |first1=Rachel |last2=Miglietta |first2=Maria Pia |date=November 2008 |title=Reversing opinions on Dollo's Law |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Ecology & Evolution]] |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=602–609 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2008.06.013 |issn=0169-5347 |pmid=18814933}}</ref> However, a re-activation of dormant genes, as long as they have not been eliminated from the genome and were only suppressed perhaps for hundreds of generations, can lead to the re-occurrence of traits thought to be lost like hindlegs in [[dolphin]]s, teeth in [[chicken]]s, wings in wingless stick [[insect]]s, tails and additional nipples in humans etc.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tomić |first1=Nenad |last2=Meyer-Rochow |first2=Victor Benno |year=2011 |title=Atavisms: Medical, Genetic, and Evolutionary Implications |journal=[[Perspectives in Biology and Medicine]] |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=332–353 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2011.0034 |issn=0031-5982 |pmid=21857125}}</ref> "Throwbacks" such as these are known as [[atavism]]s.

[[File:Genetic Distribution.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.45|These charts depict the different types of genetic selection. On each graph, the x-axis variable is the type of [[phenotypic trait]] and the y-axis variable is the number of organisms. Group A is the original population and Group B is the population after selection.<br />
'''·''' Graph 1 shows [[directional selection]], in which a single extreme [[phenotype]] is favoured.<br />
'''·''' Graph 2 depicts [[stabilizing selection]], where the intermediate phenotype is favoured over the extreme traits.<br />
'''·''' Graph 3 shows [[disruptive selection]], in which the extreme phenotypes are favoured over the intermediate.]]

Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorised into three different types. The first is [[directional selection]], which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoekstra |first1=Hopi E. |last2=Hoekstra |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Berrigan |first3=David |last4=Vignieri |first4=Sacha N. |last5=Hoang |first5=Amy |last6=Hill |first6=Caryl E. |last7=Beerli |first7=Peter |last8=Kingsolver |first8=Joel G. |date=July 31, 2001 |title=Strength and tempo of directional selection in the wild |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=98 |issue=16 |pages=9157–9160 |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.9157H |doi=10.1073/pnas.161281098 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=55389 |pmid=11470913 |display-authors=3}}</ref> Secondly, [[disruptive selection]] is selection for extreme trait values and often results in [[bimodal distribution|two different values]] becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in [[stabilising selection]] there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in [[variance]] around the average value and less diversity.<ref name="Hurst" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Felsenstein |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph Felsenstein |date=November 1979 |title=Excursions along the Interface between Disruptive and Stabilizing Selection |journal=Genetics |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=773–795 |issn=0016-6731 |pmc=1214112 |pmid=17248980}}</ref> This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height.

A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andersson |first1=Malte |last2=Simmons |first2=Leigh W. |date=June 2006 |title=Sexual selection and mate choice |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=296–302 |pmid=16769428 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2006.03.015 |issn=0169-5347 |url=http://academic.reed.edu/biology/professors/srenn/pages/teaching/2008_syllabus/2008_readings/2_anderson-simmons_2006.pdf |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309112854/http://academic.reed.edu/biology/professors/srenn/pages/teaching/2008_syllabus/2008_readings/2_Anderson-Simmons_2006.pdf |archivedate=2013-03-09|citeseerx=10.1.1.595.4050}}</ref> Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species. Although sexually favoured, traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls, large body size and bright colours often attract predation, which compromises the survival of individual males.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kokko |first1=Hanna |authorlink1=Hanna Kokko |last2=Brooks |first2=Robert |last3=McNamara |first3=John M. |last4=Houston |first4=Alasdair I. |date=July 7, 2002 |title=The sexual selection continuum |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society#Proceedings of the Royal Society B|Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=269 |issue=1498 |pages=1331–1340 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2002.2020 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=1691039 |pmid=12079655}}</ref><ref name="Balancing">{{cite journal |last1=Quinn |first1=Thomas P. |last2=Hendry |first2=Andrew P. |last3=Buck |first3=Gregory B. |year=2001 |title=Balancing natural and sexual selection in sockeye salmon: interactions between body size, reproductive opportunity and vulnerability to predation by bears |url=http://redpath-staff.mcgill.ca/hendry/QuinnetalEvolEcolRes2001.pdf |journal=Evolutionary Ecology Research |volume=3 |pages=917–937 |issn=1522-0613 |accessdate=2014-12-15 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305092304/http://redpath-staff.mcgill.ca/hendry/QuinnetalEvolEcolRes2001.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-05}}</ref> This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these [[Handicap principle|hard-to-fake]], sexually selected traits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=John |last2=Brooks |first2=Robert |last3=Jennions |first3=Michael D. |last4=Smith |first4=Michael J. |last5=Bentsen |first5=Caroline L. |last6=Bussière |first6=Luc F. |date=December 23, 2004 |title=High-quality male field crickets invest heavily in sexual display but die young |journal=Nature |volume=432 |issue=7020 |pages=1024–1027 |bibcode=2004Natur.432.1024H |doi=10.1038/nature03084 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=15616562 |display-authors=3}}</ref>

Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature" in this sense refers to an [[ecosystem]], that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, [[Abiotic component|physical]] as well as [[Biotic component|biological]], in their local environment. [[Eugene Odum]], a founder of [[ecology]], defined an ecosystem as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system...."<ref name="Odum1971">{{harvnb|Odum|1971|p=8}}</ref> Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct [[Ecological niche|niche]], or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system. These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the [[food chain]] and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.

Natural selection can act at [[unit of selection|different levels of organisation]], such as genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and species.<ref name="Okasha07">{{harvnb|Okasha|2006}}</ref><ref name="Gould">{{cite journal |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |authorlink=Stephen Jay Gould |date=February 28, 1998 |title=Gulliver's further travels: the necessity and difficulty of a hierarchical theory of selection |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=353 |issue=1366 |pages=307–314 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1998.0211 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=1692213 |pmid=9533127}}</ref><ref name="Mayr1997">{{cite journal |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |authorlink=Ernst Mayr |date=March 18, 1997 |title=The objects of selection |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=2091–2094 |bibcode=1997PNAS...94.2091M |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.6.2091 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=33654 |pmid=9122151}}</ref> Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously.<ref>{{harvnb|Maynard Smith|1998|pp=203–211; discussion 211–217}}</ref> An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called [[Transposable element|transposons]], which can replicate and spread throughout a genome.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hickey |first=Donal A. |year=1992 |title=Evolutionary dynamics of transposable elements in prokaryotes and eukaryotes |journal=[[Genetica]] |volume=86 |issue=1–3 |pages=269–274 |doi=10.1007/BF00133725 |issn=0016-6707 |pmid=1334911}}</ref> Selection at a level above the individual, such as [[group selection]], may allow the evolution of cooperation, as discussed below.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephen Jay |last2=Lloyd |first2=Elisabeth A. |authorlink2=Elisabeth Lloyd |date=October 12, 1999 |title=Individuality and adaptation across levels of selection: how shall we name and generalise the unit of Darwinism? |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=96 |issue=21 |pages=11904–11909 |bibcode=1999PNAS...9611904G |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.21.11904 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=18385 |pmid=10518549}}</ref>

==== Genetic hitchhiking ====
{{Further|Genetic hitchhiking|Hill–Robertson effect|Selective sweep}}
Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated. However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as [[genetic linkage|linkage]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lien |first1=Sigbjørn |last2=Szyda |first2=Joanna |last3=Schechinger |first3=Birgit |last4=Rappold |first4=Gudrun |last5=Arnheim |first5=Norm |date=February 2000 |title=Evidence for Heterogeneity in Recombination in the Human Pseudoautosomal Region: High Resolution Analysis by Sperm Typing and Radiation-Hybrid Mapping |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=557–566 |doi=10.1086/302754 |issn=0002-9297 |pmc=1288109 |pmid=10677316 |display-authors=3}}</ref> This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to [[independence (probability theory)|expectations]], which is called their [[linkage disequilibrium]]. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a [[haplotype]]. This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial: natural selection can drive a [[selective sweep]] that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barton |first=Nicholas H. |authorlink=Nick Barton |date=November 29, 2000 |title=Genetic hitchhiking |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=355 |issue=1403 |pages=1553–1562 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0716 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=1692896 |pmid=11127900}}</ref> Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size.<ref name="gillespie 2001" />

=== Genetic drift ===
{{Further|Genetic drift|Effective population size}}
[[File:Allele-frequency.png|thumb|Simulation of genetic drift of 20 unlinked alleles in populations of 10 (top) and 100 (bottom). Drift to [[Fixation (population genetics)|fixation]] is more rapid in the smaller population.]]
Genetic drift is the random fluctuations of [[allele frequency|allele frequencies]] within a population from one generation to the next.<ref name="Futuyma2017b">{{harvnb|Futuyma|Kirkpatrick|2017|pp=55–66|loc=Chapter 3: Natural Selection and Adaptation}}</ref> When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to ''drift'' upward or downward at each successive generation because the alleles are subject to [[sampling error]].<ref name="Masel 2011">{{cite journal |last=Masel |first=Joanna |date=October 25, 2011 |title=Genetic drift |journal=Current Biology |volume=21 |issue=20 |pages=R837–R838 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.007 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=22032182|bibcode=1996CBio....6.1213A}}</ref> This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that began with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lande |first=Russell |year=1989 |title=Fisherian and Wrightian theories of speciation |journal=[[Genome (journal)|Genome]] |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=221–227 |doi=10.1139/g89-037 |issn=0831-2796 |pmid=2687093}}</ref>

The [[neutral theory of molecular evolution]] proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of [[neutral mutation]]s by genetic drift.<ref name="Kimura M 1991 367–86">{{cite journal |last=Kimura |first=Motoo |authorlink=Motoo Kimura |year=1991 |title=The neutral theory of molecular evolution: a review of recent evidence |journal=[[Journal of Human Genetics|Japanese Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=367–386 |doi=10.1266/jjg.66.367 |issn=0021-504X |pmid=1954033 |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjg/66/4/66_4_367/_pdf}}</ref> Hence, in this model, most genetic changes in a population are the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kimura |first=Motoo |year=1989 |title=The neutral theory of molecular evolution and the world view of the neutralists |journal=Genome |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=24–31 |doi=10.1139/g89-009 |issn=0831-2796 |pmid=2687096}}</ref> This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned, since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kreitman |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Kreitman |date=August 1996 |title=The neutral theory is dead. Long live the neutral theory |journal=BioEssays |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=678–683; discussion 683 |doi=10.1002/bies.950180812 |issn=0265-9247 |pmid=8760341}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Leigh |first=E.G., Jr. |date=November 2007 |title=Neutral theory: a historical perspective |journal=[[Journal of Evolutionary Biology]] |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=2075–2091 |doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01410.x |issn=1010-061X |pmid=17956380}}</ref> However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the [[nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution|nearly neutral theory]], where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population.<ref name="Hurst" /> Other alternative theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other stochastic forces in evolution, such as genetic hitchhiking, also known as genetic draft.<ref name="Masel 2011" /><ref name="gillespie 2001">{{cite journal |last=Gillespie |first=John H. |authorlink=John H. Gillespie |date=November 2001 |title=Is the population size of a species relevant to its evolution? |journal=Evolution |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=2161–2169 |doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00732.x |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=11794777}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neher |first1=Richard A. |last2=Shraiman |first2=Boris I. |date=August 2011 |title=Genetic Draft and Quasi-Neutrality in Large Facultatively Sexual Populations |journal=Genetics |volume=188 |issue=4 |pages=975–996 |doi=10.1534/genetics.111.128876 |issn=0016-6731 |pmc=3176096 |pmid=21625002|arxiv=1108.1635|bibcode=2011arXiv1108.1635N }}</ref>

The time for a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size, with fixation occurring more rapidly in smaller populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Otto |first1=Sarah P. |last2=Whitlock |first2=Michael C. |date=June 1997 |title=The Probability of Fixation in Populations of Changing Size |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/146/2/723.full.pdf |journal=Genetics |volume=146 |issue=2 |pages=723–733 |issn=0016-6731 |pmc=1208011 |pmid=9178020 |accessdate=2014-12-18 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319042554/http://www.genetics.org/content/146/2/723.full.pdf |archivedate=2015-03-19}}</ref> The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size.<ref name="Charlesworth">{{cite journal |last=Charlesworth |first=Brian |authorlink=Brian Charlesworth |date=March 2009 |title=Fundamental concepts in genetics: effective population size and patterns of molecular evolution and variation |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=195–205 |doi=10.1038/nrg2526 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=19204717}}</ref> The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest.<ref name="Charlesworth" /> The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cutter |first1=Asher D. |last2=Choi |first2=Jae Young |date=August 2010 |title=Natural selection shapes nucleotide polymorphism across the genome of the nematode ''Caenorhabditis briggsae'' |journal=Genome Research |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=1103–1111 |doi=10.1101/gr.104331.109 |issn=1088-9051 |pmc=2909573 |pmid=20508143 |ref=harv}}</ref>

It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mitchell-Olds |first1=Thomas |last2=Willis |first2=John H. |last3=Goldstein |first3=David B. |authorlink3=David B. Goldstein (geneticist) |date=November 2007 |title=Which evolutionary processes influence natural genetic variation for phenotypic traits? |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=845–856 |doi=10.1038/nrg2207 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=17943192}}</ref> The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of [[Evolutionary biology|current research]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nei |first=Masatoshi |authorlink=Masatoshi Nei |date=December 2005 |title=Selectionism and Neutralism in Molecular Evolution |journal=[[Molecular Biology and Evolution]] |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=2318–2342 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msi242 |issn=0737-4038 |pmc=1513187 |pmid=16120807}}
* {{cite journal |last=Nei |first=Masatoshi |date=May 2006 |title=Selectionism and Neutralism in Molecular Evolution |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |type=Erratum |volume=23 |issue=5 |page=1095 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msk009 |issn=0737-4038}}</ref>

=== Gene flow ===
{{Further|Gene flow|Hybrid (biology)|Horizontal gene transfer}}
Gene flow involves the exchange of genes between populations and between species.<ref name="Morjan C, Rieseberg L 2004 1341–56" /> The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution. Due to the complexity of organisms, any two completely isolated populations will eventually evolve genetic incompatibilities through neutral processes, as in the [[Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller Model|Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller model]], even if both populations remain essentially identical in terms of their adaptation to the environment.

If genetic differentiation between populations develops, gene flow between populations can introduce traits or alleles which are disadvantageous in the local population and this may lead to organisms within these populations evolving mechanisms that prevent mating with genetically distant populations, eventually resulting in the appearance of new species. Thus, exchange of genetic information between individuals is fundamentally important for the development of the [[Species problem#Mayr's Biological Species Concept|''Biological Species Concept'']] (BSC).

During the development of the modern synthesis, Sewall Wright developed his [[shifting balance theory]], which regarded gene flow between partially isolated populations as an important aspect of adaptive evolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wright |first=Sewall |authorlink=Sewall Wright |year=1932 |title=The roles of mutation, inbreeding, crossbreeding and selection in evolution |url=http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/classictexts/wright.asp |journal=Proceedings of the VI International Congress of Genetrics |volume=1 |pages=356–366 |accessdate=2014-12-18 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823063103/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/classictexts/wright.asp |archivedate=2014-08-23}}</ref> However, recently there has been substantial criticism of the importance of the shifting balance theory.<ref name="Coyne 1997">{{cite journal |last1=Coyne |first1=Jerry A. |authorlink1=Jerry Coyne |last2=Barton |first2=Nicholas H. |last3=Turelli |first3=Michael |date=June 1997 |title=Perspective: A Critique of Sewall Wright's Shifting Balance Theory of Evolution |journal=Evolution |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=643–671 |doi=10.2307/2411143 |pmid=28568586 |issn=0014-3820|jstor=2411143}}</ref>

=== Mutation bias ===

[[Mutation bias]] is usually conceived as a difference in expected rates for two different kinds of mutation, e.g., transition-transversion bias, GC-AT bias, deletion-insertion bias. This is related to the idea of [[developmental bias]].

Haldane <ref name="Haldane1927">{{cite journal |last=Haldane |first=J.B.S. |title=A Mathematical Theory of Natural and Artificial Selection, Part V: Selection and Mutation |journal=[[Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society|Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society]] |date=July 1927 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=838–844 |doi=10.1017/S0305004100015644|bibcode=1927PCPS...23..838H }}</ref> and Fisher<ref name="Fisher1930">{{harvnb|Fisher|1930}}</ref> argued that, because mutation is a weak pressure easily overcome by selection, tendencies of mutation would be ineffectual except under conditions of neutral evolution or extraordinarily high mutation rates. This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution,<ref name="YampolskyStoltzfus2001">{{cite journal |last1=Yampolsky |first1=Lev Y.|last2=Stoltzfus |first2=Arlin |date=December 20, 2001 |title=Bias in the introduction of variation as an orienting factor in evolution |journal=[[Evolution & Development]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=73–83 |doi=10.1046/j.1525-142x.2001.003002073.x}}</ref> until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.

Noboru Sueoka<ref name="Sueoka1962">{{cite journal |last=Sueoka |first=Noboru |date=April 1, 1962 |title=On the Genetic Basis of Variation and Heterogeneity of DNA Base Composition |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=582–592 |doi=10.1073/pnas.48.4.582|pmid=13918161 |pmc=220819 |bibcode=1962PNAS...48..582S }}</ref> and [[Ernst Freese]] <ref name="Freese1962">{{cite journal |last=Freese |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Freese |title=On the Evolution of the Base Composition of DNA |date=July 1962 |journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=82–101 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5193(62)80005-8}}</ref> proposed that systematic biases in mutation might be responsible for systematic differences in genomic GC composition between species. The identification of a GC-biased ''E. coli'' mutator strain in 1967,<ref name="CoxYanofsky1967">{{cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Edward C. |last2=Yanofsky |first2=Charles |author-link2=Charles Yanofsky |title=Altered base ratios in the DNA of an Escherichia coli mutator strain |date=November 1, 1967 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=1895–1902 |doi=10.1073/pnas.58.5.1895|pmid=4866980 |pmc=223881 |bibcode=1967PNAS...58.1895C }}</ref> along with the proposal of the [[Neutral theory of molecular evolution|neutral theory]], established the plausibility of mutational explanations for molecular patterns, which are now common in the molecular evolution literature.

For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage.<ref name="ShahGilchrist2011">{{cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Premal |last2=Gilchrist |first2=Michael A. |title=Explaining complex codon usage patterns with selection for translational efficiency, mutation bias, and genetic drift |date=June 21, 2011 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=108 |issue=25 |pages=10231–10236 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1016719108|pmid=21646514 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10810231S }}</ref> Such models also include effects of selection, following the mutation-selection-drift model,<ref name="Bulmer1991">{{cite journal |last=Bulmer |first=Michael G. |author-link=Michael Bulmer |title=The selection-mutation-drift theory of synonymous codon usage |date=November 1991 |journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] |volume=129 |issue=3 |pages=897–907 |pmid=1752426|pmc=1204756 }}</ref> which allows both for mutation biases and differential selection based on effects on translation. Hypotheses of mutation bias have played an important role in the development of thinking about the evolution of genome composition, including isochores.<ref name="FryxellZuckerkandl2000">{{cite journal |last1=Fryxell |first1=Karl J. |last2=Zuckerkandl |first2=Emile |author-link2=Emile Zuckerkandl |title=Cytosine Deamination Plays a Primary Role in the Evolution of Mammalian Isochores |date=September 2000 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=17 |issue=9 |pages=1371–1383 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026420|pmid=10958853 }}</ref> Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different [[Taxon|taxa]] can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petrov |first1=Dmitri A. |last2=Sangster |first2=Todd A. |last3=Johnston |first3=J. Spencer |last4=Hartl |first4=Daniel L. |last5=Shaw |first5=Kerry L. |date=February 11, 2000 |title=Evidence for DNA Loss as a Determinant of Genome Size |journal=Science |volume=287 |issue=5455 |pages=1060–1062 |bibcode=2000Sci...287.1060P |doi=10.1126/science.287.5455.1060 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=10669421 |display-authors=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Petrov |first=Dmitri A. |date=May 2002 |title=DNA loss and evolution of genome size in ''Drosophila'' |journal=Genetica |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=81–91 |doi=10.1023/A:1016076215168 |issn=0016-6707 |pmid=12188050}}</ref> The hypothesis of Lynch regarding genome size relies on mutational biases toward increase or decrease in genome size.

However, mutational hypotheses for the evolution of composition suffered a reduction in scope when it was discovered that (1) GC-biased gene conversion makes an important contribution to composition in diploid organisms such as mammals <ref name="Duret2009">{{cite journal |last1=Duret |first1=Laurent |last2=Galtier |first2=Nicolas |title=Biased Gene Conversion and the Evolution of Mammalian Genomic Landscapes |date=September 2009 |journal=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics]] |volume=10 |pages=285–311 |doi=10.1146/annurev-genom-082908-150001|pmid=19630562 }}</ref> and (2) bacterial genomes frequently have AT-biased mutation.<ref name="Hershberg2010">{{cite journal |last1=Hershberg |first1=Ruth |last2=Petrov |first2=Dmitri A. |author-link2=Dmitri Petrov |title=Evidence That Mutation Is Universally Biased towards AT in Bacteria |date=September 9, 2010 |journal=[[PLOS Genetics]] |volume=6 |issue=9 |page=e1001115 |pmid=20838599 |pmc=2936535 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1001115}}</ref>

Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher. More recent work <ref name="YampolskyStoltzfus2001" /> showed that the original "pressures" theory assumes that evolution is based on standing variation: when evolution depends on the introduction of new alleles, mutational and developmental biases in introduction can impose biases on evolution ''without requiring neutral evolution or high mutation rates''.

Several recent studies report that the mutations implicated in adaptation reflect common mutation biases <ref name="StoltzfusMcCandlish2017">{{cite journal |last1=Stoltzfus |first1=Arlin |last2=McCandlish |first2=David M. |title=Mutational Biases Influence Parallel Adaptation |journal=Molecular Biology and Evololution |date=September 2017 |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=2163–2172 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msx180|pmid=28645195 |pmc=5850294 }}</ref><ref name="Payne2019">{{cite journal |last1=Payne |first1=Joshua L. |last2=Menardo |first2=Fabrizio |last3=Trauner |first3=Andrej |last4=Borrell |first4=Sonia |last5=Gygli |first5=Sebastian M. |last6=Loiseau |first6=Chloe |last7=Gagneux |first7=Sebastien |last8=Hall |first8=Alex R. |display-authors=3 |title=Transition bias influences the evolution of antibiotic resistance in ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' |date=May 13, 2019 |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=17 |issue=5 |page=e3000265 |pmid=31083647 |pmc=6532934 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000265}}</ref>,<ref name="Storz2019">{{cite journal |last1=Storz |first1=Jay F. |last2=Natarajan |first2=Chandrasekhar |last3=Signore |first3=Anthony V. |last4=Witt |first4=Christopher C. |last5=McCandlish |first5=David M. |last6=Stoltzfus |first6=Arlin |display-authors=3 |title=The role of mutation bias in adaptive molecular evolution: insights from convergent changes in protein function |date=July 22, 2019 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=374 |issue=1777 |pages=20180238 |pmid=31154983 |pmc=6560279 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2018.0238}}</ref> though others dispute this interpretation.<ref name="SvenssonBerger2019">{{cite journal |last1=Svensson |first1=Erik I. |last2=Berger |first2=David |title=The Role of Mutation Bias in Adaptive Evolution |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=May 1, 2019 |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=422–434 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2019.01.015|pmid=31003616 }}</ref>

== Outcomes ==
[[File:Kishony lab-The Evolution of Bacteria on a Mega-Plate.webm|thumb|upright=1.5|thumbtime=106|A visual demonstration of rapid [[antibiotic resistance]] evolution by ''E. coli'' growing across a plate with increasing concentrations of [[trimethoprim]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baym |first=Michael |last2=Lieberman |first2=Tami D. |last3=Kelsic |first3=Eric D. |last4=Chait |first4=Remy |last5=Gross |first5=Rotem |last6=Yelin |first6=Idan |last7=Kishony |first7=Roy |display-authors=3 |date=September 9, 2016 |title=Spatiotemporal microbial evolution on antibiotic landscapes |journal=Science |language=en |volume=353 |issue=6304 |pages=1147–1151 |doi=10.1126/science.aag0822 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=27609891 |pmc=5534434 |bibcode=2016Sci...353.1147B}}</ref>]]

Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection. These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding [[Predation|predators]] or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by [[Co-operation (evolution)|cooperating]] with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial [[symbiosis]]. In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed.

These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as [[macroevolution]] versus microevolution. Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in [[allele frequency]] and adaptation.<ref name="ScottEC">{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=Eugenie C. |authorlink1=Eugenie Scott |last2=Matzke |first2=Nicholas J. |authorlink2=Nick Matzke |date=May 15, 2007 |title=Biological design in science classrooms |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=Suppl. 1 |pages=8669–8676 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.8669S |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701505104 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=17494747 |pmc=1876445}}</ref> In general, macroevolution is regarded as the outcome of long periods of microevolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hendry |first1=Andrew Paul |last2=Kinnison |first2=Michael T. |date=November 2001 |title=An introduction to microevolution: rate, pattern, process |journal=Genetica |volume=112–113 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1023/A:1013368628607 |issn=0016-6707 |pmid=11838760}}</ref> Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one—the difference is simply the time involved.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leroi |first=Armand M. |authorlink=Armand Marie Leroi |date=March–April 2000 |title=The scale independence of evolution |journal=Evolution & Development |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=67–77 |doi=10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00044.x |issn=1520-541X |pmid=11258392|citeseerx=10.1.1.120.1020}}</ref> However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important. For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new [[habitat]]s, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels—with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes such as [[Unit of selection#Species selection and selection at higher taxonomic levels|species selection]] acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction.{{sfn|Gould|2002|pp=657–658}}<ref name="Gould_1994">{{cite journal |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |date=July 19, 1994 |title=Tempo and mode in the macroevolutionary reconstruction of Darwinism |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=91 |issue=15 |pages=6764–6771 |bibcode=1994PNAS...91.6764G |doi=10.1073/pnas.91.15.6764 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=44281 |pmid=8041695}}</ref><ref name="Jablonski2000">{{cite journal |last=Jablonski |first=David |authorlink=David Jablonski |year=2000 |title=Micro- and macroevolution: scale and hierarchy in evolutionary biology and paleobiology |journal=[[Paleobiology (journal)|Paleobiology]] |volume=26 |issue=sp4 |pages=15–52 |doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2000)26[15:MAMSAH]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0094-8373}}</ref>

A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for "progress", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity.<ref name="sciam_1998">{{cite journal |last=Dougherty |first=Michael J. |date=July 20, 1998 |title=Is the human race evolving or devolving? |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-the-human-race-evolvin/ |journal=Scientific American |issn=0036-8733 |accessdate=2015-09-11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20140506224205/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-the-human-race-evolvin/ |archivedate=2014-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CB/CB932.html |title=Claim CB932: Evolution of degenerate forms |date=July 22, 2003 |editor-last=Isaak |editor-first=Mark |website=[[TalkOrigins Archive]] |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston, Texas |accessdate=2014-12-19 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823062949/http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CB/CB932.html |archivedate=2014-08-23}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lane|1996|p=61}}</ref> Although [[Evolution of biological complexity|complex species]] have evolved, they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere.<ref name="Carroll_2001">{{cite journal |last=Carroll |first=Sean B. |authorlink=Sean B. Carroll |date=February 22, 2001 |title=Chance and necessity: the evolution of morphological complexity and diversity |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6823 |pages=1102–1109 |bibcode=2001Natur.409.1102C |doi=10.1038/35059227 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11234024}}</ref> For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic [[prokaryote]]s, which form about half the world's [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] despite their small size,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whitman |first1=William B. |last2=Coleman |first2=David C. |last3=Wiebe |first3=William J. |date=June 9, 1998 |title=Prokaryotes: The unseen majority |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=6578–6583 |bibcode=1998PNAS...95.6578W |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=33863 |pmid=9618454}}</ref> and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity.<ref name="Schloss">{{cite journal |last1=Schloss |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Handelsman |first2=Jo |authorlink2=Jo Handelsman |date=December 2004 |title=Status of the Microbial Census |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=686–691 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.68.4.686-691.2004 |issn=1092-2172 |pmc=539005 |pmid=15590780}}</ref> Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is [[Sampling bias|more noticeable]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nealson |first=Kenneth H. |date=January 1999 |title=Post-Viking microbiology: new approaches, new data, new insights |journal=[[Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=73–93 |doi=10.1023/A:1006515817767 |issn=0169-6149 |pmid=11536899|bibcode=1999OLEB...29...73N }}</ref> Indeed, the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to [[Evolutionary biology|modern evolutionary research]], since their rapid reproduction allows the study of [[experimental evolution]] and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time.<ref name="Buckling">{{cite journal |last1=Buckling |first1=Angus |last2=MacLean |first2=R. Craig |last3=Brockhurst |first3=Michael A. |last4=Colegrave |first4=Nick |date=February 12, 2009 |title=The Beagle in a bottle |journal=Nature |volume=457 |issue=7231 |pages=824–829 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..824B |doi=10.1038/nature07892 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=19212400}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elena |first1=Santiago F. |last2=Lenski |first2=Richard E. |authorlink2=Richard Lenski |date=June 2003 |title=Evolution experiments with microorganisms: the dynamics and genetic bases of adaptation |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=457–469 |doi=10.1038/nrg1088 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=12776215}}</ref>

=== Adaptation ===
{{details|Adaptation}}
[[File:Homology vertebrates-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Homology (biology)|Homologous]] bones in the limbs of [[tetrapod]]s. The bones of these animals have the same basic structure, but have been [[adaptation|adapted]] for specific uses.]]
Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayr|1982|p=483}}: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past and became instead a continuing dynamic process."</ref><ref>The sixth edition of the ''Oxford Dictionary of Science'' (2010) defines ''adaptation'' as "Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment."</ref> Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival. For example, the adaptation of [[horse]]s' teeth to the grinding of grass. By using the term ''adaptation'' for the evolutionary process and ''adaptive trait'' for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Orr |first=H. Allen |date=February 2005 |title=The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=119–127 |doi=10.1038/nrg1523 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=15716908}}</ref> The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky:
# ''Adaptation'' is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobzhansky|1968|pp=1–34}}</ref>
# ''Adaptedness'' is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobzhansky|1970|pp=4–6, 79–82, 84–87}}</ref>
# An ''adaptive trait'' is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dobzhansky |first=Theodosius |date=March 1956 |title=Genetics of Natural Populations. XXV. Genetic Changes in Populations of ''Drosophila pseudoobscura'' and ''Drosophila persimilis'' in Some Localities in California |journal=Evolution |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=82–92 |doi=10.2307/2406099 |issn=0014-3820 |jstor=2406099}}</ref>

Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nakajima |first1=Akira |last2=Sugimoto |first2=Yohko |last3=Yoneyama |first3=Hiroshi |last4=Nakae |first4=Taiji |date=June 2002 |title=High-Level Fluoroquinolone Resistance in ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' Due to Interplay of the MexAB-OprM Efflux Pump and the DNA Gyrase Mutation |journal=Microbiology and Immunology |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=391–395 |doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2002.tb02711.x |issn=1348-0421 |pmid=12153116}}</ref> Other striking examples are the bacteria ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' evolving the ability to use [[citric acid]] as a nutrient in a [[E. coli long-term evolution experiment|long-term laboratory experiment]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blount |first1=Zachary D. |last2=Borland |first2=Christina Z. |last3=Lenski |first3=Richard E. |date=June 10, 2008 |title=Inaugural Article: Historical contingency and the evolution of a key innovation in an experimental population of ''Escherichia coli'' |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=23 |pages=7899–7906 |bibcode=2008PNAS..105.7899B |doi=10.1073/pnas.0803151105 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2430337 |pmid=18524956}}</ref> ''[[Flavobacterium]]'' evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of [[nylon]] manufacturing,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Okada |first1=Hirosuke |last2=Negoro |first2=Seiji |last3=Kimura |first3=Hiroyuki |last4=Nakamura |first4=Shunichi |date=November 10, 1983 |title=Evolutionary adaptation of plasmid-encoded enzymes for degrading nylon oligomers |journal=Nature |volume=306 |issue=5939 |pages=203–206 |bibcode=1983Natur.306..203O |doi=10.1038/306203a0 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=6646204}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ohno |first=Susumu |authorlink=Susumu Ohno |date=April 1984 |title=Birth of a unique enzyme from an alternative reading frame of the preexisted, internally repetitious coding sequence |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=81 |issue=8 |pages=2421–2425 |bibcode=1984PNAS...81.2421O |doi=10.1073/pnas.81.8.2421 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=345072 |pmid=6585807}}</ref> and the soil bacterium ''[[Sphingobium]]'' evolving an entirely new [[metabolic pathway]] that degrades the synthetic [[pesticide]] [[pentachlorophenol]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Copley |first=Shelley D. |date=June 2000 |title=Evolution of a metabolic pathway for degradation of a toxic xenobiotic: the patchwork approach |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Biochemical Sciences]] |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=261–265 |doi=10.1016/S0968-0004(00)01562-0 |issn=0968-0004 |pmid=10838562}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crawford |first1=Ronald L. |last2=Jung |first2=Carina M. |last3=Strap |first3=Janice L. |date=October 2007 |title=The recent evolution of pentachlorophenol (PCP)-4-monooxygenase (PcpB) and associated pathways for bacterial degradation of PCP |journal=[[Biodegradation (journal)|Biodegradation]] |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=525–539 |doi=10.1007/s10532-006-9090-6 |issn=0923-9820 |pmid=17123025}}</ref> An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eshel |first=Ilan |date=December 1973 |title=Clone-Selection and Optimal Rates of Mutation |journal=[[Applied Probability Trust|Journal of Applied Probability]] |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=728–738 |doi=10.2307/3212376 |issn=1475-6072 |jstor=3212376}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Altenberg|1995|pp=205–259}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Masel |first1=Joanna |last2=Bergman |first2=Aviv |date=July 2003 |title=The evolution of the evolvability properties of the yeast prion [PSI+] |journal=Evolution |volume=57 |issue=7 |pages=1498–1512 |doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00358.x |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=12940355}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lancaster |first1=Alex K. |last2=Bardill |first2=J. Patrick |last3=True |first3=Heather L. |last4=Masel |first4=Joanna |date=February 2010 |title=The Spontaneous Appearance Rate of the Yeast Prion [''PSI''+] and Its Implications for the Evolution of the Evolvability Properties of the [''PSI''+] System |journal=Genetics |volume=184 |issue=2 |pages=393–400 |doi=10.1534/genetics.109.110213 |issn=0016-6731 |pmc=2828720 |pmid=19917766}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Draghi |first1=Jeremy |last2=Wagner |first2=Günter P. |authorlink2=Günter P. Wagner |date=February 2008 |title=Evolution of evolvability in a developmental model |journal=Evolution |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=301–315 |doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00303.x |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=18031304}}</ref>

[[File:Whale skeleton.png|upright=1.35|thumb|left|A [[baleen whale]] skeleton, ''a'' and ''b'' label [[flipper (anatomy)|flipper]] bones, which were adapted from front [[leg]] bones: while ''c'' indicates [[Vestigiality|vestigial]] leg bones, suggesting an adaptation from land to sea.<ref name="transformation445">{{cite journal |last1=Bejder |first1=Lars |last2=Hall |first2=Brian K. |authorlink2=Brian K. Hall |date=November 2002 |title=Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss |journal=Evolution & Development |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=445–458 |doi=10.1046/j.1525-142X.2002.02033.x |issn=1520-541X |pmid=12492145}}</ref>]]

Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures. Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within [[bat]] wings, for example, are very similar to those in [[mouse|mice]] feet and [[primate]] hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Nathan M. |last2=HallgrÍmsson |first2=Benedikt |date=December 2005 |title=Serial homology and the evolution of mammalian limb covariation structure |journal=Evolution |volume=59 |issue=12 |pages=2691–2704 |doi=10.1554/05-233.1 |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=16526515}}</ref> However, since all living organisms are related to some extent,<ref name="Penny1999">{{cite journal |last1=Penny |first1=David |last2=Poole |first2=Anthony |date=December 1999 |title=The nature of the last universal common ancestor |journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=672–677 |doi=10.1016/S0959-437X(99)00020-9 |issn=0959-437X |pmid=10607605}}</ref> even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as [[arthropod]], [[squid]] and [[vertebrate]] eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called [[deep homology]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hall |first=Brian K. |date=August 2003 |title=Descent with modification: the unity underlying homology and homoplasy as seen through an analysis of development and evolution |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=409–433 |doi=10.1017/S1464793102006097 |issn=1464-7931 |pmid=14558591}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shubin |first1=Neil |authorlink1=Neil Shubin |last2=Tabin |first2=Clifford J. |authorlink2=Clifford Tabin |last3=Carroll |first3=Sean B. |date=February 12, 2009 |title=Deep homology and the origins of evolutionary novelty |journal=Nature |volume=457 |issue=7231 |pages=818–823 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..818S |doi=10.1038/nature07891 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=19212399}}</ref>

During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become [[Vestigiality|vestigial structures]].<ref name="Fong">{{cite journal |last1=Fong |first1=Daniel F. |last2=Kane |first2=Thomas C. |last3=Culver |first3=David C. |date=November 1995 |title=Vestigialization and Loss of Nonfunctional Characters |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=26 |pages=249–268 |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.26.110195.001341 |issn=1545-2069}}</ref> Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include [[pseudogene]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=ZhaoLei Zhang |last2=Gerstein |first2=Mark |date=August 2004 |title=Large-scale analysis of pseudogenes in the human genome |journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=328–335 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2004.06.003 |issn=0959-437X |pmid=15261647}}</ref> the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jeffery |date=May–June 2005 |first1=William R. |title=Adaptive Evolution of Eye Degeneration in the Mexican Blind Cavefish |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=185–196 |doi=10.1093/jhered/esi028 |issn=0022-1503 |pmid=15653557|citeseerx=10.1.1.572.6605}}</ref> wings in flightless birds,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maxwell |first1=Erin E. |last2=Larsson |first2=Hans C.E. |date=May 2007 |title=Osteology and myology of the wing of the Emu (''Dromaius novaehollandiae'') and its bearing on the evolution of vestigial structures |journal=[[Journal of Morphology]] |volume=268 |issue=5 |pages=423–441 |doi=10.1002/jmor.10527 |issn=0362-2525 |pmid=17390336}}</ref> the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes,<ref name="transformation445" /> and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Kooi |first1=Casper J. |last2=Schwander |first2=Tanja |date=November 2014 |title=On the fate of sexual traits under asexuality |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259824406 |format=PDF |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=805–819 |doi=10.1111/brv.12078 |issn=1464-7931 |pmid=24443922 |accessdate=2015-08-05 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723175840/http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tanja_Schwander/publication/259824406_On_the_fate_of_sexual_traits_under_asexuality/links/53ff35a50cf283c3583c85f3.pdf |archivedate=2015-07-23}}</ref> Examples of [[Human vestigiality|vestigial structures in humans]] include [[Wisdom tooth|wisdom teeth]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silvestri |first1=Anthony R., Jr. |last2=Singh |first2=Iqbal |date=April 2003 |title=The unresolved problem of the third molar: Would people be better off without it? |url=http://jada.ada.org/cgi/content/full/134/4/450 |journal=[[Journal of the American Dental Association]] |volume=134 |issue=4 |pages=450–455 |doi=10.14219/jada.archive.2003.0194 |issn=0002-8177 |pmid=12733778 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823063158/http://jada.ada.org/content/134/4/450.full |archivedate=2014-08-23 |url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[coccyx]],<ref name="Fong" /> the [[vermiform appendix]],<ref name="Fong" /> and other behavioural vestiges such as [[goose bumps]]<ref>{{harvnb|Coyne|2009|p=62}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1872|pp=101, 103}}</ref> and [[primitive reflexes]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gray|2007|p=66}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Coyne|2009|pp=85–86}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Stevens|1982|p=87}}</ref>

However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact [[exaptation]]s: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process.{{sfn|Gould|2002|pp=1235–1236}} One example is the African lizard ''Holaspis guentheri'', which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation.{{sfn|Gould|2002|pp=1235–1236}} Within cells, [[molecular machine]]s such as the bacterial [[Flagellum|flagella]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pallen |first=Mark J. |last2=Matzke |first2=Nicholas J. |date=October 2006 |title=From ''The Origin of Species'' to the origin of bacterial flagella |url=https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~matzke/matzke_cv/_pubs/Pallen_Matzke_2006_NRM_origin_flagella.pdf |type=PDF |journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=784–790 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1493 |issn=1740-1526 |pmid=16953248 |accessdate=2014-12-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226013207/https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~matzke/matzke_cv/_pubs/Pallen_Matzke_2006_NRM_origin_flagella.pdf |archivedate=2014-12-26}}</ref> and [[translocase of the inner membrane|protein sorting machinery]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clements |first1=Abigail |last2=Bursac |first2=Dejan |last3=Gatsos |first3=Xenia |last4=Perry |first4=Andrew J. |last5=Civciristov |first5=Srgjan |last6=Celik |first6=Nermin |last7=Likic |first7=Vladimir A. |last8=Poggio |first8=Sebastian |last9=Jacobs-Wagner |first9=Christine |last10=Strugnell |first10=Richard A. |last11=Lithgow |first11=Trevor |date=September 15, 2009 |title=The reducible complexity of a mitochondrial molecular machine |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=106 |issue=37 |pages=15791–15795 |bibcode=2009PNAS..10615791C |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908264106 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=19717453 |pmc=2747197 |display-authors=3}}</ref> evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions.<ref name="ScottEC" /> Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from [[glycolysis]] and [[Drug metabolism|xenobiotic metabolism]] to serve as structural proteins called [[crystallin]]s within the lenses of organisms' eyes.<ref>{{harvnb|Piatigorsky|Kantorow|Gopal-Srivastava|Tomarev|1994|pp=241–250}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wistow |first=Graeme |date=August 1993 |title=Lens crystallins: gene recruitment and evolutionary dynamism |journal=Trends in Biochemical Sciences |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=301–306 |doi=10.1016/0968-0004(93)90041-K |issn=0968-0004 |pmid=8236445}}</ref>

An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Norman A. |last2=Porter |first2=Adam H. |date=November 2001 |title=Toward a new synthesis: population genetics and evolutionary developmental biology |journal=Genetica |volume=112–113 |issue=1 |pages=45–58 |doi=10.1023/A:1013371201773 |issn=0016-6707 |pmid=11838782}}</ref> This research addresses the origin and evolution of [[Embryogenesis|embryonic development]] and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baguñà |first1=Jaume |last2=Garcia-Fernàndez |first2=Jordi |year=2003 |title=Evo-Devo: the long and winding road |url=http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper.php?doi=14756346 |journal=[[The International Journal of Developmental Biology]] |volume=47 |issue=7–8 |pages=705–713 |issn=0214-6282 |pmid=14756346 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128011936/http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper.php?doi=14756346 |archivedate=2014-11-28}}
* {{cite journal |last=Love |first=Alan C. |date=March 2003 |title=Evolutionary Morphology, Innovation and the Synthesis of Evolutionary and Developmental Biology |journal=Biology and Philosophy |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=309–345 |doi=10.1023/A:1023940220348 |issn=0169-3867}}</ref> These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the [[Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles|middle ear in mammals]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allin |first=Edgar F. |date=December 1975 |title=Evolution of the mammalian middle ear |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=147 |issue=4 |pages=403–437 |doi=10.1002/jmor.1051470404 |issn=0362-2525 |pmid=1202224}}</ref> It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of [[crocodile]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Matthew P. |last2=Hasso |first2=Sean M. |last3=Ferguson |first3=Mark W.J. |last4=Fallon |first4=John F. |date=February 21, 2006 |title=The Development of Archosaurian First-Generation Teeth in a Chicken Mutant |journal=Current Biology |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=371–377 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.12.047 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=16488870|bibcode=1996CBio....6.1213A}}</ref> It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carroll |first=Sean B. |date=July 11, 2008 |title=Evo-Devo and an Expanding Evolutionary Synthesis: A Genetic Theory of Morphological Evolution |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=134 |issue=1 |pages=25–36 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.06.030 |issn=0092-8674 |pmid=18614008}}</ref>

=== Coevolution ===
[[File:Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis Wooster.jpg|thumb|[[Common Garter Snake|Common garter snake]] (''Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis'') has evolved resistance to the [[anti-predator adaptation|defensive substance]] [[tetrodotoxin]] in its amphibian prey.]]

{{Further|Coevolution}}
Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation. When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a [[pathogen]] and a [[host (biology)|host]], or a predator and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species. These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species. This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wade |first=Michael J. |authorlink=Michael J. Wade |date=March 2007 |title=The co-evolutionary genetics of ecological communities |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=185–195 |doi=10.1038/nrg2031 |issn=1471-0056 |pmid=17279094}}</ref> An example is the production of [[tetrodotoxin]] in the [[rough-skinned newt]] and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the [[Common Garter Snake|common garter snake]]. In this predator-prey pair, an [[evolutionary arms race]] has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geffeney |first1=Shana |last2=Brodie |first2=Edmund D., Jr. |last3=Ruben |first3=Peter C. |last4=Brodie |first4=Edmund D., III |date=August 23, 2002 |title=Mechanisms of Adaptation in a Predator-Prey Arms Race: TTX-Resistant Sodium Channels |journal=Science |volume=297 |issue=5585 |pages=1336–1339 |bibcode=2002Sci...297.1336G |doi=10.1126/science.1074310 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=12193784}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Brodie |first1=Edmund D., Jr. |last2=Ridenhour |first2=Benjamin J. |last3=Brodie |first3=Edmund D., III |date=October 2002 |title=The evolutionary response of predators to dangerous prey: hotspots and coldspots in the geographic mosaic of coevolution between garter snakes and newts |journal=Evolution |volume=56 |issue=10 |pages=2067–2082 |doi=10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[2067:teropt]2.0.co;2 |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=12449493}}
* {{cite news |last=Carroll |first=Sean B. |date=December 21, 2009 |title=Whatever Doesn't Kill Some Animals Can Make Them Deadly |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/science/22creature.html |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |publisher=The New York Times Company |issn=0362-4331 |accessdate=2014-12-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423075609/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/science/22creature.html |archivedate=2015-04-23}}</ref>

=== Cooperation ===
{{Further|Co-operation (evolution)}}
Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sachs |first=Joel L. |date=September 2006 |title=Cooperation within and among species |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1415–1418; discussion 1426–1436 |doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01152.x |issn=1010-061X |pmid=16910971}}
* {{cite journal |last=Nowak |first=Martin A. |authorlink=Martin Nowak |date=December 8, 2006 |title=Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5805 |pages=1560–1563 |bibcode=2006Sci...314.1560N |doi=10.1126/science.1133755 |issn=0036-8075 |pmc=3279745 |pmid=17158317}}</ref> Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal fungi]] that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Paszkowski |first=Uta |date=August 2006 |title=Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses |journal=[[Current Opinion (Elsevier)|Current Opinion in Plant Biology]] |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=364–370 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2006.05.008 |issn=1369-5266 |pmid=16713732}}</ref> This is a [[Reciprocity (evolution)|reciprocal]] relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from [[photosynthesis]]. Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending [[signal transduction|signals]] that suppress the plant [[immune system]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hause |first1=Bettina |last2=Fester |first2=Thomas |date=May 2005 |title=Molecular and cell biology of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis |journal=[[Planta (journal)|Planta]] |volume=221 |issue=2 |pages=184–196 |doi=10.1007/s00425-004-1436-x |issn=0032-0935 |pmid=15871030}}</ref>

Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved. An extreme case is the [[eusociality]] found in social insects, such as [[bee]]s, [[termite]]s and [[ant]]s, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a [[Colony (biology)|colony]] that are able to reproduce. On an even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's germ cells to produce offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth [[carcinogenesis|causes cancer]].<ref name="Bertram">{{cite journal |last=Bertram |first=John S. |date=December 2000 |title=The molecular biology of cancer |journal=[[Molecular Aspects of Medicine]] |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=167–223 |doi=10.1016/S0098-2997(00)00007-8 |issn=0098-2997 |pmid=11173079}}</ref>

Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of [[kin selection]], which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative's offspring.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reeve |first1=H. Kern |last2=Hölldobler |first2=Bert |authorlink2=Bert Hölldobler |date=June 5, 2007 |title=The emergence of a superorganism through intergroup competition |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=23 |pages=9736–9740 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.9736R |doi=10.1073/pnas.0703466104 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1887545 |pmid=17517608}}</ref> This activity is selected for because if the ''helping'' individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will ''also'' contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Axelrod |first=Robert |last2=Hamilton |first2=W. D. |date=March 27, 1981 |title=The evolution of cooperation |journal=Science |volume=211 |issue=4489 |pages=1390–1396 |bibcode=1981Sci...211.1390A |doi=10.1126/science.7466396 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=7466396}}</ref> Other processes that may promote cooperation include [[group selection]], where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Edward O. |last2=Hölldobler |first2=Bert |date=September 20, 2005 |title=Eusociality: Origin and consequences |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 |issue=38 |pages=13367–1371 |bibcode=2005PNAS..10213367W |doi=10.1073/pnas.0505858102 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1224642 |pmid=16157878}}</ref>

=== Speciation ===
{{main|Speciation}}
{{Further|Assortative mating|Panmixia}}
[[File:Speciation modes edit.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.6|The four geographic modes of [[speciation]]]]

Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species.<ref name="Gavrilets">{{cite journal |last=Gavrilets |first=Sergey |date=October 2003 |title=Perspective: models of speciation: what have we learned in 40 years? |journal=Evolution |volume=57 |issue=10 |pages=2197–2215 |doi=10.1554/02-727 |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=14628909}}</ref>

There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species." The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned.<ref name="Queiroz">{{cite journal |last=de Queiroz |first=Kevin |date=May 3, 2005 |title=Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 |issue=Suppl. 1 |pages=6600–6607 |bibcode=2005PNAS..102.6600D |doi=10.1073/pnas.0502030102 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1131873 |pmid=15851674}}</ref> For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic.<ref name="Ereshefsky92">{{cite journal |last=Ereshefsky |first=Marc |authorlink=Marc Ereshefsky |date=December 1992 |title=Eliminative pluralism |journal=[[Philosophy of Science (journal)|Philosophy of Science]] |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=671–690 |doi=10.1086/289701 |issn=0031-8248 |jstor=188136}}</ref> The ''Biological Species Concept'' (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] in 1942, the BSC states that "species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."<ref>{{harvnb|Mayr|1942|p=120}}</ref> Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fraser |first1=Christophe |last2=Alm |first2=Eric J. |last3=Polz |first3=Martin F. |last4=Spratt |first4=Brian G. |last5=Hanage |first5=William P. |date=February 6, 2009 |title=The Bacterial Species Challenge: Making Sense of Genetic and Ecological Diversity |journal=Science |volume=323 |issue=5915 |pages=741–746 |bibcode=2009Sci...323..741F |doi=10.1126/science.1159388 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=19197054 |display-authors=3}}</ref> and this is called the [[species problem]].<ref name="Queiroz" /> Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.<ref name="Queiroz" /><ref name="Ereshefsky92" />

[[Reproductive isolation|Barriers to reproduction]] between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species. Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations. Depending on how far two species have diverged since their [[most recent common ancestor]], it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and [[donkey]]s mating to produce [[mule]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Short |first=Roger Valentine |date=October 1975 |title=The contribution of the mule to scientific thought |journal=Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement |issue=23 |pages=359–364 |issn=0449-3087 |oclc=1639439 |pmid=1107543}}</ref> Such hybrids are generally [[infertility|infertile]]. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gross |first1=Briana L. |last2=Rieseberg |first2=Loren H. |date=May–June 2005 |title=The Ecological Genetics of Homoploid Hybrid Speciation |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=241–252 |doi=10.1093/jhered/esi026 |issn=0022-1503 |pmc=2517139 |pmid=15618301}}</ref> The importance of hybridisation in producing [[hybrid speciation|new species]] of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burke |first1=John M. |last2=Arnold |first2=Michael L. |date=December 2001 |title=Genetics and the fitness of hybrids |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=35 |pages=31–52 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.35.102401.085719 |issn=0066-4197 |pmid=11700276}}</ref> with the [[gray tree frog]] being a particularly well-studied example.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vrijenhoek |first=Robert C. |date=April 4, 2006 |title=Polyploid Hybrids: Multiple Origins of a Treefrog Species |journal=Current Biology |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=R245–R247 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2006.03.005 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=16581499|bibcode=1996CBio....6.1213A}}</ref>

Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions (see [[laboratory experiments of speciation]]) and in nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rice |first1=William R. |last2=Hostert |first2=Ellen E. |date=December 1993 |title=Laboratory Experiments on Speciation: What Have We Learned in 40 Years? |journal=Evolution |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=1637–1653 |doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb01257.x |pmid=28568007 |issn=0014-3820|jstor=2410209}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jiggins |first1=Chris D. |last2=Bridle |first2=Jon R. |date=March 2004 |title=Speciation in the apple maggot fly: a blend of vintages? |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=111–114 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2003.12.008 |pmid=16701238 |issn=0169-5347}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html |title=Observed Instances of Speciation |last=Boxhorn |first=Joseph |date=September 1, 1995 |website=TalkOrigins Archive |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston, Texas |accessdate=2008-12-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122211743/http://talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html |archivedate=2009-01-22}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Weinberg |first1=James R. |last2=Starczak |first2=Victoria R. |last3=Jörg |first3=Daniele |date=August 1992 |title=Evidence for Rapid Speciation Following a Founder Event in the Laboratory |journal=Evolution |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=1214–1220 |doi=10.2307/2409766 |pmid=28564398 |issn=0014-3820 |jstor=2409766}}</ref> In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four primary geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is [[allopatric speciation]], which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by [[habitat fragmentation]] or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrel |first1=Anthony |last2=Huyghe |first2=Katleen |last3=Vanhooydonck |first3=Bieke |last4=Backeljau |first4=Thierry |last5=Breugelmans |first5=Karin |last6=Grbac |first6=Irena |last7=Van Damme |first7=Raoul |last8=Irschick |first8=Duncan J. |date=March 25, 2008 |title=Rapid large-scale evolutionary divergence in morphology and performance associated with exploitation of a different dietary resource |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=12 |pages=4792–4795 |bibcode=2008PNAS..105.4792H |doi=10.1073/pnas.0711998105 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2290806 |pmid=18344323 |display-authors=3}}</ref><ref name="Losos1997">{{cite journal |last1=Losos |first1=Jonathan B. |last2=Warhelt |first2=Kenneth I. |last3=Schoener |first3=Thomas W. |date=May 1, 1997 |title=Adaptive differentiation following experimental island colonization in ''Anolis'' lizards |journal=Nature |volume=387 |issue=6628 |pages=70–73 |bibcode=1997Natur.387...70L |doi=10.1038/387070a0 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hoskin |first1=Conrad J. |last2=Higgle |first2=Megan |last3=McDonald |first3=Keith R. |last4=Moritz |first4=Craig |date=October 27, 2005 |title=Reinforcement drives rapid allopatric speciation |journal=Nature |pmid=16251964 |volume=437 |issue=7063 |pages=1353–1356 |bibcode=2005Natur.437.1353H |doi=10.1038/nature04004 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref>

The second mode of speciation is [[peripatric speciation]], which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the [[founder effect]] causes rapid speciation after an increase in [[inbreeding]] increases selection on homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Templeton |first=Alan R. |authorlink=Alan Templeton |date=April 1980 |title=The Theory of Speciation ''VIA'' the Founder Principle |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/94/4/1011.full.pdf+html |journal=Genetics |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=1011–1038 |pmid=6777243 |issn=0016-6731 |pmc=1214177 |accessdate=2014-12-29 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823063455/http://www.genetics.org/content/94/4/1011.full.pdf+html |archivedate=2014-08-23}}</ref>

The third mode is [[parapatric speciation]]. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations.<ref name="Gavrilets" /> Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat. One example is the grass ''[[Anthoxanthum|Anthoxanthum odoratum]]'', which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from mines.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Antonovics |first=Janis |authorlink=Janis Antonovics |date=July 2006 |title=Evolution in closely adjacent plant populations X: long-term persistence of prereproductive isolation at a mine boundary |journal=[[Heredity (journal)|Heredity]] |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=33–37 |doi=10.1038/sj.hdy.6800835 |issn=0018-067X |pmid=16639420}}</ref> Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause [[Reinforcement (speciation)|reinforcement]], which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as [[character displacement]], which is when two species become more distinct in appearance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nosil |first1=Patrik |last2=Crespi |first2=Bernard J. |last3=Gries |first3=Regine |last4=Gries |first4=Gerhard |date=March 2007 |title=Natural selection and divergence in mate preference during speciation |journal=Genetica |volume=129 |issue=3 |pages=309–327 |doi=10.1007/s10709-006-0013-6 |pmid=16900317 |issn=0016-6707}}</ref>

[[File:Darwin's finches.jpeg|frame|[[Geographical isolation]] of [[Darwin's finches|finches]] on the [[Galápagos Islands]] produced over a dozen new species.]]

Finally, in [[sympatric speciation]] species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Savolainen |first1=Vincent |last2=Anstett |first2=Marie-Charlotte |last3=Lexer |first3=Christian |last4=Hutton |first4=Ian |last5=Clarkson |first5=James J. |last6=Norup |first6=Maria V. |last7=Powell |first7=Martyn P. |last8=Springate |first8=David |last9=Salamin |first9=Nicolas |last10=Baker |first10=William J. |date=May 11, 2006 |title=Sympatric speciation in palms on an oceanic island |journal=Nature |volume=441 |issue=7090 |pages=210–213 |bibcode=2006Natur.441..210S |doi=10.1038/nature04566 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=16467788 |display-authors=3}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Barluenga |first1=Marta |last2=Stölting |first2=Kai N. |last3=Salzburger |first3=Walter |last4=Muschick |first4=Moritz |last5=Meyer |first5=Axel |authorlink5=Axel Meyer |date=February 9, 2006 |title=Sympatric speciation in Nicaraguan crater lake cichlid fish |journal=Nature |volume=439 |issue=7077 |pages=719–23 |bibcode=2006Natur.439..719B |doi=10.1038/nature04325 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=16467837 |display-authors=3|url=http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-opus-34004}}</ref> Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both [[Polymorphism (biology)|genetic differences]] and [[Assortative mating|nonrandom mating]], to allow reproductive isolation to evolve.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gavrilets |first=Sergey |date=March 21, 2006 |title=The Maynard Smith model of sympatric speciation |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |volume=239 |issue=2 |pages=172–182 |doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.08.041 |issn=0022-5193 |pmid=16242727}}</ref>

One type of sympatric speciation involves [[crossbreed]]ing of two related species to produce a new hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is because during [[meiosis]] the [[homologous chromosome]]s from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form [[polyploidy|polyploids]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Troy E. |last2=Takebayashi |first2=Naoki |last3=Barker |first3=Michael S. |last4=Mayrose |first4=Itay |last5=Greenspoon |first5=Philip B. |last6=Rieseberg |first6=Loren H. |date=August 18, 2009 |title=The frequency of polyploid speciation in vascular plants |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=106 |issue=33 |pages=13875–13879 |bibcode=2009PNAS..10613875W |doi=10.1073/pnas.0811575106 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2728988 |pmid=19667210 |display-authors=3}}</ref> This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hegarty |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Hiscock |first2=Simon J. |date=May 20, 2008 |title=Genomic Clues to the Evolutionary Success of Polyploid Plants |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=R435–R444 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.03.043 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=18492478|bibcode=1996CBio....6.1213A}}</ref> An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'' and ''[[Arabidopsis arenosa]]'' crossbred to give the new species ''Arabidopsis suecica''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jakobsson |first1=Mattias |last2=Hagenblad |first2=Jenny |last3=Tavaré |first3=Simon |authorlink3=Simon Tavaré |last4=Säll |first4=Torbjörn |last5=Halldén |first5=Christer |last6=Lind-Halldén |first6=Christina |last7=Nordborg |first7=Magnus |date=June 2006 |title=A Unique Recent Origin of the Allotetraploid Species ''Arabidopsis suecica'': Evidence from Nuclear DNA Markers |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=1217–1231 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msk006 |issn=0737-4038 |pmid=16549398 |display-authors=3|url=http://hkr.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:424478/FULLTEXT01}}</ref> This happened about 20,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Säll |first1=Torbjörn |last2=Jakobsson |first2=Mattias |last3=Lind-Halldén |first3=Christina |last4=Halldén |first4=Christer |date=September 2003 |title=Chloroplast DNA indicates a single origin of the allotetraploid ''Arabidopsis suecica'' |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=1019–1029 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00554.x |issn=1010-061X |pmid=14635917}}</ref> and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bomblies |first1=Kirsten |authorlink1=Kirsten Bomblies |last2=Weigel |first2=Detlef |authorlink2=Detlef Weigel |date=December 2007 |title=''Arabidopsis''—a model genus for speciation |journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=500–504 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2007.09.006 |issn=0959-437X |pmid=18006296}}</ref> Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.<ref name="Semon">{{cite journal |last1=Sémon |first1=Marie |last2=Wolfe |first2=Kenneth H. |date=December 2007 |title=Consequences of genome duplication |journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=505–512 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2007.09.007 |issn=0959-437X |pmid=18006297}}</ref>

Speciation events are important in the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]], which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short "bursts" of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged.<ref>{{harvnb|Eldredge|Gould|1972|pp=82–115}}</ref> In this theory, speciation and rapid evolution are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils.<ref name="Gould_1994" />

=== Extinction ===
{{Further|Extinction}}
[[File:Palais de la Decouverte Tyrannosaurus rex p1050042.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]''. Non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s died out in the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period.]]

Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Benton |first1=Michael J. |authorlink=Michael Benton |date=April 7, 1995 |title=Diversification and extinction in the history of life |journal=Science |volume=268 |issue=5207 |pages=52–58 |bibcode=1995Sci...268...52B |doi=10.1126/science.7701342 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=7701342}}</ref> Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raup |first=David M. |authorlink=David M. Raup |date=March 28, 1986 |title=Biological extinction in Earth history |journal=Science |volume=231 |issue=4745 |pages=1528–1533 |bibcode=1986Sci...231.1528R |doi=10.1126/science.11542058 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=11542058}}</ref> and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avise |first1=John C. |last2=Hubbell |first2=Stephen P. |authorlink2=Stephen P. Hubbell |last3=Ayala |first3=Francisco J. |date=August 12, 2008 |title=In the light of evolution II: Biodiversity and extinction |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=Suppl. 1 |pages=11453–11457 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511453A |doi=10.1073/pnas.0802504105 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2556414 |pmid=18695213}}</ref> These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass [[extinction event]]s.<ref name="Raup_1994">{{cite journal |last=Raup |first=David M. |date=July 19, 1994 |title=The role of extinction in evolution |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=91 |issue=15 |pages=6758–6763 |bibcode=1994PNAS...91.6758R |doi=10.1073/pnas.91.15.6758 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=44280 |pmid=8041694}}</ref> The [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]], during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]] was even more severe, with approximately 96% of all marine species driven to extinction.<ref name="Raup_1994" /> The [[Holocene extinction|Holocene extinction event]] is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years. Present-day extinction rates are 100–1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30% of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Novacek |first1=Michael J. |last2=Cleland |first2=Elsa E. |date=May 8, 2001 |title=The current biodiversity extinction event: scenarios for mitigation and recovery |doi=10.1073/pnas.091093698 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=98 |issue=10 |pages=5466–5470 |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.5466N |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=33235 |pmid=11344295}}</ref> Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pimm |first1=Stuart |authorlink1=Stuart Pimm |last2=Raven |first2=Peter |authorlink2=Peter H. Raven |last3=Peterson |first3=Alan |last4=Şekercioğlu |first4=Çağan H. |last5=Ehrlich |first5=Paul R. |authorlink5=Paul R. Ehrlich |date=July 18, 2006 |title=Human impacts on the rates of recent, present and future bird extinctions |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=103 |issue=29 |pages=10941–10946 |bibcode=2006PNAS..10310941P |doi=10.1073/pnas.0604181103 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1544153 |pmid=16829570 |display-authors=3}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barnosky |first1=Anthony D. |authorlink1=Anthony David Barnosky|last2=Koch |first2=Paul L. |last3=Feranec |first3=Robert S. |last4=Wing |first4=Scott L. |last5=Shabel |first5=Alan B. |date=October 1, 2004 |title=Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents |journal=Science |volume=306 |issue=5693 |pages=70–75 |bibcode=2004Sci...306...70B |doi=10.1126/science.1101476 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=15459379 |display-authors=3|citeseerx=10.1.1.574.332}}</ref> [[global warming]] may further accelerate it in the future.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=Owen T. |date=January 29, 2006 |title=Climate change, species–area curves and the extinction crisis |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=361 |issue=1465 |pages=163–171 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1712 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=1831839 |pmid=16553315}}</ref> Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth,<ref name="StearnsStearns1999">{{harvnb|Stearns|Stearns|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0BHeC-tXIB4C&q=99%20percent X]}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20141108-MJN" /> about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.<ref name="NSF-2016002">{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=138446 |title=Researchers find that Earth may be home to 1 trillion species |author= |date=May 2, 2016 |website=[[National Science Foundation]] |location=Arlington County, Virginia |accessdate=2016-05-06 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504111108/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=138446 |archivedate=2016-05-04}}</ref>

The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered.<ref name="Raup_1994" /> The causes of the continuous "low-level" extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, may be the result of competition between species for limited resources (the [[competitive exclusion principle]]).<ref name="Kutschera" /> If one species can out-compete another, this could produce species selection, with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction.<ref name="Gould" /> The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jablonski |first=David |date=May 8, 2001 |title=Lessons from the past: Evolutionary impacts of mass extinctions |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=98 |issue=10 |pages=5393–5398 |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.5393J |doi=10.1073/pnas.101092598 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=33224 |pmid=11344284}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Evolutionary history of life ==
{{align|right|{{Life timeline}}}}
{{Main|Evolutionary history of life}}
{{See also|Timeline of evolutionary history of life}}

=== Origin of life ===
{{Further|Abiogenesis|Earliest known life forms|Panspermia|RNA world hypothesis}}
The [[age of the Earth|Earth]] is about 4.54 billion years old.<ref name="USGS1997">{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |date=July 9, 2007 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |accessdate=2015-05-31 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051223072700/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |archivedate=2005-12-23}}</ref><ref name="Dalrymple 2001 205–221">{{harvnb|Dalrymple|2001|pp=205–221}}</ref><ref name="Elsevier">{{cite journal |last1=Manhesa |first1=Gérard |last2=Allègre |first2=Claude J. |authorlink2=Claude Allègre |last3=Dupréa |first3=Bernard |last4=Hamelin |first4=Bruno |date=May 1980 |title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics |journal=[[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=370–382 |bibcode=1980E&PSL..47..370M |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2 |issn=0012-821X}}</ref> The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago,<ref name="Origin1">{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |authorlink1=J. William Schopf |last2=Kudryavtsev |first2=Anatoliy B. |last3=Czaja |first3=Andrew D. |last4=Tripathi |first4=Abhishek B. |date=October 5, 2007 |title=Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils |journal=[[Precambrian Research]] |volume=158 |pages=141–155 |issue=3–4 |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009 |issn=0301-9268|bibcode=2007PreR..158..141S}}</ref><ref name="RavenJohnson2002">{{harvnb|Raven|Johnson|2002|p=68}}</ref> during the [[Eoarchean]] Era after a geological [[Crust (geology)|crust]] started to solidify following the earlier molten [[Hadean]] Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia.<ref name="AP-20131113">{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |date=November 13, 2013 |title=Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, New York |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=2015-05-31 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629230719/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html |archivedate=June 29, 2015}}</ref><ref name="TG-20131113-JP">{{cite news |last=Pearlman |first=Jonathan |date=November 13, 2013 |title=Oldest signs of life on Earth found |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10445788/Oldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]] |accessdate=2014-12-15 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216062531/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10445788/Oldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html |archivedate=2014-12-16}}</ref><ref name="AST-20131108">{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |authorlink4=Robert Hazen |date=November 16, 2013 |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ''ca.'' 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–1124 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |issn=1531-1074 |pmc=3870916 |pmid=24205812}}</ref> Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old [[Metasediment|metasedimentary rocks]] discovered in Western Greenland<ref name="NG-20131208">{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894}}</ref> as well as "remains of [[Biotic material|biotic life]]" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.<ref name="AP-20151019">{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023200248/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |archivedate=23 October 2015 |accessdate=8 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf">{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |date=November 24, 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–14521 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=0027-8424 |accessdate=2015-12-30 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106021508/http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |archivedate=2015-11-06}}</ref> Commenting on the Australian findings, [[Stephen Blair Hedges]] wrote, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe."<ref name="AP-20151019" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Schouten |first=Lucy |date=October 20, 2015 |title=When did life first emerge on Earth? Maybe a lot earlier than we thought |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2015/1020/When-did-life-first-emerge-on-Earth-Maybe-a-lot-earlier-than-we-thought |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=[[Christian Science Publishing Society]] |issn=0882-7729 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322214217/http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2015/1020/When-did-life-first-emerge-on-Earth-Maybe-a-lot-earlier-than-we-thought |archive-date=2016-03-22 |url-status=live |access-date=2018-07-11}}</ref>  In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.<ref name="NYT-20160725">{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=July 25, 2016 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |location=New York |publisher=[[The New York Times Company]] |issn=0362-4331 |accessdate=2016-07-25 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728053822/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |archivedate=July 28, 2016}}</ref>

More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species,<ref name="Book-Biology">{{harvnb|McKinney|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4LHnCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110#v=onepage 110]}}</ref> that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct.<ref name="StearnsStearns1999" /><ref name="NYT-20141108-MJN">{{cite news |last=Novacek |first=Michael J. |date=November 8, 2014 |title=Prehistory's Brilliant Future |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/opinion/sunday/prehistorys-brilliant-future.html |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |publisher=The New York Times Company |issn=0362-4331 |accessdate=2014-12-25 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229225657/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/opinion/sunday/prehistorys-brilliant-future.html |archivedate=2014-12-29}}</ref> Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million,<ref name="PLoS-20110823">{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=Camilo |last2=Tittensor |first2=Derek P. |last3=Adl |first3=Sina |last4=Simpson |first4=Alastair G.B. |last5=Worm |first5=Boris |authorlink5=Boris Worm |display-authors=3 |date=August 23, 2011 |title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=9 |issue=8 |page=e1001127 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |issn=1545-7885 |pmc=3160336 |pmid=21886479}}</ref><ref name="MillerSpoolman2012">{{harvnb|Miller|Spoolman|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NYEJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}}</ref> of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named<ref name="Chapman2009">{{harvnb|Chapman|2009}}</ref> and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date,<ref name="col2016">{{cite web |url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/ac |title=Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life, 2016 Annual Checklist |year=2016 |editor-last=Roskov |editor-first=Y. |editor2-last=Abucay |editor2-first=L. |editor3-last=Orrell |editor3-first=T. |editor4-last=Nicolson |editor4-first=D. |editor5-last=Flann |editor5-first=C. |editor6-last=Bailly |editor6-first=N. |editor7-last=Kirk |editor7-first=P. |editor8-last=Bourgoin |editor8-first=T. |editor9-last=DeWalt |editor9-first=R.E. |editor10-last=Decock |editor10-first=W. |editor11-last=De Wever |editor11-first=A. |display-editors=4 |website=Species 2000 |publisher=[[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |issn=2405-884X |accessdate=2016-11-06 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112121623/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/ac |archivedate=2016-11-12}}</ref> leaving at least 80 percent not yet described.

Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the [[Last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all life]] existed.<ref name="Doolittle_2000" /> The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Peretó |first=Juli |date=March 2005 |title=Controversies on the origin of life |url=http://www.im.microbios.org/0801/0801023.pdf |journal=International Microbiology |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 |issn=1139-6709 |pmid=15906258 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824074726/http://www.im.microbios.org/0801/0801023.pdf |archivedate=2015-08-24}}</ref> The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as [[RNA]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Joyce |first=Gerald F. |authorlink=Gerald Joyce |date=July 11, 2002 |title=The antiquity of RNA-based evolution |journal=Nature |volume=418 |issue=6894 |pages=214–221 |bibcode=2002Natur.418..214J |doi=10.1038/418214a |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=12110897}}</ref> and the assembly of simple cells.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trevors |first1=Jack T. |last2=Psenner |first2=Roland |date=December 2001 |title=From self-assembly of life to present-day bacteria: a possible role for nanocells |journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=573–582 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00592.x |issn=1574-6976 |pmid=11742692}}</ref>

=== Common descent ===
{{Further|Common descent|Evidence of common descent}}
All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral [[gene pool]].<ref name="Penny1999" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Theobald |first=Douglas L. |date=May 13, 2010 |title=A formal test of the theory of universal common ancestry |journal=Nature |volume=465 |issue=7295 |pages=219–222 |bibcode=2010Natur.465..219T |doi=10.1038/nature09014 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=20463738}}</ref> Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bapteste |first1=Eric |last2=Walsh |first2=David A. |date=June 2005 |title=Does the 'Ring of Life' ring true? |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Microbiology]] |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=256–261 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2005.03.012 |issn=0966-842X |pmid=15936656}}</ref> The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, [[vestigial trait]]s with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits. Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 1]}}</ref>

[[File:Ape skeletons.png|upright=1.45|thumb|left|The [[Ape|hominoids]] are descendants of a [[common descent|common ancestor]].]]
Modern research has suggested that, due to [[horizontal gene transfer]], this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doolittle |first1=W. Ford |last2=Bapteste |first2=Eric |date=February 13, 2007 |title=Pattern pluralism and the Tree of Life hypothesis |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=7 |pages=2043–2049 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.2043D |doi=10.1073/pnas.0610699104 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1892968 |pmid=17261804}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kunin |first1=Victor |last2=Goldovsky |first2=Leon |last3=Darzentas |first3=Nikos |last4=Ouzounis |first4=Christos A. |date=July 2005 |title=The net of life: Reconstructing the microbial phylogenetic network |journal=Genome Research |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=954–959 |doi=10.1101/gr.3666505 |issn=1088-9051 |pmid=15965028 |pmc=1172039}}</ref> To solve this problem and others, some authors prefer to use the "[[Coral of life]]" as a metaphor or a mathematical model to illustrate the evolution of life. This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.<ref name="Bnotebook">{{harvnb|Darwin|1837|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=27 25]}}</ref>

Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record.<ref name="Jablonski">{{cite journal |last=Jablonski |first=David |date=June 25, 1999 |title=The Future of the Fossil Record |journal=Science |volume=284 |issue=5423 |pages=2114–2116 |pmid=10381868 |doi=10.1126/science.284.5423.2114 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.

More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and [[amino acid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mason |first=Stephen F. |date=September 6, 1984 |title=Origins of biomolecular handedness |journal=Nature |volume=311 |issue=5981 |pages=19–23 |bibcode=1984Natur.311...19M |doi=10.1038/311019a0 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=6472461}}</ref> The development of [[molecular genetics]] has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the [[molecular clock]] produced by mutations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolf |first1=Yuri I. |last2=Rogozin |first2=Igor B. |last3=Grishin |first3=Nick V. |last4=Koonin |first4=Eugene V. |authorlink4=Eugene Koonin |date=September 1, 2002 |title=Genome trees and the tree of life |journal=Trends in Genetics |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=472–479 |doi=10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02744-0 |issn=0168-9525 |pmid=12175808}}</ref> For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varki |first1=Ajit |authorlink1=Ajit Varki |last2=Altheide |first2=Tasha K. |date=December 2005 |title=Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack |journal=Genome Research |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1746–1758 |doi=10.1101/gr.3737405 |issn=1088-9051 |pmid=16339373|citeseerx=10.1.1.673.9212}}</ref>

=== Evolution of life ===
{{Main|Evolutionary history of life|Timeline of evolutionary history of life}}
{{PhylomapA|size=320px|align=right|caption=[[Phylogenetic tree|Evolutionary tree]] showing the divergence of modern species from their common ancestor in the centre.<ref name="Ciccarelli">{{cite journal |last1=Ciccarelli |first1=Francesca D. |last2=Doerks |first2=Tobias |last3=von Mering |first3=Christian |last4=Creevey |first4=Christopher J. |last5=Snel |first5=Berend |last6=Bork |first6=Peer |authorlink6=Peer Bork |date=March 3, 2006 |title=Toward Automatic Reconstruction of a Highly Resolved Tree of Life |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5765 |pages=1283–1287 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1283C |doi=10.1126/science.1123061 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=16513982 |display-authors=3 |url=http://bioinformatics.bio.uu.nl/pdf/Ciccarelli.s06-311.pdf |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035346/http://bioinformatics.bio.uu.nl/pdf/Ciccarelli.s06-311.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |citeseerx=10.1.1.381.9514}}</ref> The three [[Domain (biology)|domains]] are coloured, with [[bacteria]] blue, [[archaea]] green and [[eukaryote]]s red.}}
Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago.<ref name="Cavalier-Smith">{{cite journal |last=Cavalier-Smith |first=Thomas |authorlink=Thomas Cavalier-Smith |date=June 29, 2006 |title=Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and revolution |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=969–1006 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1842 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=1578732 |pmid=16754610}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Schopf |first=J. William |date=June 29, 2006 |title=Fossil evidence of Archaean life |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=869–885 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1834 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=1578735 |pmid=16754604}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Altermann |first1=Wladyslaw |last2=Kazmierczak |first2=Józef |date=November 2003 |title=Archean microfossils: a reappraisal of early life on Earth |journal=Research in Microbiology |volume=154 |issue=9 |pages=611–617 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2003.08.006 |issn=0923-2508 |pmid=14596897}}</ref> No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schopf |first=J. William |date=July 19, 1994 |title=Disparate rates, differing fates: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to the Phanerozoic |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=91 |issue=15 |pages=6735–6742 |bibcode=1994PNAS...91.6735S |doi=10.1073/pnas.91.15.6735 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=44277 |pmid=8041691}}</ref> The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6–2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called [[endosymbiont|endosymbiosis]].<ref name="rgruqh">{{cite journal |last1=Poole |first1=Anthony M. |last2=Penny |first2=David |date=January 2007 |title=Evaluating hypotheses for the origin of eukaryotes |journal=BioEssays |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=74–84 |doi=10.1002/bies.20516 |issn=0265-9247 |pmid=17187354}}</ref><ref name="Dyall">{{cite journal |last1=Dyall |first1=Sabrina D. |last2=Brown |first2=Mark T. |last3=Johnson |first3=Patricia J. |authorlink3=Patricia J. Johnson |date=April 9, 2004 |title=Ancient Invasions: From Endosymbionts to Organelles |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5668 |pages=253–257 |bibcode=2004Sci...304..253D |doi=10.1126/science.1094884 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=15073369}}</ref> The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or [[hydrogenosome]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Martin |first=William |date=October 2005 |title=The missing link between hydrogenosomes and mitochondria |journal=Trends in Microbiology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=457–459 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2005.08.005 |issn=0966-842X |pmid=16109488}}</ref> Another engulfment of [[cyanobacteria]]l-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lang |first1=B. Franz |last2=Gray |first2=Michael W. |last3=Burger |first3=Gertraud |date=December 1999 |title=Mitochondrial genome evolution and the origin of eukaryotes |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=33 |pages=351–397 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.33.1.351 |issn=0066-4197 |pmid=10690412}}
* {{cite journal |last=McFadden |first=Geoffrey Ian |date=December 1, 1999 |title=Endosymbiosis and evolution of the plant cell |journal=Current Opinion in Plant Biology |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=513–519 |doi=10.1016/S1369-5266(99)00025-4 |issn=1369-5266 |pmid=10607659}}</ref>

The history of life was that of the [[Unicellular organism|unicellular]] eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the [[Ediacara biota|Ediacaran]] period.<ref name="Cavalier-Smith" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeLong |first1=Edward F. |authorlink1=Edward DeLong |last2=Pace |first2=Norman R. |authorlink2=Norman R. Pace |date=August 1, 2001 |title=Environmental Diversity of Bacteria and Archaea |journal=[[Systematic Biology]] |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=470–478 |doi=10.1080/106351501750435040 |issn=1063-5157 |pmid=12116647 |url=http://sysbio.oxfordjournals.org/content/50/4/470.full.pdf |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222022557/http://sysbio.oxfordjournals.org/content/50/4/470.full.pdf |archivedate=2016-02-22 |citeseerx=10.1.1.321.8828}}</ref> The [[Multicellular evolution|evolution of multicellularity]] occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as [[sponge]]s, [[brown algae]], cyanobacteria, [[Slime mold|slime moulds]] and [[myxobacteria]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kaiser |first=Dale |authorlink=A. Dale Kaiser |date=December 2001 |title=Building a multicellular organism |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=35 |pages=103–123 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.35.102401.090145 |issn=0066-4197 |pmid=11700279}}</ref> In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.<ref name="NYT-20160107">{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Genetic Flip Helped Organisms Go From One Cell to Many |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/12/science/genetic-flip-helped-organisms-go-from-one-cell-to-many.html |date=January 7, 2016 |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |publisher=The New York Times Company |issn=0362-4331 |accessdate=2016-01-07 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107204432/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/12/science/genetic-flip-helped-organisms-go-from-one-cell-to-many.html |archivedate=2016-01-07}}</ref>

Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the [[Cambrian explosion]]. Here, the majority of [[Phylum|types]] of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct.<ref name="Valentine_1999">{{cite journal |last1=Valentine |first1=James W. |authorlink1=James W. Valentine |last2=Jablonski |first2=David |last3=Erwin |first3=Douglas H. |authorlink3=Douglas Erwin |date=March 1, 1999 |title=Fossils, molecules and embryos: new perspectives on the Cambrian explosion |url=http://dev.biologists.org/content/126/5/851.full.pdf+html |journal=[[Development (journal)|Development]] |volume=126 |issue=5 |pages=851–859 |issn=0950-1991 |pmid=9927587 |accessdate=2014-12-30 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301063309/http://dev.biologists.org/content/126/5/851.full.pdf+html |archivedate=2015-03-01}}</ref> Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ohno |first=Susumu |date=January 1997 |title=The reason for as well as the consequence of the Cambrian explosion in animal evolution |journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution |volume=44 |issue=Suppl. 1 |pages=S23–S27 |doi=10.1007/PL00000055 |issn=0022-2844 |pmid=9071008|bibcode=1997JMolE..44S..23O}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Valentine |first1=James W. |last2=Jablonski |first2=David |title=Morphological and developmental macroevolution: a paleontological perspective |url=http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper.php?doi=14756327 |year=2003 |journal=The International Journal of Developmental Biology |volume=47 |issue=7–8 |pages=517–522 |issn=0214-6282 |pmid=14756327 |accessdate=2014-12-30 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024234611/http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper.php?doi=14756327 |archivedate=2014-10-24}}</ref>

About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Waters |first=Elizabeth R. |date=December 2003 |title=Molecular adaptation and the origin of land plants |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=456–463 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2003.07.018 |issn=1055-7903 |pmid=14615186}}</ref> Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mayhew |first=Peter J. |authorlink=Peter Mayhew (biologist) |date=August 2007 |title=Why are there so many insect species? Perspectives from fossils and phylogenies |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=425–454 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00018.x |issn=1464-7931 |pmid=17624962}}</ref> [[Amphibian]]s first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early [[amniote]]s and birds around 155 million years ago (both from "[[reptile]]"-like lineages), [[mammal]]s around 129 million years ago, [[homininae]] around 10 million years ago and [[Anatomically modern humans|modern humans]] around 250,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carroll |first=Robert L. |authorlink=Robert L. Carroll |date=May 2007 |title=The Palaeozoic Ancestry of Salamanders, Frogs and Caecilians |journal=[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=150 |issue=Supplement s1 |pages=1–140 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00246.x |issn=1096-3642}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wible |first1=John R. |last2=Rougier |first2=Guillermo W. |last3=Novacek |first3=Michael J. |last4=Asher |first4=Robert J. |date=June 21, 2007 |title=Cretaceous eutherians and Laurasian origin for placental mammals near the K/T boundary |journal=Nature |volume=447 |issue=7147 |pages=1003–1006 |bibcode=2007Natur.447.1003W |doi=10.1038/nature05854 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=17581585}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Witmer |first=Lawrence M. |authorlink=Lawrence Witmer |date=July 28, 2011 |title=Palaeontology: An icon knocked from its perch |journal=Nature |volume=475 |issue=7357 |pages=458–459 |doi=10.1038/475458a |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=21796198}}</ref> However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes.<ref name="Schloss" />

== Applications ==
{{Main|Applications of evolution|Selective breeding|Evolutionary computation}}
Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology, such as natural selection, have many applications.<ref name="Bull">{{cite journal |last1=Bull |first1=James J. |authorlink1=James J. Bull |last2=Wichman |first2=Holly A. |date=November 2001 |title=Applied evolution |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=32 |pages=183–217 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114020 |issn=1545-2069}}</ref>

Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. This has been used for thousands of years in the [[domestication]] of plants and animals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doebley |first1=John F. |last2=Gaut |first2=Brandon S. |last3=Smith |first3=Bruce D. |authorlink3=Bruce D. Smith |date=December 29, 2006 |title=The Molecular Genetics of Crop Domestication |journal=Cell |volume=127 |issue=7 |pages=1309–1321 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2006.12.006 |issn=0092-8674 |pmid=17190597}}</ref> More recently, such selection has become a vital part of [[genetic engineering]], with [[selectable marker]]s such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA. Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new [[antibody|antibodies]]) in a process called [[directed evolution]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jäckel |first1=Christian |last2=Kast |first2=Peter |last3=Hilvert |first3=Donald |date=June 2008 |title=Protein Design by Directed Evolution |journal=[[Annual Review of Biophysics]] |volume=37 |pages=153–173 |doi=10.1146/annurev.biophys.37.032807.125832 |issn=1936-122X |pmid=18573077}}</ref>

Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human [[genetic disorder]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Maher |first=Brendan |date=April 8, 2009 |title=Evolution: Biology's next top model? |journal=Nature |volume=458 |issue=7239 |pages=695–698 |doi=10.1038/458695a |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=19360058}}</ref> For example, the [[Mexican tetra]] is an [[Albinism|albino]] cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Borowsky |first=Richard |date=January 8, 2008 |title=Restoring sight in blind cavefish |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=R23–R24 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.023 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=18177707|bibcode=1996CBio....6.1213A}}</ref> This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gross |first1=Joshua B. |last2=Borowsky |first2=Richard |last3=Tabin |first3=Clifford J. |date=January 2, 2009 |editor1-last=Barsh |editor1-first=Gregory S. |title=A novel role for ''Mc1r'' in the parallel evolution of depigmentation in independent populations of the cavefish ''Astyanax mexicanus'' |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=e1000326 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000326 |issn=1553-7390 |pmc=2603666 |pmid=19119422}}</ref>

Evolutionary theory has many applications in medicine. Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and [[cancer]]s evolve to be resistant to host [[immune system|immune defences]], as well as [[pharmaceutical drug]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merlo |first1=Lauren M.F. |last2=Pepper |first2=John W. |last3=Reid |first3=Brian J. |last4=Maley |first4=Carlo C. |author-link4=Carlo Maley |date=December 2006 |title=Cancer as an evolutionary and ecological process |journal=[[Nature Reviews Cancer]] |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=924–935 |doi=10.1038/nrc2013 |issn=1474-175X |pmid=17109012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Dabo |author2=Weiwei Xue |author3=Wenqi Zhang |author4=Huanxiang Liu |author5=Xiaojun Yao |date=October 2012 |title=Understanding the drug resistance mechanism of hepatitis C virus NS3/4A to ITMN-191 due to R155K, A156V, D168A/E mutations: a computational study |journal=[[Biochimica et Biophysica Acta|Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects]] |volume=1820 |issue=10 |pages=1526–1534 |doi=10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.06.001 |issn=0304-4165 |pmid=22698669 |display-authors=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Woodford |first1=Neil |last2=Ellington |first2=Matthew J. |date=January 2007 |title=The emergence of antibiotic resistance by mutation. |journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=5–18 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01492.x |issn=1198-743X |pmid=17184282}}</ref> These same problems occur in agriculture with [[pesticide]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Labbé |first1=Pierrick |last2=Berticat |first2=Claire |last3=Berthomieu |first3=Arnaud |last4=Unal |first4=Sandra |last5=Bernard |first5=Clothilde |last6=Weill |first6=Mylène |last7=Lenormand |first7=Thomas |date=November 16, 2007 |title=Forty Years of Erratic Insecticide Resistance Evolution in the Mosquito ''Culex pipiens'' |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=3 |issue=11 |page=e205 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0030205 |issn=1553-7390 |pmid=18020711 |display-authors=3 |pmc=2077897}}</ref> and [[herbicide]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Neve |first=Paul |date=October 2007 |title=Challenges for herbicide resistance evolution and management: 50 years after Harper |journal=Weed Research |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=365–369 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3180.2007.00581.x |issn=0043-1737}}</ref> resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodríguez-Rojas |first1=Alexandro |last2=Rodríguez-Beltrán |first2=Jerónimo |last3=Couce |first3=Alejandro |last4=Blázquez |first4=Jesús |date=August 2013 |title=Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance: A bitter fight against evolution |journal=[[International Journal of Medical Microbiology]] |volume=303 |issue=6–7 |pages=293–297 |doi=10.1016/j.ijmm.2013.02.004 |issn=1438-4221 |pmid=23517688|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3418782 }}</ref> and predicting the evolution and evolvability<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schenk |first1=Martijn F. |last2=Szendro |first2=Ivan G. |last3=Krug |first3=Joachim |last4=de Visser |first4=J. Arjan G.M. |date=June 28, 2012 |title=Quantifying the Adaptive Potential of an Antibiotic Resistance Enzyme |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=8 |issue=6 |page=e1002783 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1002783 |issn=1553-7390 |pmid=22761587 |pmc=3386231}}</ref> of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Read |first1=Andrew F. |last2=Lynch |first2=Penelope A. |last3=Thomas |first3=Matthew B. |date=April 7, 2009 |title=How to Make Evolution-Proof Insecticides for Malaria Control |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=e1000058 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000058 |issn=1545-7885 |pmid=19355786 |pmc=3279047}}</ref>

In [[computer science]], simulations of evolution using [[evolutionary algorithm]]s and [[artificial life]] started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Alex S. |authorlink=Alex Fraser (scientist) |date=January 18, 1958 |title=Monte Carlo Analyses of Genetic Models |journal=Nature |volume=181 |issue=4603 |pages=208–209 |bibcode=1958Natur.181..208F |doi=10.1038/181208a0 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=13504138}}</ref> Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of [[Ingo Rechenberg]] in the 1960s. He used [[Evolution strategy|evolution strategies]] to solve complex engineering problems.<ref>{{harvnb|Rechenberg|1973}}</ref> [[Genetic algorithm]]s in particular became popular through the writing of [[John Henry Holland]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holland|1975}}</ref> Practical applications also include [[genetic programming|automatic evolution of computer programmes]].<ref>{{harvnb|Koza|1992}}</ref> Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jamshidi |first=Mo |date=August 15, 2003 |title=Tools for intelligent control: fuzzy controllers, neural networks and genetic algorithms |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A]] |volume=361 |issue=1809 |pages=1781–1808 |bibcode=2003RSPTA.361.1781J |doi=10.1098/rsta.2003.1225 |issn=1364-503X |pmid=12952685}}</ref>

== Social and cultural responses ==
{{Further|Social effects of evolutionary theory|1860 Oxford evolution debate|Creation–evolution controversy|Objections to evolution|Evolution in fiction}}

[[File:Editorial cartoon depicting Charles Darwin as an ape (1871).jpg|upright|thumb|As evolution became widely accepted in the 1870s, [[caricature]]s of Charles Darwin with an [[ape]] or [[monkey]] body symbolised evolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2003|pp=376–379}}</ref>]]

In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of ''On the Origin of Species'' in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Today, the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists.<ref name="Kutschera" /> However, evolution remains a contentious concept for some [[Theism|theists]].<ref>For an overview of the philosophical, religious and cosmological controversies, see:
* {{harvnb|Dennett|1995}}
For the scientific and social reception of evolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries, see:
* {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=Ian C. |authorlink=Ian C. Johnston |year=1999 |chapter=Section Three: The Origins of Evolutionary Theory |chapter-url=https://malvma.viu.ca/~johnstoi/darwin/sect3.htm |title=... And Still We Evolve: A Handbook for the Early History of Modern Science |url=https://malvma.viu.ca/~johnstoi/darwin/title.htm |edition=3rd revised |location=Nanaimo, BC |publisher=Liberal Studies Department, [[Vancouver Island University|Malaspina University-College]] |accessdate=2015-01-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416050826/http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/darwin/title.htm |archive-date=2016-04-16}}
* {{harvnb|Bowler|2003}}
* {{cite journal |last=Zuckerkandl |first=Emile |authorlink=Emile Zuckerkandl |date=December 30, 2006 |title=Intelligent design and biological complexity |journal=[[Gene (journal)|Gene]] |volume=385 |pages=2–18 |pmid=17011142 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2006.03.025 |issn=0378-1119}}</ref>

While [[Level of support for evolution#Support for evolution by religious bodies|various religions and denominations]] have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as [[theistic evolution]], there are [[creationism|creationists]] who believe that evolution is contradicted by the [[creation myth]]s found in their [[religion]]s and who raise various [[objections to evolution]].<ref name="ScottEC" /><ref name="Ross2005">{{cite journal |last=Ross |first=Marcus R. |authorlink=Marcus R. Ross |date=May 2005 |title=Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism |url=http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=319–323 |issn=1089-9995 |accessdate=2008-04-28 |bibcode=2005JGeEd..53..319R |doi=10.5408/1089-9995-53.3.319 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511204303/http://nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf |archivedate=2008-05-11 |citeseerx=10.1.1.404.1340}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hameed |first=Salman |date=December 12, 2008 |title=Bracing for Islamic Creationism |url=http://helios.hampshire.edu/~sahCS/Hameed-Science-Creationism.pdf |journal=Science |volume=322 |issue=5908 |pages=1637–1638 |doi=10.1126/science.1163672 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=19074331 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110031233/http://helios.hampshire.edu/~sahCS/Hameed-Science-Creationism.pdf |archivedate=2014-11-10}}</ref> As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' in 1844, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of [[human evolution]] that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and [[Evolution of morality|moral faculties]] of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003}}</ref> In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on [[politics]] and [[creation and evolution in public education|public education]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Jon D. |last2=Scott |first2=Eugenie C. |last3=Okamoto |first3=Shinji |date=August 11, 2006 |title=Public Acceptance of Evolution |journal=Science |volume=313 |issue=5788 |pages=765–766 |doi=10.1126/science.1126746 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=16902112}}</ref> While other scientific fields such as [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]<ref name="wmap">{{cite journal |last1=Spergel |first1=David Nathaniel |authorlink1=David Spergel |last2=Verde |first2=Licia |last3=Peiris |first3=Hiranya V. |last4=Komatsu |first4=Eiichiro |last5=Nolta |first5=Michael R. |last6=Bennett |first6=Charles L. |authorlink6=Charles L. Bennett |last7=Halpern |first7=Mark |last8=Hinshaw |first8=Gary |last9=Jarosik |first9=Norman |year=2003 |title=First-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal|The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series]] |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=175–194 |arxiv=astro-ph/0302209 |bibcode=2003ApJS..148..175S |doi=10.1086/377226 |display-authors=3}}</ref> and [[Earth science]]<ref name="zircon">{{cite journal |last1=Wilde |first1=Simon A. |last2=Valley |first2=John W. |last3=Peck |first3=William H. |last4=Graham |first4=Colin M. |date=January 11, 2001 |title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6817 |pages=175–178 |doi=10.1038/35051550 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11196637}}</ref> also conflict with literal interpretations of many [[religious text]]s, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists.

The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century. The [[Scopes Trial]] decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 ''[[Epperson v. Arkansas]]'' decision. Since then, the competing religious belief of [[creationism]] was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s, but it returned in [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] form as [[intelligent design]] (ID), to be excluded once again in the 2005 ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' case.<ref name="BioScience">{{cite journal |last=Branch |first=Glenn |authorlink=Glenn Branch |date=March 2007 |title=Understanding Creationism after ''Kitzmiller'' |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=278–284 |doi=10.1641/B570313 |issn=0006-3568|bibcode=1985BioSc..35..499W}}</ref> The debate over Darwin's ideas did not generate significant controversy in China.<ref name="jin2019">{{cite journal |author=Xiaoxing Jin |date=March 2019 |title=Translation and transmutation: the ''Origin of Species'' in China |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press on behalf of The British Society for the History of Science |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=117–141 |pmid=30587253 |doi=10.1017/S0007087418000808}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Wikipedia books|Evolution}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Argument from poor design]]
* [[Dual inheritance theory|Biocultural evolution]]
* [[Biological classification]]
* [[Evidence of common descent]]
* [[Evolution in Variable Environment]]
* [[Evolutionary anthropology]]
* [[Evolutionary ecology]]
* [[Evolutionary epistemology]]
* [[Evolutionary neuroscience]]
* [[Evolution of biological complexity]]
* [[Evolution of plants]]
* [[Project Steve]]
* [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life]]
* [[Universal Darwinism]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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** {{cite book |last=Eldredge |first=Niles |year=1985 |title=Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria |location=New York |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-671-49555-8 |lccn=84023632 |oclc=11443805}}
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* {{cite book |last=McKinney |first=Michael L. |year=1997 |chapter=How do rare species avoid extinction? A paleontological view |editor1-last=Kunin |editor1-first=William E. |editor2-last=Gaston |editor2-first=Kevin J. |title=The Biology of Rarity: Causes and consequences of rare—common differences |edition=1st |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Chapman & Hall]] |isbn=978-0-412-63380-5 |lccn=96071014 |oclc=36442106 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=G. Tyler |last2=Spoolman |first2=Scott E. |year=2012 |title=Environmental Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYEJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |edition=14th |location=Belmont, California |publisher=[[Cengage Learning|Brooks/Cole]] |isbn=978-1-111-98893-7 |lccn=2011934330 |oclc=741539226 |accessdate=2014-12-27 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Randy |last2=Decker |first2=Mark |last3=Cotner |first3=Sehoya |year=2010 |title=Chronology of the Evolution-Creationism Controversy |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]]/[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-0-313-36287-3 |lccn=2009039784 |oclc=422757410 |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/chronologyofevol0000moor}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nardon |first1=Paul |last2=Grenier |first2=Anne-Marie |year=1991 |chapter=Serial Endosymbiosis Theory and Weevil Evolution: The Role of Symbiosis |editor1-last=Margulis |editor1-first=Lynn |editor2-last=Fester |editor2-first=René |title=Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-13269-5 |lccn=90020439 |oclc=22597587 |ref=harv}} "Based on a conference held in Bellagio, Italy, June 25–30, 1989"
* {{cite book |author1=National Academy of Sciences |authorlink1=National Academy of Sciences |author2=Institute of Medicine |authorlink2=Institute of Medicine |year=2008 |title=Science, Evolution, and Creationism |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=National Academy Press |isbn=978-0-309-10586-6 |lccn=2007015904 |oclc=123539346 |accessdate=2014-11-22 |ref=NAS 2008}}
* {{cite book |last=Odum |first=Eugene P. |authorlink=Eugene Odum |year=1971 |title=Fundamentals of Ecology |edition=3rd |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |publisher=[[Saunders (imprint)|Saunders]] |isbn=978-0-7216-6941-0 |lccn=76081826 |oclc=154846 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Okasha |first=Samir |year=2006 |title=Evolution and the Levels of Selection |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926797-2 |lccn=2006039679 |oclc=70985413 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Panno |first=Joseph |title=The Cell: Evolution of the First Organism |year=2005 |series=Facts on File science library |location=New York |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing|Facts on File]] |isbn=978-0-8160-4946-2 |lccn=2003025841 |oclc=53901436 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Piatigorsky |first1=Joram |last2=Kantorow |first2=Marc |last3=Gopal-Srivastava |first3=Rashmi |last4=Tomarev |first4=Stanislav I. |year=1994 |chapter=Recruitment of enzymes and stress proteins as lens crystallins |editor1-last=Jansson |editor1-first=Bengt |editor2-last=Jörnvall |editor2-first=Hans |editor3-last=Rydberg |editor3-first=Ulf |editor4-last=Terenius |editor4-first=Lars |editor5-last=Vallee |editor5-first=Bert L. |display-editors=3 |title=Toward a Molecular Basis of Alcohol Use and Abuse |journal=Exs |series=Experientia |volume=71 |pages=241–50 |location=Basel; Boston |publisher=[[Birkhäuser|Birkhäuser Verlag]] |doi=10.1007/978-3-0348-7330-7_24 |isbn=978-3-7643-2940-2 |lccn=94010167 |oclc=30030941 |pmid=8032155 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Pigliucci |editor1-first=Massimo |editor1-link=Massimo Pigliucci |editor2-last=Müller |editor2-first=Gerd B. |editor2-link=Gerd B. Müller |year=2010 |title=Evolution, the Extended Synthesis |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780262315142 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918231401/http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780262315142 |archivedate=2015-09-18 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-51367-8 |lccn=2009024587 |oclc=804875316 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pocheville |first1=Arnaud |last2=Danchin |first2=Étienne |date=2017 |chapter=Chapter 3: Genetic assimilation and the paradox of blind variation |chapterurl=https://www.academia.edu/21713421 |editor-last1=Huneman |editor-first1=Philippe |editor-last2=Walsh |editor-first2=Denis M. |title=Challenging the Modern Synthesis |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937717-6 |lccn=2017448929 |oclc=1001337947 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Provine |first=William B. |authorlink=Will Provine |year=1971 |title=The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics |series=Chicago History of Science and Medicine |edition=2nd |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-68464-2 |lccn=2001027561 |oclc=46660910 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Provine |first=William B. |year=1988 |chapter=Progress in Evolution and Meaning in Life |editor-last=Nitecki |editor-first=Matthew H. |title=Evolutionary Progress |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-58693-9 |lccn=88020835 |oclc=18380658 |ref=harv}} "This book is the result of the Spring Systematics Symposium held in May, 1987, at the Field Museum in Chicago"
* {{cite book |last=Quammen |first=David |authorlink=David Quammen |year=2006 |title=The Reluctant Mr. Darwin: An Intimate Portrait of Charles Darwin and the Making of His Theory of Evolution |series=Great Discoveries |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=Atlas Books/[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0-393-05981-6 |lccn=2006009864 |oclc=65400177 |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/reluctantmrdarwi00quam}}
* {{cite book |last1=Raven |first1=Peter H. |authorlink1=Peter H. Raven |last2=Johnson |first2=George B. |authorlink2=George B. Johnson |year=2002 |title=Biology |edition=6th |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education|McGraw-Hill]] |isbn=978-0-07-112261-0 |lccn=2001030052 |oclc=45806501 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ray |first=John |authorlink=John Ray |year=1686 |title=Historia Plantarum |trans-title=History of Plants |volume=I |location=Londini |publisher=Typis Mariæ Clark |lccn=agr11000774 |oclc=2126030 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Rechenberg |first=Ingo |authorlink=Ingo Rechenberg |year=1973 |title=Evolutionsstrategie; Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution |type=PhD thesis |series=Problemata |language=German |volume=15 |others=Afterword by [[Manfred Eigen]] |location=Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt |publisher=Frommann-Holzboog |isbn=978-3-7728-0373-4 |lccn=74320689 |oclc=9020616 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Matt |authorlink=Matt Ridley |year=1993 |title=The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature |location=New York |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-84357-2 |oclc=636657988 |ref=harv|title-link=The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Beverly Peterson |last2=Stearns |first2=Stephen C. |author-link2=Stephen C. Stearns |year=1999 |title=Watching, from the Edge of Extinction |location=New Haven, Connecticut |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-08469-6 |lccn=98034087 |oclc=803522914 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Stevens |first=Anthony |authorlink=Anthony Stevens (Jungian analyst) |year=1982 |title=Archetype: A Natural History of the Self |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge|Routledge & Kegan Paul]] |isbn=978-0-7100-0980-7 |lccn=84672250 |oclc=10458367 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Voet |first1=Donald |author-link1=Donald Voet|last2=Voet |first2=Judith G. |author-link2=Judith G. Voet|last3=Pratt |first3=Charlotte W. |author-link3=Charlotte W. Pratt|year=2016 |title=Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level |edition=Fifth |location=[[Hoboken, New Jersey]] |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-11-891840-1 |lccn=2016002847 |oclc=939245154|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=West-Eberhard |first=Mary Jane |authorlink=Mary Jane West-Eberhard |year=2003 |title=Developmental Plasticity and Evolution |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512235-0 |lccn=2001055164 |oclc=48398911 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wiley |first1=E. O. |authorlink1=Edward O. Wiley |last2=Lieberman |first2=Bruce S. |year=2011 |title=Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics |edition=2nd |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-0-470-90596-8 |lccn=2010044283 |oclc=741259265 |doi=10.1002/9781118017883 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Sewall |authorlink=Sewall Wright |year=1984 |title=Genetic and Biometric Foundations |series=Evolution and the Genetics of Populations |volume=1 |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-91038-3 |lccn=67025533 |oclc=246124737 |ref=harv}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{further|Bibliography of biology}}
{{Library resources box
|onlinebooks=yes
|by=no
|lcheading=Evolution (Biology)
|label=Evolution
}}
{{refbegin}}

'''Introductory reading'''
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Barrett |editor1-first=Paul H. |editor2-last=Weinshank |editor2-first=Donald J. |editor3-last=Gottleber |editor3-first=Timothy T. |year=1981 |title=A Concordance to Darwin's Origin of Species, First Edition |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8014-1319-3 |lccn=80066893 |oclc=610057960}}
* {{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Sean B. |year=2005 |title=Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo and the Making of the Animal Kingdom |others=illustrations by Jamie W. Carroll, Josh P. Klaiss, Leanne M. Olds |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-06016-4 |lccn=2004029388 |oclc=57316841 |url=https://archive.org/details/endlessformsmost00carr_0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=Brian |authorlink1=Brian Charlesworth |last2=Charlesworth |first2=Deborah |authorlink2=Deborah Charlesworth |year=2003 |title=Evolution: A Very Short Introduction |series=Very Short Introductions |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280251-4 |lccn=2003272247 |oclc=51668497}}
* {{cite book |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |year=1989 |title=Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-02705-1 |lccn=88037469 |oclc=18983518|title-link=Wonderful Life (book)}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Steve |authorlink=Steve Jones (biologist) |year=1999 |title=Almost Like a Whale: The Origin of Species Updated |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |isbn=978-0-385-40985-8 |lccn=2002391059 |oclc=41420544|title-link=Almost Like a Whale}}
** {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Steve |year=2000 |title=Darwin's Ghost: The Origin of Species Updated |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-375-50103-6 |lccn=99053246 |oclc=42690131 |author-mask=2}} American version.
* {{cite book |last=Mader |first=Sylvia S. |title=Biology |year=2007 |others=Significant contributions by Murray P. Pendarvis |edition=9th |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education|McGraw-Hill Higher Education]] |isbn=978-0-07-246463-4 |lccn=2005027781 |oclc=61748307}}
* {{cite book |last=Maynard Smith |first=John |year=1993 |title=The Theory of Evolution |edition=Canto |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-45128-4 |lccn=93020358 |oclc=27676642|title-link=The Theory of Evolution}}
* {{cite book |last=Pallen |first=Mark J. |year=2009 |title=The Rough Guide to Evolution |series=Rough Guides Reference Guides |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Rough Guides]] |isbn=978-1-85828-946-5 |lccn=2009288090 |oclc=233547316}}

'''Advanced reading'''
* {{cite book |last1=Barton |first1=Nicholas H. |authorlink1=Nick Barton |last2=Briggs |first2=Derek E.G. |authorlink2=Derek Briggs |last3=Eisen |first3=Jonathan A. |authorlink3=Jonathan Eisen |last4=Goldstein |first4=David B. |last5=Patel |first5=Nipan H. |year=2007 |title=Evolution |location=Cold Spring Harbor, New York |publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press |isbn=978-0-87969-684-9 |lccn=2007010767 |oclc=86090399 |display-authors=3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Coyne |first1=Jerry A. |last2=Orr |first2=H. Allen |authorlink2=H. Allen Orr |year=2004 |title=Speciation |location=Sunderland, Massachusetts |publisher=Sinauer Associates |isbn=978-0-87893-089-0 |lccn=2004009505 |oclc=55078441}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bergstrom |first1=Carl T. |authorlink1=Carl Bergstrom |last2=Dugatkin |first2=Lee Alan |year=2012 |title=Evolution |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-91341-5 |lccn=2011036572 |oclc=729341924}}
* {{cite book |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |year=2002 |title=The Structure of Evolutionary Theory |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00613-3 |lccn=2001043556 |oclc=47869352 |url=https://archive.org/details/structureofevolu00goul}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Hall |editor-first1=Brian K. |editor-last2=Olson |editor-first2=Wendy |year=2003 |title=Keywords and Concepts in Evolutionary Developmental Biology |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00904-2 |lccn=2002192201 |oclc=50761342}}
* {{cite book |last=Kauffman |first=Stuart A. |authorlink1=Stuart Kauffman |year=1993 |title=The Origins of Order: Self-organization and Selection in Evolution |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lZcSpRJz0dgC&printsec=frontcover |location=New York; Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507951-7 |lccn=91011148 |oclc=895048122}}
* {{cite book |last1=Maynard Smith |first1=John |last2=Szathmáry |first2=Eörs |authorlink2=Eörs Szathmáry |year=1995 |title=The Major Transitions in Evolution |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=W.H. Freeman Spektrum |isbn=978-0-7167-4525-9 |lccn=94026965 |oclc=30894392|title-link=The Major Transitions in Evolution}}
* {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |year=2001 |title=What Evolution Is |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-04426-9 |lccn=2001036562 |oclc=47443814}}
* {{cite book |last=Minelli |first=Alessandro |authorlink=Alessandro Minelli |year=2009 |title=Forms of Becoming: The Evolutionary Biology of Development |others=Translation by Mark Epstein |location=Princeton, New Jersey; Oxford |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-13568-7 |lccn=2008028825 |oclc=233030259}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==

{{Spoken Wikipedia|Evolution.ogg|2005-04-18}} 
{{Sister project links|evolution|voy=no}}
;General information
* {{In Our Time|"Evolution"|p00545gl}}
* {{cite web |url=http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/ |title=Evolution Resources from the National Academies |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |location=Washington, DC |accessdate=2011-05-30}}
* {{cite web |url=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ |title=Understanding Evolution: your one-stop resource for information on evolution |publisher=[[University of California, Berkeley]] |location=Berkeley, California |accessdate=2011-05-30}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/index.jsp |title=Evolution of Evolution – 150 Years of Darwin's 'On the Origin of Species' |publisher=[[National Science Foundation]] |location=Arlington County, Virginia |accessdate=2011-05-30}}
* {{cite web |url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive |title=Human Evolution Timeline Interactive |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]], [[National Museum of Natural History]] |accessdate=2018-07-14|date=2010-01-28}} Adobe Flash required.

;Experiments concerning the process of biological evolution
* {{cite web |url=http://myxo.css.msu.edu/index.html |title=Experimental Evolution |last=Lenski |first=Richard E |authorlink=Richard Lenski |publisher=[[Michigan State University]] |location=East Lansing, Michigan |accessdate=2013-07-31}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chastain |first1=Erick |last2=Livnat |first2=Adi |last3=Papadimitriou |first3=Christos |authorlink3=Christos Papadimitriou |last4=Vazirani |first4=Umesh |authorlink4=Umesh Vazirani |date=July 22, 2014 |title=Algorithms, games, and evolution |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.]] |volume=111 |issue=29 |pages=10620–10623 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11110620C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1406556111 |pmid=24979793 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4115542}}
;Online lectures
* {{cite web |url=https://online-learning.harvard.edu/course/evolution-matters-lecture-series-0 |title=Evolution Matters Lecture Series |website=Harvard Online Learning Portal |publisher=[[Harvard University]] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218132454/https://online-learning.harvard.edu/course/evolution-matters-lecture-series-0 |archive-date=2017-12-18 |url-status=dead |accessdate=2018-07-15}}
* {{cite web |url=https://oyc.yale.edu/ecology-and-evolutionary-biology/eeb-122 |title=EEB 122: Principles of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior |last=Stearns |first=Stephen C |authorlink=Stephen C. Stearns |website=[[Open Yale Courses]] |publisher=[[Yale University]] |location=New Haven, Connecticut |accessdate=2018-07-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201233654/https://oyc.yale.edu/ecology-and-evolutionary-biology/eeb-122 |url-status=live |archivedate=2017-12-01}}

{{Evolution|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Big History}}
{{Breakthrough of the Year}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Evolutionary biology|Paleontology}}

[[Category:Biology theories]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology|*]]
[[Category:Evolution| ]]

Creation

2019-10-24T21:56:02Z

FlagrantSystemError: Removed some biases

'''Creationism''' is the religious belief that [[nature]], and aspects such as the [[universe]], [[Earth]], [[life]], and [[human]]s, originated with [[supernatural]] acts of divine creation.<ref name="Gunn2004">[[Creationism#Gunn 2004|Gunn 2004]], p. 9, "The ''Concise Oxford Dictionary'' says that creationism is 'the belief that the universe and living organisms originated from specific acts of divine creation.'"</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=46aUBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA789&dq=Handbook+of+Evolutionary+Thinking+in+the+Sciences#v=onepage&q=881&f=false|title=Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences|last1=Brosseau|first1=Olivier|last2=Silberstein|first2=Marc|publisher=Springer|year=2015|isbn=9789401790147|editor-last1=Heams|editor-first1=Thomas|place=Dordrecht|pages=881–96|contribution=Evolutionism(s) and Creationism(s)|ref=harv|editor-last2=Huneman|editor-first2=Philippe|editor-last3=Lecointre|editor-first3=Guillaume|editor-last4=Silberstein.|editor-first4=Marc}}</ref>
In its broadest sense, creationism includes a continuum of religious views,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=46aUBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA789&dq=Handbook+of+Evolutionary+Thinking+in+the+Sciences#v=onepage&q=881&f=false|title=Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences|last1=Brosseau|first1=Olivier|last2=Silberstein|first2=Marc|publisher=Springer|year=2015|isbn=9789401790147|editor-last1=Heams|editor-first1=Thomas|place=Dordrecht|pages=881, 884|contribution=Evolutionism(s) and Creationism(s)|ref=harv|editor-last2=Huneman|editor-first2=Philippe|editor-last3=Lecointre|editor-first3=Guillaume|editor-last4=Silberstein.|editor-first4=Marc|quote=Creationism is not a single homogenous doctrine ... Evolution, as a process, is a tool God uses to continually create the world. Here we have arrived at another sub-category of creationism called 'evolutionist creationism' }}</ref><ref name="Stewart2009">[[Creationism#Stewart 2010|Haarsma 2010]], p. 168, "Some Christians, often called 'Young Earth creationists,' reject evolution in order to maintain a semi-literal interpretation of certain biblical passages. Other Christians, called 'progressive creationists,' accept the scientific evidence for some evolution over a long history of the earth, but also insist that God must have performed some miracles during that history to create new life-forms. [[Intelligent design]], as it is promoted in North America is a form of progressive creation. Still other Christians, called 'theistic evolutionists' or 'evolutionary creationists,' assert that the scientific theory of evolution and the religious beliefs of Christianity can both be true."</ref>
which vary in their acceptance or rejection of [[science|scientific explanations]] such as [[evolution]] that describe the origin and development of natural phenomena.<ref name="Scott quote" /><ref name="OD_creationism">{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/creationism?q=creationism|title=creationism: definition of creationism in Oxford dictionary (American English) (US)|author=|website=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|type=Definition|oclc=656668849|accessdate=2014-03-05|quote=The belief that the universe and living organisms originate from specific acts of divine creation, as in the biblical account, rather than by natural processes such as evolution.}}</ref>

The term ''creationism'' most often refers to belief in [[special creation]]; the claim that the universe and lifeforms were created as they exist today by divine action, and that the only true explanations are those which are compatible with a [[Evangelical Christians|Christian fundamentalist]] [[Biblical literalism|literal]] interpretation of the [[creation]]s found in the [[Bible]]'s [[Genesis creation narrative]].<ref>{{harv|Scott|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FAAlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57, 97–98]|quote=The term creationism to many people connotes the theological doctrine of special creationism: that God created the universe essentially as we see it today, and that this universe has not changed appreciably since that creation event. Special creationism includes the idea that God created living things in their present forms, and it reflects a literalist view of the Bible. It is most closely associated with the endeavour of "creation science," which includes the view that the universe is only 10,000 years old. But the most important aspect of special creation is the idea that things are created in their present forms.]}}</ref> Since the 1970s, the commonest form of this has been [[young Earth creationism]] which posits special creation of the universe and lifeforms within the last 10,000 years on the basis of [[Flood geology]], and promotes [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] [[creation science]]. From the 18th century onwards, [[Old Earth Creationism]] accepted [[geological time|time]] harmonized with Genesis through [[Gap theory|gap]] or [[Day Age Creationism|day-age theory]], while supporting anti-evolution ideas. Modern old-Earth creationists support progressive creationism and continue to reject evolutionary explanations.<ref name="Scott1999">{{cite web |author=Eugenie Scott | title=The Creation/Evolution Continuum | website=[[National Center for Science Education|NCSE]] | date=13 February 2018 | url=https://ncse.com/library-resource/creationevolution-continuum | access-date=29 April 2019| author-link=Eugenie Scott }}</ref> Following [[Creation vs. evolution debate|political controversy]], creation science was reformulated as [[intelligent design]] and neo-creationism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ncse.com/creationism/general/what-is-intelligent-design-creationism|title=What is "Intelligent Design" Creationism?|date=2008-10-17|website=NCSE|language=en|access-date=2019-04-23}}</ref><ref name="Campbell_2006">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/feb/21/religion.highereducation|title=Academics fight rise of creationism at universities|last=Campbell|first=Duncan|date=February 20, 2006|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|accessdate=2010-04-07|publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]]|location=London}}</ref>

[[Mainline Protestant churches|Mainline Protestant]]s and the [[Catholic Church]] reconcile modern science with their faith in Creation through forms of [[theistic evolution]] which hold that God purposefully created through the [[Scientific law|laws of nature]], and accept evolution. Some groups call their belief [[evolutionary creation]]ism.<ref name="Scott quote">{{cite web|url=https://ncse.com/library-resource/creationevolution-continuum|title=The Creation/Evolution Continuum|author=Eugenie Scott|date=13 February 2018|website=[[National Center for Science Education|NCSE]]|access-date=6 May 2019|quote=creationism comes in many forms, and not all of them reject evolution|author-link=Eugenie Scott}}</ref>

Less prominently, there are also members of [[Islam|Islamic]]<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/03/science/03islam.html?_r=0|title=Creationism, Without a Young Earth, Emerges in the Islamic World|last1=Chang|first1=Kenneth|date=November 2, 2009|work=The New York Times|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Huffpo">{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/usaama-alazami/muslims-and-evolution-in-the-21st-century-a-galileo-moment_b_2688895.html|title=Muslims and Evolution in the 21st Century: A Galileo Moment?|last=al-Azami|first=Usaama|date=2013-02-14|work=Huffington Post Religion Blog|accessdate=19 February 2013}}</ref> and [[Hindu]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/mom/groves.html|title=Creationism: The Hindu View|website=www.talkorigins.org|access-date=2019-04-23}}</ref> faiths who are creationists.

Use of the term "creationist" in this context dates back to [[Charles Darwin]]'s unpublished 1842 sketch draft for what became ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'',<ref name="CD usage">{{harvnb|Numbers|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=drk3zykoEy4C&pg=PA50 50]}} "Since at least the early 1840s Darwin had occasionally referred to 'creationists' in his unpublished writings, but the epithet acquired little public currency." – [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=61&itemID=F1555&viewtype=text sketch written in 1842] – "if this had happened on an island, whence could the new forms have come,—here the geologist calls in creationists."</ref> and he used the term later in letters to colleagues.<ref name="Darwin_letters_1856_1863">{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-1919 |title=Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D. |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Darwin |date=July 5, 1856 |website=[[Correspondence of Charles Darwin#Darwin Correspondence Project website|Darwin Correspondence Project]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Library]] |location=Cambridge, UK |id=Letter 1919 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-4196 |title=Darwin, C. R. to Gray, Asa |last=Darwin |first=Charles |date=May 31, 1863 |website=Darwin Correspondence Project |publisher=Cambridge University Library |location=Cambridge, UK |id=Letter 4196 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> [[Asa Gray]] published a 1873 article in ''[[The Nation]]'' saying a "special creationist" maintaining that species "were supernaturally originated just as they are, by the very terms of his doctrine places them out of the reach of scientific explanation."<ref name="Asa usage">{{harvnb|Numbers|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=drk3zykoEy4C&pg=PA50 50]}} "In 1873 Asa Gray described a 'special creationist' (a phrase he placed in quotation marks) as one who maintained that species 'were supernaturally originated just as they are'," – {{cite book|title=The Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvZAAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA260|date=October 16, 1873|publisher=J.H. Richards|page=260}}</ref>

==Biblical basis==
The basis for many creationists' beliefs is a literal or quasi-literal interpretation of the [[Old Testament]], especially from stories from the [[book of Genesis]]:

* The [[Genesis creation narrative]] (Genesis 1–2) describes how [[God]] brings the Universe into being in a series of creative acts over six days and places the first man and woman ([[Adam and Eve]]) in a divine garden (the [[Garden of Eden]]). This story is the basis of creationist cosmology and biology.
* The [[Great Flood|Genesis flood narrative]] (Genesis 6–9) tells how God destroys the world and all life through a great flood, saving representatives of each form of life by means of [[Noah's ark]]. This forms the basis of creationist geology, better known as [[flood geology]].

A further important element is the interpretation of the [[Biblical chronology]], the elaborate system of life-spans, "generations," and other means by which the Bible measures the passage of events from the creation (Genesis 1:1) to the [[Book of Daniel]], the last biblical book in which it appears. Recent decades have seen attempts to de-link creationism from the Bible and recast it as science; these include [[creation science]] and [[intelligent design]].<ref>Richard F. Carlson, Tremper Longman III, Science, Creation and the Bible: Reconciling Rival Theories of Origins, p.25</ref> There are also non-Christian forms of creationism,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/creationism_1.shtml |title=Creationism and intelligent design |date=2 June 2009 |access-date=2 October 2018 |work=[[BBC]]}}</ref> notably Islamic creationism<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/03/science/03islam.html |title=Creationism, Minus a Young Earth, Emerges in the Islamic World |first=Kenneth |last=Chang |date=2 November 2009 |access-date=2 October 2018 |newspaper=[[NY Times]] |publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref> and Hindu creationism.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/nov/16/darwin-evolution-china-politics |title=Darwinism, through a Chinese lens |first=Riazat |last=Butt |date=16 November 2009 |access-date=2 October 2018 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=[[Guardian News and Media Limited]]}}</ref>

==Types==
To counter the common misunderstanding that the [[creation–evolution controversy]] was a simple dichotomy of views, with "creationists" set against "evolutionists", [[Eugenie Scott]] of the [[National Center for Science Education]] produced a diagram and description of a [[wikt:continuum|continuum]] of religious views as a spectrum ranging from extreme literal Biblical creationism to materialist evolution, grouped under main headings. This was used in public presentations, then published in 1999 in ''Reports of the NCSE''.<ref name="Scott orig. continuum">{{cite journal|last=Scott|first=Eugenie C.|authorlink=Eugenie Scott|date=7 December 2000|title=The Creation/Evolution Continuum|url=http://www.natcenscied.org/resources/articles/1593_the_creationevolution_continu_12_7_2000.asp|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509170526/http://www.natcenscied.org/resources/articles/1593_the_creationevolution_continu_12_7_2000.asp|journal=Reports of the National Center for Science Education, July–August 1999|volume=19|issue=4|pages=16–17, 23–25|issn=2158-818X|archivedate=2008-05-09}} (original online version, with link to ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070708193630/http://www.natcenscied.org/graphics/Continu.jpg the Creation/Evolution Continuum graphic]''</ref> Other versions of a "[[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]]" of creationists were produced,<ref name="Wise-p30">{{cite journal |last=Wise |first=Donald U. |date=January 2001 |title=Creationism's Propaganda Assault on Deep Time and Evolution |url=http://nagt.org/nagt/jge/abstracts/jan01.html |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=30–35 |issn=1089-9995 |accessdate=2014-03-09|bibcode=2001JGeEd..49...30W |doi=10.5408/1089-9995-49.1.30 }}</ref> and comparisons made betewenthe different groupings.<ref name="nagt-pdf-Ross">{{cite journal |last=Ross |first=Marcus R. |authorlink=Marcus R. Ross |date=May 2005 |title=Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism |url=http://nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=319–323 |issn=1089-9995 |accessdate=2014-03-09|bibcode=2005JGeEd..53..319R |doi=10.5408/1089-9995-53.3.319 |citeseerx=10.1.1.404.1340 }}</ref> In 2009 Scott produced a revised continuum taking account of these issues, emphasising that [[intelligent design]] creationism overlaps other types, and each type is a grouping of various beliefs and positions. The revised diagram is labelled to shows a spectrum relating to positions on the [[age of the Earth]], and the part played by [[special creation]] as against evolution. This was published in the book ''Evolution Vs. Creationism: An Introduction'',{{sfn|Scott|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FAAlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63–75]}} and the NCSE website rewritten on the basis of the book version.<ref name="Scott1999" />

The main general types are listed below.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Comparison of major creationist views
|-
!
!Humanity
!Biological species
!Earth
!Age of Universe
|-
! [[Young Earth creationism]]
|rowspan="2"| Directly created by God.
|rowspan="2"| Directly created by God. [[Macroevolution]] does not occur.
|Less than 10,000 years old. Reshaped by global flood.
|Less than 10,000 years old, but some hold this view only for our Solar System.
|-
! [[Gap creationism]]
|Scientifically accepted age. Reshaped by global flood.
|Scientifically accepted age.
|-
! [[Progressive creationism]]
|Directly created by God, based on [[primate]] anatomy.
|Direct creation + evolution. No single common ancestor.
|Scientifically accepted age. No global flood.
|Scientifically accepted age.
|-
! [[Intelligent design]]
|Proponents hold various beliefs. (For example, [[Michael Behe]] accepts evolution from primates.)
|[[Miracle|Divine intervention]] at some point in the past, as evidenced by what intelligent-design creationists call "[[irreducible complexity]]."
|Some adherents accept [[common descent]], others not. Some claim the existence of Earth is the result of divine intervention.
|Scientifically accepted age.
|-
! [[Theistic evolution]] (evolutionary creationism)
|Evolution from primates.
|Evolution from single common ancestor.
|Scientifically accepted age. No global flood.
|Scientifically accepted age.
|}

===Young Earth creationism===
{{Main|Young Earth creationism}}
[[File:ICR building.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Institute for Creation Research]] (ICR) is a young-Earth creationist organization.]]
Young Earth creationists such as [[Ken Ham]] and [[Doug Phillips]] believe that God created the Earth within the last ten thousand years, literally as described in the Genesis creation narrative, within the approximate time-frame of biblical genealogies (detailed for example in the [[Ussher chronology]]). Most young Earth creationists believe that the universe has a similar age as the Earth. A few assign a much older age to the universe than to Earth. [[Creationist cosmologies]] give the universe an age consistent with the Ussher chronology and other young Earth time frames. Other young Earth creationists believe that the Earth and the universe were created with the appearance of age, so that the world appears to be much older than it is, and that this appearance is what gives the geological findings and other methods of dating the Earth and the universe their much longer [[timeline]]s.

The Christian organizations [[Institute for Creation Research]] (ICR) and the [[Creation Research Society]] (CRS) both promote young Earth creationism in the US. Another organization with similar views, [[Answers in Genesis]] (AiG)—based in both the U.S. and the [[United Kingdom]]—has opened the [[Creation Museum]] in [[Petersburg, Boone County, Kentucky|Petersburg, Kentucky]], to promote young Earth creationism. [[Creation Ministries International]] promotes young Earth views in Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, the US, and the UK. Among [[Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], the [[List of Catholic creationist organisations|Kolbe Center]] for the Study of Creation promotes similar ideas. In 2007, Ken Ham founded the [[Creation Museum]] and [[Ark Encounter]] in northern [[Kentucky]].

===Old Earth creationism===
{{Main|Old Earth creationism}}
Old Earth creationism holds that the physical universe was created by God, but that the creation event described in the Book of Genesis is to be taken figuratively. This group generally believes that the [[age of the universe]] and the age of the Earth are as described by [[astronomer]]s and [[geologist]]s, but that details of [[Neo-Darwinism|modern evolutionary theory]] are questionable.<ref name="Scott1999" />

Old Earth creationism itself comes in at least three types:<ref name="Scott1999" />

====Gap creationism====
{{Main|Gap creationism}}
Gap creationism, also called "restoration creationism," holds that life was recently created on a pre-existing old Earth. This version of creationism relies on a particular interpretation of {{Bibleverse|Genesis|1:1–2|KJV}}. It is considered that the words [[Tohu wa-bohu|''formless'' and ''void'']] in fact denote waste and ruin, taking into account the original Hebrew and other places these words are used in the [[Old Testament]]. Genesis 1:1–2 is consequently translated:

: "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." (Original act of creation.)
: "And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."

Thus, the six days of creation (verse 3 onwards) start sometime after the Earth was "without form and void." This allows an indefinite "gap" of time to be inserted after the original creation of the universe, but prior to the [[Genesis creation narrative|creation according to Genesis]], (when present biological species and [[human]]ity were created). Gap theorists can therefore agree with the [[scientific consensus]] regarding the age of the Earth and universe, while maintaining a literal interpretation of the biblical text.

Some{{which|date=November 2013}} gap creationists expand the basic version of creationism by proposing a "primordial creation" of biological life within the "gap" of time. This is thought to be "the world that then was" mentioned in [[2 Peter]] 3:3–7.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Peter|3|KJV}}</ref> Discoveries of fossils and archaeological ruins older than 10,000 years are generally ascribed to this "world that then was," which may also be associated with [[Lucifer]]'s rebellion. These views became popular with publications of Hebrew Lexicons such as ''[[Strong's Concordance]]'', and Bible commentaries such as the ''[[Scofield Reference Bible]]'' and [[E. W. Bullinger|''The Companion Bible'']].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

====Day-age creationism====
{{Main|Day-age creationism}}
Day-age creationism states that the "six days" of the Book of Genesis are not ordinary 24-hour days, but rather much longer periods (for instance, each "day" could be the equivalent of millions, or billions of years of human time). The physicist [[Gerald Schroeder]] is one such proponent of this view. This version of creationism often states that the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word "yôm," in the context of Genesis 1, can be properly interpreted as "age."

Strictly speaking, day-age creationism is not so much a version of creationism as a [[Hermeneutics|hermeneutic]] option which may be combined with other versions of creationism such as progressive creationism.{{Citation needed|date=January 2017}}

====Progressive creationism====
{{Main|Progressive creationism}}
Progressive creationism holds that species have changed or evolved in a process continuously guided by God, with various ideas as to how the process operated—though it is generally taken that God directly intervened in the natural order at key moments in Earth history. This view accepts most of modern physical science including the age of the Earth, but rejects much of modern [[evolutionary biology]] or looks to it for evidence that evolution by [[natural selection]] alone is incorrect.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} Organizations such as [[Reasons To Believe]], founded by [[Hugh Ross (creationist)|Hugh Ross]], promote this version of creationism.

Progressive creationism can be held in conjunction with [[hermeneutic]] approaches to the Genesis creation narrative such as the [[day-age creationism]] or [[Framework interpretation (Genesis)|framework]]/metaphoric/poetic views.

===Philosophic and scientific creationism===
====Creation science====
{{Main|Creation science}}
Creation science, or initially scientific creationism, is a [[pseudoscience]]<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=2267227 | pmid=18059309 | doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7401131 | volume=8 | issue=12 | title=Taking on creationism. Which arguments and evidence counter pseudoscience? | date=December 2007 | journal=EMBO Rep. | pages=1107–9 | last1 = Greener | first1 = M}}</ref><ref>[[#NAS 1999|NAS 1999]], [http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6024&page=R9 p. R9]</ref><ref name=amicus>{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/edwards-v-aguillard/amicus1.html |date=* |title=Amicus Curiae Brief Of 72 Nobel Laureates, 17 State Academies Of Science, And 7 Other Scientific Organizations }}, ''[[Edwards v. Aguillard]]''</ref><ref name=philofscience>{{cite book|author1=Sahotra Sarkar|author2=Jessica Pfeifer|title=The Philosophy of science: an encyclopedia. A-M|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=od68ge7aF6wC|year=2006|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-93927-0|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=od68ge7aF6wC&pg=PA194 194]}}</ref><ref>[[#Okasha 2002|Okasha 2002]], p. 127. Okasha's full statement is that "virtually all professional biologists regard creation science as a sham{{snd}}a dishonest and misguided attempt to promote religious beliefs under the guise of science, with extremely harmful educational consequences."</ref> that emerged in the 1960s with proponents aiming to have young Earth creationist beliefs taught in school science classes as a counter to teaching of evolution. Common features of creation science argument include: creationist cosmologies which accommodate a universe on the order of thousands of years old, criticism of [[radiometric dating]] through a technical argument about [[radiohalo]]s, explanations for the [[Fossil#Fossil record|fossil record]] as a record of the [[Genesis flood narrative]] (see [[flood geology]]), and explanations for the present diversity as a result of pre-designed genetic variability and partially due to the rapid degradation of the perfect [[genome]]s God placed in "created kinds" or "[[Baraminology|Baramin]]" (see [[Creation science#Creationist biology|creationist biology]]) due to [[mutation]]s.

====Neo-creationism====
{{Main|Neo-creationism}}
Neo-creationism is a [[pseudoscientific]] movement which aims to restate creationism in terms more likely to be well received by the public, by policy makers, by educators and by the [[scientific community]]. It aims to [[Framing (social sciences)|re-frame]] the debate over the [[Creation myth|origins of life]] in non-religious terms and without appeals to scripture. This comes in response to the 1987 ruling by the [[United States Supreme Court]] in ''[[Edwards v. Aguillard]]'' that creationism is an inherently religious concept and that advocating it as correct or accurate in public-school curricula violates the [[Establishment Clause of the First Amendment]].<ref name=morris_neo>{{cite web |url= http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=425 |title=Neocreationism |last=Morris |first=Henry M. |authorlink=Henry M. Morris |website=icr.org |publisher=[[Institute for Creation Research]] |accessdate=Sep 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Safire |first =William |date=August 21, 2005 |title=On Language: Neo-Creo |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/magazine/21ONLANGUAGE.html?ref=onlanguage |journal= The New York Times |accessdate=Sep 29, 2014}}</ref><ref name=Scott1996>{{cite conference
|author=Scott, Eugenie C.
|authorlink=Eugenie Scott
|conference=The Flight from Science and Reason
|year=1996
|title=Creationism, ideology, and science
|url= http://ncse.com/creationism/general/creationism-ideology-science
|accessdate=2009-11-12
|booktitle=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
|volume=775
|pages=505–22
|doi= 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb23167.x
|bibcode=1995NYASA.775..505S
}}</ref>

One of the principal claims of neo-creationism propounds that ostensibly [[Objectivity (science)|objective]] orthodox science, with a foundation in [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], is actually a dogmatically [[atheism|atheistic]] [[religion]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.darwinreconsidered.org/media/MaterialistMythology.pdf |title= Darwinism is Materialist Mythology, Not Science |last= Johnson |first= Phillip E. |date= October 2004 |website= DarwinReconsidered.org |accessdate= Sep 29, 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220342/http://www.darwinreconsidered.org/media/MaterialistMythology.pdf |archive-date= July 25, 2011 |url-status= dead |df= mdy-all }}</ref> Its proponents argue that the [[scientific method]] excludes certain explanations of phenomena, particularly where they point towards [[supernatural]] elements, thus effectively excluding religious insight from contributing to understanding the [[universe]]. This leads to an open and often hostile opposition to what neo-creationists term "[[Darwinism]]", which they generally mean to refer to [[evolution]], but which they may extend to include such concepts as [[abiogenesis]], [[stellar evolution]] and the [[Big Bang]] theory.

Unlike their philosophical forebears, neo-creationists largely do not believe in many of the traditional cornerstones of creationism such as a young Earth, or in a dogmatically [[Biblical inerrancy|literal interpretation of the Bible]].

====Intelligent design====
{{Main|Intelligent design}}
Intelligent design (ID) is the [[pseudoscientific]] view<ref name="Boudry 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Boudry |first1=Maarten |authorlink1=Maarten Boudry |last2=Blancke |first2=Stefaan |last3=Braeckman |first3=Johan |authorlink3=Johan Braeckman |date=December 2010 |title=Irreducible Incoherence and Intelligent Design: A Look into the Conceptual Toolbox of a Pseudoscience |journal=[[The Quarterly Review of Biology]] |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=473–82 |doi=10.1086/656904 |pmid=21243965|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/952482/file/6828579.pdf |hdl=1854/LU-952482 }} Article available from [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/952482 Universiteit Gent]</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pigliucci |first1=Massimo |authorlink=Massimo Pigliucci |year=2010 |chapter=Science in the Courtroom: The Case against Intelligent Design |chapterurl=http://ncse.com/files/pub/evolution/Nonsenseonstilts.pdf |title=Nonsense on Stilts: How to Tell Science from Bunk |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-66786-7 |lccn=2009049778 |oclc=457149439 |pages=160–86 |ref=Pigliucci 2010}}</ref> that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection."<ref name="DIposition">{{cite web |url=http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign |author= |title=Top Questions: Questions About Intelligent Design: What is the theory of intelligent design? |website=[[Center for Science and Culture]] |publisher=[[Discovery Institute]] |location=Seattle, WA |accessdate=2007-05-13}}</ref> All of its leading proponents are associated with the [[Discovery Institute]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day6pm.html |title=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Trial transcript: Day 6 (October 5), PM Session, Part 1 |website=TalkOrigins Archive |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston, TX |accessdate=2014-03-13}}</ref> a think tank whose [[Wedge strategy]] aims to replace the scientific method with "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions" which accepts supernatural explanations.<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper">{{cite web|url=http://www.centerforinquiry.net/uploads/attachments/intelligent-design.pdf |title=Understanding the Intelligent Design Creationist Movement: Its True Nature and Goals |last=Forrest |first=Barbara |authorlink=Barbara Forrest |date=May 2007 |website=[[Center for Inquiry]] |publisher=Center for Inquiry |location=Washington, D.C. |type=A Position Paper from the Center for Inquiry, Office of Public Policy |accessdate=2014-03-13 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519124655/http://www.centerforinquiry.net/uploads/attachments/intelligent-design.pdf |archivedate=2011-05-19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.antievolution.org/features/wedge.pdf |title=The Wedge |year=1999 |publisher=[[Center for Science and Culture|Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture]] |location=Seattle, WA |accessdate=2014-03-13}}</ref> It is widely accepted in the scientific and academic communities that intelligent design is a form of creationism,<ref name="Wise-p30" /><ref name="nagt-pdf-Ross" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Mu |first=David |date=Fall 2005 |title=Trojan Horse or Legitimate Science: Deconstructing the Debate over Intelligent Design |url=http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~hsr/wp-content/themes/hsr/pdf/fall2005/mu.pdf |journal=[[Harvard College#Publications and media|Harvard Science Review]] |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=22–25 |accessdate=2014-03-13 |ref=Mu 2005 |quote=...for most members of the mainstream scientific community, ID is not a scientific theory, but a creationist pseudoscience.}}
* {{cite journal |last=Klotzko |first=Arlene Judith |date=May 28, 2001 |title=Cynical Science and Stem Cells |url=http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/13410/title/Cynical-Science-and-Stem-Cells/ |journal=[[The Scientist (magazine)|The Scientist]] |volume=15 |issue=11 |page=35 |issn=0890-3670 |quote=Creationists are repackaging their message as the pseudo-science of 'intelligent design theory.' |accessdate=2014-03-13}}
* {{cite court |litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District |vol=04 |reporter=cv |opinion=2688 |date=December 20, 2005}}, [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#Page 136 of 139|Curriculum, Conclusion, p. 136]].</ref><ref name="Numbers 2006">[[#Numbers 2006|Numbers 2006]]</ref> and is sometimes referred to as "intelligent design creationism."<ref name="Scott1999" /><ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper" /><ref>[[#Forrest & Gross 2004|Forrest & Gross 2004]]</ref><ref>[[#Pennock 2001|Pennock 2001]], "Wizards of ID: Reply to Dembski," pp. 645–667, "Dembski chides me for never using the term 'intelligent design' without conjoining it to 'creationism'. He implies (though never explicitly asserts) that he and others in his movement are not creationists and that it is incorrect to discuss them in such terms, suggesting that doing so is merely a rhetorical ploy to 'rally the troops'. (2) Am I (and the many others who see Dembski's movement in the same way) misrepresenting their position? The basic notion of creationism is the rejection of biological evolution in favor of special creation, where the latter is understood to be supernatural. Beyond this there is considerable variability..."
* [[#Pennock 1999|Pennock 1999]]</ref><ref>[[#Scott 2005|Scott 2005]]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Young |first1=Matt |last2=Edis |first2=Taner | authorlink2=Taner Edis |title=Why Intelligent Design Fails: A Scientific Critique of the New Creationism |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=hYLKdtlVeQgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Why+Intelligent+Design+Fails:+A+Scientific+Critique+of+the+New+Creationism#v=onepage&q=Why%20Intelligent%20Design%20Fails%3A%20A%20Scientific%20Critique%20of%20the%20New%20Creationism&f=false|isbn=9780813538723 }}</ref>

ID originated as a re-branding of creation science in an attempt to avoid a series of court decisions ruling out the teaching of creationism in American public schools, and the Discovery Institute has run [[Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns|a series of campaigns]] to change school curricula.<ref name="Flank_April2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.talkreason.org/articles/HistoryID.cfm |title=Creationism/ID: A Short Legal History |last=Flank |first=Lenny |website=Talk Reason |date=April 24, 2006 |accessdate=2014-03-09 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823063247/http://www.talkreason.org/articles/HistoryID.cfm |archivedate=August 23, 2014 }}</ref> In Australia, where curricula are under the control of state governments rather than local school boards, there was a public outcry when the notion of ID being taught in science classes was raised by the Federal Education Minister [[Brendan Nelson]]; the minister quickly conceded that the correct forum for ID, if it were to be taught, is in religious or philosophy classes.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Deborah |date=October 21, 2005 |title=Intelligent design not science: experts |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/intelligent-design-not-science-experts/2005/10/20/1129775902661.html |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |location=Sydney |publisher=[[Fairfax Media]] |accessdate=2007-07-13}}</ref>

In the US, teaching of intelligent design in public schools has been decisively ruled by a [[United States district court|federal district court]] to be in violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. In [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Kitzmiller v. Dover]], the court found that intelligent design is not science and "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents,"<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District |vol=04 |reporter=cv |opinion=2688 |date=December 20, 2005}}, [[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/6:Curriculum, Conclusion#Page 136 of 139|Curriculum, Conclusion, p. 136]].</ref> and hence cannot be taught as an alternative to evolution in public school science classrooms under the jurisdiction of that court. This sets a [[Precedent#Persuasive precedent|persuasive precedent]], based on previous US [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] decisions in ''Edwards v. Aguillard'' and ''[[Epperson v. Arkansas]]'' (1968), and by the application of the [[Lemon v. Kurtzman|Lemon test]], that creates a legal hurdle to teaching intelligent design in public school districts in other federal court jurisdictions.<ref name="ForrestMay2007Paper" /><ref name="kitz">[[s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District et al.|Full text of U.S. District Judge John E. Jones III's ruling in ''Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District'', dated December 20, 2005.]]</ref>

===Geocentrism===
{{Main|Geocentric model}}
In [[astronomy]], the geocentric model (also known as geocentrism, or the Ptolemaic system), is a description of the [[Cosmos]] where Earth is at the orbital center of all celestial bodies. This model served as the predominant cosmological system in many ancient civilizations such as [[ancient Greece]]. As such, they assumed that the Sun, Moon, stars, and [[Classical planet|naked eye planets]] circled Earth, including the noteworthy systems of [[Aristotle]] (see [[Aristotelian physics]]) and [[Ptolemy]].

Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early creation science newsletters associated with the Creation Research Society pointing to some passages in the Bible, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis for example, [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 10:12 where the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and [[Psalms]] 93:1 where the world is described as immobile.<ref name="Numbers1993">{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald L. |year=1993 |origyear=Originally published 1992; New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]] |title=The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |page=237 |isbn=978-0-5200-8393-6 |lccn=93015804 |oclc=810488078}}</ref> Contemporary advocates for such [[religious belief]]s include [[Robert Sungenis]], co-author of the self-published ''Galileo Was Wrong: The Church Was Right'' (2006).<ref name="Sefton2006">{{cite news |first=Dru |last=Sefton |date=March 30, 2006 |title=In this world view, the sun revolves around the earth |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=_1kaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XCYEAAAAIBAJ&dq=robert-sungenis&pg=6714%2C4991566 |newspaper=[[Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina)|Times-News]] |location=Hendersonville, NC |publisher=Hendersonville Newspaper Corporation |agency=[[Religion News Service]] |page=5A |accessdate=2014-03-14}}</ref> These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Most contemporary creationist organizations reject such perspectives.{{refn|group="note"|Donald B. DeYoung, for example, states that "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/1997/11/05/astronomy-bible |title=Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book |last=DeYoung |first=Donald B. |date=November 5, 1997 |website=[[Answers in Genesis]] |publisher=Answers in Genesis Ministries International |location=Hebron, KY |accessdate=2013-12-01}}</ref>}}

=== Omphalos hypothesis ===
{{Main|Omphalos hypothesis}}
The Omphalos hypothesis argues that in order for the world to be functional, God must have created a mature Earth with mountains and canyons, rock strata, trees with growth rings, and so on; therefore ''no'' evidence that we can see of the presumed age of the Earth and age of the universe can be taken as reliable.<ref>[[#Gosse 1857|Gosse 1857]]</ref> The idea has seen some revival in the 20th century by some modern creationists, who have extended the argument to address the [[Creationist cosmologies#Starlight problem|"starlight problem"]]. The idea has been criticised as [[Last Thursdayism]], and on the grounds that it requires a deliberately deceptive creator.

==Theistic evolution==
{{Main|Theistic evolution}}
Theistic evolution, or evolutionary creation, is a belief that "the personal God of the Bible created the universe and life through evolutionary processes."<ref>[[#Sweet & Feist 2007|Sweet & Feist 2007]], [https://books.google.com/?id=qwaRUNj6S34C&pg=PA48&dq=theistic+evolution+evolutionary+creation#v=onepage&q=theistic%20evolution%20evolutionary%20creation&f=false p. 48], "''Evolutionary Creation'' (or Theistic Evolution) asserts that the personal God of the Bible created the universe and life through evolutionary processes."</ref> According to the American Scientific Affiliation:

{{quote|A theory of theistic evolution (TE){{snd}}also called evolutionary creation{{snd}}proposes that God's method of creation was to cleverly design a universe in which everything would naturally evolve. Usually the "evolution" in "theistic evolution" means Total Evolution{{snd}}astronomical evolution (to form galaxies, solar systems,...) and geological evolution (to form the earth's geology) plus chemical evolution (to form the first life) and biological evolution (for the development of life){{snd}}but it can refer only to biological evolution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/origins/te2-cr.htm |title=Evolutionary Creation |last=Rusbult |first=Craig |year=1998 |publisher=American Scientific Affiliation |location=Ipswich, MA |accessdate=2014-03-14 }}</ref>}}

Through the 19th century the term ''creationism'' most commonly referred to [[Creationism (soul)|direct creation of individual souls]], in contrast to [[traducianism]]. Following the publication of ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'', there was interest in ideas of Creation by [[divine law]]. In particular, the [[liberal Christianity|liberal theologian]] [[Baden Powell (mathematician)|Baden Powell]] argued that this illustrated the Creator's power better than the idea of miraculous creation, which he thought ridiculous.<ref>[[#Bowler 2003|Bowler 2003]], p. 139</ref> When ''On the Origin of Species'' was published, the cleric [[Charles Kingsley]] wrote of evolution as "just as noble a conception of Deity."<ref name="Darwinanddesign">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwin-and-design-article |title=Darwin and design: historical essay |year=2007 |website=Darwin Correspondence Project |publisher=Cambridge University Library |location=Cambridge, UK |accessdate=2012-04-18 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021101910/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwin-and-design-article |archivedate=2014-10-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-2534 |title=Kingsley, Charles to Darwin, C. R. |last=Kingsley |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Kingsley |date=November 18, 1859 |website=Darwin Correspondence Project |publisher=Cambridge University Library |location=Cambridge, UK |id=Letter 2534 |accessdate=2010-08-11}}</ref> Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature,<ref name="James_Moore">{{cite interview |last=Moore |first=James |authorlink=James Moore (biographer) |interviewer=[[Krista Tippett]] |title=Evolution and Wonder: Understanding Charles Darwin |url=http://www.onbeing.org/program/evolution-and-wonder-understanding-charles-darwin/transcript/899 |via=[[NPR]] |work=[[On Being|Speaking of Faith with Krista Tippett]] |date=September 20, 2007 |publisher=[[American Public Media]] |accessdate=2014-03-09}}</ref><ref>[[#Quammen 2006|Quammen 2006]], p. 119</ref> and the book makes several references to "creation," though he later regretted using the term rather than calling it an unknown process.<ref>[[#Barlow 1963|Barlow 1963]], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1577&pageseq=9 p. 207]</ref> In America, [[Asa Gray]] argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or ''modus operandi'', of the first cause, design,<ref>[[#Dewey 1994|Dewey 1994]], p. 27</ref> and published a pamphlet defending the book in theistic terms, ''Natural Selection not inconsistent with Natural Theology''.<ref name="Darwinanddesign" /><ref name="Miles_2001">{{cite journal |last=Miles |first=Sara Joan |date=September 2001 |title=Charles Darwin and Asa Gray Discuss Teleology and Design |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/2001/PSCF9-01Miles.html |journal=Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith |volume=53 |pages=196–201 |accessdate=2008-11-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gray |first=Asa |authorlink=Asa Gray |year=1860 |title=Natural Selection not inconsistent with Natural Theology |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/84/69/ |journal=[[The Atlantic|The Atlantic Monthly]] |type=Reprint |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220124011/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/84/69/  |archivedate=2009-02-20 |accessdate=2009-04-11}} "Atlantic Monthly for ''July'', ''August'', and ''October'', 1860, reprinted in 1861."</ref> Theistic evolution, also called, evolutionary creation, became a popular compromise, and [[St. George Jackson Mivart]] was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as [[Lamarckism#Neo-Lamarckism|neo-Lamarckism]] were favoured as being more compatible with purpose than natural selection.<ref name="bowl202">[[#Bowler 2003|Bowler 2003]], pp. 202–08</ref>

Some theists took the general view that, instead of faith being in opposition to biological evolution, some or all classical religious teachings about [[God in Christianity|Christian God]] and creation are compatible with some or all of modern scientific theory, including specifically evolution; it is also known as "evolutionary creation." In Evolution versus Creationism, [[Eugenie Scott]] and [[Niles Eldredge]] state that it is in fact a type of evolution.<ref>[[#Scott 2005|Scott 2005]], pp. 62–63</ref>

It generally views evolution as a tool used by God, who is both the [[Unmoved mover#First cause|first cause]] and [[Immanence|immanent]] sustainer/upholder of the universe; it is therefore well accepted by people of strong [[theism|theistic]] (as opposed to [[deism|deistic]]) convictions. Theistic evolution can synthesize with the day-age creationist interpretation of the Genesis creation narrative; however most adherents consider that the first chapters of the Book of Genesis should not be interpreted as a "literal" description, but rather as a [[framework view|literary framework]] or allegory.

From a theistic viewpoint, the underlying laws of nature were designed by God for a purpose, and are so self-sufficient that the complexity of the entire physical universe evolved from fundamental particles in processes such as [[stellar evolution]], life forms developed in biological evolution, and in the same way the [[Abiogenesis|origin of life by natural causes]] has resulted from these laws.<ref name="The Origin of Life">{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/abioprob/originoflife.html#intro |title=The Origin of Life |last=Moritz |first=Albrecht |date=October 31, 2006 |website=TalkOrigins Archive |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston, TX |accessdate=2008-11-22}}</ref>

In one form or another, theistic evolution is the view of creation taught at the majority of mainline [[Protestantism|Protestant]] seminaries.<ref>[[#Scott 1999|Scott 1999]]</ref> For Roman Catholics, human evolution is not a matter of religious teaching, and must stand or fall on its own scientific merits. [[Catholic Church and evolution|Evolution and the Roman Catholic Church]] are not in conflict. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] comments positively on the theory of evolution, which is neither precluded nor required by the sources of faith, stating that scientific studies "have splendidly enriched our knowledge of the age and dimensions of the cosmos, the development of life-forms and the appearance of man."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Akin |first=Jimmy |date=January 2004 |title=Evolution and the Magisterium |url=http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/2004/0401bt.asp |journal=[[Catholic Answers|This Rock]] |volume=15 |issue=1 |issn=1049-4561 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804102139/http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/2004/0401bt.asp |archivedate=2007-08-04 |accessdate=2014-03-14}}</ref> [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] schools teach evolution without controversy on the basis that scientific knowledge does not extend beyond the physical, and scientific truth and religious truth cannot be in conflict.<ref>{{cite news |last=Guntzel |first=Jeff Severns |url=http://natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives2/2005a/032505/032505ssn.htm |date=March 25, 2005 |title=Catholic schools steer clear of anti-evolution bias |newspaper=[[National Catholic Reporter]] |location=Kansas City, MO |publisher=The National Catholic Reporter Publishing Company |issn=0027-8939 |accessdate=2007-08-15}}</ref> Theistic evolution can be described as "creationism" in holding that [[Miracle|divine intervention]] brought about the origin of life or that divine laws govern formation of species, though many creationists (in the strict sense) would deny that the position is creationism at all. In the [[creation–evolution controversy]], its proponents generally take the "evolutionist" side. This sentiment was expressed by Fr. [[George Coyne]], (the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]'s chief astronomer between 1978 and 2006):<blockquote>...in America, creationism has come to mean some fundamentalistic, literal, scientific interpretation of Genesis. Judaic-Christian faith is radically creationist, but in a totally different sense. It is rooted in a belief that everything depends upon God, or better, all is a gift from God.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.org/national/national_story.php?id=18504 |title=Text of talk by Vatican Observatory director on 'Science Does Not Need God. Or Does It? A Catholic Scientist Looks at Evolution' |last=Coyne |first=George V. |authorlink=George Coyne |date=January 30, 2006 |publisher=Catholic Online, LLC |accessdate=2011-03-10 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606050849/http://www.catholic.org/national/national_story.php?id=18504 |archivedate=June 6, 2011 }}</ref></blockquote>

While supporting the [[naturalism (philosophy)|methodological naturalism]] inherent in modern science, the proponents of theistic evolution reject the implication taken by some [[atheism|atheists]] that this gives credence to [[Ontology|ontological]] [[materialism]]. In fact, many modern philosophers of science,<ref>[[#Pennock 1999|Pennock 1999]]
* {{cite web |url=http://llanoestacado.org/freeinquiry/files/naturalism.html |title=Naturalism is an Essential Part of Science and Critical Inquiry |last=Schafersman |first=Steven D. |authorlink=Steven Schafersman |date=May 1997 |website=Free Inquiry: The Humanist and Skeptic Website of Steven Schafersman |publisher=Steven Schafersman |accessdate=2014-03-15}}
* {{cite web |url=http://leiterreports.typepad.com/blog/2004/04/on_methodologic.html |title=On Methodological Naturalism and Intelligent Design (or Why Can't Lawrence VanDyke Leave Well Enough Alone?) |last=Leiter |first=Brian |authorlink=Brian Leiter |date=April 6, 2004 |website=Leiter Reports: A Philosophy Blog |publisher=Brian Leiter |type=Blog |accessdate=2014-03-15}}
* {{cite journal |last=Burgeson |first=John W. |year=1997 |title=NTSE: An Intellectual Feast |url=http://www.arn.org/docs/odesign/od182/ntse182.htm |journal=Origins & Design |volume=18 |issue=2 |accessdate=2014-03-15}}
* [[#Draper 2005|Draper 2005]]
* {{cite journal |last1=Pigliucci |first1=Massimo |authorlink=Massimo Pigliucci |last2=Banta |first2=Joshua |last3=Bossu |first3=Christen |last4=Crouse |first4=Paula |last5=Dexter |first5=Troy |last6=Hansknecht |first6=Kerry |last7=Muth |first7=Norris |display-authors=1 |date=May–June 2004 |title=The Alleged Fallacies of Evolutionary Theory |url=http://philosophynow.org/issues/46/The_Alleged_Fallacies_of_Evolutionary_Theory |journal=[[Philosophy Now]] |issue=46 |issn=0961-5970 |accessdate=2014-03-15}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.biology.uiowa.edu/ID.html |title=Statement on Intelligent Design |year=2005 |website=The Department of Biology |publisher=[[University of Iowa]] |type=Petition |location=Iowa City, IA |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901150357/http://www.biology.uiowa.edu/ID.html |archivedate=2010-09-01 |accessdate=2014-03-15}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pigliucci |first=Massimo |date=December 2005 |title=Science and fundamentalism |url=http://embor.embopress.org/content/6/12/1106 |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=6 |issue=12 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7400589 |issn=1469-3178 |accessdate=2014-03-15|pmc=1369219 |pmid=16319954 |pages=1106–1109}}
* {{cite web |url=http://infidels.org/library/modern/michael_martin/naturalism.html |title=Justifying Methodological Naturalism |last=Martin |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Martin (philosopher) |year=2002 |website=The Secular Web |publisher=[[Internet Infidels|Internet Infidels, Inc.]] |location=Colorado Springs, CO |accessdate=2014-03-15}}</ref> including atheists,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.butterfliesandwheels.org/2005/intelligent-design-or-natural-design/ |title=Intelligent Design or Natural Design |last=Bradley |first=Raymond |date=November 23, 2005 |website=Butterflies and Wheels |publisher=[[Ophelia Benson]] |location=Seattle, WA |accessdate=2014-03-16}}</ref> refer to the long-standing convention in the scientific method that [[observation|observable]] events in nature should be explained by natural causes, with the distinction that it does not assume the actual existence or non-existence of the supernatural. 

==Religious views==

===Bahá'í Faith===
{{main|Bahai Faith and science#Creation}}
In the creation myth taught by [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the [[Bahá'í Faith]] founder, the universe has "neither beginning nor ending," and that the component elements of the material world have always existed and will always exist.<ref>[[#`Abdu'l-Bahá 1982|`Abdu'l-Bahá 1982]], [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PUP/pup-79.html#gr8 p. 220]</ref> With regard to evolution and the origin of human beings, [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] gave extensive comments on the subject when he addressed western audiences in the beginning of the 20th century. Transcripts of these comments can be found in ''[[Some Answered Questions]]'', ''[[Paris Talks]]'' and ''The Promulgation of Universal Peace''. `Abdu'l-Bahá described the human species as having evolved from a primitive form to modern man, but that the capacity to form human intelligence was always in existence.

===Christianity===
{{Further|Genesis creation narrative|creation–evolution controversy}}
{{As of|2006}}, most [[Christians]] around the world accepted evolution as the most likely explanation for the origins of species, and did not take a [[Biblical literalism|literal view]] of the [[Genesis creation myth]]. The United States is an exception where belief in religious [[fundamentalism]] is much more likely to affect attitudes towards evolution than it is for believers elsewhere. Political partisanship affecting religious belief may be a factor because political partisanship in the US is highly correlated with fundamentalist thinking, unlike in Europe.<ref name="Science survey">{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Jon D. |last2=Scott |first2=Eugenie C. |authorlink2=Eugenie Scott |last3=Okamoto |first3=Shinji |date=August 2006 |title=Public acceptance of evolution |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=313 |issue=5788 |pages=765–66 |doi=10.1126/science.1126746 |pmid=16902112 }}</ref>

Most contemporary Christian leaders and scholars from mainstream churches,<ref name="Denominational Views">{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/religion/denominational-views |title=Denominational Views |date=October 17, 2008 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, CA |accessdate=2010-05-17}}</ref> such as [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]]<ref name="Episcopal Church">{{cite web|url=http://ncse.com/media/voices/episcopal-church-general-convention-2006 |title=Episcopal Church, General Convention (2006) |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, CA |accessdate=2010-05-17|date=2008-09-09 }}</ref> and [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]],<ref name="Lutheran">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schick |first=Edwin A. |editor-last=Bodensieck |editor-first=Julius |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church |url=http://ncse.com/media/voices/lutheran-world-federation |accessdate=2010-05-17 |title=Evolution |year=1965 |publisher=[[Augsburg Fortress|Augsburg Publishing House]] |volume=1 |location=Minneapolis, MN |lccn=64021500 |oclc=947120 }} Edited for the [[Lutheran World Federation]].
*{{cite journal |last=Hollabaugh |first=Mark |date=October 2006 |title=God allows the universe to create itself and evolve |url=http://www.thelutheran.org/article/article.cfm?article_id=6093 |journal=[[The Lutheran]] |issn=0024-743X |accessdate=2014-03-16 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231072935/http://www.thelutheran.org/article/article.cfm?article_id=6093 |archivedate=2013-12-31 }}</ref> consider that there is no conflict between the spiritual meaning of creation and the science of evolution. According to the former [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Rowan Williams]], "...for most of the history of Christianity, and I think this is fair enough, most of the history of the Christianity there's been an awareness that a belief that everything depends on the creative act of God, is quite compatible with a degree of uncertainty or latitude about how precisely that unfolds in creative time."<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=March 21, 2006 |title=Interview: Rowan Williams |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/mar/21/religion.uk |newspaper=The Guardian |type=Transcript |location=London |publisher=Guardian Media Group |accessdate=2014-03-16}}</ref>

Leaders of the Anglican<ref>{{cite news |last=Williams |first=Christopher |date=March 21, 2006 |title=Archbishop of Canterbury backs evolution |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/03/21/archbishop_backs_evolution/ |work=[[The Register]] |location=London |publisher=Situation Publishing Limited |accessdate=2011-03-10}}</ref> and Roman Catholic<ref>{{cite journal |last=McDonell |first=Keelin |date=July 12, 2005 |title=What Catholics Think of Evolution |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2122506/ |journal=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050716003211/http://www.slate.com/id/2122506/ |archivedate=2005-07-16 |accessdate=2014-03-16}}</ref><ref>See also the article [[Catholic Church and evolution]].
</ref> churches have made statements in favor of evolutionary theory, as have scholars such as the physicist [[John Polkinghorne]], who argues that evolution is one of the principles through which God created living beings. Earlier supporters of evolutionary theory include [[Frederick Temple]], Asa Gray and Charles Kingsley who were enthusiastic supporters of Darwin's theories upon their publication,<ref>[[#Polkinghorne 1998|Polkinghorne 1998]], pp. 7–8</ref> and the French Jesuit priest and geologist [[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]] saw evolution as confirmation of his Christian beliefs, despite condemnation from Church authorities for his more speculative theories. Another example is that of [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal theology]], not providing any creation models, but instead focusing on the [[symbol]]ism in beliefs of the time of authoring Genesis and the cultural environment.

Many Christians and Jews had been considering the idea of the creation history as an allegory (instead of historical) long before the development of Darwin's theory of evolution. For example, Philo, whose works were taken up by early Church writers, wrote that it would be a mistake to think that creation happened in six days, or in any set amount of time.<ref name="Philo_Chapter2">[[#Philo|Philo]]</ref><ref name="www.earlychurch.org.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/philo.php |title=Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BC{{snd}}c. AD 50) |last=Bradshaw |first=Rob |website=Early Church.org.uk |publisher=Steve Bradshaw |location=West Wickham, England |accessdate=December 21, 2011}}</ref> Augustine of the late fourth century who was also a former neoplatonist argued that everything in the universe was created by God at the same moment in time (and not in six days as a literal reading of the Book of Genesis would seem to require);<ref name="Augustine">{{cite journal |last=Young |first=Davis A. |date=March 1988 |title=The Contemporary Relevance of Augustine's View of Creation |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1988/PSCF3-88Young.html |journal=[[American Scientific Affiliation|Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=42–45 |issn=0892-2675 |accessdate=2008-08-18}}</ref> It appears that both Philo and Augustine felt uncomfortable with the idea of a seven-day creation because it detracted from the notion of God's omnipotence. In 1950, [[Pope Pius XII]] stated limited support for the idea in his [[Encyclical#Catholic usage|encyclical]] ''[[Humani generis]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_12081950_humani-generis_en.html |author=Pope Pius XII |authorlink=Pope Pius XII |title=Humani Generis |website=Vatican: the Holy See |publisher=[[Holy See]] |location=St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City |type=[[Encyclical#Catholic usage|Papal encyclical]] |date=August 12, 1950 |accessdate=2011-11-08 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419021937/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_12081950_humani-generis_en.html |archivedate=April 19, 2012 }}</ref> In 1996, [[Pope John Paul II]] stated that "new knowledge has led to the recognition of the theory of evolution as more than a hypothesis," but, referring to previous papal writings, he concluded that "if the human body takes its origin from pre-existent living matter, the spiritual [[soul]] is immediately created by God."<ref>{{cite news |author=Pope John Paul II |authorlink=Pope John Paul II |date=October 30, 1996 |title=Magisterium is concerned with question of evolution, for it involves conception of man |url=http://www.its.caltech.edu/~nmcenter/sci-cp/evolution.html |newspaper=[[L'Osservatore Romano]] |type=Message to the [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]] |edition=Weekly English |location=Tipografia Vaticana, Vatican City |publisher=Holy See |number=44 |pages=3, 7 |accessdate=2014-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321064939/http://www.its.caltech.edu/%7Enmcenter/sci-cp/evolution.html |archive-date=March 21, 2016 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

In the US, Evangelical Christians have continued to believe in a literal Genesis. Members of evangelical Protestant (70%), [[Mormons|Mormon]] (76%) and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] (90%) denominations are the most likely to reject the evolutionary interpretation of the origins of life.<ref>{{cite report |author= |year=2008 |title=U.S. Religious Landscape Survey |url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-chapter-2.pdf |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |location=Washington, D.C. |chapter=Social and Political Views |page=95 |format=PDF |accessdate=2014-03-19}} Report 2: Religious Beliefs & Practices, Chapter 2.</ref>

Jehovah's Witnesses adhere to a combination of [[gap creationism]] and [[day-age creationism]], asserting that scientific evidence about the age of the universe is compatible with the Bible, but that the 'days' after Genesis 1:1 were each thousands of years in length.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chryssides|first1=George D.|title=Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses|date=2008|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810862692|page=37|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx6nUwZzeCsC&pg=PA37|language=en}}</ref>

The historic Christian literal interpretation of creation requires the harmonization of the two creation stories, Genesis 1:1–2:3 and Genesis 2:4–25, for there to be a consistent interpretation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2194 |title=Are There Two Creation Accounts in Genesis? |last=Jackson |first=Wayne |website=Apologetics Press |location=Montgomery, Al |accessdate=2007-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rejectionofpascalswager.net/creationint.html |last=Tobin |first=Paul N. |year=2000 |title=The Creation Myths: Internal Difficulties |website=The Rejection of Pascal's Wager: A Skeptic's Guide to Christianity |publisher=Paul Tobin |location=Singapore |accessdate=2014-03-19 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008175621/http://www.rejectionofpascalswager.net/creationint.html |archivedate=2014-10-08 }}</ref> They sometimes seek to ensure that their belief is taught in science classes, mainly in American schools. Opponents reject the claim that the literalistic biblical view meets the criteria required to be considered scientific. Many religious groups teach that God created the Cosmos. From the days of the early Christian Church Fathers there were allegorical interpretations of the Book of Genesis as well as literal aspects.<ref name="rsf">[[#Forster & Marston 1999|Forster & Marston 1999]]</ref>

[[Christian Science]], a system of thought and practice derived from the writings of [[Mary Baker Eddy]], interprets the Book of Genesis figuratively rather than literally. It holds that the material world is an illusion, and consequently not created by God: the only real creation is the spiritual realm, of which the material world is a distorted version. Christian Scientists regard the story of the creation in the Book of Genesis as having symbolic rather than literal meaning. According to Christian Science, both creationism and evolution are false from an absolute or "spiritual" point of view, as they both proceed from a (false) belief in the reality of a material universe. However, Christian Scientists do not oppose the teaching of evolution in schools, nor do they demand that alternative accounts be taught: they believe that both material science and literalist theology are concerned with the illusory, mortal and material, rather than the real, immortal and spiritual. With regard to material theories of creation, Eddy showed a preference for Darwin's theory of evolution over others.<ref name=S&Hp547>[[#Eddy 1934|Eddy 1934]], p. 547</ref>

===Hinduism===
{{Main|Hindu views on evolution}}
Hindu creationists claim that species of [[plants]] and [[animals]] are material forms adopted by pure consciousness which live an endless cycle of births and rebirths.<ref>[[#McGrath 2010|McGrath 2010]], p. 140</ref> [[Ronald Numbers]] says that: "Hindu Creationists have insisted on the antiquity of humans, who they believe appeared fully formed as long, perhaps, as trillions of years ago."<ref>[[#Numbers 2006|Numbers 2006]], p. 420</ref> Hindu creationism is a form of old Earth creationism, according to Hindu creationists the universe may even be older than billions of years. These views are based on the [[Vedas]], the creation myths of which depict an extreme antiquity of the universe and history of the Earth.<ref>[[#Carper & Hunt 2009|Carper & Hunt 2009]], p. 167</ref><ref>[[#Dasgupta 1922|Dasgupta 1922]], p. 10</ref>

===Islam===
{{Main|Islamic views on evolution}}
[[Islamic views on evolution|Islamic creationism]] is the belief that the universe (including humanity) was directly created by [[God in Islam|God]] as explained in the [[Quran|Qur'an]]. It usually views the Book of Genesis as a corrupted version of God's message. The creation myths in the Qur'an are vaguer and allow for a wider range of interpretations similar to those in other Abrahamic religions.<ref name="nytimes.com"/>

Islam also has its own school of theistic evolutionism, which holds that mainstream scientific analysis of the origin of the universe is supported by the Qur'an. Some [[Muslims]] believe in evolutionary creation, especially among [[liberal movements within Islam]].<ref name="Huffpo"/>

Writing for ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', Drake Bennett noted: "Without a Book of Genesis to account for ... Muslim creationists have little interest in proving that the age of the Earth is measured in the thousands rather than the billions of years, nor do they show much interest in the problem of the dinosaurs. And the idea that animals might evolve into other animals also tends to be less controversial, in part because there are passages of the Koran that seem to support it. But the issue of whether human beings are the product of evolution is just as fraught among Muslims."<ref name="Bennett 4">{{cite news |last=Bennett |first=Drake |date=October 25, 2009 |title=Islam's Darwin problem |url=http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/10/25/in_the_muslim_world_creationism_is_on_the_rise/?page=full |newspaper=[[The Boston Globe]] |location=Boston, MA |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030044754/http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/10/25/in_the_muslim_world_creationism_is_on_the_rise/?page=full |archivedate=2009-10-30 |accessdate=2014-03-21}}</ref> However, some Muslims, such as [[Adnan Oktar]] (also known as Harun Yahya), do not agree that one species can develop from another.<ref name="PrizeforFossil">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/3102103/Creationist-Adnan-Oktar-offers-trillion-pound-prize-for-fossil-proof-of-evolution.html |last=Irvine |first=Chris |date=September 29, 2008 |title=Creationist Adnan Oktar offers trillion-pound prize for fossil proof of evolution |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]] |accessdate=2014-03-21}}</ref><ref name=guardian0104>{{cite news |author= |date=January 7, 2004 |url=http://education.guardian.co.uk/conferences/story/0,,1117752,00.html |title=Creationism: Science and Faith in Schools |newspaper=The Guardian |type=Conferences |location=London |publisher=Guardian Media Group |accessdate=2008-07-18}}</ref>

Since the 1980s, Turkey has been a site of strong advocacy for creationism, supported by American adherents.<ref name="NCSE Edis">{{cite journal |last=Edis |first=Taner |date=November–December 1999 |title=Cloning Creationism in Turkey |url=http://ncse.com/rncse/19/6/cloning-creationism-turkey |journal=Reports of the National Center for Science Education |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=30–35 |issn=2158-818X |accessdate=2008-02-17}}</ref><ref name=WaPo2009>{{cite news |last=Kaufman |first=Marc |date=November 8, 2009 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/07/AR2009110702233.html |title=In Turkey, fertile ground for creationism |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=The Washington Post Company |accessdate=2014-03-21}}</ref>

There are several verses in the Qur'an which some modern writers have interpreted as being compatible with the [[Metric expansion of space|expansion of the universe]], [[Big Bang]] and [[Big Crunch]] theories:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.harunyahya.com/tr/works/3344/The-Big-Bang-echoes-throught-the-map-of-the-galaxy |title=The Big Bang Echoes through the Map of the Galaxy |author=Harun Yahya |authorlink=Adnan Oktar |date=June 30, 2005 |website=Harun Yahya |publisher=Global Publication Ltd. Co. |location=Horsham, England |accessdate=2014-03-21}}</ref><ref>[[#Bucaille 1977|Bucaille 1977]]

* [[#Bucaille 1976|Bucaille 1976]]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/scislam.html |title=The Qur'an, Knowledge, and Science |last=Abd-Allah |first=A. |website=Compendium of Muslim Texts |publisher=[[University of Southern California]] |location=Los Angeles, CA |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081128054613/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/scislam.html |archivedate=2008-11-28 |accessdate=2014-03-21}}</ref>

: {{Cite quran|21|30|t=y|q=Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?}}

: {{Cite quran|41|11|t=y|q=Moreover He comprehended in His design the sky, and it had been (as) smoke: He said to it and to the earth: 'Come ye together, willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come (together), in willing obedience.'}}

: {{Cite quran|51|47|t=y|q=With power and skill did We construct the Firmament: for it is We Who create the vastness of space.}}

: {{Cite quran|21|104|t=y|q=The Day that We roll up the heavens like a scroll rolled up for books (completed),- even as
We produced the first creation, so shall We produce a new one: a promise We have undertaken: truly shall We fulfil it.}}

{{see also|Predestination in Islam}}

====Ahmadiyya====
The [[Ahmadiyya]] movement actively promotes evolutionary theory.<ref name="Masood_Ch13">[[#Masood 1994|Masood 1994]], [http://www.itl-usa.org/ahmadi/ahmadi13.html Chapter 13, "Every Wind of Doctrine"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208191324/http://itl-usa.org/ahmadi/ahmadi13.html |date=2013-02-08 }}</ref> Ahmadis interpret scripture from the Qur'an to support the concept of [[macroevolution]] and give precedence to scientific theories. Furthermore, unlike orthodox Muslims, Ahmadis believe that humans have gradually evolved from different species. Ahmadis regard [[Adam]] as being the first Prophet of God{{spaced ndash}}as opposed to him being the first man on Earth.<ref name="Masood_Ch13" /> Rather than wholly adopting the theory of natural selection, Ahmadis promote the idea of a "guided evolution," viewing each stage of the evolutionary process as having been selectively woven by God.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/articles/Guided_evolution_and_punctuated_equilibrium-20081104MN.pdf |title=Guided Evolution: Proof From Punctuated Equilibrium |last1=Lahaye |first1=Ataul Wahid |last2=Shah |first2=Zia H. |website=Al Islam |publisher=[[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] |location=London |accessdate=2014-03-21}}</ref> [[Mirza Tahir Ahmad]], Fourth [[Khalifatul Masih|Caliph]] of the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] has stated in his magnum opus ''[[Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth]]'' (1998) that evolution did occur but only through God being the One who brings it about. It does not occur itself, according to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.

===Judaism===
{{Main|Jewish views on evolution}}
For [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]] who seek to reconcile discrepancies between science and the creation myths in the Bible, the notion that science and the Bible should even be reconciled through traditional scientific means is questioned. To these groups, science is as true as the [[Torah]] and if there seems to be a problem, [[Epistemology|epistemological]] limits are to blame for apparently irreconcilable points. They point to discrepancies between what is expected and what actually is to demonstrate that things are not always as they appear. They note that even the root word for "world" in the [[Hebrew language]]—עולם (Olam)—means hidden—נעלם (Neh-Eh-Lahm). Just as they know from the Torah that God created man and trees and the light on its way from the stars in their observed state, so too can they know that the world was created in its over the six days of Creation that reflects progression to its currently-observed state, with the understanding that physical ways to verify this may eventually be identified. This knowledge has been advanced by Rabbi [[Dovid Gottlieb]], former philosophy professor at [[Johns Hopkins University]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} Also, relatively old [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] sources from well before the scientifically apparent age of the universe was first determined are in close concord with modern scientific estimates of the age of the universe, according to Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]], and based on Sefer Temunah, an early kabbalistic work attributed to the first-century [[Tannaim|Tanna]] [[Nehunya ben HaKanah]]. Many kabbalists accepted the teachings of the [[Sefer HaTemunah]], including the medieval Jewish scholar [[Nahmanides]], his close student [[Isaac ben Samuel of Acre]], and [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra]]. Other parallels are derived, among other sources, from Nahmanides, who expounds that there was a [[Neanderthal]]-like species with which Adam mated (he did this long before Neanderthals had even been discovered scientifically).<ref>[[#Aviezer 1990|Aviezer 1990]]</ref><ref>[[#Carmell & Domb 1976|Carmell & Domb 1976]]</ref><ref>[[#Schroeder 1998|Schroeder 1998]]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tigay |first=Jeffrey H. |date=Winter 1987–1988 |title=Genesis, Science, and 'Scientific Creationism' |url=http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~jtigay/sci.htm |journal=[[Conservative Judaism (journal)|Conservative Judaism]] |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=20–27 |issn=0010-6542 |accessdate=2014-03-21}}</ref> [[Reform Judaism]] does not take the Torah as a literal text, but rather as a symbolic or open-ended work.

Some contemporary writers such as Rabbi Gedalyah Nadel have sought to reconcile the discrepancy between the account in the Torah, and scientific findings by arguing that each day referred to in the Bible was not 24 hours, but billions of years long.<ref>The Challenge of Creation: Judaism's Encounter with Science, Cosmology, and Evolution, Natan Slifkin, Zoo Torah, 2006, p. 129</ref> Others claim that the Earth was created a few thousand years ago, but was deliberately made to look as if it was five billion years old, e.g. by being created with ready made fossils. The best known exponent of this approach being Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson<ref>The Challenge of Creation: Judaism's Encounter with Science, Cosmology, and Evolution, Natan Slifkin, Zoo Torah, 2006, p. 158</ref> Others state that although the world was physically created in six 24 hour days, the Torah accounts can be interpreted to mean that there was a period of billions of years before the six days of creation.<ref>The Challenge of Creation: Judaism's Encounter with Science, Cosmology, and Evolution, Natan Slifkin, Zoo Torah, 2006, pp. 169, 170</ref>

==Prevalence==
{{Main|Level of support for evolution|Creationism by country}}
[[File:Views on Evolution.svg|thumb|right|440px|Views on human evolution in various countries 2008<ref>{{cite journal |last=Le Page |first=Michael |date=April 19, 2008 |title=Evolution myths: It doesn't matter if people don't grasp evolution |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19826523.000-evolution-myths-it-doesnt-matter-if-people-dont-grasp-evolution.html |journal=[[New Scientist]] |volume=198 |issue=2652 |page=31 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(08)60984-7 |issn=0262-4079 |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hecht |first=Jeff |date=August 19, 2006 |title=Why doesn't America believe in evolution? |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9786-why-doesnt-america-believe-in-evolution.html |journal=New Scientist |volume=191 |issue=2565 |page=11 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(06)60136-X |issn=0262-4079 |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref>]]
Most vocal literalist creationists are from the US, and strict creationist views are much less common in other developed countries. According to a study published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', a survey of the US, Turkey, [[Japan]] and Europe showed that public acceptance of evolution is most prevalent in Iceland, Denmark and Sweden at 80% of the population.<ref name="Science survey" /> There seems to be no significant correlation between believing in evolution and understanding evolutionary science.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.culturalcognition.net/blog/2014/5/24/weekend-update-youd-have-to-be-science-illiterate-to-think-b.html |title=Weekend update: You'd have to be science illiterate to think 'belief in evolution' measures science literacy |last=Kahan |first=Dan |authorlink=Dan Kahan |date=May 24, 2014 |website=[[Cultural cognition#Cultural cognition project at Yale Law School|Cultural Cognition Project]] |publisher=[[Yale Law School]] |location=New Haven, CT |type=Blog |accessdate=2015-03-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Shtulman |first=Andrew |date=March 2006 |title=Qualitative differences between naïve and scientific theories of evolution |url= |journal=Cognitive Psychology |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=170–94 |doi=10.1016/j.cogpsych.2005.10.001 |pmid=16337619 |issn=0010-0285 |bibcode=1992CogPs..24..535V }}</ref>

===Australia===
A 2009 [[Nielsen Holdings|Nielsen]] poll showed that 23% of Australians believe "the biblical account of human origins," 42% believe in a "wholly scientific" explanation for the origins of life, while 32% believe in an evolutionary process "guided by God".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/faith-what-australians-believe-in-20091218-l5qy.html |title=Faith: What Australians believe in |last=Marr |first=David |date=December 19, 2009 |work=[[The Age]] |location=Melbourne, Australia |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20181211051311/https://www.smh.com.au/national/faith-what-australians-believe-in-20091218-l5qy.html |archivedate=December 11, 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=December 11, 2018 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Maley |first=Jacqueline |date=December 19, 2009 |title=God is still tops but angels rate well |url=http://www.theage.com.au/national/god-is-still-tops-but-angels-rate-well-20091218-l5v9.html |work=[[The Age]] |location=Melbourne, Australia |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120913234134/http://www.theage.com.au/national/god-is-still-tops-but-angels-rate-well-20091218-l5v9.html |archivedate=September 13, 2012 |access-date=December 18, 2009 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

A 2013 survey conducted by Auspoll and the [[Australian Academy of Science]] found that 80% of Australians believe in evolution (70% believe it is currently occurring, 10% believe in evolution but do not think it is currently occurring), 12% were not sure and 9% stated they do not believe in evolution.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.science.org.au/files/userfiles/learning/documents/ScienceLiteracyReport2013.pdf |title=Science literacy in Australia |date=2013 |work=[[Australian Academy of Science]] }}</ref>

===Canada===
A 2012 survey, by [[Angus Reid Public Opinion]] revealed that 61 percent of Canadians believe in evolution. The poll asked "Where did human beings come from{{snd}}did we start as singular cells millions of year ago and evolve into our present form, or did God create us in his image 10,000 years ago?"<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Believe In Evolution: Canadians More Likely Than Americans To Endorse Evolution |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2012/09/06/believe-in-evolution_n_1861373.html |date=September 6, 2012 |work=[[The Huffington Post#International editions|HuffPost Canada]] |publisher=[[AOL]] |accessdate=2012-04-28 }}
* {{cite press release |last=Canseco |first=Mario |date=September 5, 2012 |title=Britons and Canadians More Likely to Endorse than Americans |url=http://www.angusreidglobal.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/2012.09.05_CreEvo.pdf |location=New York |publisher=[[Angus Reid Public Opinion]] |accessdate=2014-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429224428/http://www.angusreidglobal.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/2012.09.05_CreEvo.pdf |archive-date=April 29, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Europe===
In Europe, literalist creationism is more widely rejected, though regular opinion polls are not available. Most people accept that evolution is the most widely accepted scientific theory as taught in most schools. In countries with a Roman Catholic majority, [[Catholic Church and evolution|papal acceptance of evolutionary creationism]] as worthy of study has essentially ended debate on the matter for many people.

In the UK, a 2006 poll on the "origin and development of life", asked participants to choose between three different perspectives on the origin of life: 22% chose creationism, 17% opted for intelligent design, 48% selected evolutionary theory, and the rest did not know.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=January 26, 2006 |title=Britons unconvinced on evolution |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4648598.stm |work=BBC News |location=London |publisher=BBC |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/poll.aspx?oItemId=262 |title=BBC Survey On The Origins Of Life |author= |date=January 30, 2006 |website=[[Ipsos MORI]] |publisher=Ipsos MORI |location=London |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref> A subsequent 2010 [[YouGov]] poll on the correct explanation for the origin of humans found that 9% opted for creationism, 12% intelligent design, 65% evolutionary theory and 13% didn't know.<ref name="YouGov">{{cite web |url=http://cdn.yougov.com/today_uk_import/YG-Archives-Pol-Prospect-Evolution-181110.pdf |title=The origin of humans |date=November 20, 2010 |website=YouGov Global |publisher=[[YouGov|YouGov Plc]] |location=London |type=Prospect Survey Results |accessdate=2014-03-24}}</ref> The former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams, head of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]], views the idea of teaching creationism in schools as a mistake.<ref name="Archbishop_2006">{{cite news |last=Bates |first=Stephen |date=March 20, 2006 |title=Archbishop: stop teaching creationism |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/mar/21/religion.topstories3 |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |publisher=Guardian Media Group |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref>

In Italy, Education Minister [[Letizia Moratti]] wanted to retire evolution from the secondary school level; after one week of massive protests, she reversed her opinion.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=May 3, 2004 |title=Italy Keeps Darwin in its Classrooms |url=http://www.dw.de/italy-keeps-darwin-in-its-classrooms/a-1188423-1 |work=Deutsche Welle |location=Bonn, Germany |publisher=ARD |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lorenzi |first=Rossella |date=April 28, 2004 |title=No evolution for Italian teens |url=http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/22817/title/No-evolution-for-Italian-teens/ |journal=[[The Scientist (magazine)|The Scientist]] |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref>

There continues to be scattered and possibly mounting efforts on the part of religious groups throughout Europe to introduce creationism into public education.<ref name="Economist_2007">{{cite news |author= |date=April 19, 2007 |title=In the beginning |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9036706 |work=[[The Economist]] |location=London |publisher=[[Economist Group]] |issn=0013-0613 |accessdate=2007-04-25}}This article gives a worldwide overview of recent developments on the subject of the controversy.</ref> In response, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has released a draft report titled ''The dangers of creationism in education'' on June 8, 2007,<ref name="Doc11297">{{cite web|url=http://www.assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=11678&Language=EN |title=The dangers of creationism in education |date=June 8, 2007 |work=Committee on Culture, Science and Education |publisher=Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe |type=Report |id=Doc. 11297 |accessdate=2014-03-22 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309011447/http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/Doc/XrefViewHTML.asp?FileID=11678&Language=EN |archivedate=March 9, 2013 }}</ref> reinforced by a further proposal of banning it in schools dated October 4, 2007.<ref name="R1580">{{cite web|url=http://assembly.coe.int/main.asp?link=/documents/adoptedtext/ta07/eres1580.htm |title=The dangers of creationism in education |date=October 4, 2007 |work=Committee on Culture, Science and Education |publisher=[[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]] |type=Resolution |id=Resolution 1580 |accessdate=2014-03-22 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307163155/http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=%2FDocuments%2FAdoptedText%2Fta07%2FERES1580.htm |archivedate=March 7, 2014 }} Paras. 13, 18</ref>

Serbia suspended the teaching of evolution for one week in September 2004, under education minister [[Ljiljana Čolić]], only allowing schools to reintroduce evolution into the curriculum if they also taught creationism.<ref name="Serbian_schools">{{cite news |last=de Quetteville |first=Harry |date=September 9, 2004 |title=Darwin is off the curriculum for Serbian schools |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1471367/Darwin-is-off-the-curriculum-for-Serbian-schools.html |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |publisher=Telegraph Media Group |accessdate=January 24, 2012}}</ref> "After a deluge of protest from scientists, teachers and opposition parties" says the BBC report, Čolić's deputy made the statement, "I have come here to confirm Charles Darwin is still alive" and announced that the decision was reversed.<ref name="Serbia_Darwin">{{cite news |author= |date=September 9, 2004 |title=Serbia reverses Darwin suspension |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3642460.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |location=London |publisher=[[BBC]] |accessdate=2014-03-21 }}</ref> Čolić resigned after the government said that she had caused "problems that had started to reflect on the work of the entire government."<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=September 16, 2004 |title='Anti-Darwin' Serb minister quits |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3663196.stm |work=BBC News |location=London |publisher=BBC |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref>

Poland saw a major controversy over creationism in 2006, when the Deputy Education Minister, [[Mirosław Orzechowski]], denounced evolution as "one of many lies" taught in Polish schools. His superior, Minister of Education [[Roman Giertych]], has stated that the theory of evolution would continue to be taught in Polish schools, "as long as most scientists in our country say that it is the right theory." Giertych's father, [[Member of the European Parliament]] [[Maciej Giertych]], has opposed the teaching of evolution and has claimed that [[dinosaur]]s and humans co-existed.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=December 18, 2006 |title=And finally... |url=http://www.wbj.pl/?command=article&id=35336&type=wbj |newspaper=[[Warsaw Business Journal]] |location=Warsaw, Poland |publisher=Valkea Media |accessdate=2014-03-27}}</ref>

===United States===
[[File:Creationist car.jpg|230px|right|thumb|Anti-evolution car in [[Athens, Georgia]] ]]
A 2017 poll by [[Pew Research]] found that 62% of Americans believe humans have evolved over time and 34% of Americans believe humans and other living things have existed in their present form since the beginning of time.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Masci|first1=David|title=For Darwin Day, 6 facts about the evolution debate|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/02/10/darwin-day/|work=Pew Research Center|date=10 February 2017}}</ref> Another 2017 [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] creationism survey found that 38% of adults in the United States inclined to the view that "God created humans in their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years" when asked for their views on the origin and development of human beings, which Gallup noted was the lowest level in 35 years.<ref name=Gallup2017>{{cite news|title=In US, Belief in Creationist View of Humans at New Low|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/210956/belief-creationist-view-humans-new-low.aspx|work=Gallup|date=May 22, 2017|language=en-us}}</ref>

According to a 2014 Gallup poll,<ref name="Gallup2014">{{cite web |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/170822/believe-creationist-view-human-origins.aspx |title=In U.S., 42% Believe Creationist View of Human Origins |last=Newport |first=Frank |date=November 19, 2004 |website=Gallup.com |publisher=Gallup, Inc. |location=Omaha, NE |accessdate=2014-05-10}}</ref> about 42% of Americans believe that "God created human beings pretty much in their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years or so."<ref name="Gallup2014" /> Another 31% believe that "human beings have developed over millions of years from less advanced forms of life, but God guided this process,"and 19% believe that "human beings have developed over millions of years from less advanced forms of life, but God had no part in this process."<ref name="Gallup2014" />

Belief in creationism is inversely correlated to education; of those with [[postgraduate degree]]s, 74% accept evolution.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Newport, Frank (Host) |date=June 11, 2007 |title=Evolution Beliefs |url=http://www.gallup.com/video/27838/Evolution-Beliefs.aspx |series=The Gallup Poll Daily Briefing |accessdate=2014-03-27 |location=Omaha, NE |publisher=Gallup, Inc. |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427004950/http://www.gallup.com/video/27838/Evolution-Beliefs.aspx |archivedate=April 27, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Robinson_BA">{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/ev_publi.htm |title=Beliefs of the U.S. public about evolution and creation |last=Robinson |first=Bruce A. |date=November 1995 |website=ReligiousTolerance.org |publisher=Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance |location=Kingston, Canada |accessdate=2007-11-11}}</ref> In 1987, ''[[Newsweek]]'' reported: "By one count there are some 700 scientists with respectable academic credentials (out of a total of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists) who give credence to creation-science, the general theory that complex life forms did not evolve but appeared 'abruptly.'"<ref name="Robinson_BA" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martz |first1=Larry |last2=McDaniel |first2=Ann |date=June 29, 1987 |title=Keeping God Out of the Classroom |url=http://kgov.com/files/docs/Newsweek-1987-God-Classroom.pdf |journal=[[Newsweek]] |pages=23–24 |issn=0028-9604 |accessdate=2015-09-25}}</ref>

A 2000 poll for [[People for the American Way]] found 70% of the US public felt that evolution was compatible with a belief in God.<ref name="pfaw">{{cite web |url=http://media.pfaw.org/pdf/creationism/creationism-poll.pdf |title=Evolution and Creationism In Public Education: An In-depth Reading Of Public Opinion |author= |date=March 2000 |website=[[People For the American Way]] |publisher=People For the American Way |location=Washington, D.C. |accessdate=2014-03-28}}</ref>

According to a study published in ''Science'', between 1985 and 2005 the number of adult [[North America]]ns who accept evolution declined from 45% to 40%, the number of adults who reject evolution declined from 48% to 39% and the number of people who were unsure increased from 7% to 21%. Besides the US the study also compared data from 32 European countries, Turkey, and Japan. The only country where acceptance of evolution was lower than in the US was Turkey (25%).<ref name="Science survey" />

According to a 2011 Fox News poll, 45% of Americans believe in Creationism, down from 50% in a similar poll in 1999.<ref name="Fox Creationism Poll">{{cite news |author= |date=September 7, 2011 |title=Fox News Poll: Creationism |url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2011/09/07/fox-news-poll-creationism/ |work=[[Fox News Channel|Fox News]] |publisher=[[News Corporation (1980–2013)|News Corporation]] |accessdate=2011-09-22}}</ref> 21% believe in 'the theory of evolution as outlined by Darwin and other scientists' (up from 15% in 1999), and 27% answered that both are true (up from 26% in 1999).<ref name="Fox Creationism Poll" />

In September 2012, educator and television personality Bill Nye spoke with the [[Associated Press]] and aired his fears about acceptance of creationism, believing that teaching children that creationism is the only true answer without letting them understand the way science works will prevent any future innovation in the world of science.<ref name="APNews-20120924">{{cite news |last=Luvan |first=Dylan |date=September 24, 2012 |title=Bill Nye Warns: Creation Views Threaten US Science |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/bill-nye-warns-creation-views-threaten-us-science |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=2014-03-09}}</ref><ref name="Youtube-20120823">{{cite web |last=Fowler |first=Jonathan |last2=Rodd |first2=Elizabeth |title=Bill Nye: Creationism Is Not Appropriate For Children |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gHbYJfwFgOU |date=August 23, 2012 |website=[[YouTube]] |publisher=[[Big Think]] |location=New York |accessdate=2012-09-24}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20141103-JD">{{cite news |last=Deiviscio |first=Jeffrey |title=A Fight for the Young Creationist Mind: In 'Undeniable,' Bill Nye Speaks Evolution Directly to Creationists |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/04/science/in-undeniable-bill-nye-speaks-evolution-directly-to-creationists.html |date=November 3, 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=November 4, 2014 }}</ref> In February 2014, Nye defended [[creation–evolution controversy|evolution in the classroom]] in a [[Bill Nye–Ken Ham debate|debate]] with creationist Ken Ham on the topic of whether creation is a viable model of origins in today's modern, [[History of science#Modern science|scientific era]].<ref name="NBC-20140204">{{cite news |last=Boyle |first=Alan |authorlink=Alan Boyle |date=February 5, 2014 |title=Bill Nye Wins Over the Science Crowd at Evolution Debate |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/bill-nye-wins-over-science-crowd-evolution-debate-n22836 |work=[[NBCNews.com]] |accessdate=2014-02-06}}</ref><ref name="TG-20140204">{{cite news |last=Kopplin |first=Zack |authorlink=Zack Kopplin |date=February 4, 2014 |title=Why Bill Nye the Science Guy is trying to reason with America's creationists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/feb/04/bill-nye-science-guy-evolution-debate-creationists |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |publisher=Guardian Media Group |accessdate=2014-02-06}}</ref><ref name="Debate-20140204">{{Cite video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z6kgvhG3AkI |title=Bill Nye Debates Ken Ham |last=Foreman |first=Tom (Moderator) |authorlink=Tom Foreman |date=February 4, 2014 |website=YouTube |publisher=Answers in Genesis |location=Hebron, KY |accessdate=2014-02-05}} (program begins at 13:14).</ref>

====Education controversies====
[[File:Truth fish.jpg|thumb|right|The Truth fish, one of the many creationist responses to the [[Parodies of the ichthys symbol|Darwin fish]] ]]
{{Main|Creation–evolution controversy}}
In the US, creationism has become centered in the political controversy over [[Creation and evolution in public education#United States|creation and evolution in public education]], and whether teaching creationism in science classes conflicts with the separation of church and state. Currently, the controversy comes in the form of whether advocates of the intelligent design movement who wish to "[[Teach the Controversy]]" in science classes have conflated [[Relationship between religion and science|science with religion]].<ref name="kitz" />

[[People for the American Way]] polled 1500 North Americans about the teaching of evolution and creationism in November and December 1999. They found that most North Americans were not familiar with Creationism, and most North Americans had heard of evolution, but many did not fully understand the basics of the theory. The main findings were:
{{bar box
|title= Americans believe that:<ref name="pfaw" />
|barwidth=200px
|width=80%
|bars=
{{bar percent|
* Public schools should teach evolution only|silver|60|20%}}
{{bar percent|
*'''Only evolution should be taught in science classes, religious explanations <br />can be discussed in another class'''|gray|51|17%}}
{{bar percent|
*Creationism can be discussed in science class as a 'belief,' not a scientific theory|silver|87|29%}}
{{bar percent|
*'''Creationism and evolution should be taught as 'scientific theories' in science class'''|gray|39|13%}}
{{bar percent|
*Only Creationism should be taught|silver|48|16%}}
{{bar percent|
*'''Teach both evolution and Creationism, but unsure how to do so'''|gray|12|4%}}
{{bar percent|
*No opinion|silver|3|1%}}
}}

In such political contexts, creationists argue that their particular religiously based origin belief is superior to those of other [[belief system]]s, in particular those made through secular or scientific rationale. Political creationists are opposed by many individuals and organizations who have made detailed critiques and given testimony in various court cases that the [[objections to evolution|alternatives to scientific reasoning offered by creationists]] are opposed by the [[scientific consensus|consensus]] of the scientific community.<ref name="aaas">{{cite web|url=http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf|title=Statement on the Teaching of Evolution|date=February 16, 2006|publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]|location=Washington, D.C.|author=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221125539/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf|archivedate=2006-02-21|accessdate=2014-03-09}}
* {{cite press release|title=AAAS Denounces Anti-Evolution Laws as Hundreds of K-12 Teachers Convene for 'Front Line' Event|date=February 19, 2006|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|location=St. Louis, MO|url=http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/0219boardstatement.shtml|last=Pinholster|first=Ginger|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060421193306/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/0219boardstatement.shtml|archivedate=2006-04-21|accessdate=2014-08-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Delgado |first=Cynthia |date=July 28, 2006 |title=Finding the Evolution in Medicine |url=http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/newsletters/2006/07_28_2006/story03.htm |journal=[[NIH Record]] |issn=1057-5871 |accessdate=2014-03-31 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122022815/http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/newsletters/2006/07_28_2006/story03.htm |archivedate=November 22, 2008 }} "...While 99.9 percent of scientists accept evolution, 40 to 50 percent of college students do not accept evolution and believe it to be 'just' a theory."{{snd}}[[Brian Alters]]</ref>

==Criticism==
===Christian criticism===
Most Christians disagree with the teaching of creationism as an alternative to evolution in schools.<ref>{{cite book |title=Exploring and Proclaiming the Apostles' Creed |first1=Roger |last1=van Harn |first2=David F. |last2=Ford |first3=Colin E. |last3=Gunton |publisher=A&C Black |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8192-8116-6 |page=44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCXUAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA44}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=GCXUAwAAQBAJ Extract of page 44]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Foundational Falsehoods of Creationism |first1=Aron |last1=Ra |publisher=Pitchstone Publishing |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-63431-079-6 |page=182 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-rvDAAAQBAJ}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=F-rvDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT182 Extract of page 182]</ref> Several religious organizations, among them the [[Catholic Church]], hold that their faith does not conflict with the scientific consensus regarding evolution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/media/voices/religion |title=Statements from Religious Organizations |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, CA |accessdate=2011-03-10|date=2008-09-08 }}</ref> The [[Clergy Letter Project]], which has collected more than 13,000 signatures, is an "endeavor designed to demonstrate that religion and science can be compatible."

In his 2002 article "Intelligent Design as a Theological Problem," George Murphy argues against the view that life on Earth, in all its forms, is direct evidence of God's act of creation (Murphy quotes [[Phillip E. Johnson]]'s claim that he is speaking "of a God who acted openly and left his fingerprints on all the evidence."). Murphy argues that this view of God is incompatible with the Christian understanding of God as "the one revealed in the cross and resurrection of Christ." The basis of this theology is [[Isaiah]] 45:15, "Verily thou art a God that hidest thyself, O God of Israel, the Saviour."

Murphy observes that the execution of a Jewish carpenter by [[Roman Empire|Roman]] authorities is in and of itself an ordinary event and did not require [[Miracle|divine action]]. On the contrary, for the crucifixion to occur, God had to limit or "empty" himself. It was for this reason that [[Paul the Apostle]] wrote, in [[Epistle to the Philippians|Philippians]] 2:5-8:

<blockquote>Let this mind be in you, which was also in Christ Jesus: Who, being in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be equal with God: But made himself of no reputation, and took upon him the form of a servant, and was made in the likeness of men: And being found in fashion as a man, he humbled himself, and became obedient unto death, even the death of the cross.</blockquote>

Murphy concludes that,<blockquote>Just as the Son of God limited himself by taking human form and dying on a cross, God limits divine action in the world to be in accord with rational laws which God has chosen. This enables us to understand the world on its own terms, but it also means that natural processes hide God from scientific observation.</blockquote>For Murphy, a theology of the cross requires that Christians accept a [[Naturalism (philosophy)#Methodological naturalism|''methodological'' naturalism]], meaning that one cannot invoke God to explain natural phenomena, while recognizing that such acceptance does not require one to accept a [[Metaphysical naturalism|''metaphysical'' naturalism]], which proposes that nature is all that there is.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murphy |first=George L. |year=2002 |title=Intelligent Design as a Theological Problem |url=http://puffin.creighton.edu/nrcse/IDTHG.html |journal=Covalence: The Bulletin of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Alliance for Faith, Science and Technology |volume=IV |issue=2 |oclc=52753579 |accessdate=2014-03-31}} Reprinted with permission.</ref>

The Jesuit priest [[George Coyne]] has stated that is "unfortunate that, especially here in America, creationism has come to mean...some literal interpretation of Genesis." He argues that "...Judaic-Christian faith is radically creationist, but in a totally different sense. It is rooted in belief that everything depends on God, or better, all is a gift from God."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Purcell|first1=Brendan|title=From Big Bang to Big Mystery: Human Origins in the Light of Creation and Evolution|date=2012|publisher=New City Press of the Focolare|isbn=978-1565484337|pages=94}}</ref>

===Teaching of creationism===
Other Christians have expressed qualms about teaching creationism. In March 2006, then Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams, the leader of the world's Anglicans, stated his discomfort about teaching creationism, saying that creationism was "a kind of [[category mistake]], as if the Bible were a theory like other theories." He also said: "My worry is creationism can end up reducing the doctrine of creation rather than enhancing it." The views of the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]]{{snd}}a major American-based branch of the Anglican Communion{{snd}}on teaching creationism resemble those of Williams.<ref name="Archbishop_2006" />

The National Science Teachers Association is opposed to teaching creationism as a science,<ref>{{cite web |title=NSTA Position Statement: The Teaching of Evolution |publisher=National Science Teachers Association | year=2013 |url=http://www.nsta.org/about/positions/evolution.aspx}}</ref> as is the Association for Science Teacher Education,<ref>{{cite web |title= ASTE Position Statement on Teaching Biological Evolution |year=2015 |publisher=Association for Science Teacher Education |url=https://theaste.org/about/aste-position-statement-on-teaching-biological-evolution/}}</ref> the National Association of Biology Teachers,<ref>{{cite web |title=NABT Position Statement on Teaching Evolution |publisher=National Association of Biology Teachers |year=2011 |url=http://www.nabt.org/websites/institution/?p=92 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916020337/http://www.nabt.org/websites/institution/?p=92 |archivedate=2015-09-16 }}</ref> the American Anthropological Association,<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement on Evolution and Creationism |publisher=American Anthropological Association |year=2000 |url=http://www.americananthro.org/ConnectWithAAA/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2599}}</ref> the American Geosciences Institute,<ref>{{cite web |title=American Geological Institute Position on Teaching Evolution |publisher=American Geoscience Institute |year=2000 |url=http://www.agiweb.org/gapac/evolution_statement.html}}</ref> the Geological Society of America,<ref>{{cite web |year=2012 |title=Position Statement: Teaching Evolution |publisher=Geological Society of America |url=https://www.geosociety.org/positions/position1.htm}}</ref> the American Geophysical Union,<ref>{{cite web |title=AGU Position Statement on Teaching Creationism as Science |publisher=American Geophysical Institute |year=1998 |url=http://www.rbsp.info/rbs/CLONE/debate.html}}</ref> and numerous other professional teaching and scientific societies.

In April 2010, the [[American Academy of Religion]] issued ''Guidelines for Teaching About Religion in K‐12 Public Schools in the United States'', which included guidance that creation science or intelligent design should not be taught in science classes, as "Creation science and intelligent design represent worldviews that fall outside of the realm of science that is defined as (and limited to) a method of inquiry based on gathering observable and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning." However, they, as well as other "worldviews that focus on speculation regarding the origins of life represent another important and relevant form of human inquiry that is appropriately studied in literature or social sciences courses. Such study, however, must include a diversity of worldviews representing a variety of religious and philosophical perspectives and must avoid privileging one view as more legitimate than others."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/news/2010/07/american-academy-religion-teaching-creationism-005712 |title=American Academy of Religion on teaching creationism |date=July 23, 2010 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, CA |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref>

Randy Moore and Sehoya Cotner, from the biology program at the [[University of Minnesota]], reflect on the relevance of teaching creationism in the article "The Creationist Down the Hall: Does It Matter When Teachers Teach Creationism?" They conclude that "Despite decades of science education reform, numerous legal decisions declaring the teaching of creationism in public-school science classes to be unconstitutional, overwhelming evidence supporting evolution, and the many denunciations of creationism as nonscientific by professional scientific societies, creationism remains popular throughout the United States."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moore |first1=Randy |last2=Cotner |first2=Sehoya |date=May 2009 |title=The Creationist Down the Hall: Does It Matter When Teachers Teach Creationism? |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–35 |doi=10.1525/bio.2009.59.5.10 |issn=0006-3568 |jstor=25502451|bibcode=1985BioSc..35..499W }}</ref>

===Scientific criticism===
{{Main|Creation–evolution controversy}}
Science is a system of knowledge based on observation, empirical evidence, and the development of theories that yield testable explanations and predictions of natural phenomena. By contrast, creationism is often based on literal interpretations of the narratives of particular religious texts.<ref>[[#NAS 2008|NAS 2008]], [http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11876&page=12 p. 12]</ref> Creationist beliefs involve purported forces that lie outside of nature, such as supernatural intervention, and often do not allow predictions at all. Therefore, these can neither be confirmed nor disproved by scientists.<ref name="SEaC">[[#NAS 2008|NAS 2008]], [http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11876&page=10 p. 10], "In science, explanations must be based on naturally occurring phenomena. Natural causes are, in principle, reproducible and therefore can be checked independently by others. If explanations are based on purported forces that are outside of nature, scientists have no way of either confirming or disproving those explanations."</ref> However, many creationist beliefs can be framed as testable predictions about phenomena such as the age of the Earth, its [[geological history of Earth|geological history]] and the origins, [[biogeography|distributions]] and [[Phylogenetics|relationships]] of living organisms found on it. [[History of science|Early science]] incorporated elements of these beliefs, but as science developed these beliefs were gradually [[Falsifiability|falsified]] and were replaced with understandings based on accumulated and reproducible evidence that often allows the accurate prediction of future results.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/index.html |title=An Index to Creationist Claims |editor-last=Isaak |editor-first=Mark |year=2006 |website=TalkOrigins Archive |publisher=The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. |location=Houston, TX |accessdate=2012-12-09}}</ref><ref>[[#Futuyma 2005|Futuyma 2005]]</ref>

Some scientists, such as [[Stephen Jay Gould]],<ref name="RoA">[[#Gould 1999|Gould 1999]]</ref> consider science and religion to be two compatible and complementary fields, with authorities in distinct areas of human experience, so-called [[non-overlapping magisteria]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |date=March 1997 |title=Nonoverlapping Magisteria |url=http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_noma.html |journal=[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]] |volume=106 |pages=16–22 |issue=3 |issn=0028-0712 |accessdate=2014-03-31}}</ref> This view is also held by many theologians, who believe that [[Unmoved mover|ultimate origins]] and [[meaning of life|meaning]] are addressed by religion, but favor verifiable scientific explanations of natural phenomena over those of creationist beliefs. Other scientists, such as [[Richard Dawkins]],<ref>[[#Dawkins 2006|Dawkins 2006]], p. 5</ref> reject the non-overlapping magisteria and argue that, in disproving literal interpretations of creationists, the scientific method also undermines religious texts as a source of truth. Irrespective of this diversity in viewpoints, since creationist beliefs are not supported by empirical evidence, the scientific consensus is that any attempt to teach creationism as science should be rejected.<ref name="RoyalSociety_2006">{{cite web|url=http://royalsociety.org/news.asp?year=&id=4298|title=Royal Society statement on evolution, creationism and intelligent design|date=April 11, 2006|website=[[Royal Society]]|publisher=Royal Society|location=London|author=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602213726/http://royalsociety.org/news.asp?year=&id=4298|archivedate=2008-06-02|accessdate=2014-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncse.com/taking-action/ten-major-court-cases-evolution-creationism |title=Ten Major Court Cases about Evolution and Creationism |last1=Matsumura |first1=Molleen |last2=Mead |first2=Louise |date=February 14, 2001 |website=National Center for Science Education |publisher=National Center for Science Education |location=Berkeley, CA |accessdate=2008-11-04}} Updated 2007-07-31.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/06/ann_coulter_no_evidence_for_ev.php |title=Ann Coulter: No evidence for evolution? |last=Myers |first=PZ |authorlink=PZ Myers |date=June 18, 2006 |website=[[Pharyngula (blog)|Pharyngula]] |publisher=[[ScienceBlogs|ScienceBlogs LLC]] |type=Blog |accessdate=2007-09-12 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809011055/http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/06/ann_coulter_no_evidence_for_ev.php |archivedate=August 9, 2007 }}</ref>

==Organizations==
{| style="width:100%;"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|width=47%|
;Creationism (in general)
* [[American Scientific Affiliation]]
* [[Christians in Science]]

;Young Earth creationism
* [[Answers in Genesis]], a group promoting young Earth creationism
* [[Creation Ministries International]], an organisation promoting biblical creation
* [[Creation Research Society]]
* [[Institute for Creation Research]]
* [[The Way of the Master]]

;Old Earth creationism
* Old Earth Ministries (OEM), formerly Answers In Creation (AIC), led by Greg Neyman<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oldearth.org/about_aic.htm |title=About Old Earth Ministries? |website=Old Earth Ministries |publisher=Old Earth Ministries |location=Springfield, OH |accessdate=2014-03-09}}</ref>
* [[Reasons to Believe]], led by [[Hugh Ross (creationist)|Hugh Ross]]
|width=6%|
|width=47%|

;Intelligent design
* [[Access Research Network]]
* [[Centre for Intelligent Design]]
* [[Center for Science and Culture]], a subsidiary of the [[Discovery Institute]]

;Evolutionary creationism
* [[BioLogos Foundation]]

;Evolution
* [[National Center for Science Education]]
* [[TalkOrigins Archive]]
* [[The Panda's Thumb (blog)]]
* [[ScienceBlogs]]
* Why Evolution is True ([[Jerry Coyne]]'s website)
|}

==See also==
{{Wikipedia books
|1=Evolution
|3=Creationism and Intelligent Design
}}
{{Div col}}
* [[Biblical inerrancy]]
* [[Biogenesis]]
* [[Evolution of complexity]]
* [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]]
* [[History of creationism]]
* [[Religious cosmology]]
* [[Template:Human timeline|Human timeline]]
* [[Template:Life timeline|Life timeline]]
* [[Template:Nature timeline|Nature timeline]]
{{div col end}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|group="note"|refs=
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book |author=`Abdu'l-Bahá |authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá |year=1982 |origyear=Originally published 1922–1925 |title=The Promulgation of Universal Peace: Talks Delivered by 'Abdu'l-Bahá during His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912 |others=Compiled by Howard MacNutt |edition=2nd |location=Wilmette, IL |publisher=Bahá’í Publishing Trust |isbn=978-0-8774-3172-5 |lccn=81021689 |oclc=853066452 |ref=`Abdu'l-Bahá 1982}}
*{{cite book |last=Aviezer |first=Nathan |authorlink=Nathan Aviezer |year=1990 |title=In the Beginning—: Biblical Creation and Science |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=KTAV Publishing House |isbn=978-0-88125-328-3 |lccn=89049127 |oclc=20800545 |ref=Aviezer 1990}}
*{{cite journal |editor-last=Barlow |editor-first=Nora |editor-link=Nora Barlow |year=1963 |title=Darwin's Ornithological Notes |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F1577&viewtype=side |journal=Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=201–278 |issn=0068-2306 |accessdate=2009-06-10 |ref=Barlow 1963}}
*{{cite book |last=Bowler |first=Peter J. |year=2003 |title=Evolution: The History of an Idea |edition=3rd |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-23693-6 |lccn=2002007569 |oclc=49824702 |ref=Bowler 2003}}
*{{cite book |last=Bucaille |first=Maurice |authorlink=Maurice Bucaille |year=1977 |origyear=Original French edition published 1976 |title=The Bible, The Qur'an and Science: The Holy Scriptures Examined in the Light of Modern Knowledge |others=translated from the French by Alastair D. Pannell and the author |location=Paris |publisher=Seghers |lccn=76488005 |oclc=373529514 |ref=Bucaille 1977}}
*{{cite book |last=Bucaille |first=Maurice |year=1976 |title=The Qur'an and Modern Science |url=http://www.sultan.org/articles/QScience.html |type=Booklet |location=Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |publisher=Cooperative Offices for Call & Guidance at Al-Badiah & Industrial Area |oclc=52246825 |accessdate=2014-03-21 |ref=Bucaille 1976}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Carmell |editor1-first=Aryeh |editor2-last=Domb |editor2-first=Cyril |year=1976 |title=Challenge: Torah Views on Science and its Problems |location=Jerusalem; New York |publisher=[[Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists]]; [[Feldheim Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-87306-174-2 |lccn=77357516 |oclc=609518840 |ref=Carmell & Domb 1976}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Carper |editor1-first=James C. |editor2-last=Hunt |editor2-first=Thomas C. |year=2009 |title=The Praeger Handbook of Religion and Education in the United States |volume=1: A–L |location=Westport, CT |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-275-99228-6 |lccn=2008041156 |oclc=246888936 |ref=Carper & Hunt 2009}}
*{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Francis S. |authorlink=Francis Collins |year=2006 |title=The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief |location=New York |publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]] |isbn=978-0-7432-8639-8 |lccn=2006045316 |oclc=65978711 |ref=Collins 2006|title-link=The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief }}
*{{cite book |last=Dasgupta |first=Surendranath |authorlink=Surendranath Dasgupta |year=1922 |title=A History of Indian Philosophy |volume=1 |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |lccn=22018463 |oclc=4235820 |ref=Dasgupta 1922}}
*{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |year=2006 |title=The God Delusion |location=London |publisher=[[Bantam Press]] |isbn=978-0-5930-5548-9 |lccn=2006015506 |oclc=70671839 |ref=Dawkins 2006}}
*{{cite book |last=Desmond |first=Adrian |authorlink=Adrian Desmond |year=1989 |title=The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in Radical London |series=Science and its Conceptual Foundations |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-14346-0 |lccn=89005137 |oclc=828159401 |ref=Desmond 1989}}
*{{cite book |last=Desmond |first=Adrian |last2=Moore |first2=James |author2-link=James Moore (biographer) |year=1991 |title=Darwin |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Michael Joseph (publisher)|Michael Joseph]]; [[Viking Press|Viking Penguin]] |isbn=978-0-7181-3430-3 |lccn=92196964 |oclc=26502431 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Dewey |first=John |authorlink=John Dewey |year=1994 |chapter=The Influence of Darwinism on Philosophy |editor=Martin Gardner |editor-link=Martin Gardner |title=Great Essays in Science |location=Buffalo, NY |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=978-0-87975-853-0 |lccn=93035453 |oclc=28846489 |ref=Dewey 1994}}
*{{cite book |last=Draper |first=Paul R. |authorlink=Paul Draper (philosopher) |year=2005 |chapter=God, Science, and Naturalism |editor-last=Wainwright |editor-first=William J. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Religion |pages=272–303 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/0195138090.001.0001/acprof-9780195138092-chapter-12 |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/0195138090.003.0012 |isbn=978-0-1951-3809-2 |lccn=2004043890 |oclc=54542845 |accessdate=2014-03-15 |ref=Draper 2005}}
*{{cite book |last=Dundes |first=Alan |authorlink=Alan Dundes |year=1984 |chapter=Introduction |editor-last=Dundes |editor-first=Alan |title=Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-5200-5192-8 |lccn=83017921 |oclc=9944508 |ref=Dundes 1984 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sacrednarrativer00dund |url=https://archive.org/details/sacrednarrativer00dund }}
*{{cite book |last=Dundes |first=Alan |year=1996 |chapter=Madness in Method, Plus a Plea for Projective Inversion in Myth |editor1-last=Patton |editor1-first=Laurie L. |editor1-link=Laurie L. Patton |editor2-last=Doniger |editor2-first=Wendy |editor2-link=Wendy Doniger |title=Myth and Method |location=Charlottesville; London |publisher=[[University of Virginia Press]] |isbn=978-0-8139-1657-6 |lccn=96014672 |oclc=34516050 |ref=Patton & Doniger 1996}}
*{{cite book |last=Eddy |first=Mary Baker |authorlink=Mary Baker Eddy |year=1934 |origyear=Originally published 1875 as ''Science and Health''; Christian Scientist Publishing Company: Boston, MA |title=Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures |edition=Sunday school |location=Boston, MA |publisher=[[Christian Science Publishing Society]] for the Trustees under the will of Mary Baker G. Eddy |lccn=42044682 |oclc=4579118 |ref=Eddy 1934|title-link=Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures }}
*{{cite book |last1=Forrest |first1=Barbara |authorlink1=Barbara Forrest |last2=Gross |first2=Paul R. |authorlink2=Paul R. Gross |year=2004 |title=Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-515742-0 |oclc=50913078 |lccn=2002192677 |ref=Forrest & Gross 2004|title-link=Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design }}
*{{cite book |last1=Forster |first1=Roger |authorlink1=Roger T. Forster |last2=Marston |first2=V. Paul |year=1999 |chapter=Genesis Through History |title=Reason, Science, and Faith |location=Crowborough, East Sussex |publisher=Monarch Books |isbn=978-1-85424-441-3 |lccn=99488551 |oclc=41159110 |ref=Forster & Marston 1999}}
*{{cite book |last=Futuyma |first=Douglas J. |authorlink=Douglas J. Futuyma |year=2005 |chapter=Evolutionary Science, Creationism, and Society |title=Evolution |location=Sunderland, MA |publisher=[[Sinauer Associates]] |isbn=978-0-87893-187-3 |lccn=2004029808 |oclc=57311264 |ref=Futuyma 2005 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu |url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu }}
*{{cite book |last1=Giberson |first1=Karl W. |last2=Yerxa |first2=Donald A. |year=2002 |title=Species of Origins: America's Search for a Creation Story |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-0764-7 |lccn=2002002365 |oclc=49031109 |ref=Giberson & Yerxa 2002}}
*{{cite book |last=Gosse |first=Philip Henry |authorlink=Philip Henry Gosse |year=1857 |title=Omphalos: An Attempt to Untie the Geological Knot |location=London |publisher=[[John Van Voorst|J. Van Voorst]] |lccn=11004351 |oclc=7631539 |ref=Gosse 1857|title-link=Omphalos (book) }}
*{{cite book |last=Gould |first=Stephen Jay |authorlink=Stephen Jay Gould |year=1999 |title=Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life |series=Library of Contemporary Thought |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=[[Ballantine Books|Ballantine Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-345-43009-0 |lccn=98031335 |oclc=39886951 |ref=Gould 1999|title-link=Rocks of Ages }}
*{{cite book|last=Gunn |first=Angus M. |year=2004 |title=Evolution and Creationism in the Public Schools: A Handbook for Educators, Parents, and Community Leaders |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |isbn=978-0-7864-2002-5 |lccn=2004018788 |oclc=56319812 |ref=Gunn 2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutioncreatio0000gunn }}
*{{cite book |last=Hayward |first=James L. |year=1998 |title=The Creation/Evolution Controversy: An Annotated Bibliography |series=Magill Bibliographies |location=Lanham, MD; Pasadena, CA |publisher=Scarecrow Press; Salem Press |page=253 |isbn=978-0-8108-3386-9 |lccn=98003138 |oclc=38496519 |ref=Hayward 1998}}
*{{cite book |last=Lamoureux |first=Denis O. |authorlink=Denis Lamoureux |year=1999 |chapter=Evangelicals Inheriting the Wind: The Phillip E. Johnson Phenomenon |title=Darwinism Defeated?: The Johnson-Lamoureux Debate on Biological Origins |others=Foreword by [[J. I. Packer]] |location=Vancouver, B.C. |publisher=[[Regent College#Media|Regent College Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-57383-133-8 |oclc=40892139 |ref=Lamoureux 1999}}
*{{cite book |last=Masood |first=Steven |year=1994 |origyear=Originally published 1986 |title=Jesus and the Indian Messiah |location=Oldham, England |publisher=Word of Life |isbn=978-1-898868-00-2 |lccn=94229476 |oclc=491161526 |ref=Masood 1994}}
*{{cite book |last=McComas |first=William F. |year=2002 |chapter=Science and Its Myths |editor-last=Shermer |editor-first=Michael |editor-link=Michael Shermer |title=The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience |volume=1 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-57607-653-8 |lccn=2002009653 |oclc=50155642 |ref=Shermer 2002|title-link=The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience }}
*{{cite book |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |authorlink=Alister McGrath |year=2010 |title=Science and Religion: A New Introduction |edition=2nd |location=Malden, MA |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-4051-8790-9 |lccn=2009020180 |oclc=366494307 |ref=McGrath 2010}}
*{{cite book |author=National Academy of Sciences |authorlink=National Academy of Sciences |year=1999 |title=Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6024 |edition=2nd |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[National Academies Press|National Academy Press]] |isbn=978-0-309-06406-4 |lccn=99006259 |oclc=43803228 |accessdate=2014-11-22 |ref=NAS 1999}}
*{{cite book|author1=National Academy of Sciences |author2=Institute of Medicine |authorlink2=Institute of Medicine |year=2008 |title=Science, Evolution, and Creationism |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866/page/3 3–4] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866/page/3 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=National Academy Press |isbn=978-0-309-10586-6 |lccn=2007015904 |oclc=123539346 |accessdate=2014-11-22 |ref=NAS 2008 |bibcode=2008PNAS..105....3A |doi=10.1073/pnas.0711608105 |pmid=18178613 |pmc=2224205 }}
*{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald L. |authorlink=Ronald Numbers |year=1998 |title=Darwinism Comes to America |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-19312-3 |lccn=98016212 |oclc=38747194 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald L. |year=2006 |origyear=Originally published 1992 as ''The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism''; New York: [[Alfred A. Knopf]] |title=The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design |edition=Expanded ed., 1st Harvard University Press pbk. |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-02339-0 |lccn=2006043675 |oclc=69734583 |ref=Numbers 2006|title-link=The Creationists }}
*{{cite book |last=Okasha |first=Samir |year=2002 |title=Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction |series=Very Short Introductions |volume=67 |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280283-5 |lccn=2002510456 |oclc=48932644 |ref=Okasha 2002}}
*{{cite book|last=Pennock |first=Robert T. |authorlink=Robert T. Pennock |year=1999 |title=Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-16180-0 |lccn=98027286 |oclc=44966044 |ref=Pennock 1999 |url=https://archive.org/details/towerofbabelevid00penn }}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Pennock |editor-first=Robert T |editor-link=Robert T. Pennock |year=2001 |title=Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-66124-9 |lccn=2001031276 |oclc=46729201 |ref=Pennock 2001}}
*{{cite book |author=Philo, of Alexandria |authorlink=Philo |year=1854–55 |chapter=The First Book of the Treatise on The Allegories of the Sacred Laws, after the Work of the Six Days of Creation |chapterurl=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book2.html |title=The Works of Philo Judaeus |url=https://archive.org/details/worksofphilojuda01yonguoft |series=Bohn's Classical Library |others=Translated from the Greek, by [[Charles Duke Yonge|C. D. Yonge]] |location=London |publisher=[[Henry George Bohn|H.G. Bohn]] |lccn=20007801 |oclc=1429769 |accessdate=2014-03-09 |ref=Philo}}
*{{cite book |last=Plimer |first=Ian |authorlink=Ian Plimer |year=1994 |title=Telling Lies for God: Reason vs Creationism |location=Milsons Point, NSW |publisher=[[Random House|Random House Australia]] |isbn=978-0-09-182852-3 |lccn=94237744 |oclc=32608689 |ref=Plimer 1994}}
*{{cite book |last=Polkinghorne |first=John |authorlink=John Polkinghorne |year=1998 |title=Science and Theology: An Introduction |location=Minneapolis, MN |publisher=[[Fortress Press]] |isbn=978-0-8006-3153-6 |lccn=98229115 |oclc=40117376 |ref=Polkinghorne 1998}}
*{{cite book|last=Quammen |first=David |authorlink=David Quammen |year=2006 |title=The Reluctant Mr. Darwin: An Intimate Portrait of Charles Darwin and the Making of His Theory of Evolution |series=Great Discoveries |location=New York |publisher=[[James Atlas|Atlas Books/W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0-393-05981-6 |lccn=2006009864 |oclc=65400177 |ref=Quammen 2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/reluctantmrdarwi00quam }}
*{{cite book|last=Rainey |first=David |title=Faith Reads: A Selective Guide to Christian Nonfiction |year=2008 |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |isbn=978-1-59158-602-9 |lccn=2008010352 |oclc=213599217 |ref=Rainey 2012 |url=https://archive.org/details/faithreadsselect0000rain }}
*{{cite book |last=Schroeder |first=Gerald L. |authorlink=Gerald Schroeder |year=1998 |origyear=Originally published 1997; New York: [[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]] |title=The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom |edition=1st Broadway Books trade paperback |location=New York |publisher=[[Broadway Books]] |isbn=978-0-7679-0303-5 |lccn=97014978 |oclc=39162332 |ref=Schroeder 1998}}
*{{cite book |last=Scott |first=Eugenie C. |authorlink=Eugenie Scott |year=1999 |chapter=Science, Religion, and Evolution |editor1-last=Springer |editor1-first=Dale A. |editor2-last=Scotchmoor |editor2-first=Judy |title=Evolution: Investigating the Evidence |chapter-url=http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/528_science_religion_and_evoluti_6_19_2001.asp |type=Reprint |series=The Paleontological Society Special Publications |volume=9 |location=Pittsburgh, PA |publisher=[[Paleontological Society]] |lccn=00274093 |oclc=42725350 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030628210954/http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/528_science_religion_and_evoluti_6_19_2001.asp |archivedate=2003-06-28 |ref=Scott 1999}} "Presented as a Paleontological Society short course at the annual meeting of the Geological Society of America, Denver, Colorado, October 24, 1999."
*{{cite book|last=Scott |first=Eugenie C. |authorlink=Eugenie Scott |year=2005 |origyear=Originally published 2004; Westport, CT: [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]] |title=Evolution vs. Creationism: An Introduction |others=Foreword by [[Niles Eldredge]] |edition=1st paperback |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24650-8 |lccn=2005048649 |oclc=60420899 |ref=Scott 2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionvscreat00scot }}
*{{cite book|ref=harv|first=Eugenie C. |last=Scott|title=Evolution Vs. Creationism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAAlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|date=3 August 2009|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26187-7|pages=i–331}}
*{{cite book|authorlink=James A. Secord |last=Secord |first=James A. |title=Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation |location=Chicago, Illinois |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-226-74410-0 |lccn=00009124 |oclc=43864195 |ref=Secord 2000}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Stewart |editor-first=Melville Y. |editor-link=Melville Y. Stewart |year=2010 |title=Science and Religion in Dialogue |location=Malden, MA |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-8921-7 |lccn=2009032180 |oclc=430678957 |ref=Stewart 2010}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Sweet |editor1-first=William |editor1-link=William Sweet |editor2-last=Feist |editor2-first=Richard |year=2007 |title=Religion and the Challenges of Science |location=Aldershot, England; Burlington, VT |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.]] |isbn=978-0-7546-5715-6 |lccn=2006030598 |oclc=71778930 |ref=Sweet & Feist 2007}}
*{{cite book |last=Wilder-Smith |first=A. E. |authorlink=A. E. Wilder-Smith |year=1978 |title=Die Naturwissenschaften kennen keine Evolution: Empirische und theoretische Einwände gegen die Evolutionstheorie |trans-title=The Natural Sciences Know Nothing of Evolution |location=Basel, Switzerland |publisher=Schwabe Verlag |isbn=978-3-7965-0691-8 |lccn=80067425 |oclc=245955034 |ref=Wilder-Smith 1978}}
*{{cite book |last=Young |first=Davis A. |year=1995 |title=The Biblical Flood: A Case Study of the Church's Response to Extrabiblical Evidence |location=Grand Rapids, MI |publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|Eerdmans]] |isbn=978-0-8028-0719-9 |lccn=95001899 |oclc=246813515 |ref=Young 1995}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Creationism| ]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:Creation myths]]
[[Category:Denialism]]
[[Category:Obsolete biological theories]]
[[Category:Origin of life]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Religious cosmologies]]
[[Category:Theism]]