https://www.conservapedia.com/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=FOIA Conservapedia - User contributions [en] 2026-11-06T18:19:21Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.35.14 https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_5&diff=1654644 User:FOIA/Archive 5 2020-06-04T03:15:29Z <p>FOIA: </p> <hr /> <div>{{cquote|And it came to pass, when Samuel was old, that he made his sons judges over Israel... And his sons walked not in his ways, but turned aside after lucre, and took bribes, and perverted judgment.<br /> <br /> Then all the elders of Israel gathered themselves together, and came to Samuel unto Ramah, And said unto him, Behold, thou art old, and thy sons walk not in thy ways: now make us a king to judge us like all the nations. But the thing displeased Samuel, when they said, Give us a king to judge us. And Samuel prayed unto the LORD. And the LORD said unto Samuel, Hearken unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee: for they have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should not reign over them. According to all the works which they have done since the day that I brought them up out of Egypt even unto this day, wherewith they have forsaken me, and served other gods, so do they also unto thee. Now therefore hearken unto their voice: howbeit yet protest solemnly unto them, and shew them the manner of the king that shall reign over them.<br /> <br /> And Samuel told all the words of the LORD unto the people that asked of him a king. And he said, This wilhl be the manner of the king that shall reign over you: He will take your sons, and appoint them for himself, for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run before his chariots. And he will appoint him captains over thousands, and captains over fifties; and will set them to ear his ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be confectionaries, and to be cooks, and to be bakers. And he will take your fields, and your vineyards, and your oliveyards, even the best of them, and give them to his servants. And he will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give to his officers, and to his servants. And he will take your menservants, and your maidservants, and your goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. He will take the tenth of your sheep: and ye shall be his servants. And ye shall cry out in that day because of your king which ye shall have chosen you; and the LORD will not hear you in that day.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they said, Nay; but we will have a king over us; That we also may be like all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us, and fight our battles. And Samuel heard all the words of the people, and he rehearsed them in the ears of the LORD. And the LORD said to Samuel, Hearken unto their voice, and make them a king...}}<br /> ::-1 Samuel 8<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[The Peloponnesians] devote a very small fraction of the time to the consideration of any public object, most of it to the prosecution of their own objects. Meanwhile each fancies that no harm will come of his neglect, that it is the business of somebody else to look after this or that for him; and so, by the same notion being entertained by all separately, the common cause imperceptibly decays.}}<br /> ::-Thucydides, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mo3-jF9-jlUC History of the Peloponnesian War]'' (ca. 460 B.C.-ca. 395 BC; tr. Richard Crawley, London: J. M. Dent &amp; Sons; New York: E. P. Dutton &amp; Co., 1910; reprint: Forgotten Books, 1954), p. 70<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[S]hould the citizens of the perfect state have their possessions in common or not? ... [M]ay there not be an advantage in having and using possessions in common?<br /> ...If [husbandmen] do not share equally enjoyments and toils, those who labor much and get little will necessarily complain of those who labor little and receive or consume much. But indeed there is always a difficulty in men living together and having all human relations in common, but especially in their having common property....<br /> [W]hen everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more progress, because every one will be attending to his own business.... [H]ow immeasurably greater is the pleasure, when a man feels a thing to be his own; for surely the love of self is a feeling implanted by nature and not given in vain.... And further, there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered when a man has private property..... No one, when men have all things in common, will any longer set an example of liberality or do any liberal action; for liberality consists in the use which is made of property.<br /> Such legislation may have a specious appearance of benevolence; men readily listen to it, and are easily induced to believe that in some wonderful manner everybody will become everybody's friend, especially when some one is heard denouncing the evils now existing in states, suits about contracts, convictions for perjury, flatteries of rich men and the like, which are said to arise out of the possession of private property. These evils, however, are due to a very different cause -- the wickedness of human nature. Indeed, we see that there is much more quarrelling among those who have all things in common....}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NqcD2AIQIfYC Politics]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Digireads.com Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1420926020, p. 20<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[E]ven if one prescribed a moderate property for all, it would be of no avail, since it is more needful to level men's desires than their properties.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://ia600204.us.archive.org/8/items/politicsrackh00arisuoft/politicsrackh00arisuoft_bw.pdf Politics]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. H. Rackham; London: William Heinemann LTD.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932; 1959 ed.), p. 113<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]hat which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Every one thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest; and only when he is himself concerned as an individual. For besides other considerations, everybody is more inclined to neglect the duty which he expects another to fulfill; as in families many attendants are often less useful than a few. Each citizen will have a thousand sons who will not be his sons individually but anybody will be equally the son of anybody, and will therefore be neglected by all alike. Further, upon this principle, every one will use the word 'mine' of one who is prospering or the reverse, however small a fraction he may himself be of the whole number.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.2.two.html Politics Book II]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Courier Dover Publications, 2000, ISBN 0486414248), p. 120<br /> <br /> {{cquote|If the poor, for example, because they are more in number, divide among themselves the property of the rich—is not this unjust? No, by heaven (will be the reply), for the supreme authority justly willed it. But if this is not injustice, pray what is? Again, when in the first division all has been taken, and the majority divide anew the property of the minority, is it not evident, if this goes on, that they will ruin the state? Yet surely, virtue is not the ruin of those who possess her, nor is justice destructive of a state; and therefore this law of confiscation clearly cannot be just. If it were, all the acts of a tyrant must of necessity be just; for he only coerces other men by superior power, just as the multitude coerce the rich.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.3.three.html Politics Book III]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Courier Dover Publications, 2000, ISBN 0486414248), p. 120.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|There is in fact a true law - namely, right reason - which is in accordance with nature, applies to all men, and is unchangeable and eternal. By its commands this law summons men to the performance of their duties; by its prohibitions it restrains them from doing wrong. Its commands and prohibitions always influence good men, but are without effect upon the bad. To invalidate this law by human legislation is never morally right, nor is it permissible ever to restrict its operation, and to annul it wholly is impossible. Neither the senate nor the people can absolve us from our obligation to obey this law, and it requires no Sextus Aelius to expound and interpret it. It will not lay down one rule at Rome and another at Athens, nor will it be one rule to-day and another tomorrow. But there will be one law, eternal and unchangeable, binding at all times upon all peoples; and there will be, as it were, one common master and ruler of men, namely God, who is the author of this law, its interpreter, and its sponsor.}}<br /> ::-Cicero on the Universal Nature of True Law (ca. AD 52)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|God made man from the beginning, and left him in the hand of his own counsel.... Before man is life and death, good and evil, that which he shall choose shall be given him.}}<br /> ::-15 Sirach 14, 18<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Each one must do just as he has purposed in his heart, not grudgingly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver.}}<br /> ::-2 Corinthians 9:7<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Then cried they all again, saying: Not this man, but Barabbas. Now Barabbas was a robber.}}<br /> ::-John 18:14<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[M]en cannot live conveniently where all things are common. How can there be any plenty where every man will excuse himself from labour? for as the hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other men’s industry may make him slothful. If people come to be pinched with want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own, what can follow upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed....}}<br /> ::-Thomas Moore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fbNZERDCNkIC Utopia]'' (1516; tr. Gilbert Burnet, 1684; ed. Henry Morely, Cassell &amp; Co Ltd., 1909), pp. 64-65.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|When our people were fed out of the common store, and laboured jointly together, glad was he could slip from his labour, or slumber over his taske he cared not how, nay, the most honest among them would hardly take so much true paines in a weeke, as now for themselves they will doe in a day, neither cared they for the increase, presuming that howsoever the harvest prospered, the generall store must maintaine them, so that wee reaped not so much Corne from the labours of thirtie as now three or foure doe provide for themselves. To prevent which, Sir Thomas Dale hath allotted every man three Acres of cleare ground, in the nature of Farmes....}}<br /> ::-John Smith, ''The generall historie of Virginia, New England &amp; the Summer Isles, together with The true travels, adventures and observations, and A sea grammar - Volume 1'' (1614), [http://memory.loc.gov/gc/lhbcb/0262a/0266.tif p. 222]<br /> <br /> ::...the 2. agents sent from Leyden.... presumed to conclude with the marchants on those termes....<br /> <br /> ::...all profits and benifits that are gott by trade, traffick, trucking, working, fishing, or any other means of any person or persons, remaine still in the commone stock untill the division....<br /> <br /> ::That all such persons as are of this collonie, are to have their meate, drink, apparell, and all provissions out of the common stock and goods of the said collonie....<br /> <br /> ::...that which was most sadd &amp; lamentable was, that in 2. or 3. moneths time halfe of their company dyed....<br /> <br /> ::...famine began now to pinch them sore....<br /> <br /> ::Now ye welcome time of harvest approached, in which all had their hungry bellies filled. But it arose to a little, in comparison of a full years supply.... So as it well appeared that ye famine must still insue ye next year allso....<br /> <br /> ::So they begane to thinke how they might raise as much corne as they could, and obtaine a better crop than they had done, that they might not still thus languish in miserie. At length, after much debate of things, the Govr (with ye advise of ye cheefest amongest them) gave way that they should set corne every man for his owne perticuler, and in that regard trust to them selves....<br /> <br /> ::And so assigned to every family a parcell of land.... This had very good success; for it made all hands very industrious, so as much more corne was planted then other waise would have bene by any means ye Govr or any other could use, and saved him a great deall of trouble, and gave farr better contente. The women now wente willingly into ye feild, and tooke their litle-ons with them to set corne, which before would aledg weaknes, and inabilitie; whom to have compelled would have bene thought great tiranie and oppression.<br /> <br /> ::The experience that was had in this commone course and condition, tried sundrie years, and that amongst godly and sober men, may well evince the vanitie of that conceite of Platos and other ancients, applauded by some of later times; -that ye taking away of propertie, and bringing in communitie into a comone wealth, would make them happy and florishing; as if they were wiser then God. For this comunitie (so farr as it was) was found to breed much confusion and discontent, and retard much imployment that would have been to their benefite and comforte. For ye yong-men that were most able and fitte for labour and servise did repine that they should spend their time and streingth to worke for other mens wives and children, with out any recompence. The strong, or man of parts, had no more in devission of victails and cloaths, then he that was weake and not able to doe a quarter ye other could; this was thought injuestice.... and so, if it did not cut of those relations that God hath set amongest men, yet it did at least much diminish and take of ye mutuall respects that should be preserved amongst them. And would have bene worse if they had been men of another condition. Let none objecte this is mens corruption, and nothing to ye course it selfe. I answer, seeing all men have this corruption in them, God in his wisdome saw another course fiter for them....<br /> <br /> ::By this time harvest was come, and in stead of famine, now God gave them plentie, and ye face of things was changed, to ye rejoysing of ye harts of many, for which they blessed God. And ye effect of their particuler planting was well seene, for all had, one way and other, pretty well to bring ye year aboute, and some of ye abler sorte and more industrious had to spare, and sell to others, so as any generall wante or famine hath not been amongst them since to this day.<br /> <br /> ::-William Bradford (Charles Deane,ed.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tYecOAN1cwwC History of Plymouth plantation]'' (ca. 1620-23; published by Little, Brown &amp; Co., 1856), pp. 45-46, 91, 126, 134-136, 147<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Civilians call a faculty that Right, which every man has to his own.... This right comprehends the power, that we have over ourselves, which is called liberty.... It likewise comprehends property…Now any thing is unjust, which is repugnant to the nature of society, established among rational creatures. Thus for instance, to deprive another of what belongs to him, merely for one’s own advantage, is repugnant to the law of nature.}}<br /> <br /> ::-Hugo Grotius, ''The Rights of War and Peace'' (1625) <br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]o every individual in nature is given an individual propriety by nature, not to be invaded or usurped by any... for every one... hath a self propriety... and on this no second may presume without consent; and by natural birth all men are equal, and alike born to like propriety and freedom.}}<br /> ::-Richard Overton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HzMgPwAACAA An Arrow Against All Tyrants]'' (London 1646), pp. 3-4<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]his Conceit of Levelling of Propriety... is so ridiculous and foolish an opinion, as no man of braines, reason or ingenuitie can be imagined such a sot as to maintaine such a principle, because it would, if practiced destroy not only any industry in the world, but raze the very foundation of generation, and of subsistence or being of one man by another. For as for industry and valour by which the societies of mankind are maintained and preserved, who will take the pains for that which when he hath gotten is not his own, but must be equally shared in, by every lazy, simple, dronish sot? Or who will fight for that, wherein he hath no other interest, but such as must be subject to the will and pleasure of another, yea of every coward and base low spirited fellow, that in his sitting still must share in common with a valiant man in all his brave and noble achievement? The ancient encouragement to men that were to defend their Countrie was this: that they were to hazard their persons for that which was their owne, to wit, their owne wives, their owne children, their owne Estates.}}<br /> ::-John Lilburn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WyNHAAAAcAAJ Apologetical Narration]'' (Amsterdam, 1652), pp. 68-69<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Thir Orators thou then extoll'st, as those&lt;br&gt;<br /> The top of Eloquence, Statists indeed,&lt;br&gt;<br /> And lovers of thir Country, as may seem;&lt;br&gt;<br /> But herein to our Prophets far beneath,&lt;br&gt;<br /> As men divinely taught, and better teaching&lt;br&gt;<br /> The solid rules of Civil Government&lt;br&gt;<br /> In thir majestic unaffected stile&lt;br&gt;<br /> Then all the Oratory of Greece and Rome.}}<br /> ::-John Milton, ''Paradise Regain'd'' (1671 ed.)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[A]ll Mankind ... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his Life, Health, Liberty, or Possessions.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/v1ch2s1.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[E]very Man has a Property in his own Person. This no Body has any Right to but himself. The Labour of his Body, and the Work of his Hands, we may say, are properly his.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[H]e who appropriates land to himself by his labour, does not lessen but increase the common stock of mankind. For the provisions serving to the support of humane life, produced by one acre of inclosed and cultivated land, are (to speak much within compasse) ten times more, than those, which are yeilded by an acre of Land, of an equal richnesse, lyeing wast in common.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]here is a natural law, and it does not consist either in doing harm to others, or in rejoicing thereat.}}<br /> ::-Voltaire, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/18569/18569-h/18569-h.htm Philosophical Dictionary]'' (1764)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[A]s a man is said to have a right to his property, he may be equally said to have a property in his rights.}}<br /> ::-James Madison, [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s23.html Property] (1792)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Away, then, with quacks and organizers! Away with their rings, chains, hooks, and pincers! Away with their artificial systems! Away with the whims of governmental administrators, their socialized projects, their centralization, their tariffs, their government schools, their state religions, their free credit, their bank monopolies, their regulations, their restrictions, their equalization by taxation, and their pious moralizations! <br /> <br /> And now that the legislators and do-gooders have so futilely inflicted so many systems upon society, may they finally end where they should have begun: May they reject all systems, and try liberty; for liberty is an acknowledgment of faith in God and His works.}}<br /> ::-Frederic Bastiat (tr. Dean Russell), ''[http://bastiat.org/en/the_law.html The Law]'' (1853)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|We call capitalism or market economy that form of social cooperation which is based on private ownership of the means of production.<br /> <br /> Socialism, communism, or planned economy, on the other hand, is the form of social cooperation which is based on public ownership of the means of production. The terms state capitalism and authoritarian economy have essentially the same meaning.<br /> <br /> It is frequently asserted that a third form of social cooperation is feasible as a permanent form of economic organization, namely a system of private ownership of the means of production in which the government intervenes, by orders and prohibitions, in the exercise of ownership. This third system is called interventionism. All governments which do not openly profess socialism tend to be interventionist nowadays, and all political parties recommend at least some degree of interventionism.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:80%&quot;&gt;The orthodox Marxists, however, recommend interventionism in full recognition of the fact that it paralyzes and destroys the capitalistic market economy and, thus, in their opinion, leads to socialism. This was the argument advanced as long as a century ago by Friedrich Engels.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; It is claimed that this system of interventionism is as far from socialism as it is from capitalism, that as a third solution to the social problem it stands midway between the two systems, and that while retaining the advantages of both it avoids the disadvantages inherent in both. ...<br /> <br /> Interventionism is not an economic system, that is, it is not a method which enables people to achieve their aims. It is merely a system of procedures which disturb and eventually destroy the market economy. It hampers production and impairs satisfaction of needs. It does not make people richer; it makes people poorer.<br /> <br /> Concededly, the interventionist measures may give certain individuals or certain groups of individuals advantages at the expense of others. Minorities may obtain privileges which enrich them at the expense of their fellow citizens. But the majority, or the whole nation, stands only to lose by interventionism. ...<br /> <br /> Not only do they divert production from the ways which lead to the best and most efficient satisfaction of the consumers’ demand; they cause waste of both capital and labor; they create permanent mass unemployment. They may bring about the artificial boom, but with it they bring in its wake a depression. They change the market economy into chaos.<br /> <br /> Popular opinion ascribes all these evils to the capitalistic system. As a remedy for the undesirable effects of interventionism they ask for still more interventionism. They blame capitalism for the effects of the actions of governments which pursue an anti-capitalistic policy.}}<br /> ::-Ludwig Von Mises (Bettina Bien Greaves, ed.), ''[http://mises.org/etexts/mises/interventionism/interventionismtext.pdf Interventionism: an economic analysis]'' (Foundation for Economic Analysis, 1940), pp. 1, 77-78.<br /> <br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Of all tyrannies, a tyranny sincerely exercised for the good of its victims may be the most oppressive. It would be better to live under robber barons than under omnipotent moral busybodies. The robber baron's cruelty may sometimes sleep, his cupidity may at some point be satiated; but those who torment us for our own good will torment us without end for they do so with the approval of their own conscience. They may be more likely to go to Heaven yet at the same time likelier to make a Hell of earth. This very kindness stings with intolerable insult. To be &quot;cured&quot; against one's will and cured of states which we may not regard as disease is to be put on a level of those who have not yet reached the age of reason or those who never will; to be classed with infants, imbeciles, and domestic animals.}}<br /> ::―C.S. Lewis, &quot;The Humanitarian Theory of Punishment,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=loE7BAAAQBAJ God in the Dock: Essays on Theology]'' (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1948), p. 324.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.}}<br /> ::-Garrett Hardin (1968), &quot;[http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/articles/art_tragedy_of_the_commons.html The Tragedy of the Commons],&quot; ''[http://science.sciencemag.org/content/162/3859/1243.full Science]'' (AAAS), Vol. 162, Issue 3859, pp. 1243-1248. DOI: 10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 <br /> <br /> {{cquote|To do evil a human being must first of all believe that what he's doing is good... Ideology - that is what gives evildoing its long-sought justification and gives the evildoer the necessary steadfastness and determination... That was how the agents of the Inquisition fortified their wills: by invoking Christianity; the conquerors of foreign lands, by extolling the grandeur of their Motherland; the colonizers, by civilization; the Nazis, by race; and the Jacobins (early and late), by equality, brotherhood, and the happiness of future generations. Thanks to ideology, the twentieth century was fated to experience evildoing on a scale calculated in the millions.}}<br /> ::-Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (tr. Thomas P. Whitney), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eh_S9tcL4RsC The Gulag Archipelago]'' (Éditions du Seuil, 1973), p. 173.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|One of the great mistakes is to judge policies and programs by their intentions rather than their results. We all know a famous road that is paved with good intentions. The people who go around talking about their soft heart . . . I admire them for the softness of their heart, but unfortunately it very often extends to their head as well. Because the fact is that the programs that are labeled as being for the poor, for the needy, almost always have effects exactly the opposite of those which their well-intentioned sponsors intend them to have. . . .}}<br /> ::-From an [http://www.thirteen.org/openmind-archive/public-affairs/living-within-our-means/ interview] in December 1975 with economist Milton Friedman on PBS’s “The Open Mind”<br /> <br /> {{cquote|The horrors did not arise from perversions of radical ideology but from the ideology itself. We were led into complicity with mass murder and the desecration of our professed ideals not by Stalinist or other corruptions of high ideals, much less by unfortunate twists in some presumably objective course of historical development, but by a deep flaw in our very understanding of human nature—its frailty and its possibilities—and by our inability to replace the moral and ethical baseline long provided by the religion we have dismissed with indifference, not to say contempt.<br /> <br /> The question of moral responsibility has been raised within the left, if gingerly and indirectly, by a few brave souls like Roberto Mangabeira Unger and Cornel West, who have drawn attention to the price we have paid for scouting Christian ethics while having nothing to substitute and who have, in effect, called for an end to the blind hatreds that confuse the sin with the sinner. Unger and West are justly revered figures on the left and accorded at least formal respect. Yet their efforts toward a reassessment of the religious foundations of political ethics have not sparked the slightest discussion. It is fair to ask: what kind of respect is that? Are we supposed to believe that Unger and West have been kidding?<br /> <br /> Our whole project of &quot;human liberation&quot; has rested on a series of gigantic illusions. The catastrophic consequences of our failure during this century—not merely the body count but the monotonous recurrence of despotism and wanton cruelty—cannot be dismissed as aberrations. Slimmed down to a technologically appropriate scale, they have followed in the wake of victories by radical egalitarian movements throughout history. We have yet to answer our right-wing critics' claims, which are regrettably well documented, that throughout history, from ancient times to the peasant wars of the sixteenth century to the Reign of Terror and beyond, social movements that have espoused radical egalitarianism and participatory democracy have begun with mass murder and ended in despotism.<br /> <br /> Let us grant, arguendo, that the ruling classes have done worse. Whatever solace that thought may give us, our own problem remains: what kind of society could we build on a worldview marred by flagrant irrationalities paraded as self-evident truths, even if reinforced by sandbox cries of &quot;You're another&quot;?<br /> <br /> The allegedly high ideals we placed at the center of our ideology and politics are precisely what need to be reexamined, but they can no longer even be made a subject for discussion in the mass media and our universities, to say nothing of the left itself. They are givens: an unattainable equality of condition; a radical democracy that has always ended in the tyranny it is supposed to overcome; a celebration of human goodness or malleability, accompanied by the daily announcement of newly discovered &quot;inalienable rights&quot; to personal self-expression; destruction of all hierarchy and elites, as if ideological repudiation has ever prevented or ever could prevent the formation and reformation of hierarchies and elites; condemnation of &quot;illegitimate&quot; authority in the absence of any notion of what might constitute legitimate authority; and, at the root of all, a thorough secularization of society, bolstered by the monstrous lie that the constitutional separation of church and state was meant to separate religion from society. And we have yet to reassess the anti-Americanism—the self-hatred implicit in the attitude we have generally affected toward our country—that has led us into countless stupidities and worse.}}<br /> <br /> ::-Eugene D. Genovese, &quot;[https://www.dissentmagazine.org/wp-content/files_mf/1353953160genovesethequestion.pdf The Question],&quot; ''Dissent'' [summer 1994], pp. 371-6, at 375<br /> <br /> {{cquote|When I was editor of ''The Journal of Law and Economics'', we published a whole series of studies of regulation and its effects. Almost all the studies--perhaps all the studies--suggested that the results of regulation had been bad, that the prices were higher, that the product was worse adapted to the needs of consumers, than it otherwise would have been. I was not willing to accept the view that all regulation was bound to produce these results. Therefore, what was my explanation for the results we had? I argued that the most probable explanation was that the government now operates on such a massive scale that it had reached the stage of what economists call negative marginal returns. Anything additional it does, it messes up. But that doesn't mean that if we reduce the size of government considerably, we wouldn't find then that there were some activities it did well. Until we reduce the size of government, we won't know what they are. ... I can't remember one that's good. Regulation of transport, regulation of agriculture-- agriculture is a, zoning is z. You know, you go from a to z, they are all bad. There were so many studies, and the result was quite universal: The effects were bad.}}<br /> ::-Ronald Coase, quoted in Thomas W. Hazlitt, &quot;[http://reason.com/archives/1997/01/01/looking-for-results/singlepage Looking for Results],&quot; ''Reason'', January 1997</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Sacco_and_Vanzetti&diff=1631078 Sacco and Vanzetti 2020-03-22T16:23:42Z <p>FOIA: Corrected bad link</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Sacvan.jpg|right|thumb|Venzetti(left) and Sacco(right)]]<br /> '''Ferdinando Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti''' were two [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who were [[conviction|convicted]] and [[execution|executed]] in 1927 for a 1920 double [[murder]] carried out during a robbery. The duo became a [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-37&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre''.&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; For decades, [[liberal]]s argued that they had been wrongly convicted, their [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] [[Harvard Law School]] Professor [[Felix Frankfurter]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; a future [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] Justice. One of Frankfurter's students, future [[State Department]] official [[Noel Field]], would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward&quot;: he would become a [[USSR|Soviet]] intelligence source;&lt;ref&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/ref&gt; another of Frankfurter's students, [[Alger Hiss]], would later [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] Sacco and Vanzetti, to whom would reportedly [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself].<br /> <br /> The case became fodder for polemical works: [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To John M. Gillette,&quot; September 15, 1912, in Maxwell Anderson (Laurence G. Avery, Ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iINNqp6FxU0C Dramatist in America: Letters of Maxwell Anderson, 1912-1958]'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849405, p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; playwright [[Maxwell Anderson]] had his greatest success with the 1935 play ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6P8jBxOKYacC Winterset]'', a tragedy in verse loosely based on the case, which won him the Critics’ Circle Award. In the play, the accused is innocent, and the judge is described as &quot;crazy as a bedbug.&quot; Socialist novelist [[Upton Sinclair]] likewise wrote a novel, ''Boston'', based upon the case, in which he suggested that the convicted terrorists had been railroaded.&lt;ref&gt;E.g.: &quot;[O]f the five identification witnesses upon whom the case against Sacco rested, one was a many times arrested crook, one a hysterical prostitute, one a halfwit, one a disoriented fantasist, and one a feeble victim of police pressure.&quot; Upton Sinclair, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YL2wAAAAIAAJ Boston: A Novel]'' (A. &amp; C. Boni, 1928), p. 411&lt;/ref&gt; But in 2005, a 1929 letter from Sinclair surfaced, in which he confided that the [http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/sacvan.html well-known socialist] Fred Moore, radical attorney for [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE&amp;legacy=true the terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;Moments after the sentencing of 95 Wobbies (including Haywood) at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, killing four. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://editorsnotes.org/projects/emma/topics/243/ Moore, Fred H., 1882-1933], The Emma Goldman Papers, University of California Berkeley&lt;/ref&gt; who represented Sacco and Vanzetti, told Sinclair that “the men were guilty,&quot; and confessed &quot;in every detail how he had framed a set of alibis for them.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jean O. Pasco, &quot;[http://articles.latimes.com/2005/dec/24/local/me-sinclair24 Sinclair Letter Turns Out to Be Another Expose],&quot; ''Los Angeles Times'', December 24, 2005. Cf. &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20090226152309/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html Novelist's Book about Murder Trial Called into Question],&quot; Canadian Broadcasting Company, January 28, 2006 (Archive); cf. Doug Linder (2001), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/SaccoV/s&amp;vaccount.html The Trial of Sacco and Vanzetti], Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law); Richard Newby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jxPC7B6jkRQC Kill now, talk forever: debating Sacco and Vanzetti]'' (AuthorHouse, 2006) ISBN 1420843931, p. 634&lt;/ref&gt; As he revealed in another letter, from 1927, Sinclair feared for his life if he told the truth: &quot;My wife is absolutely certain that if I tell what I believe, I will be called a traitor to the movement and may not live to finish the book.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard Newby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jxPC7B6jkRQC Kill now, talk forever: debating Sacco and Vanzetti]'' (AuthorHouse, 2006) ISBN 1420843931, p. 481&lt;/ref&gt; In the end, Sinclair decided that there was more money in lying than telling the truth: &quot;It is much better copy as a naive defense of Sacco and Vanzetti because this is what all my foreign readers expect, and they are 90% of my public.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jonah Goldberg, [https://www.nationalreview.com/goldberg/goldberg200601061019.asp The Clay Feet of Liberal Saints], ''National Review'', January 06, 2006. Cf. Ann Coulter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=k_3EeVj2_IUC Godless: The Church of Liberalism]'' (Random House Digital, Inc., 2007), ISBN 1400054214, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; Even the Communist&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I am for socialism,&quot; wrote Baldwin. &quot;Communism is the goal.&quot; (Affidavit of Roger N. Baldwin, December 31, 1938, [https://archive.org/download/investigationofu193804unit/investigationofu193804unit.pdf Investigation of un-American propaganda activities in the United States]. Hearings before a Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 75th-78th Congress, pp. 3081-3082. Cf. &quot;Baldwin, 'From the Harvard Classbook,'&quot; [June 1935, vol. 763], reprinted in ''Roger Nash Baldwin and the American Civil Liberties Union'' [New York: Columbia University Press, 2000], p. 259; Peggy Lamson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iC6FAAAAMAAJ Roger Baldwin, founder of the American Civil Liberties Union: a portrait]'' [Houghton Mifflin, 1976], p. 192)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Roger Baldwin]], founder of the [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (ACLU) (&quot;The Civil Liberties Union has been connected with the Sacco and Vanzetti matter, but has hidden its participation under various false fronts,&quot; boasted Baldwin. &quot;We are at present instigating a nation-wide movement,&quot; etc.)&lt;ref&gt;William A. Donohue, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMnGnFOG6rcC The Politics of the American Civil Liberties Union]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1985), ISBN 1412838444, p. 130&lt;/ref&gt; admitted that &quot;there was no possible doubt of the guilt of Sacco and Vanzetti.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard Newby, [https://books.google.com/books?id=jxPC7B6jkRQC Kill now, talk forever: debating Sacco and Vanzetti]'' (AuthorHouse, 2006) ISBN 1420843931, p. 635&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At the trial, seven eyewitnesses placed Sacco at the scene of the crime. Four decades later, a 1961 ballistics test by the Massachusetts Police Lab, employing new technology not available at the time of the trial, provided strong evidence that Sacco did indeed fire the fatal bullet that day.&lt;ref&gt;Douglas Linder, &quot;[http://www.jurist.org/j20/famoustrials/the-trial-of-sacco-and-vanzetti.php The Trial of Sacco and Vanzetti]. Jurist.org, May 2001&lt;/ref&gt; Nevertheless, in 1977, Massachusetts Democratic governor [[Michael Dukakis]] signed a resolution pardoning Sacco and Vanzetti, apologizing to them and establishing a day in honor of them.<br /> <br /> The case was finally closed in 1983 when still more advanced ballistics tests by the renowned forensic scientist Dr. Henry Lee, Director and Chief Criminalist of the Connecticut State Forensic Laboratory; Anthony L. Paul, Police Firearms Unit Laboratory Manager and Senior Firearms Examiner, Philadelphia Police Department; and Marshall K. Robinson, Senior Firearms Examiner for the Bridgeport, Connecticut, Police Department (under the auspices of the Select Committee on Sacco and Vanzetti), demonstrated conclusively that six cartridges taken from Sacco when he was arrested were made on the same machine that made the two fired cartridge cases recovered from the crime scene.&lt;ref&gt;James E. Starrs, &quot;[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3711839 Once More Unto the Breech: The Firearms Evidence in the Sacco and Vanzetti Case Revisited],&quot; ''AFTE Journal'', Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners, Vol. 17, No. 3 (July 1985), p. 28. Cf. Richard Newby, [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html Sacco &amp; Vanzetti: Were They Really Innocent?], History News Network (George Mason University), April 19, 2004&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/06/wallstreetbomb,0115-6.htm Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/sept07/wallstreet091307.htm Federal Bureau of Investigation]'']]The pair were members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Charles Poggi, Frank Maffi said the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of his uncle, a Galleanist named Mario Buda. Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275, p. 133&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041, pp. 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=438 public figures].&lt;ref&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; They had dodged the draft for [[World War I]].<br /> <br /> Liberals alleged that they had been tried for their beliefs rather than their actions, and questions about the fairness of such a trial in Boston were raised from the beginning. They had skilled defense counsel in a famous labor attorney, but no Italians were included in the jury (none may have been in the jury pool). The defense counsel eliminated every businessman from the jury. Witnesses for the prosecution were weak, with one testifying that the murderer spoke good English (the defendants did not). The prosecution identified only one bullet as being from Sacco's gun, with no explanation as to the source of the other three bullets found at the scene. The stolen money was never found.<br /> <br /> The defendants took the witness stand in their defense, but were subjected to relentless questioning about their political beliefs. Defense counsel repeatedly objected to such questions, but the judge overruled the objections and allowed them. There is widespread agreement that the judge never should have permitted so much questioning about political beliefs at the trial.<br /> <br /> The jury returned a guilty verdict after more than a day of deliberations. (At an earlier trial, a different jury had convicted them of a similar crime.) Faced with international protests against the prosecution, the Massachusetts governor appointed a commission to examine the trial and evidence. Throughout the 1920s the case was a flashpoint for protests. Finally, after the commission announced it agreed with the verdict, Sacco and Vanzetti were executed in 1927.<br /> <br /> Vanzetti, who sported a distinctive handlebar mustache, maintained his innocence to the end. His final words to the judge before execution were these: &quot;I would not wish to [a dog or snake] what I have had to suffer for things that I am not guilty of. But my conviction is that I have suffered for things that I am guilty of. I am suffering because I am a radical and indeed I am a radical; I have suffered because I was an Italian, and indeed I am an Italian; I have suffered more for my family and for my beloved than for myself; but I am so convinced to be right that if you could execute me two times, and if I could be reborn two other times, I would live again to do what I have done already.&quot;<br /> <br /> On the left, sympathy has continued for Sacco and Vanzetti ever since. Much is made of a confession by another death row inmate to having perpetrated the crime. But the judge found that unreliable. <br /> <br /> Most scholars are convinced of the guilt of Sacco and Vanzetti.<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Sedition]]<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Anarchists]]<br /> [[Category:Leftists]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=1617085 Alger Hiss 2020-01-28T17:54:03Z <p>FOIA: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [https://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,&lt;ref&gt;Francis P. Sempa, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection],&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a &quot;liberal&quot; rather than a communist, referring to &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself],&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. He also had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party].&quot; Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301&lt;/ref&gt; putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, &quot;Conspiracy Theories,&quot; in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].&lt;/ref&gt; The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot; (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]] [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to ex-Communist (&quot;I belonged for a little while to the Young Communist League, and thereafter to the Socialist party.&quot; [[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 11) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4)<br /> The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) &quot;Growing up, all five children had music and art lessons, as well as German language lessons for Alger. They attended private colleges or universities and vacationed on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During college, the three boys spent summers in Europe.&quot; ([[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 12). Young Alger went [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 141); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After such a series of tragic losses, suggested Hiss's son, Alger might have found himself &quot;susceptible, as some may have been, to the seeming solidarity offered by the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 141&lt;/ref&gt; Among others susceptible to this lure was Hiss's [[#refHUAC8-17-48|future tenant]], [[Whittaker Chambers]], who wrote of the suicide of his own brother at age 21:<br /> {{cquote|[M]y brother's death stunned me ... this is the point at which I became a thorough Communist. I felt that any society which could result in the death of a boy like my brother was wrong and I was at war with it. This was the beginning of my fanaticism.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3HUvm91KDn8C The conservative turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the lessons of anti-communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim to have already been socially and politically progressive and anti-business when he went to college.&lt;ref&gt;Alger Hiss, [http://algerhiss.com/alger-hiss/in-his-own-words/alger-hisss-liberal-manifesto/l Draft of a Chapter Written By Alger Hiss on the Foundations For His Liberalism] ([http://holliscatalog.harvard.edu//?itemid=|library%2fm%2faleph|010072878 Alger Hiss papers], Small Manuscript Collection, [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/index.html Special Collections], [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/index.html Harvard Law School Library]), algerhiss.com. Cf. Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/ivan_chen/1/ Alger Hiss, 1926-1929]; [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 22-24.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor]]s included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as &quot;[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion.&quot; (Herbert Romerstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). &quot;[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[Atheism|atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt; (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no &quot;Hopkins Babbit [sic],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A misspelled reference to the [http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-babbi/char.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]&lt;/ref&gt; according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics &quot;from Soviets to styles&quot; with &quot;irresistible logic and rhetoric.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a &quot;militant communist,&quot; Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [https://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/1919/10/30/archives/nationwide-bomb-plot-unearthed-carnival-of-murder-was-planned-for.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Paul Avrich, a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, &quot;[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)],&quot; ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&amp;psid=3381 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [https://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]&lt;ref&gt;Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan &amp; Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss became &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]]&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;On July 4, 1914, three IWW members were killed in New York when a bomb they were constructing exploded. The bomb also killed a woman in the next apartment, maimed many others, and destroyed the building. (&quot;Anarchist bomb believed for Rockefeller kills three I.W.W. makers and a woman--injures many--wrecks tenement house,&quot; New York Sun, 5 July 1914, p. 1.) Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including IWW boss [[&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]]) for a series of such acts, at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist]]ic (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist]]ic') cheek?&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; serving (along with various &quot;Communists, Socialists, and nonaffiliated radicals&quot;) on the Advisory Board of American Labor Associates;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87&lt;/ref&gt; Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [https://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join FDR's administration.<br /> <br /> [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). <br /> That [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline &quot;[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote &quot;I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help.&quot; Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185&lt;/ref&gt; agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot;). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot; who &quot;was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy...&quot; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already &quot;[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot;<br /> &quot;In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families].&quot; &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt; son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; Ware recruited Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; known as the [[Ware group]].&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed &quot;Marxist&quot;] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hope Hale Davis, &quot;Looking Back at my Years in the Party,&quot; ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., &quot;Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87&lt;/ref&gt; This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [https://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was &quot;the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA&lt;ref&gt;Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. &quot;Leonora Fuller&quot; in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&amp;id=70 Gardner Jackson]:&lt;ref&gt;Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): &quot;When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss's laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-HOAC&amp;month=0704&amp;week=d&amp;msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&amp;user=&amp;pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> [[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;merchants of death,&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to &quot;drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle&quot; with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]&lt;ref&gt;John Whiteclay Chambers II, &quot;[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.],&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515&lt;/ref&gt; maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was &quot;as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant,&quot; particularly toward the &quot;business leaders he cross-examined caustically.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]&lt;/ref&gt; One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement--who wrote that Christianity should &quot;aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism.&quot; (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; would report to Moscow that &quot;‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51&lt;/ref&gt; (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, &quot;neighbors&quot; was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; three years after that, Gorsky would identify &quot;Karl&quot; as &quot;Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss's 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&amp;user=&amp;pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [https://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as &quot;[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is &quot;Yes&quot;.... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)&lt;/ref&gt; notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. &quot;[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&amp;dat=19510317&amp;id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round,&quot; ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (to whom she refers by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222&lt;/ref&gt; Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a 25% pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://archives.williams.edu/williamshistory/biographies/sayre-francis.php son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639&lt;/ref&gt; had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;[https://solidarity-us.org/atc/62/p2424/ Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996],&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May–June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (the victims of which would number [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt; That June, [http://americanthinker.com/2014/07/diana_and_ron_what_was_going_on_.html at Stalin's behest], FDR abolished the State Department's Eastern European Division, headed by the anti-Communist Robert F. Kelley,&lt;ref&gt;Cathal J. Nolan, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZMeeXLSQhsC Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997) ISBN 0313291950, p. 207&lt;/ref&gt; reassigning its staff and dispersing its excellent library.<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' defection===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Trying to explain how such a reversal happened, Chambers related how a certain German diplomat who &quot;had been extremely pro-Communist, had become an implacable anti-Communist.&quot; According to the diplomat's daughter, &quot;[O]ne night – in Moscow – he heard screams. That’s all. Simply one night he heard screams.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;What Communist has not heard those screams?&quot; wrote Chambers. &quot;...What man can call himself a Communist who has not accepted the fact that Terror is an instrument of policy...? Those screams have reached every Communist’s mind. Usually they stop there....&quot;<br /> {{cquote|But one day the Communist really hears those screams. He is going about his routine party tasks.... Suddenly, there closes around that Communist a separating silence, and in that silence he hears screams. He hears them for the first time. For they do not merely reach his mind. They pierce beyond. They pierce to his soul.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is &quot;man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God.&quot; This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:<br /> {{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: &quot;No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design.&quot; The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Far Eastern Division===<br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt; Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had &quot;dubious, Left Wing characters in his office.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, &quot;[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow],&quot; ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627224903/http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/levine700/?keywords=levine Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned friends (including HUAC investigator Joseph Brown Matthews), &quot;If they ever try to prove that I took my own life, [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html don't believe it],&quot; his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. (&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11F93959167B93C3A81789D85F458485F9 Gen. Krivitsky Found Dead; Suicide Finding Questioned; Notes Convince Washington Police He Shot Himself, but Friends Charge Former Ogpu Officer Was Slain by Reds KRIVITSKY'S DEATH IS INVESTIGATED],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1941, p. 1) Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [https://www.hoover.org/research/dark-memories corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30&lt;/ref&gt; where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, &quot;most of them Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Louis Rapoport, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, &quot;[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&amp;b=395031 Writers in Extremis],&quot; ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the [[Foreign Agents Registration Act]] [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91&lt;/ref&gt; According to Levine:<br /> {{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to &quot;go jump in a lake&quot; upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive&lt;ref&gt;&quot;an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&amp;t=1314204947 obscene or profane]&quot;; &quot;an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&amp;reversed=False&amp;action=define&amp;homonym=0&amp;text=expletive swearword].&quot; Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of &quot;expletive&quot; as a [[euphemism]] for &quot;[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; remark on this order: &quot;Oh, forget it, Adolf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/books/review/Mallon-t.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/1993_dubinsky.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/walter_winchell.htm Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; After he informed FDR that Hiss was spying for Moscow, according to Winchell, &quot;Leaning closer and pointing a finger in my face, he [Roosevelt] angrily said, 'I don't want to hear another thing about it! It isn't true.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schechter 2002]]: 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; According to Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians], Roosevelt was uninterested when confronted with reports of Soviet spying in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokhin 2000]]: 107&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot; ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: &quot;Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody...&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr:<br /> {{cquote|Many young leftists in the early 1930’s had entered the government in the early throes of the New Deal and embraced a Communist siren under whose call significant numbers of them were willing to pass along valuable information to the Soviet Union during the war. A general leftist tilt in the government meant that these ideologues blended well into the Washington bureaucracy while keeping their strong Soviet sympathies largely hidden. The tradecraft of Soviet intelligence personnel, the well honed Communist Party tradition of conspiracy, and a [https://www.fbi.gov/history/history-publications-reports/in-the-enemys-house-venona-and-the-maturation-of-american-counterintelligence lack of concern in the Roosevelt administration towards Soviet spying] meant that little of this growing Soviet intelligence web was found except by accident in the opening years of the war.}}<br /> Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131008202927/https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Initially, Dies supported the New Deal.&quot; (William D. Pederson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) &quot;He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants.&quot; Dies also had a record of &quot;support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity.&quot; George N. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70&lt;/ref&gt; [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was &quot;furious&quot;&amp;mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&amp;mdash;&quot;you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed,&quot; he railed, adding &quot;there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20030707171840/http://boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook.&quot;]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite2|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99&lt;/ref&gt; Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710063742/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/article/268394/pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies,&lt;ref&gt;Although one American public school teacher's guide claims that the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] &quot;was not an alliance. At the start of World War II, Joseph Stalin (...strongly anti-fascist) was aligned with Great Britain and France against the Axis Powers of Germany,&quot; etc., (''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1KtAAFE2nAwC World War II]'' [Social Studies School Service, 2007] ISBN 156004313X, p. S11), this is false. As French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thoruz and Jacques Duclos put it upon the Nazi conquest of France, &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of German imperialism. It is a fact that in this sense there is a temporary alliance.&quot; ([[#refTolstoy82|Tolstoy 1982]]: 113) As late as January 1941, the Soviets were appealing to the Nazis for permission to join as full members of the Axis. (Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlsrAxuWekQC A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521618266, p. 202) Six months later, when the pact collapsed, the USSR rushed into the arms of the Allies, which the Communists viewed as yet another &quot;temporary alliance.&quot; David Gress, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NKyzGG92uMUC From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2004) ISBN 0743264886, p. 408&lt;/ref&gt; including Communists.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [https://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt;As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106&lt;/ref&gt; the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Haslam, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel P. Mikhailov&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [https://web.archive.org/web/20100210161901/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs-and-george-dasch Nazi and fascist agents].&lt;ref&gt;According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr., &quot;From the entry of the US into the war in 1941, the FBI, with cooperation of its fellow agencies and significant foreign allies, effectively negated Axis intelligence operations in the US and the western hemisphere. The Bureau was distinctly [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona less successful in identifying the Soviet threat] during the same period.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed the U.S. Lend-Lease program for Britain&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87. The Communist front [[American Peace Mobilization]] picketed the White House, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790078,00.html protesting Lend-Lease] aid to the U.K. When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Nazism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world” (&quot;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm reaktionärste Kraft in der Welt]&quot;). “The German government declared itself ready to establish peaceful relations with the Soviet Union, whilst the Anglo-French war bloc want war against the Soviet Union,” [http://www.marxists.org/archive/ulbricht/1940/die-welt.htm declared Ulbricht]. During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html the blitzed areas of London],&quot; writes [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Orwell prize winning] journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;/ref&gt; (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm officially dissolving] the [[Comintern]], forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern&lt;ref&gt;“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989&lt;/ref&gt; (which included “control over the CPUSA”),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center&lt;/ref&gt; whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, &quot;the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease,&quot; was [[Harry Dexter White]],&lt;ref&gt;Albert Loren Weeks, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> one of &quot;the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents],&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named &quot;Map.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; Strong boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt; These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124&lt;/ref&gt; from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.&lt;ref&gt;Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208&lt;/ref&gt; Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and a Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; (code-named ''Lyre''),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; but also the mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [https://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity,&quot; but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt &quot;Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)&lt;/ref&gt; noted that &quot;Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/https://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, &quot;[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind,&quot; according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].&lt;ref&gt;Felix Wittmer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently,&quot; agreed former Soviet propagandist&lt;ref&gt;David C. Engerman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201&lt;/ref&gt; W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; His face was &quot;gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function,&quot; wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Burt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35&lt;/ref&gt; John Gunther. &quot;I felt certain that he was going to die.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Gunther, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:<br /> {{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell Cordell Hull] and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...&lt;ref&gt;James A. Farley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which<br /> {{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States. He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&amp;mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.&lt;ref&gt;Steven Lomazow , &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta'],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In [https://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister<br /> {{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. &quot;Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?&quot; he [Churchill] asked. &quot;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta].&quot;}}<br /> The deterioration in Roosevelt's judgement became evident in some of his more controversial statements at Yalta, including the following, recorded in the formerly [http://archive.today/p3GKt Top Secret minutes] two weeks after the liberation of Aushwitz:<br /> {{cquote|MARSHAL STALIN asked whether the President intended to make any concessions to Ibn Saud [King of Saudi Arabia].<br /> THE PRESIDENT replied that there was only one concession he thought he might offer and that was to give him the six million Jews in the United States.}}<br /> ====United Nations planning====<br /> As what Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/serhii-plokhii Serhii Plokhii] calls &quot;the State Department's expert on the United Nations&quot; at Yalta, Hiss was involved in discussions preceeding the secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; to give the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Although Hiss officially opposed this decision, there is some mystery as to how it came about: Hiss would later claim that the British informed him that US agreement to this Soviet demand had come from Stettinius himself, but Stettinus denied that he had ever made such an agreement.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plohky 2010]]: 192&lt;/ref&gt; Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kort, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===='Traitors'====<br /> The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; But Venona is not the only source: According to Plokhii, the [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2012/September%202012/0912yalta.aspx foremost modern analyst of Yalta], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]]: xxv&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was, according to Sudoplatov, &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein, who had been one of Hiss’s control officers in 1935-38, when he served as vice-consul at the Soviet consulate New York, and was now deputy director of the GRU. Hiss's briefings revealed not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====Poland====<br /> Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [https://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]]&amp;mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta &quot;went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures].&quot; It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes,&quot; he wrote. &quot;To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====China====<br /> Hiss had input even on China. During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to the formerly [https://archive.is/HTiIW Top Secret minutes], &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record resorts to the passive voice, obscuring Hiss's role in this incident: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press reports relying on this [https://books.google.com/books?id=kotPYEqx7kMC&amp;q=memory+hole#v=snippet&amp;q=memory%20hole&amp;f=false bowdlerized] official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot; FDR apologists such as liberal &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/weekinreview/04tanenhaus.html court historian]&quot; Arthur Schlesinger parroted this official version as dogma: &quot;As for Yalta, Alger Hiss had nothing to do with the Far Eastern discussions, and knew nothing of their existence,&quot; etc. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MegmQB1MxqkC The Politics of Hope: And, The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691134758, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Too much stress cannot be laid on the hope that our economic assistance be carried out in China through the medium of a government fully and fairly representative of all important Chinese political elements, including the Chinese Communists,&quot; said Acheson. (Freda Utley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JmAcAAAAMAAJ The China story]'' [H. Regnery Co., 1951], p. 15) This was the pretext for the U.S. embargo on arms to China in July 1946. Even after the embargo ended in May 1947, Acheson was able to delay shipments another six months. In 1949, he would explicitly instruct his subordinates that &quot;it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action.&quot; (David S. McLellan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: &quot;Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China.&quot; John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the &quot;memoranda for the President&quot; Stettinius directed be placed &quot;in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss,&quot; according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/https://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944 [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Other secret agreements====<br /> According to [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon [http://education-research.org/images/FDR-Stalin-Jews.jpg Stalin requested] the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, in Washington, sent [https://archive.is/TDxrP a Top Secret telegram] to Stettinius at Yalta, objecting to the repatriation as a violation of the Geneva Convention and of the traditional American policy of granting political asylum. The U.S. nevertheless agreed to the repatriation (which would become known as [[Operation Keelhaul]]), but that agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of [[reparations]] … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/01/03/reviews/990103.03persict.html Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; continuously since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told.&quot; ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. According to Stettinius, Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Powell, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were &quot;loaned&quot; to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: &quot;I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions.&quot; (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hoping to obtain &quot;control of the entire [[Mediterranean]],&quot; the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding &quot;an immediate boycott&quot; of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking &quot;[[Communist]] expansion world-wide,&quot; the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:&lt;ref&gt;United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.&lt;ref&gt;William B. Dunham, &quot;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career],&quot; Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which were [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that &quot;Ales&quot; and his group were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify &quot;the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow,&quot; Gouzenko would repeat that &quot;there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius.&quot; Bruce Craig, &quot;Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed,&quot; David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, &quot;We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss.&quot; [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 29, the Canadian Prime Minister met with Truman and Acheson in the White House, telling them that, according to Gouzenko, &quot;an assistant secretary of the Secretary of State's department was supposed to be implicated&quot; in GRU espionage. According to King, Truman &quot;turned to Acheson and said something to the effect that it would not be surprising.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who stated that Hiss's assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]], p. 1181 (PDF p. 121)&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John T. Donovan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; reported, &quot;In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Cronin, S.S., &quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945],&quot; p. 49 (PDF p. 58)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23&lt;/ref&gt; She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://archive.mrc.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/02/09.htm a speech] regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;In 1946, Stalin declared that the world would never be safe from war so long as capitalism survived. This inaugurated the cold war period.&quot; [http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/CIA%20Murphy%20Collection%20Pt1-1.pdf Fact sheet], Records of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Raymond E. Murphy Collection on International Communism, 1917–1958. Part 1: Eastern Europe. Cf. Walter LaFeber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38. &quot;The West never chose to have a Cold War, and never would,&quot; write Soviet dissident/exiles Vladimir Bukovsky and Pavel Stroilov. &quot;[I]t was always imposed on us [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=32645 by the Kremlin aggressors].&quot; “The Cold War was [http://www.raleighspyconference.com/wrapup/2003.aspx caused by the Soviet Union], was sustained by the Soviet Union, and was ended by the Soviet Union when it collapsed,” according to Christopher Andrew (so-called “[http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians]”). “It was and is as simple as that.”&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']]An extensive [[FBI]] investigation helped develop a great deal of evidence verifying Chambers’ statements and [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/january/a-byte-out-of-history-the-alger-hiss-story revealing Hiss’ cover-ups]. [[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the Bureau that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69&lt;/ref&gt; On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;Panuch would testify that &quot;...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'&quot; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, &quot;it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department.&quot; [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[https://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]&quot; (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&amp;hp&amp;oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, an investigation concluded that Hiss had taken home top-secret reports he was not cleared to see.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hQjvrgC_zAgC A Covert Life - Jay Lovestone: Communist, Anti-Communist and Spymaster]'' (House, 1999) ISBN 0307805662, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; That month the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 1 20)]&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; During the campaign, House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged, &quot;first we will give our efforts to cleaning out the Communists, their fellow travelers and parlor pinks from [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19460921&amp;id=nNtXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=g_UDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1774,4765653 high positions in our Government].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify &quot;any disloyal or subversive person&quot; from federal service. Truman's actions &quot;left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress,&quot; according to the journal of the National Archives. &quot;Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[https://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program],&quot; but no action was taken for three months. Finally, on June 10, members of the newly Republican-controlled Senate sent a secret report to Truman's new Secretary of State, [[George Marshall]], warning him about Undersecretary Dean Acheson, who had fired Panuch:<br /> {{cquote|It becomes necessary due to the gravity of the situation to call your attention to a condition that developed and still flourishes in the State Department under the administration of Dean Acheson. It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect communist personnel in high places but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity … On file in the department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States which involves a large number of State Department employees, some in high official positions. This report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department with the apparent tacit approval of Mr. Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;David Lawrence, &quot;Stevenson Held Unfamiliar with Red Issue,&quot; [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19520917&amp;id=gflXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=Z_YDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3180,2556457 ''Spokane Daily Chronicle,'' September 17, 1952, p. 4]&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marshall didn't respond to this report and, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 security cases] in the State Department the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that &quot;an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999&lt;/ref&gt; conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/No+Bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a [https://archive.is/5BcPM single federal official] for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/subpena subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html reported] to the chairman of Soviet intelligence about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers ('''A. Hiss''', [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”&lt;ref&gt;Truman &quot;wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow.&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named &quot;PAZh/Page.&quot; [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117&lt;/ref&gt; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.<br /> <br /> The Hiss forces launched a &quot;frightful campaign of vilification&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hilton Kramer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss's &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period].&quot; On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif/image.gif confinement in mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Just two days after their public testimony,&lt;ref&gt;Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; The New York ''Daily News'' asked, &quot;Well Alger, where's that suit?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281. Cf. Lloyd Chiasson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBC1QaeWyDAC The press on trial: crimes and trials as media events]'' (ABC-CLIO, 1997) ISBN 0275959368, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post''&amp;mdash;&quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers,&quot; according to Chambers&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 710. &quot;The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding.&quot; Marvin N. Olasky, &quot;[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950],&quot; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1–4, 1987), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to put up or shut up ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.&lt;ref&gt;Chalmers McGeagh Roberts, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SRhlAAAAMAAJ The Washington post: the first 100 years]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1977) ISBN 0395258545, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss's suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers.&quot; David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted &quot;an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Grand jury==<br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;John J. Danahy, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss's machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> [[Image:Alger Hiss testifies.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss testifies in 1950]]<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis], fresh from his [http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/defenders.html defeated defense of segregation] in ''Brown v. Board of Education''. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked &quot;strictly confidential&quot; or &quot;strictly confidential, for the Secretary,&quot; would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&amp;st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says],&quot; ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].&lt;ref&gt;Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense reverted to Hiss's original &quot;insanity defense&quot; (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. &quot;I never liked him. I knew him...&quot; said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. &quot;There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy.&quot; Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Naftali, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; (Italics in original) later concluded that &quot;[http://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/newby-sacvan.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,&lt;ref&gt;James Bell, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty],&quot; ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted &quot;it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life.&quot; Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988&lt;/ref&gt; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot; So fearful of the implications was the President that [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ Truman ordered the Venona documents destroyed]—an order that, fortunately for historians, was disobeyed.<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; orchestrated by&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;The Faithful Traitor,&quot; ''National Review'', February 10, 1997&lt;/ref&gt; long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed &quot;communist&quot; (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.” Among Hiss's fellow prisoners was avowed Communist Maurice Braverman. According to [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo196.html leftist] historian Garry Wills:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hen it came time for Hiss to be released, Braverman's lawyer said that the Party hoped he would have an eloquent statement to read when he came out the gate. Television cameras were bound to be there. Braverman asked Hiss what he meant to say; Hiss said he had not thought of making a statement. Braverman said he thought it would be a good idea. &quot;What should I say?&quot; Hiss asked, and Braverman composed his first draft for him. He behaved like one still serving the Party.&lt;ref&gt;Garry Wills, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByGIJIhocj0C Lead time: a journalist's education]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004) ISBN 0618446907, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == Later life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In 1956, surrounded by quite a bit of controversy, the [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] at [[Princeton University]] invited Hiss as a guest speaker.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBBbAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA8-PA31 Princeton Alumni Weekly, Volume 56], Princeton Alumni Weekly, 1955&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication.&quot; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of [[radical left-wing]] politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&amp;off=0&amp;f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss's conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as &quot;our agent.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Summers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.&lt;/ref&gt; Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]<br /> <br /> * &lt;cite id=reflegacy&gt;[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refShelton2012&gt;Christina Shelton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_XyzyNEy1McC Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treason]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2012) ISBN 1451655452&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlokhy2010&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorgan04&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerken03&gt; Gregg Herken, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPickersgill70&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTolstoy82&gt; Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yOoNAQAAMAAJ Stalin's secret war]'' (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982) ISBN 0030472660&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss2000&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss,&quot; ''[https://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refYalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112860 Black Notebook]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 White Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112566 White Notebook #3]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 Yellow Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refSilv6.106&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120310004029/http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&amp;page=1 Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48.2&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part Two], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120127060209/http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48-2R&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [https://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTrohan1970&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refRJG06&gt;Robert Justin Goldstein, &quot;[https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist],&quot; ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [https://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120034728/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021232049/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May–June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes5-10-05&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss Case], May 10, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September–October 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[https://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; ''National Review'', February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-80900413/hiss-defenders-covering-for-the-old-man-the-last Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> {{Deep State}}<br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:American Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]<br /> [[Category:United States Political Scandals]]<br /> [[Category:Featured articles]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_2&diff=1615386 User:FOIA/Archive 2 2020-01-22T01:39:34Z <p>FOIA: /* National Socialism */ updated stale link</p> <hr /> <div>=Fascism and National Socialism=<br /> [[George Orwell]], a socialist who fought for the Soviet-backed government of Spain in the Spanish Civil War, wrote prophetically in 1936 that &quot;Socialism, in the form in which it is now presented, appeals chiefly to unsatisfactory or even inhuman types,&quot; including, among others, &quot;the astute young social-literary climbers who are Communists now, as they will be Fascists five years hence, because it is [http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/english/all-the-go all the go].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Orwell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=E-ZpkC4RNfIC The Road to Wigan Pier]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1958) ISBN 0156767503, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; Five years later, Hitler and Stalin were partners in the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], the joint invasion of Poland and the division of Europe; Orwell watched in despair as his former comrades supported the pact, even as Hitler launched his Blitz on London.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[T]he Nazi-Soviet Pact and the Lincolns' willingness to change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot; [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor Before Pearl Harbor], World War II Letters from the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Naziism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world”:&lt;ref&gt;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm ''Sozialistische Mitteilungen'', No. 8] (April 18, 1940)&lt;/ref&gt; “The [Nazi] German government declared itself ready for friendly relations with the Soviet Union, whereas the English-French war bloc desires a war against the socialist Soviet Union,” declared Ulbricht. “The Soviet people and the working people of Germany have an interest in preventing the English war plan.”&lt;ref&gt;''Die Welt'', February 1940. Cited in: Walther Hofer: Die Entfesselung des Zweiten Weltkrieges, 2007, Lit Verlag, ISBN 9783825803834; S. 224–225&lt;/ref&gt; When France fell to the Nazi invaders, French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thorez and Jacques Duclos exulted that &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of [Nazi] German imperialism.&quot; During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in the blitzed areas of London,&quot; writes Orwell prize winning&lt;ref&gt;[http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Peter Hitchens], theorwellprize.co.uk&lt;/ref&gt; journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;ref&gt;[http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html A Final Word], ''The Mail on Sunday'', July 5, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By the time the war was over, it had become impossible even to discuss the issue: “The word 'Fascism' has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies ‘something not desirable’,&quot; wrote Orwell. “Since you don't know what Fascism is, how can you struggle against Fascism?”&lt;ref&gt;George Orwell, &quot;[http://www.orwell.ru/library/essays/politics/english/e_polit Politics and the English Language],&quot; ''Horizon'', vol. 13, issue 76 (April 1946), pp. 252-265, reprinted in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, Eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zaxG_3ivhVAC The Collected Essays, Journalism, &amp; Letters, George Orwell, Volume 4: In Front of Your Nose, 1945-1950]'' (David R. Godine, 2000) ISBN 1567921361, pp. 132, 139&lt;/ref&gt; Particularly in the United States, the word &quot;fascism&quot; had become confused with the rights of private property and economic freedom, which had previously been called &quot;liberalism&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The program of liberalism, therefore, if condensed into a single word, would have to read: property, that is, private ownership in the means of production.... All the other demands of liberalism result from this fundamental demand.&quot; Ludwig Von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/books/liberalism.pdf Liberalism: In the Classical Tradition]'' (Irvington, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education and San Francisco: Cobden Press, 1985), p. 19. It was in this sense that Mussolini wrote, &quot;Fascism is definitely and absolutely opposed to the doctrines of liberalism, both in the political and economic sphere&quot; (Benito Mussolini, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GOzmAAAACAAJ The Doctrine of Fascism]'' [Firenze: Vallecchi Editore, 1935], p. 15); that cultural historian Wolfgang Schivelbusch wrote, &quot;Italy had several years earlier begun the transition from a liberal free-market system to a state-run or corporatist one&quot; (Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' [Macmillan, 2006] ISBN 080507452X, p. 22); that Nobel Prize winning economist F.A. Hayek wrote, &quot;It was the union of the anticapitalist forces of the Right and of the Left, the fusion of radical and conservative socialism, which drove out from Germany everything that was liberal.&quot; Friedrich August Hayek, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qg61T_I1mwsC The Road to Serfdom]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007) ISBN 0226320553, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the word &quot;liberalism&quot; had been redefined to denote the very &quot;state-capitalist&quot; mixed economy that characterized Fascist Italy and National Socialist Germany. &quot;As a supreme, if unintended compliment,&quot; quipped Harvard economist Joseph Schumpeter,&lt;ref&gt;Schumpeter &quot;believed that capitalism would be destroyed by its successes,&quot; as it made possible the existence of &quot;a large intellectual class that made its living by attacking the very bourgeois system of private property and freedom so necessary for the intellectual class’s existence.&quot; [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Schumpeter.html Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883-1950)], ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics'' (Liberty Fund)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;the enemies of the system of private enterprise have thought it wise to appropriate its label.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Alois Schumpeter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=igM8E4gZ_coC History of economic analysis]'' (Psychology Press, 1994) ISBN 0415108888, p. 372&lt;/ref&gt; This debasing of meaning, making reasoned discourse and clear thinking impossible, was precisely what Orwell was illustrating in his novel ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' by means of &quot;Newspeak.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Newspeak, wrote Orwell, was &quot;devised to meet the ideological needs of Ingsoc, or English Socialism.... The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world-view and mental habits proper to the devotees of IngSoc, but to make all other modes of thought impossible. It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten, a heretical thought&amp;mdash;that is, a thought diverging from the principles of IngSoc&amp;mdash;should be literally unthinkable, at least so far as thought is dependent on words.... All words grouping themselves round the concepts of ''liberty'' and ''equality'', for instance, were contained in the single word ''crimethink.''&quot; The Preamble of the American [[Declaration of Independence]], according to Orwell, could not be expressed (and hence was unthinkable) in Newspeak: &quot;The nearest one could come to doing so would be to swallow the whole passage up in the single word ''crimethink''.&quot; George Orwell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-XNPiuSgL2kC Nineteen Eighty-Four]'' (Reprint: 1st World Publishing, 2004) ISBN 1595404325, pp. 372-373, 379, 386-387&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Those policies that are today called &quot;liberal&quot;&amp;mdash;big government, high taxation, regulation, state intervention in or control of the economy, public-private partnerships, state control over the use of private property, etc.&amp;mdash;were all pioneered by the fascists, who called this economic system ''corporativismo'' (corporativism). Contrary to revisionist socialist propaganda, the name has nothing to do with incorporated firms, but refers to the medieval system of guilds (''corporazioni''), theoretically modernized as syndicalism. Corporativist ideas had been popular with British socialists and Fabians, as well as American progressives such as Herbert Croly, Edward Bellamy and Colonel House, since the late 19th century. Far from being capitalist, corporativism was stridently anti-capitalist. “So substantial are the limitations under which private property and capital are exercised in Italy, that the conception of ‘capitalism’ is avowedly destroyed and replaced by ''corporativismo'',” wrote Herbert Steiner in his classic 1938 study of fascism.&lt;ref&gt;H. Arthur Steiner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1LqtuYl43dwC Government in Fascist Italy]'' (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1938), p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; Under fascism, writes the progressive writer Roger Shaw, &quot;capitalistic ''laissez-faire'' of the old, familiar type practically disappears under state-planning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roger Shaw, &quot;[http://ia600504.us.archive.org/19/items/northamreview238miscrich/northamreview238miscrich.pdf Fascism and the New Deal],&quot; ''The North American Review'', Vol. 238, No. 6 (Dec., 1934), pp. 559-564&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Even Socialist Party leader Norman Thomas admitted, the &quot;fascist revolutions definitely abolished ''laissez-faire'' capitalism in favor of one or another kind and degree of [http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1974/hayek-lecture.html state capitalism].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Norman Thomas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dJBWAAAAMAAJ A Socialist's Faith] (Norton, 1951), pp. 55&lt;/ref&gt; “The programme of the Fascists, as drafted in 1919, was vehemently anti-capitalistic,” wrote Ludwig von Mises. “The most radical New Dealers and even communists could agree with it.”&lt;ref&gt; Ludwig von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/books/socialism.pdf Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis]'' (Yale University Press, 1951), p. 576&lt;/ref&gt; It demanded “Suppression of incorporated joint-stock companies, industrial or financial. Suppression of all speculation by banks and stock exchanges,” and “Control and taxation of private wealth. Confiscation of unproductive income.”&lt;ref&gt; Count Carlo Sforza, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5a0EHPh-X-YC Contemporary Italy - Its Intellectual and Moral Origins]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406760307, pp. 295-296&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;[T]he rise of fascism and Nazism was not a reaction against the socialist trends of the preceding period but a necessary outcome of those tendencies,&quot; wrote [http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1974/hayek-lecture.html Nobel prize winning] economist Friederich Hayek.&lt;ref&gt;Friedrich August Hayek, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTve6XEUbYIC The Road to Serfdom]'' (Psychology Press, 2001), ISBN 0415253896, p. 4&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Fascism==<br /> &quot;Originally, fascism saw itself as profoundly revolutionary&amp;mdash;not conservative (as the left now sees it),&quot; writes Christopher Harmon, professor of International Relations at the US Marine Corps University.&lt;ref&gt;Christopher C. Harmon, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vBL9Zqlth_wC Terrorism today]'' (Psychology Press, 2008) ISBN 0415773008, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt; Mussolini had been a Marxist, who took over the Italian Socialist Party at the Congress of Reggio Emilia in 1912, expelling the syndicalist heretics and espousing doctrinaire Marxism&amp;mdash;prompting Lenin to write, “the party of the Italian socialist proletariat has taken the right path.”&lt;ref&gt;V.I. Lenin, &quot;[http://www.marx.org/archive/lenin/works/1912/jul/15b.htm The Italian Socialist Congress],&quot; ''Pravda'', No. 66 (July 15, 1912), reprinted in ''V.I. Lenin Collected Works'', Volume 18 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), pp. 170-172&lt;/ref&gt; Five years later, Lenin took over Russia, the following year imposing socialism (“War Communism”); it quickly and spectacularly failed, producing mass famine and economic collapse.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/5RFHJY Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921], International Committee of the Red Cross. Cf. Francis Haller, &quot;[http://www.icrc.org/web/fre/sitefre0.nsf/html/5QKJLH Secours en temps de paix – la famine en Russie],&quot; ''Le Temps'', August 12, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; In response to this failure, Marxists and other communists scrambled for a &quot;Third Way&quot; between socialism and capitalism: an alternative to the market, but one that might actually work.&lt;ref&gt; &quot;...fascism was seen as a third way between laissez-faire capitalism and communism...&quot; (Sheldon Richman, [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/Fascism.html Fascism], ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics''); &quot;...Fascism, the 'third way' between liberalism and socialism...&quot; (David Ramsay Steele, &quot;[http://www.la-articles.org.uk/fascism.htm The Mystery of Fascism] ''Liberty'', 2003); &quot;...fascism as a 'third way' distinct from liberalism and Marxism...&quot; (Ruth Ben-Ghiat, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/261168 Italian Fascism and the Aesthetics of the 'Third Way'],&quot; ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol. 31, No. 2 [April 1996], pp. 293-316); &quot;...fascism could pose as the 'third way' alternative between capitalism and Bolshevism... (Philip Morgan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mz8hLnFiz8wC Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945]'' [Psychology Press, 2003] ISBN 0415169437, p. 186). Cf. Philip Hanson, “Is there a third way? Capitalism, socialism and the reform of the Soviet economy,” in B. Dallego, H. Brzezinski and W. Andreff, eds. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=elCNAAAAIAAJ Convergence and System Change: The Convergence Hypothesis in Light of Transition in Eastern Europe]'' (Dartmouth, 1991) ISBN 1855212188, pp. 149-169, 235 ''et seq''; Ulrich van Suntum, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mJ4TfKL4wcAC The Invisible Hand: Economic Thought Yesterday and Today]'' (Springer, 2005) ISBN 3540204970, p. 204&lt;/ref&gt; Lenin thus introduced his New Economic Policy, based on [[Oskar Lange]]'s theoretical &quot;market socialism.&quot; Mussolini, meanwhile, was expelled from the leadership of the Italian Socialist Party, proclaiming, &quot;You think you can turn me out, but you will find I will come back again. [https://www.metrowestdailynews.com/x2117940744/Mazzaglia-Fascism-then-and-now I am and shall remain a socialist and my convictions will never change!] They are bred into my very bones.&quot; Mussolini resurrected the ideas of the syndicalists he had previously ousted.&lt;ref&gt;Ludwig von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/Books/humanaction.pdf Human Action: A Treatise on Economics],'' 4th Ed., (San Francisco: Fox &amp; Wilkes 1996), p. 817&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The most important influence upon Mussolini's development,&quot; writes his biographer Renzo De Felice, &quot;was that exercised by revolutionary syndicalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Quoted in Sheri Berman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BNV5uVCQnq8C The primacy of politics: social democracy and the making of Europe's twentieth century]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006) ISBN 0521817994, p. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Most, but not all, of the of the leading organizers of Italian syndicalism became active fascists.&lt;ref&gt;David D. Roberts, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-gsNAQAAIAAJ The syndicalist tradition and Italian fascism]'' (Manchester University Press ND, 1979) ISBN 0719007615, p. 12&lt;/ref&gt; Syndicalism (''syndicalisme'') was the French name for the British idea of &quot;guild socialism.&quot; Being Italian nationalists, Mussolini and his followers gave it an Italian name, ''corporativismo'' (corporativism or corporatism), from ''corporazione'' (guild). The fascists ordered all labor unions and industries into cartels, (''corporazioni'')&amp;mdash;administrative units of the government, through which it set production levels, wages and prices.<br /> <br /> It is often claimed that corporatism means &quot;the power of business corporations over society.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Luis Suarez-Villa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RjJUmthF7zIC Technocapitalism: a critical perspective on technological innovation and corporatism]'' (Temple University Press, 2009) ISBN 1439900426, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in the wake of his upset defeat by [[Tea Party]] backed challenger Dr. Nan Hayworth, then-Congressman John Hall (D-NY) said, &quot;I learned when I was in social studies class in school that corporate ownership or corporate control of government is called Fascism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;David Freedlander, &quot;[http://www.observer.com/2010/politics/soon-be-ex-congressman-john-hall-warns-against-creeping-fascism Soon To-Be Ex-Congressman John Hall Warns Against Creeping Fascism],&quot; ''New York Observer'', December 28, 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, an article published by the Council for Secular Humanism claims that under fascism, &quot;the ability of large corporations to operate in relative freedom was not compromised.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Laurence W. Britt, &quot;[http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?page=britt_23_2&amp;section=library Fascism Anyone?]&quot; ''Free Inquiry'', Vol. 23, No. 2 (Spring 2003)&lt;/ref&gt; While he didn't mention business, President [[Franklin Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]] [[Democratic Party|Democrat]], said, &quot;in its essence... fascism [is] ownership of government by an individual, by a group, or by any other controlling private power&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,759590,00.html INDUSTRY: Anti-Monopoly], ''Time'', May, 9, 1938&lt;/ref&gt; (a statement approvingly quoted by secret [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Spies: the rise and fall of the KGB in America |last=Haynes |first=John Earl |coauthors=Harvey Klehr, Alexander Vassiliev |year=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300123906 |page=169 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC |accessdate=9 January 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[George Seldes]]).&lt;ref&gt;George Seldes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=roV3AAAAMAAJ One thousand Americans]'' (Boni &amp; Gaer, 1947), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Such claims are often buttressed by an apocryphal quote, attributed to Mussolini, that &quot;Fascism should more properly be called corporatism because it is the merger of state and corporate power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Burrell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=52MHbNZhhT8C The Republican Treason: Republican Fascism Exposed]'' (Algora Publishing, 2008) ISBN 0875866670, p. 137, n. 1&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But there is no evidence that Mussolini ever said this,&lt;ref&gt;[http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=280606 Q: Quotation search: &quot;Benito Mussolini - Fascism should more appropriately be...&quot;], Google Answers&lt;/ref&gt; and as one self-proclaimed &quot;[http://www.chipberlet.net/ progressive activist]&quot; admits, &quot;it contradicts most of the other writing he did on the subject of corporatism and corporations.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Chip Berlet, [http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html Mussolini on the Corporate State], Political Research Associates&lt;/ref&gt; Corporatism has nothing to do with incorporated firms or businesses; all fascist movements have in common the aim of &quot;eliminating the autonomy (or, in some proposals, the existence) of large-scale capitalism and major industry.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stanley Payne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9wHNrF7nFecC A History of Fascism]'' (Routledge, 1996) ISBN 1-85728-595-6, p. 10&lt;/ref&gt; That is because property rights are a bulwark against the state: by outperforming the state in the satisfaction of social needs, the market offers an alternative to the state's aggression-enforced monopoly on legitimacy. As Mussolini put it, &quot;Our formula is this: everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''La nostra formula e questa: tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, niente contro lo Stato''.&quot; Benito Mussolini, “[http://www.mussolinibenito.it/discorsodel28_10_1925.htm Discorso del 28 ottobre 1925] al Teatro della Scala di Milano” (October 28, 1925), reprinted in ''Opera omnia di Benito Mussolini'' XXI (1956), p. 425&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> While it may preserve the ''appearance'' of ownership, corporatism strips owners of ''control'' of their property, thus stripping &quot;ownership&quot; of meaning. Under fascism, &quot;the state directs and controls&quot; business,&lt;ref&gt;R. E. Pahl and J. T. Winkler, &quot;Corporatism in Britain,&quot; in ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RGpXAAAAMAAJ The Corporate State-Myth or Reality?]'' (London: Centre for Studies in Social Policy, 1976), as cited in Bob Jessop, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HcxBBhXjAUcC State theory: putting the Capitalist state in its place]'' (Penn State Press, 1990) ISBN 0271007354, p. 133&lt;/ref&gt; exercising &quot;absolute authoritarian control of production.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ludwig Von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/books/plannedchaos.pdf Planned chaos]'' (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1947) ISBN 1933550600, pp. 3-4, 62-63&lt;/ref&gt; As Mussolini put it, &quot;the organiser of the enterprise is responsible to the State for the direction given to production.&quot; He demanded &quot;State intervention in economic production&quot; whenever &quot;private initiative is lacking or insufficient, or when the political interests of the State are involved. This intervention may take the form of control, assistance or direct management.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Benito Mussolini, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zp8TAQAAIAAJ Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions]'' (Rome: 'Ardita' Publishers), pp. 135-136&lt;/ref&gt; Under fascism, the &quot;private employer is retained, but he is stringently regulated by the state,&quot; writes progressive writer Roger Shaw. &quot;Communism eliminates the private employer and profit-maker, but Fascism, at least in economic theory, retains him as a slave of the state.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roger Shaw, &quot;[http://ia600504.us.archive.org/19/items/northamreview238miscrich/northamreview238miscrich.pdf Fascism and the New Deal],&quot; ''The North American Review'', Vol. 238, No. 6 (Dec., 1934), pp. 559-564&lt;/ref&gt; The state thus becomes the ''de facto'' owner, reducing ''de jure'' owners to bureaucrats, carrying out government orders. It is therefore more accurate to say that &quot;corporatism&quot; means government control of corporations than corporate control of government.<br /> <br /> ==National Socialism==<br /> National Socialism, emerging from the shattered remains of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the wake of World War I, promised yet another a “third way” between capitalism and communism.&lt;ref&gt;Artur Moeller van den Bruck's book ''The Third Reich'' (1923) was originally entitled ''The Third Way.'' (George Lachmann Mosse, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6oiD85C9HzUC Masses and Man: Nationalist and Fascist Perceptions of Reality]'' [Wayne State University Press, 1987] ISBN 0814318959, pp. 84, 166) On Fascism as “third way,” see Zeev Sternhell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ccgIu6oYkREC Neither Right nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996) ISBN 0691006296, p. 94, and Roger Eatwell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x3U6AAAAMAAJ Fascism: A History]'', (London: Allen Lane, 1996), ISBN 071399147X, p. 11.&lt;/ref&gt; Whereas Communism sought to unite the working class of all nations to fight for their class, and fascism sought to unite all the classes within a country to fight for the State, National Socialism sought to unite all members of a race, from whatever class or nation, to fight for their race. It was this &quot;Third Way&quot; that attracted [[Adolf Hitler]].<br /> <br /> As early as 1933, Nobel prize winning economist F.A. Hayek warned William Beveridge, director of the London School of Economics, that &quot;National 'Socialism' is a genuine socialist movement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Memorandum: Hayek to Beveridge, Nazi-Socialism, Spring 1933 (F.A. Hayek Papers (Hoover Institution), Box 105, Folder 10, in Friedrich August Hayek, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qg61T_I1mwsC The road to serfdom: text and documents]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007) ISBN 0226320553, p. 245&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels denounced capitalism in Marxist terms:<br /> {{cquote|The worker in a capitalist state — and that is his deepest misfortune — is no longer a living human being, a creator, a maker. He has become a machine. A number, a cog in the machine without sense or understanding. He is alienated from what he produces.&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Goebbels and Mjölnir, ''[http://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/haken32.htm Die verfluchten Hakenkreuzler. Etwas zum Nachdenken] [“The cursed swastika. Something to think about”]'' (Munich: Verlag Frz. Eher, 1932), trans. Randall Bytwerk, Calvin College&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> As Nazi ideologist Gregor Strasser put it:<br /> {{cquote|''We are Socialists,'' are enemies, mortal enemies of the present capitalist economic system with its exploitation of the economically weak, with its injustice in wages, with its immoral evaluation of individuals according to wealth and money instead of responsibility and achievement, and we are determined under all circumstances to abolish this system! And with my inclination to practical action it seems obvious to me that we have to put a better, more just, more moral system in its place, one which, as it were, has arms and legs and better arms and legs than the present one! [Emphasis in original]&lt;ref&gt;Gregory Strasser, &quot;Thoughts about the Tasks of the Future&quot; (1926), reprinted in Barbara Miller Lane and Leila J. Rupp (eds.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_JghDQAAQBAJ Nazi Ideology Before 1933: A Documentation]'' (University of Texas Press, 2014) ISBN 1477304452, p. 89&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Hitler himself echoed Strasser a 1927 speech:<br /> {{cquote|We are socialists, we are enemies of today’s capitalistic economic system for the exploitation of the economically weak, with its unfair salaries, with its unseemly evaluation of a human being according to wealth and property instead of responsibility and performance, and we are all determined to destroy this system under all conditions.&lt;ref&gt;John Toland, ''[http://books.google.com/books/about/Adolf_Hitler.html?id=bcyduKEh8hsC Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography'', Volume 1] (Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1976) 0385420536, pp. 224-225&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> &quot;In no way was Hitler the tool of big business,&quot; admitted American Socialist Party leader Norman Thomas.&lt;ref&gt;Norman Thomas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dJBWAAAAMAAJ A Socialist's Faith] (Norton, 1951), pp. 53-35&lt;/ref&gt; Under Nazism, declared Hitler, &quot;the attitude of the State towards capital would be comparatively simple and clear. Its only object would be to make sure that capital remained subservient to the State.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Adolf Hitler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EBUBUEeUwxUC Mein Kampf: zwei Bände in einem Band'', Vol. 1] 40th Ed. (Bottom of the Hill, 1938) ISBN 1935785079, p. 183&lt;/ref&gt; David Schoenbaum notes that the Nazi Party census found the single largest category of Party members was “Workers” (30.3%); the second-largest category was “White collar,” (19.4%), of which 59.1% were in sales; the third-largest category, “Independent”/“Self-Employed” made up 19%, the largest group of whom were in “handicraft” (43.7%). Schoenbaum adds that of the two exhibits most often trotted out in defense of the Naziism-as-capitalist-plot thesis&amp;mdash;Fritz Thyssen and the Krupps&amp;mdash;that Thyssen eventually had to flee Nazi Germany for Switzerland, while even the Krupps “did not finance Hitler before 1933,” when his victory had become a ''fait accompli''.&lt;ref&gt;David Schoenbaum, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1wNCSxrUlyMC Hitler's Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933-1939]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1997) ISBN 0393315541, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, some business people likewise supported FDR's policies (e.g., &quot;Although I'm a capitalist, I happen to believe in [Roosevelt's] program&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;Lorena A. Hickok, et al., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nstfz85S4ccC One Third of a Nation: Lorena Hickok Reports on the Great Depression]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1983) ISBN 0252010965, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Even Ronald Reagan was a New Dealer, back when he was a liberal Democrat and a Roosevelt man (although he later saw the light, saying, &quot;Fascism was really the basis of the New Deal&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;Howell Raines, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60D10FB3A5F12728DDDAE0994D0405B8084F1D3 Reagan Denies Plan to Answer Carter],&quot; ''The New York Times'', August 17, 1980, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In fact, much of Nazism was borrowed&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/fsa.8d34748 Southington, Connecticut. School children pledging their allegiance to the flag], United States. Office of War Information. Overseas Picture Division. Washington Division; 1944 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt; from American progressives&lt;ref&gt;Even the term &quot;national socialism&quot; was coined by American socialist Edward Bellamy. (Alison Ravetz , ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4thHBdqD2tEC Council Housing and Culture: The History of a Social Experiment]'' (Psychology Press, 2001), ISBN 0415239451, p. 49; c.f. Sylvia Strauss, &quot;Gender, Class and Race in Utopia,&quot; in Daphne Patai, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qV7yKyMeGB4C Looking Backward, 1988-1888: Essays on Edward Bellamy]'' (University of Massachusetts Press, 1988), ISBN 0870236342, p. 71). He was the author of the 1888 utopian novel ''[http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/17/books/looking-back-at-looking-backward-we-have-seen-the-future-and-it-didn-t-work.htm Looking Backward]'', which was [http://www.education.com/study-help/article/progressive-era-18951914/ read by most early progressives] as is said to have [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/guideDesc.asp?catid=93&amp;type=issue kicked off the Progressive Era]. Robert Weir, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y7n2tJVd3YsC Class in America: An Encyclopedia] (ABC-CLIO, 2007), ISBN 0313068356, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; and Democrats&lt;ref&gt;Jim Lindgren, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080703190244/http://volokh.com/archives/archive_2004_10_17-2004_10_23.shtml#1098345826 1938 Gallup poll data], The Volokh Conspiracy, October 21, 2004, 4:03am&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;eugenics and &quot;racial hygiene,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies'' Vol. 12 No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294&lt;/ref&gt; for example. As [http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/Nisbet.pdf Robert Nisbet] observed:<br /> {{cquote|the West's first real experience with totalitarianism&amp;mdash;political absolutism extended into every possible area of culture and society, education, religion, industry, the arts, local community and family included, with a kind of terror always waiting in the wings&amp;mdash;came with the American war state under [[Woodrow Wilson]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Robert A. Nisbet, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=wMElAAAAMAAJ The Twilight of Authority]'' (Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 183. Wilson's racism &quot;was often of a piece with the reigning [http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2008/0205/p09s01-coop.html progressive obsession with eugenics], the pseudoscience that strove to perfect society through better breeding.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Likewise, Nazi &quot;domestic policies were remarkably friendly toward the German lower classes, soaking the wealthy and redistributing the burdens of wartime to the benefit of the underprivileged,&quot; including &quot;transferring the tax burden to corporations.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, pp. 7, 38&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Along with its well-known anti-Semitic and expansionist planks, the Nazi Party program included a number of less-remembered demands that were (and are still) considered “progressive.” For example: “the State shall above all undertake to ensure that every citizen shall have the possibility of [http://www.livingwagecampaign.org/ living decently and earning a livelihood]”, “a generous increase in [http://www.socsec.org/ old-age pensions]”, “specially talented children of poor parents, whatever their station or occupation, be [http://www.nea.org/home/LegislativeActionCenter.html educated at the expense of the State]”, “help raise the standard of [http://www.healthreform.gov/ national health]” by “providing [http://www.prochoiceamerica.org/choice-action-center/take-action/ maternity welfare centers], banning child labor, [http://www.reversechildhoodobesity.org/sites/default/files/files-wfm/files/09.15.09-HCReformPositionPaper-RWJFCenter.pdf increasing physical fitness] through the introduction of compulsory games and gymnastics, and by the greatest possible encouragement of associations concerned with the physical education of the young,” etc.<br /> <br /> The Nazi platform attacked the concept of economic freedom, asserting that the “first duty of every citizen must be to work mentally or physically”, that “all [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/02/26/obama-wants-higher-capita_n_170237.html unearned income], and all income that does not arise from work, be abolished... breaking of [http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/14/obama-decries-fat-cat-bankers/ the tyranny of interest]”, that “[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/arianna-huffington/obama-calls-for-an-extrem_b_204903.html usurers], profiteers, etc., are to be punished with death, regardless of creed or race”, “total confiscation of all [http://leahy.senate.gov/press/200703/032007.html war profits]”, “[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/02/24/nationalizing-banks-aig-c_n_169388.html nationalization of all trusts] that have gone public [i.e., publicly-traded companies]”, “profit-sharing in large industries”, “ immediate [http://www.yesmagazine.org/issues/cities-of-exuberance/stopping-the-big-boxes communalization of large stores]”, “enactment of a law to [http://www.ij.org/images/castlecoalition/docs/victimizing_the_vulnerable.pdf expropriate the owners without compensation] of any land needed for the common purpose... abolition of ground rents, and the prohibition of all [http://www.boston.com/realestate/news/blogs/renow/2009/02/real_estate_spe.html speculation in land]”, etc. (Nazi newspapers ran frequent polemics against landlords.)&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, p. 63&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> As against individualism and the free market, the Nazis demanded “creation of a [http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/obama/2009/03/19/under-president-obama-big-government-is-back.html strong central authority] in the State”, “[http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0308/9238.html COMMON GOOD BEFORE INDIVIDUAL GOOD]” [Capitalization in original], that “No individual shall do any work that offends against the interest of the community to the benefit of all”, that “ruthless war be waged against those who work to the injury of the common welfare”, etc.<br /> <br /> Finally, the Nazis wiped out free speech and religious freedom, demanding “a legal campaign against those who propagate deliberate political lies and disseminate them through the press”, that “Newspapers transgressing against the common welfare [http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_chicsuntimes-rush.htm shall be suppressed]”, disingenuously promising freedom for all religious faiths “in the state, insofar as they do not endanger its existence” or “[http://www.nas.org/polArticles.cfm?Doc_Id=190 offend the moral and ethical sense]” of the Germanic race.&lt;ref&gt;Louis Leo Snyder, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8hV4AAAAIAAJ Documents of German History]'' (Rutgers University Press, 1958), p. 393 ''et seq.''&lt;/ref&gt; The Party statutes of May 22, 1926, state of these points: &quot;This program is unalterable.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://specialcollections.library.emory.edu/findingaids/content.php?id=gosnell425_10351 Cullen Bryant Gosnell] and [http://iamcr.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=360&amp;Itemid=362 Raymond Blalock Nixon], [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVDNAAAAMAAJ ''Proceedings: Institute of Citizenship'', Vol. 18, Iss. 7, 1932] (Emory University)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> &quot;Architect of the Holocaust&quot; Adolf Eichmann wrote in his memoirs, &quot;My political sympathies inclined towards the left and emphasized socialist aspects every bit as much as nationalist ones.” He and his comrades, said Eichmann, viewed Nazism and Communism as “quasi-siblings.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, pp. 16-17&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, in a 1944 article titled &quot;Our Socialism,&quot; Nazi Propaganda Minister Josef Goebbels boasted that “We alone [the Nazis] have the best social welfare measures.” In contrast, he wrote, &quot;The Jews are the incarnation of capitalism.”&lt;ref&gt;Victor Klemperer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-_E1rr7tLlcC I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years, 1942-1945]'' Vol. 2 (Random House, Inc., 2001) ISBN 0375756973, p. 317&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By confiscating and redistributing the property of Jews, the Nazis sought what they called “a truly socialist division of personal assets.”&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, p. 300&lt;/ref&gt; To this end, the Nazis enacted price controls, rent controls, exorbitant corporate taxes, farm subsidies and harsh taxes on capital gains,&lt;ref&gt;Michael C. Moynihan , &quot;[http://reason.com/archives/2007/08/15/hitlers-handouts Hitler's Handouts: Inside the Nazis' Welfare State],&quot; ''Reason'', August/September 2007&lt;/ref&gt; which Hitler denounced as “effortless income.”&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; It was in this atmosphere that the New Deal took shape.<br /> <br /> Even the Kremlin itself would on at least one occasion admit that Nazi Germany was a socialist nation. On October 7, 1939, the 22nd anniversary of the [[Bolshevik Revolution|Bolshevik coup]], the [[Comintern]] issued a statement describing the joint Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland as &quot;an example of cooperation of socialist nations against Anglo-French imperialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[http://www.17september1939.com 1939 September 17]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> &lt;references/&gt;</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=1611582 Alger Hiss 2020-01-07T06:35:54Z <p>FOIA: /* United Nations */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [https://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,&lt;ref&gt;Francis P. Sempa, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection],&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a &quot;liberal&quot; rather than a communist, referring to &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself],&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. He also had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party].&quot; Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301&lt;/ref&gt; putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, &quot;Conspiracy Theories,&quot; in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].&lt;/ref&gt; The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot; (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]] [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to ex-Communist (&quot;I belonged for a little while to the Young Communist League, and thereafter to the Socialist party.&quot; [[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 11) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4)<br /> The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) &quot;Growing up, all five children had music and art lessons, as well as German language lessons for Alger. They attended private colleges or universities and vacationed on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During college, the three boys spent summers in Europe.&quot; ([[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 12). Young Alger went [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 141); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After such a series of tragic losses, suggested Hiss's son, Alger might have found himself &quot;susceptible, as some may have been, to the seeming solidarity offered by the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 141&lt;/ref&gt; Among others susceptible to this lure was Hiss's [[#refHUAC8-17-48|future tenant]], [[Whittaker Chambers]], who wrote of the suicide of his own brother at age 21:<br /> {{cquote|[M]y brother's death stunned me ... this is the point at which I became a thorough Communist. I felt that any society which could result in the death of a boy like my brother was wrong and I was at war with it. This was the beginning of my fanaticism.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3HUvm91KDn8C The conservative turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the lessons of anti-communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim to have already been socially and politically progressive and anti-business when he went to college.&lt;ref&gt;Alger Hiss, [http://algerhiss.com/alger-hiss/in-his-own-words/alger-hisss-liberal-manifesto/l Draft of a Chapter Written By Alger Hiss on the Foundations For His Liberalism] ([http://holliscatalog.harvard.edu//?itemid=|library%2fm%2faleph|010072878 Alger Hiss papers], Small Manuscript Collection, [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/index.html Special Collections], [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/index.html Harvard Law School Library]), algerhiss.com. Cf. Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/ivan_chen/1/ Alger Hiss, 1926-1929]; [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 22-24.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor]]s included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as &quot;[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion.&quot; (Herbert Romerstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). &quot;[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[Atheism|atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt; (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no &quot;Hopkins Babbit [sic],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A misspelled reference to the [http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-babbi/char.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]&lt;/ref&gt; according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics &quot;from Soviets to styles&quot; with &quot;irresistible logic and rhetoric.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a &quot;militant communist,&quot; Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [https://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Paul Avrich, a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, &quot;[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)],&quot; ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&amp;psid=3381 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [https://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]&lt;ref&gt;Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan &amp; Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss became &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]]&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;On July 4, 1914, three IWW members were killed in New York when a bomb they were constructing exploded. The bomb also killed a woman in the next apartment, maimed many others, and destroyed the building. (&quot;Anarchist bomb believed for Rockefeller kills three I.W.W. makers and a woman--injures many--wrecks tenement house,&quot; New York Sun, 5 July 1914, p. 1.) Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including IWW boss [[&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]]) for a series of such acts, at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist]]ic (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist]]ic') cheek?&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; serving (along with various &quot;Communists, Socialists, and nonaffiliated radicals&quot;) on the Advisory Board of American Labor Associates;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87&lt;/ref&gt; Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [https://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join FDR's administration.<br /> <br /> [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). <br /> That [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline &quot;[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote &quot;I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help.&quot; Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185&lt;/ref&gt; agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot;). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot; who &quot;was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy...&quot; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already &quot;[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot;<br /> &quot;In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families].&quot; &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt; son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; Ware recruited Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; known as the [[Ware group]].&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed &quot;Marxist&quot;] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hope Hale Davis, &quot;Looking Back at my Years in the Party,&quot; ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., &quot;Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87&lt;/ref&gt; This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [https://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was &quot;the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA&lt;ref&gt;Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. &quot;Leonora Fuller&quot; in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&amp;id=70 Gardner Jackson]:&lt;ref&gt;Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): &quot;When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss's laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-HOAC&amp;month=0704&amp;week=d&amp;msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&amp;user=&amp;pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> [[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;merchants of death,&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to &quot;drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle&quot; with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]&lt;ref&gt;John Whiteclay Chambers II, &quot;[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.],&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515&lt;/ref&gt; maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was &quot;as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant,&quot; particularly toward the &quot;business leaders he cross-examined caustically.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]&lt;/ref&gt; One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement--who wrote that Christianity should &quot;aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism.&quot; (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; would report to Moscow that &quot;‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51&lt;/ref&gt; (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, &quot;neighbors&quot; was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; three years after that, Gorsky would identify &quot;Karl&quot; as &quot;Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss's 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&amp;user=&amp;pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [https://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as &quot;[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is &quot;Yes&quot;.... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)&lt;/ref&gt; notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. &quot;[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&amp;dat=19510317&amp;id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round,&quot; ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (to whom she refers by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222&lt;/ref&gt; Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a 25% pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://archives.williams.edu/williamshistory/biographies/sayre-francis.php son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639&lt;/ref&gt; had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;[https://solidarity-us.org/atc/62/p2424/ Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996],&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May–June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (the victims of which would number [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt; That June, [http://americanthinker.com/2014/07/diana_and_ron_what_was_going_on_.html at Stalin's behest], FDR abolished the State Department's Eastern European Division, headed by the anti-Communist Robert F. Kelley,&lt;ref&gt;Cathal J. Nolan, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZMeeXLSQhsC Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997) ISBN 0313291950, p. 207&lt;/ref&gt; reassigning its staff and dispersing its excellent library.<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' defection===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Trying to explain how such a reversal happened, Chambers related how a certain German diplomat who &quot;had been extremely pro-Communist, had become an implacable anti-Communist.&quot; According to the diplomat's daughter, &quot;[O]ne night – in Moscow – he heard screams. That’s all. Simply one night he heard screams.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;What Communist has not heard those screams?&quot; wrote Chambers. &quot;...What man can call himself a Communist who has not accepted the fact that Terror is an instrument of policy...? Those screams have reached every Communist’s mind. Usually they stop there....&quot;<br /> {{cquote|But one day the Communist really hears those screams. He is going about his routine party tasks.... Suddenly, there closes around that Communist a separating silence, and in that silence he hears screams. He hears them for the first time. For they do not merely reach his mind. They pierce beyond. They pierce to his soul.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is &quot;man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God.&quot; This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:<br /> {{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: &quot;No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design.&quot; The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Far Eastern Division===<br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt; Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had &quot;dubious, Left Wing characters in his office.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, &quot;[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow],&quot; ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627224903/http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/levine700/?keywords=levine Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned friends (including HUAC investigator Joseph Brown Matthews), &quot;If they ever try to prove that I took my own life, [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html don't believe it],&quot; his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. (&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11F93959167B93C3A81789D85F458485F9 Gen. Krivitsky Found Dead; Suicide Finding Questioned; Notes Convince Washington Police He Shot Himself, but Friends Charge Former Ogpu Officer Was Slain by Reds KRIVITSKY'S DEATH IS INVESTIGATED],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1941, p. 1) Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [https://www.hoover.org/research/dark-memories corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30&lt;/ref&gt; where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, &quot;most of them Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Louis Rapoport, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, &quot;[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&amp;b=395031 Writers in Extremis],&quot; ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the [[Foreign Agents Registration Act]] [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91&lt;/ref&gt; According to Levine:<br /> {{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to &quot;go jump in a lake&quot; upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive&lt;ref&gt;&quot;an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&amp;t=1314204947 obscene or profane]&quot;; &quot;an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&amp;reversed=False&amp;action=define&amp;homonym=0&amp;text=expletive swearword].&quot; Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of &quot;expletive&quot; as a [[euphemism]] for &quot;[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; remark on this order: &quot;Oh, forget it, Adolf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/books/review/Mallon-t.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/1993_dubinsky.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/walter_winchell.htm Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; After he informed FDR that Hiss was spying for Moscow, according to Winchell, &quot;Leaning closer and pointing a finger in my face, he [Roosevelt] angrily said, 'I don't want to hear another thing about it! It isn't true.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schechter 2002]]: 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; According to Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians], Roosevelt was uninterested when confronted with reports of Soviet spying in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokhin 2000]]: 107&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot; ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: &quot;Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody...&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr:<br /> {{cquote|Many young leftists in the early 1930’s had entered the government in the early throes of the New Deal and embraced a Communist siren under whose call significant numbers of them were willing to pass along valuable information to the Soviet Union during the war. A general leftist tilt in the government meant that these ideologues blended well into the Washington bureaucracy while keeping their strong Soviet sympathies largely hidden. The tradecraft of Soviet intelligence personnel, the well honed Communist Party tradition of conspiracy, and a [https://www.fbi.gov/history/history-publications-reports/in-the-enemys-house-venona-and-the-maturation-of-american-counterintelligence lack of concern in the Roosevelt administration towards Soviet spying] meant that little of this growing Soviet intelligence web was found except by accident in the opening years of the war.}}<br /> Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131008202927/https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Initially, Dies supported the New Deal.&quot; (William D. Pederson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) &quot;He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants.&quot; Dies also had a record of &quot;support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity.&quot; George N. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70&lt;/ref&gt; [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was &quot;furious&quot;&amp;mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&amp;mdash;&quot;you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed,&quot; he railed, adding &quot;there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20030707171840/http://boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook.&quot;]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite2|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99&lt;/ref&gt; Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710063742/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/article/268394/pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies,&lt;ref&gt;Although one American public school teacher's guide claims that the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] &quot;was not an alliance. At the start of World War II, Joseph Stalin (...strongly anti-fascist) was aligned with Great Britain and France against the Axis Powers of Germany,&quot; etc., (''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1KtAAFE2nAwC World War II]'' [Social Studies School Service, 2007] ISBN 156004313X, p. S11), this is false. As French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thoruz and Jacques Duclos put it upon the Nazi conquest of France, &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of German imperialism. It is a fact that in this sense there is a temporary alliance.&quot; ([[#refTolstoy82|Tolstoy 1982]]: 113) As late as January 1941, the Soviets were appealing to the Nazis for permission to join as full members of the Axis. (Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlsrAxuWekQC A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521618266, p. 202) Six months later, when the pact collapsed, the USSR rushed into the arms of the Allies, which the Communists viewed as yet another &quot;temporary alliance.&quot; David Gress, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NKyzGG92uMUC From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2004) ISBN 0743264886, p. 408&lt;/ref&gt; including Communists.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [https://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt;As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106&lt;/ref&gt; the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Haslam, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel P. Mikhailov&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [https://web.archive.org/web/20100210161901/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs-and-george-dasch Nazi and fascist agents].&lt;ref&gt;According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr., &quot;From the entry of the US into the war in 1941, the FBI, with cooperation of its fellow agencies and significant foreign allies, effectively negated Axis intelligence operations in the US and the western hemisphere. The Bureau was distinctly [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona less successful in identifying the Soviet threat] during the same period.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed the U.S. Lend-Lease program for Britain&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87. The Communist front [[American Peace Mobilization]] picketed the White House, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790078,00.html protesting Lend-Lease] aid to the U.K. When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Nazism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world” (&quot;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm reaktionärste Kraft in der Welt]&quot;). “The German government declared itself ready to establish peaceful relations with the Soviet Union, whilst the Anglo-French war bloc want war against the Soviet Union,” [http://www.marxists.org/archive/ulbricht/1940/die-welt.htm declared Ulbricht]. During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html the blitzed areas of London],&quot; writes [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Orwell prize winning] journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;/ref&gt; (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm officially dissolving] the [[Comintern]], forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern&lt;ref&gt;“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989&lt;/ref&gt; (which included “control over the CPUSA”),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center&lt;/ref&gt; whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, &quot;the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease,&quot; was [[Harry Dexter White]],&lt;ref&gt;Albert Loren Weeks, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> one of &quot;the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents],&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named &quot;Map.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; Strong boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt; These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124&lt;/ref&gt; from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.&lt;ref&gt;Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208&lt;/ref&gt; Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and a Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; (code-named ''Lyre''),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; but also the mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [https://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity,&quot; but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt &quot;Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)&lt;/ref&gt; noted that &quot;Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/https://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, &quot;[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind,&quot; according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].&lt;ref&gt;Felix Wittmer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently,&quot; agreed former Soviet propagandist&lt;ref&gt;David C. Engerman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201&lt;/ref&gt; W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; His face was &quot;gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function,&quot; wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Burt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35&lt;/ref&gt; John Gunther. &quot;I felt certain that he was going to die.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Gunther, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:<br /> {{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell Cordell Hull] and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...&lt;ref&gt;James A. Farley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which<br /> {{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States. He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&amp;mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.&lt;ref&gt;Steven Lomazow , &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta'],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In [https://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister<br /> {{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. &quot;Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?&quot; he [Churchill] asked. &quot;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta].&quot;}}<br /> The deterioration in Roosevelt's judgement became evident in some of his more controversial statements at Yalta, including the following, recorded in the formerly [http://archive.today/p3GKt Top Secret minutes] two weeks after the liberation of Aushwitz:<br /> {{cquote|MARSHAL STALIN asked whether the President intended to make any concessions to Ibn Saud [King of Saudi Arabia].<br /> THE PRESIDENT replied that there was only one concession he thought he might offer and that was to give him the six million Jews in the United States.}}<br /> ====United Nations planning====<br /> As what Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/serhii-plokhii Serhii Plokhii] calls &quot;the State Department's expert on the United Nations&quot; at Yalta, Hiss was involved in discussions preceeding the secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; to give the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Although Hiss officially opposed this decision, there is some mystery as to how it came about: Hiss would later claim that the British informed him that US agreement to this Soviet demand had come from Stettinius himself, but Stettinus denied that he had ever made such an agreement.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plohky 2010]]: 192&lt;/ref&gt; Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kort, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===='Traitors'====<br /> The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; But Venona is not the only source: According to Plokhii, the [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2012/September%202012/0912yalta.aspx foremost modern analyst of Yalta], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]]: xxv&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was, according to Sudoplatov, &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein, who had been one of Hiss’s control officers in 1935-38, when he served as vice-consul at the Soviet consulate New York, and was now deputy director of the GRU. Hiss's briefings revealed not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====Poland====<br /> Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [https://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]]&amp;mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta &quot;went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures].&quot; It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes,&quot; he wrote. &quot;To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====China====<br /> Hiss had input even on China. During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to the formerly [https://archive.is/HTiIW Top Secret minutes], &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record resorts to the passive voice, obscuring Hiss's role in this incident: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press reports relying on this [https://books.google.com/books?id=kotPYEqx7kMC&amp;q=memory+hole#v=snippet&amp;q=memory%20hole&amp;f=false bowdlerized] official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot; FDR apologists such as liberal &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/weekinreview/04tanenhaus.html court historian]&quot; Arthur Schlesinger parroted this official version as dogma: &quot;As for Yalta, Alger Hiss had nothing to do with the Far Eastern discussions, and knew nothing of their existence,&quot; etc. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MegmQB1MxqkC The Politics of Hope: And, The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691134758, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Too much stress cannot be laid on the hope that our economic assistance be carried out in China through the medium of a government fully and fairly representative of all important Chinese political elements, including the Chinese Communists,&quot; said Acheson. (Freda Utley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JmAcAAAAMAAJ The China story]'' [H. Regnery Co., 1951], p. 15) This was the pretext for the U.S. embargo on arms to China in July 1946. Even after the embargo ended in May 1947, Acheson was able to delay shipments another six months. In 1949, he would explicitly instruct his subordinates that &quot;it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action.&quot; (David S. McLellan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: &quot;Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China.&quot; John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the &quot;memoranda for the President&quot; Stettinius directed be placed &quot;in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss,&quot; according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/https://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944 [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Other secret agreements====<br /> According to [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon [http://education-research.org/images/FDR-Stalin-Jews.jpg Stalin requested] the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, in Washington, sent [https://archive.is/TDxrP a Top Secret telegram] to Stettinius at Yalta, objecting to the repatriation as a violation of the Geneva Convention and of the traditional American policy of granting political asylum. The U.S. nevertheless agreed to the repatriation (which would become known as [[Operation Keelhaul]]), but that agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of [[reparations]] … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/01/03/reviews/990103.03persict.html Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; continuously since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told.&quot; ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. According to Stettinius, Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Powell, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were &quot;loaned&quot; to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: &quot;I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions.&quot; (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hoping to obtain &quot;control of the entire [[Mediterranean]],&quot; the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding &quot;an immediate boycott&quot; of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking &quot;[[Communist]] expansion world-wide,&quot; the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:&lt;ref&gt;United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.&lt;ref&gt;William B. Dunham, &quot;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career],&quot; Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which were [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that &quot;Ales&quot; and his group were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify &quot;the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow,&quot; Gouzenko would repeat that &quot;there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius.&quot; Bruce Craig, &quot;Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed,&quot; David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, &quot;We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss.&quot; [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 29, the Canadian Prime Minister met with Truman and Acheson in the White House, telling them that, according to Gouzenko, &quot;an assistant secretary of the Secretary of State's department was supposed to be implicated&quot; in GRU espionage. According to King, Truman &quot;turned to Acheson and said something to the effect that it would not be surprising.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who stated that Hiss's assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]], p. 1181 (PDF p. 121)&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John T. Donovan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; reported, &quot;In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Cronin, S.S., &quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945],&quot; p. 49 (PDF p. 58)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23&lt;/ref&gt; She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://archive.mrc.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/02/09.htm a speech] regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;In 1946, Stalin declared that the world would never be safe from war so long as capitalism survived. This inaugurated the cold war period.&quot; [http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/CIA%20Murphy%20Collection%20Pt1-1.pdf Fact sheet], Records of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Raymond E. Murphy Collection on International Communism, 1917–1958. Part 1: Eastern Europe. Cf. Walter LaFeber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38. &quot;The West never chose to have a Cold War, and never would,&quot; write Soviet dissident/exiles Vladimir Bukovsky and Pavel Stroilov. &quot;[I]t was always imposed on us [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=32645 by the Kremlin aggressors].&quot; “The Cold War was [http://www.raleighspyconference.com/wrapup/2003.aspx caused by the Soviet Union], was sustained by the Soviet Union, and was ended by the Soviet Union when it collapsed,” according to Christopher Andrew (so-called “[http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians]”). “It was and is as simple as that.”&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']]An extensive [[FBI]] investigation helped develop a great deal of evidence verifying Chambers’ statements and [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/january/a-byte-out-of-history-the-alger-hiss-story revealing Hiss’ cover-ups]. [[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the Bureau that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69&lt;/ref&gt; On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;Panuch would testify that &quot;...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'&quot; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, &quot;it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department.&quot; [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[https://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]&quot; (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&amp;hp&amp;oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, an investigation concluded that Hiss had taken home top-secret reports he was not cleared to see.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hQjvrgC_zAgC A Covert Life - Jay Lovestone: Communist, Anti-Communist and Spymaster]'' (House, 1999) ISBN 0307805662, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; That month the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 1 20)]&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; During the campaign, House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged, &quot;first we will give our efforts to cleaning out the Communists, their fellow travelers and parlor pinks from [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19460921&amp;id=nNtXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=g_UDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1774,4765653 high positions in our Government].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify &quot;any disloyal or subversive person&quot; from federal service. Truman's actions &quot;left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress,&quot; according to the journal of the National Archives. &quot;Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[https://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program],&quot; but no action was taken for three months. Finally, on June 10, members of the newly Republican-controlled Senate sent a secret report to Truman's new Secretary of State, [[George Marshall]], warning him about Undersecretary Dean Acheson, who had fired Panuch:<br /> {{cquote|It becomes necessary due to the gravity of the situation to call your attention to a condition that developed and still flourishes in the State Department under the administration of Dean Acheson. It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect communist personnel in high places but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity … On file in the department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States which involves a large number of State Department employees, some in high official positions. This report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department with the apparent tacit approval of Mr. Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;David Lawrence, &quot;Stevenson Held Unfamiliar with Red Issue,&quot; [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19520917&amp;id=gflXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=Z_YDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3180,2556457 ''Spokane Daily Chronicle,'' September 17, 1952, p. 4]&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marshall didn't respond to this report and, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 security cases] in the State Department the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that &quot;an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999&lt;/ref&gt; conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/No+Bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a [https://archive.is/5BcPM single federal official] for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/subpena subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html reported] to the chairman of Soviet intelligence about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers ('''A. Hiss''', [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”&lt;ref&gt;Truman &quot;wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow.&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named &quot;PAZh/Page.&quot; [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117&lt;/ref&gt; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.<br /> <br /> The Hiss forces launched a &quot;frightful campaign of vilification&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hilton Kramer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss's &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period].&quot; On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif/image.gif confinement in mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Just two days after their public testimony,&lt;ref&gt;Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; The New York ''Daily News'' asked, &quot;Well Alger, where's that suit?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281. Cf. Lloyd Chiasson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBC1QaeWyDAC The press on trial: crimes and trials as media events]'' (ABC-CLIO, 1997) ISBN 0275959368, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post''&amp;mdash;&quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers,&quot; according to Chambers&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 710. &quot;The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding.&quot; Marvin N. Olasky, &quot;[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950],&quot; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1–4, 1987), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to put up or shut up ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.&lt;ref&gt;Chalmers McGeagh Roberts, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SRhlAAAAMAAJ The Washington post: the first 100 years]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1977) ISBN 0395258545, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss's suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers.&quot; David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted &quot;an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Grand jury==<br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;John J. Danahy, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss's machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> [[Image:Alger Hiss testifies.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss testifies in 1950]]<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis], fresh from his [http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/defenders.html defeated defense of segregation] in ''Brown v. Board of Education''. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked &quot;strictly confidential&quot; or &quot;strictly confidential, for the Secretary,&quot; would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&amp;st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says],&quot; ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].&lt;ref&gt;Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense reverted to Hiss's original &quot;insanity defense&quot; (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. &quot;I never liked him. I knew him...&quot; said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. &quot;There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy.&quot; Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Naftali, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; (Italics in original) later concluded that &quot;[http://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/newby-sacvan.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,&lt;ref&gt;James Bell, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty],&quot; ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted &quot;it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life.&quot; Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988&lt;/ref&gt; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot; So fearful of the implications was the President that [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ Truman ordered the Venona documents destroyed]—an order that, fortunately for historians, was disobeyed.<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; orchestrated by&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;The Faithful Traitor,&quot; ''National Review'', February 10, 1997&lt;/ref&gt; long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed &quot;communist&quot; (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.” Among Hiss's fellow prisoners was avowed Communist Maurice Braverman. According to [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo196.html leftist] historian Garry Wills:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hen it came time for Hiss to be released, Braverman's lawyer said that the Party hoped he would have an eloquent statement to read when he came out the gate. Television cameras were bound to be there. Braverman asked Hiss what he meant to say; Hiss said he had not thought of making a statement. Braverman said he thought it would be a good idea. &quot;What should I say?&quot; Hiss asked, and Braverman composed his first draft for him. He behaved like one still serving the Party.&lt;ref&gt;Garry Wills, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByGIJIhocj0C Lead time: a journalist's education]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004) ISBN 0618446907, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == Later life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In 1956, surrounded by quite a bit of controversy, the [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] at [[Princeton University]] invited Hiss as a guest speaker.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBBbAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA8-PA31 Princeton Alumni Weekly, Volume 56], Princeton Alumni Weekly, 1955&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication.&quot; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of [[radical left-wing]] politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&amp;off=0&amp;f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss's conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as &quot;our agent.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Summers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.&lt;/ref&gt; Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]<br /> <br /> * &lt;cite id=reflegacy&gt;[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refShelton2012&gt;Christina Shelton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_XyzyNEy1McC Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treason]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2012) ISBN 1451655452&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlokhy2010&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorgan04&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerken03&gt; Gregg Herken, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPickersgill70&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTolstoy82&gt; Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yOoNAQAAMAAJ Stalin's secret war]'' (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982) ISBN 0030472660&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss2000&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss,&quot; ''[https://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refYalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112860 Black Notebook]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 White Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112566 White Notebook #3]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 Yellow Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refSilv6.106&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120310004029/http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&amp;page=1 Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48.2&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part Two], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120127060209/http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48-2R&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [https://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTrohan1970&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refRJG06&gt;Robert Justin Goldstein, &quot;[https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist],&quot; ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [https://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120034728/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021232049/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May–June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes5-10-05&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss Case], May 10, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September–October 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[https://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; ''National Review'', February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-80900413/hiss-defenders-covering-for-the-old-man-the-last Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> {{Deep State}}<br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:American Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]<br /> [[Category:United States Political Scandals]]<br /> [[Category:Featured articles]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=1611559 Alger Hiss 2020-01-07T04:28:14Z <p>FOIA: update</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [https://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,&lt;ref&gt;Francis P. Sempa, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection],&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a &quot;liberal&quot; rather than a communist, referring to &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself],&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. He also had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party].&quot; Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301&lt;/ref&gt; putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, &quot;Conspiracy Theories,&quot; in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].&lt;/ref&gt; The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot; (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]] [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to ex-Communist (&quot;I belonged for a little while to the Young Communist League, and thereafter to the Socialist party.&quot; [[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 11) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4)<br /> The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) &quot;Growing up, all five children had music and art lessons, as well as German language lessons for Alger. They attended private colleges or universities and vacationed on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During college, the three boys spent summers in Europe.&quot; ([[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 12). Young Alger went [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 141); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After such a series of tragic losses, suggested Hiss's son, Alger might have found himself &quot;susceptible, as some may have been, to the seeming solidarity offered by the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 141&lt;/ref&gt; Among others susceptible to this lure was Hiss's [[#refHUAC8-17-48|future tenant]], [[Whittaker Chambers]], who wrote of the suicide of his own brother at age 21:<br /> {{cquote|[M]y brother's death stunned me ... this is the point at which I became a thorough Communist. I felt that any society which could result in the death of a boy like my brother was wrong and I was at war with it. This was the beginning of my fanaticism.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3HUvm91KDn8C The conservative turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the lessons of anti-communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim to have already been socially and politically progressive and anti-business when he went to college.&lt;ref&gt;Alger Hiss, [http://algerhiss.com/alger-hiss/in-his-own-words/alger-hisss-liberal-manifesto/l Draft of a Chapter Written By Alger Hiss on the Foundations For His Liberalism] ([http://holliscatalog.harvard.edu//?itemid=|library%2fm%2faleph|010072878 Alger Hiss papers], Small Manuscript Collection, [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/index.html Special Collections], [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/index.html Harvard Law School Library]), algerhiss.com. Cf. Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/ivan_chen/1/ Alger Hiss, 1926-1929]; [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 22-24.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor]]s included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as &quot;[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion.&quot; (Herbert Romerstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). &quot;[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[Atheism|atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt; (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no &quot;Hopkins Babbit [sic],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A misspelled reference to the [http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-babbi/char.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]&lt;/ref&gt; according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics &quot;from Soviets to styles&quot; with &quot;irresistible logic and rhetoric.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a &quot;militant communist,&quot; Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [https://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Paul Avrich, a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, &quot;[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)],&quot; ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&amp;psid=3381 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [https://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]&lt;ref&gt;Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan &amp; Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss became &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]]&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;On July 4, 1914, three IWW members were killed in New York when a bomb they were constructing exploded. The bomb also killed a woman in the next apartment, maimed many others, and destroyed the building. (&quot;Anarchist bomb believed for Rockefeller kills three I.W.W. makers and a woman--injures many--wrecks tenement house,&quot; New York Sun, 5 July 1914, p. 1.) Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including IWW boss [[&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]]) for a series of such acts, at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist]]ic (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist]]ic') cheek?&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; serving (along with various &quot;Communists, Socialists, and nonaffiliated radicals&quot;) on the Advisory Board of American Labor Associates;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87&lt;/ref&gt; Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [https://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join FDR's administration.<br /> <br /> [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). <br /> That [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline &quot;[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote &quot;I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help.&quot; Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185&lt;/ref&gt; agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot;). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot; who &quot;was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy...&quot; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already &quot;[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot;<br /> &quot;In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families].&quot; &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt; son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; Ware recruited Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; known as the [[Ware group]].&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed &quot;Marxist&quot;] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hope Hale Davis, &quot;Looking Back at my Years in the Party,&quot; ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., &quot;Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87&lt;/ref&gt; This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [https://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was &quot;the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA&lt;ref&gt;Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. &quot;Leonora Fuller&quot; in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&amp;id=70 Gardner Jackson]:&lt;ref&gt;Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): &quot;When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss's laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-HOAC&amp;month=0704&amp;week=d&amp;msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&amp;user=&amp;pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> [[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;merchants of death,&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to &quot;drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle&quot; with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]&lt;ref&gt;John Whiteclay Chambers II, &quot;[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.],&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515&lt;/ref&gt; maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was &quot;as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant,&quot; particularly toward the &quot;business leaders he cross-examined caustically.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]&lt;/ref&gt; One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement--who wrote that Christianity should &quot;aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism.&quot; (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; would report to Moscow that &quot;‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51&lt;/ref&gt; (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, &quot;neighbors&quot; was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; three years after that, Gorsky would identify &quot;Karl&quot; as &quot;Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss's 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&amp;user=&amp;pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [https://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as &quot;[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is &quot;Yes&quot;.... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)&lt;/ref&gt; notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. &quot;[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&amp;dat=19510317&amp;id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round,&quot; ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (to whom she refers by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222&lt;/ref&gt; Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a 25% pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://archives.williams.edu/williamshistory/biographies/sayre-francis.php son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639&lt;/ref&gt; had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;[https://solidarity-us.org/atc/62/p2424/ Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996],&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May–June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (the victims of which would number [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt; That June, [http://americanthinker.com/2014/07/diana_and_ron_what_was_going_on_.html at Stalin's behest], FDR abolished the State Department's Eastern European Division, headed by the anti-Communist Robert F. Kelley,&lt;ref&gt;Cathal J. Nolan, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZMeeXLSQhsC Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997) ISBN 0313291950, p. 207&lt;/ref&gt; reassigning its staff and dispersing its excellent library.<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' defection===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Trying to explain how such a reversal happened, Chambers related how a certain German diplomat who &quot;had been extremely pro-Communist, had become an implacable anti-Communist.&quot; According to the diplomat's daughter, &quot;[O]ne night – in Moscow – he heard screams. That’s all. Simply one night he heard screams.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;What Communist has not heard those screams?&quot; wrote Chambers. &quot;...What man can call himself a Communist who has not accepted the fact that Terror is an instrument of policy...? Those screams have reached every Communist’s mind. Usually they stop there....&quot;<br /> {{cquote|But one day the Communist really hears those screams. He is going about his routine party tasks.... Suddenly, there closes around that Communist a separating silence, and in that silence he hears screams. He hears them for the first time. For they do not merely reach his mind. They pierce beyond. They pierce to his soul.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is &quot;man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God.&quot; This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:<br /> {{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: &quot;No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design.&quot; The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Far Eastern Division===<br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt; Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had &quot;dubious, Left Wing characters in his office.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, &quot;[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow],&quot; ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627224903/http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/levine700/?keywords=levine Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned friends (including HUAC investigator Joseph Brown Matthews), &quot;If they ever try to prove that I took my own life, [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html don't believe it],&quot; his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. (&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11F93959167B93C3A81789D85F458485F9 Gen. Krivitsky Found Dead; Suicide Finding Questioned; Notes Convince Washington Police He Shot Himself, but Friends Charge Former Ogpu Officer Was Slain by Reds KRIVITSKY'S DEATH IS INVESTIGATED],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1941, p. 1) Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [https://www.hoover.org/research/dark-memories corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30&lt;/ref&gt; where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, &quot;most of them Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Louis Rapoport, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, &quot;[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&amp;b=395031 Writers in Extremis],&quot; ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the [[Foreign Agents Registration Act]] [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91&lt;/ref&gt; According to Levine:<br /> {{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to &quot;go jump in a lake&quot; upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive&lt;ref&gt;&quot;an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&amp;t=1314204947 obscene or profane]&quot;; &quot;an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&amp;reversed=False&amp;action=define&amp;homonym=0&amp;text=expletive swearword].&quot; Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of &quot;expletive&quot; as a [[euphemism]] for &quot;[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; remark on this order: &quot;Oh, forget it, Adolf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/books/review/Mallon-t.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/1993_dubinsky.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/walter_winchell.htm Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; After he informed FDR that Hiss was spying for Moscow, according to Winchell, &quot;Leaning closer and pointing a finger in my face, he [Roosevelt] angrily said, 'I don't want to hear another thing about it! It isn't true.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schechter 2002]]: 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; According to Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians], Roosevelt was uninterested when confronted with reports of Soviet spying in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokhin 2000]]: 107&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot; ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: &quot;Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody...&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr:<br /> {{cquote|Many young leftists in the early 1930’s had entered the government in the early throes of the New Deal and embraced a Communist siren under whose call significant numbers of them were willing to pass along valuable information to the Soviet Union during the war. A general leftist tilt in the government meant that these ideologues blended well into the Washington bureaucracy while keeping their strong Soviet sympathies largely hidden. The tradecraft of Soviet intelligence personnel, the well honed Communist Party tradition of conspiracy, and a [https://www.fbi.gov/history/history-publications-reports/in-the-enemys-house-venona-and-the-maturation-of-american-counterintelligence lack of concern in the Roosevelt administration towards Soviet spying] meant that little of this growing Soviet intelligence web was found except by accident in the opening years of the war.}}<br /> Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131008202927/https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Initially, Dies supported the New Deal.&quot; (William D. Pederson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) &quot;He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants.&quot; Dies also had a record of &quot;support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity.&quot; George N. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70&lt;/ref&gt; [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was &quot;furious&quot;&amp;mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&amp;mdash;&quot;you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed,&quot; he railed, adding &quot;there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20030707171840/http://boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook.&quot;]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite2|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99&lt;/ref&gt; Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710063742/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/article/268394/pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies,&lt;ref&gt;Although one American public school teacher's guide claims that the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] &quot;was not an alliance. At the start of World War II, Joseph Stalin (...strongly anti-fascist) was aligned with Great Britain and France against the Axis Powers of Germany,&quot; etc., (''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1KtAAFE2nAwC World War II]'' [Social Studies School Service, 2007] ISBN 156004313X, p. S11), this is false. As French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thoruz and Jacques Duclos put it upon the Nazi conquest of France, &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of German imperialism. It is a fact that in this sense there is a temporary alliance.&quot; ([[#refTolstoy82|Tolstoy 1982]]: 113) As late as January 1941, the Soviets were appealing to the Nazis for permission to join as full members of the Axis. (Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlsrAxuWekQC A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521618266, p. 202) Six months later, when the pact collapsed, the USSR rushed into the arms of the Allies, which the Communists viewed as yet another &quot;temporary alliance.&quot; David Gress, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NKyzGG92uMUC From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2004) ISBN 0743264886, p. 408&lt;/ref&gt; including Communists.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [https://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt;As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106&lt;/ref&gt; the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Haslam, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel P. Mikhailov&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [https://web.archive.org/web/20100210161901/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs-and-george-dasch Nazi and fascist agents].&lt;ref&gt;According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr., &quot;From the entry of the US into the war in 1941, the FBI, with cooperation of its fellow agencies and significant foreign allies, effectively negated Axis intelligence operations in the US and the western hemisphere. The Bureau was distinctly [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona less successful in identifying the Soviet threat] during the same period.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed the U.S. Lend-Lease program for Britain&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87. The Communist front [[American Peace Mobilization]] picketed the White House, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790078,00.html protesting Lend-Lease] aid to the U.K. When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Nazism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world” (&quot;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm reaktionärste Kraft in der Welt]&quot;). “The German government declared itself ready to establish peaceful relations with the Soviet Union, whilst the Anglo-French war bloc want war against the Soviet Union,” [http://www.marxists.org/archive/ulbricht/1940/die-welt.htm declared Ulbricht]. During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html the blitzed areas of London],&quot; writes [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Orwell prize winning] journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;/ref&gt; (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm officially dissolving] the [[Comintern]], forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern&lt;ref&gt;“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989&lt;/ref&gt; (which included “control over the CPUSA”),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center&lt;/ref&gt; whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, &quot;the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease,&quot; was [[Harry Dexter White]],&lt;ref&gt;Albert Loren Weeks, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> one of &quot;the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents],&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named &quot;Map.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; Strong boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt; These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124&lt;/ref&gt; from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.&lt;ref&gt;Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208&lt;/ref&gt; Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and a Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; (code-named ''Lyre''),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; but also the mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [https://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity,&quot; but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt &quot;Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)&lt;/ref&gt; noted that &quot;Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/https://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, &quot;[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind,&quot; according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].&lt;ref&gt;Felix Wittmer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently,&quot; agreed former Soviet propagandist&lt;ref&gt;David C. Engerman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201&lt;/ref&gt; W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; His face was &quot;gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function,&quot; wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Burt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35&lt;/ref&gt; John Gunther. &quot;I felt certain that he was going to die.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Gunther, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:<br /> {{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell Cordell Hull] and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...&lt;ref&gt;James A. Farley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which<br /> {{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States. He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&amp;mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.&lt;ref&gt;Steven Lomazow , &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta'],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In [https://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister<br /> {{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. &quot;Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?&quot; he [Churchill] asked. &quot;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta].&quot;}}<br /> The deterioration in Roosevelt's judgement became evident in some of his more controversial statements at Yalta, including the following, recorded in the formerly [http://archive.today/p3GKt Top Secret minutes] two weeks after the liberation of Aushwitz:<br /> {{cquote|MARSHAL STALIN asked whether the President intended to make any concessions to Ibn Saud [King of Saudi Arabia].<br /> THE PRESIDENT replied that there was only one concession he thought he might offer and that was to give him the six million Jews in the United States.}}<br /> ====United Nations planning====<br /> As what Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/serhii-plokhii Serhii Plokhii] calls &quot;the State Department's expert on the United Nations&quot; at Yalta, Hiss was involved in discussions preceeding the secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; to give the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Although Hiss officially opposed this decision, there is some mystery as to how it came about: Hiss would later claim that the British informed him that US agreement to this Soviet demand had come from Stettinius himself, but Stettinus denied that he had ever made such an agreement.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plohky 2010]]: 192&lt;/ref&gt; Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kort, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===='Traitors'====<br /> The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; But Venona is not the only source: According to Plokhii, the [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2012/September%202012/0912yalta.aspx foremost modern analyst of Yalta], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]]: xxv&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was, according to Sudoplatov, &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein, who had been one of Hiss’s control officers in 1935-38, when he served as vice-consul at the Soviet consulate New York, and was now deputy director of the GRU. Hiss's briefings revealed not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====Poland====<br /> Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [https://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]]&amp;mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta &quot;went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures].&quot; It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes,&quot; he wrote. &quot;To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====China====<br /> Hiss had input even on China. During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to the formerly [https://archive.is/HTiIW Top Secret minutes], &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record resorts to the passive voice, obscuring Hiss's role in this incident: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press reports relying on this [https://books.google.com/books?id=kotPYEqx7kMC&amp;q=memory+hole#v=snippet&amp;q=memory%20hole&amp;f=false bowdlerized] official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot; FDR apologists such as liberal &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/weekinreview/04tanenhaus.html court historian]&quot; Arthur Schlesinger parroted this official version as dogma: &quot;As for Yalta, Alger Hiss had nothing to do with the Far Eastern discussions, and knew nothing of their existence,&quot; etc. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MegmQB1MxqkC The Politics of Hope: And, The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691134758, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Too much stress cannot be laid on the hope that our economic assistance be carried out in China through the medium of a government fully and fairly representative of all important Chinese political elements, including the Chinese Communists,&quot; said Acheson. (Freda Utley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JmAcAAAAMAAJ The China story]'' [H. Regnery Co., 1951], p. 15) This was the pretext for the U.S. embargo on arms to China in July 1946. Even after the embargo ended in May 1947, Acheson was able to delay shipments another six months. In 1949, he would explicitly instruct his subordinates that &quot;it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action.&quot; (David S. McLellan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: &quot;Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China.&quot; John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the &quot;memoranda for the President&quot; Stettinius directed be placed &quot;in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss,&quot; according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/https://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944 [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Other secret agreements====<br /> According to [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon [http://education-research.org/images/FDR-Stalin-Jews.jpg Stalin requested] the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, in Washington, sent [https://archive.is/TDxrP a Top Secret telegram] to Stettinius at Yalta, objecting to the repatriation as a violation of the Geneva Convention and of the traditional American policy of granting political asylum. The U.S. nevertheless agreed to the repatriation (which would become known as [[Operation Keelhaul]]), but that agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of [[reparations]] … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/01/03/reviews/990103.03persict.html Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; continuously since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told.&quot; ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. According to Stettinius, Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Powell, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were &quot;loaned&quot; to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: &quot;I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions.&quot; (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hoping to obtain &quot;control of the entire [[Mediterranean]],&quot; the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding &quot;an immediate boycott&quot; of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking &quot;[[Communist]] expansion world-wide,&quot; the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:&lt;ref&gt;United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.&lt;ref&gt;William B. Dunham, &quot;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career],&quot; Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which were [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that &quot;Ales&quot; and his group were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify &quot;the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow,&quot; Gouzenko would repeat that &quot;there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius.&quot; Bruce Craig, &quot;Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed,&quot; David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, &quot;We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss.&quot; [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 29, the Canadian Prime Minister met with Truman and Acheson in the White House, telling them that, according to Gouzenko, &quot;an assistant secretary of the Secretary of State's department was supposed to be implicated&quot; in GRU espionage. According to King, Truman &quot;turned to Acheson and said something to the effect that it would not be surprising.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who stated that Hiss's assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]], p. 1181 (PDF p. 121)&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John T. Donovan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; reported, &quot;In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Cronin, S.S., &quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945],&quot; p. 49 (PDF p. 58)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23&lt;/ref&gt; She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://archive.mrc.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/02/09.htm a speech] regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;In 1946, Stalin declared that the world would never be safe from war so long as capitalism survived. This inaugurated the cold war period.&quot; [http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/CIA%20Murphy%20Collection%20Pt1-1.pdf Fact sheet], Records of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Raymond E. Murphy Collection on International Communism, 1917–1958. Part 1: Eastern Europe. Cf. Walter LaFeber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38. &quot;The West never chose to have a Cold War, and never would,&quot; write Soviet dissident/exiles Vladimir Bukovsky and Pavel Stroilov. &quot;[I]t was always imposed on us [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=32645 by the Kremlin aggressors].&quot; “The Cold War was [http://www.raleighspyconference.com/wrapup/2003.aspx caused by the Soviet Union], was sustained by the Soviet Union, and was ended by the Soviet Union when it collapsed,” according to Christopher Andrew (so-called “[http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians]”). “It was and is as simple as that.”&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']]An extensive [[FBI]] investigation helped develop a great deal of evidence verifying Chambers’ statements and [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/january/a-byte-out-of-history-the-alger-hiss-story revealing Hiss’ cover-ups]. [[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the Bureau that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69&lt;/ref&gt; On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;Panuch would testify that &quot;...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'&quot; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, &quot;it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department.&quot; [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[https://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]&quot; (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&amp;hp&amp;oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, an investigation concluded that Hiss had taken home top-secret reports he was not cleared to see.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hQjvrgC_zAgC A Covert Life - Jay Lovestone: Communist, Anti-Communist and Spymaster]'' (House, 1999) ISBN 0307805662, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; That month the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 1 20)]&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; During the campaign, House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged, &quot;first we will give our efforts to cleaning out the Communists, their fellow travelers and parlor pinks from [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19460921&amp;id=nNtXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=g_UDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1774,4765653 high positions in our Government].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify &quot;any disloyal or subversive person&quot; from federal service. Truman's actions &quot;left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress,&quot; according to the journal of the National Archives. &quot;Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[https://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program],&quot; but no action was taken for three months. Finally, on June 10, members of the newly Republican-controlled Senate sent a secret report to Truman's new Secretary of State, [[George Marshall]], warning him about Undersecretary Dean Acheson, who had fired Panuch:<br /> {{cquote|It becomes necessary due to the gravity of the situation to call your attention to a condition that developed and still flourishes in the State Department under the administration of Dean Acheson. It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect communist personnel in high places but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity … On file in the department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States which involves a large number of State Department employees, some in high official positions. This report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department with the apparent tacit approval of Mr. Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;David Lawrence, &quot;Stevenson Held Unfamiliar with Red Issue,&quot; [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19520917&amp;id=gflXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=Z_YDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3180,2556457 ''Spokane Daily Chronicle,'' September 17, 1952, p. 4]&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marshall didn't respond to this report and, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 security cases] in the State Department the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that &quot;an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999&lt;/ref&gt; conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/No+Bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a [https://archive.is/5BcPM single federal official] for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/subpena subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html reported] to the chairman of Soviet intelligence about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers ('''A. Hiss''', [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”&lt;ref&gt;Truman &quot;wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow.&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named &quot;PAZh/Page.&quot; [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117&lt;/ref&gt; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.<br /> <br /> The Hiss forces launched a &quot;frightful campaign of vilification&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hilton Kramer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss's &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period].&quot; On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif/image.gif confinement in mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Just two days after their public testimony,&lt;ref&gt;Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; The New York ''Daily News'' asked, &quot;Well Alger, where's that suit?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281. Cf. Lloyd Chiasson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBC1QaeWyDAC The press on trial: crimes and trials as media events]'' (ABC-CLIO, 1997) ISBN 0275959368, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post''&amp;mdash;&quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers,&quot; according to Chambers&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 710. &quot;The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding.&quot; Marvin N. Olasky, &quot;[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950],&quot; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1–4, 1987), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to put up or shut up ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.&lt;ref&gt;Chalmers McGeagh Roberts, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SRhlAAAAMAAJ The Washington post: the first 100 years]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1977) ISBN 0395258545, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss's suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers.&quot; David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted &quot;an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Grand jury==<br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;John J. Danahy, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss's machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> [[Image:Alger Hiss testifies.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss testifies in 1950]]<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis], fresh from his [http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/defenders.html defeated defense of segregation] in ''Brown v. Board of Education''. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked &quot;strictly confidential&quot; or &quot;strictly confidential, for the Secretary,&quot; would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&amp;st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says],&quot; ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].&lt;ref&gt;Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense reverted to Hiss's original &quot;insanity defense&quot; (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. &quot;I never liked him. I knew him...&quot; said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. &quot;There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy.&quot; Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Naftali, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; (Italics in original) later concluded that &quot;[http://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/newby-sacvan.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,&lt;ref&gt;James Bell, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty],&quot; ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted &quot;it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life.&quot; Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988&lt;/ref&gt; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot; So fearful of the implications was the President that [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ Truman ordered the Venona documents destroyed]—an order that, fortunately for historians, was disobeyed.<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; orchestrated by&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;The Faithful Traitor,&quot; ''National Review'', February 10, 1997&lt;/ref&gt; long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed &quot;communist&quot; (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.” Among Hiss's fellow prisoners was avowed Communist Maurice Braverman. According to [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo196.html leftist] historian Garry Wills:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hen it came time for Hiss to be released, Braverman's lawyer said that the Party hoped he would have an eloquent statement to read when he came out the gate. Television cameras were bound to be there. Braverman asked Hiss what he meant to say; Hiss said he had not thought of making a statement. Braverman said he thought it would be a good idea. &quot;What should I say?&quot; Hiss asked, and Braverman composed his first draft for him. He behaved like one still serving the Party.&lt;ref&gt;Garry Wills, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByGIJIhocj0C Lead time: a journalist's education]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004) ISBN 0618446907, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == Later life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In 1956, surrounded by quite a bit of controversy, the [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] at [[Princeton University]] invited Hiss as a guest speaker.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBBbAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA8-PA31 Princeton Alumni Weekly, Volume 56], Princeton Alumni Weekly, 1955&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication.&quot; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of [[radical left-wing]] politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&amp;off=0&amp;f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss's conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as &quot;our agent.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Summers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.&lt;/ref&gt; Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]<br /> <br /> * &lt;cite id=reflegacy&gt;[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refShelton2012&gt;Christina Shelton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_XyzyNEy1McC Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treason]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2012) ISBN 1451655452&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlokhy2010&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorgan04&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerken03&gt; Gregg Herken, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPickersgill70&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTolstoy82&gt; Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yOoNAQAAMAAJ Stalin's secret war]'' (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982) ISBN 0030472660&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss2000&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss,&quot; ''[https://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refYalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112860 Black Notebook]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 White Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112566 White Notebook #3]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 Yellow Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refSilv6.106&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120310004029/http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&amp;page=1 Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48.2&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part Two], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120127060209/http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48-2R&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [https://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTrohan1970&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refRJG06&gt;Robert Justin Goldstein, &quot;[https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist],&quot; ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [https://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120034728/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021232049/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May–June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes5-10-05&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss Case], May 10, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September–October 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[https://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; ''National Review'', February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-80900413/hiss-defenders-covering-for-the-old-man-the-last Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> {{Deep State}}<br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:American Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]<br /> [[Category:United States Political Scandals]]<br /> [[Category:Featured articles]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Legacy_of_Alger_Hiss&diff=1611546 Legacy of Alger Hiss 2020-01-07T04:09:29Z <p>FOIA: /* The Nation on consensus */</p> <hr /> <div>After decades of acrimonious debate, most scholars today regard the matter of [[Alger Hiss]]'s guilt as resolved. As the ''Britannica Online Encyclopedia'' states, [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;provided strong [http://pocket.eb.com/ebc/article-9367140 evidence of Hiss's guilt].&quot; ''The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military'' [http://www.answers.com/topic/alger-hiss dubs this evidence &quot;compelling.&quot;] Venona convinced &quot;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Hiss,+Alger most observers] that he had been guilty,&quot; says ''The Columbia Encyclopedia''. R.F. Holznagel and Paul Hehn's Who2 Biographies agrees, &quot;[http://www.who2.com/algerhiss.html The consensus] has shifted to accepting that Hiss was a spy for the [[Soviet Union]].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Mainstream opinion on Hiss==<br /> &quot;[T]oday [http://www.spymuseum.org/events/algerhiss all but a few diehards agree] that new historical evidence has vindicated Chambers,&quot; according to the International Spy Museum in Washington, DC: &quot;Alger Hiss really was a Soviet spy.&quot; ''American History'' magazine reports that &quot;the preponderance of evidence does weigh heavily [http://www.historynet.com/magazines/american_history/3032686.html?page=4&amp;c=y against Hiss].&quot; The ''Federal Bar News &amp; Journal'' adds, &quot;Whittaker Chambers ... proved that Alger Hiss ... was a communist spy in the 1930s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; ''Federal Bar News &amp; Journal'', Vol. 40 (February 1993), pp. 96-108&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Nowadays, [http://www.publishersweekly.com/978-1-4516-5542-1 few doubt] Alger Hiss (1904–1996) was a Soviet spy,&quot; agrees ''Publishers' Weekly.'' ''Kirkus Reviews'' summarizes:<br /> {{cquote|Hiss, a committed New Dealer, as many communists were, met [Whittaker] Chambers when he was recruited during the mid ’30s into the so-called Ware Group, a communist cell in Washington, D.C. As a high-placed government lawyer, Hiss had access to classified information and passed it to Chambers, who had the documents copied then delivered [https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/christina-shelton/alger-hiss/#review to his Soviet superior].}}<br /> ''Psychology Today'' online concludes, &quot;Sadly for the many honest Americans who supported them, it now seems clear that Alger Hiss, [[Julius Rosenberg]], and [[Harry Dexter White]] really did what they were [http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/bozo-sapiens/200908/00-unamerican accused of].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===''Perjury''===<br /> ''American Diplomacy'' reports that &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html most interested people] were finally persuaded that justice had been done by Allen Weinstein’s painstakingly researched book, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury]'', published in 1978.&quot; ''Library Journal'' agrees, &quot;beginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review: ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124] (1999), p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; ''American Heritage'' magazine editor Geoffrey C. Ward, (author of Ken Burns' PBS miniseries ''The Civil War'') concurs: &quot;I believe the most dispassionate, step-by-step account of the Hiss case is still Allen Weinstein’s ''Perjury.''&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LQUaAAAAYAAJ American originals: the private worlds of some singular men and women]'' (HarperCollins Publishers, 1991), ISBN 0060166940, p. 95&lt;/ref&gt; Weinstein, a former [https://www.archives.gov/about/info/archivist-biography.html Archivist of the United States], started his research convinced that Chambers &quot;had falsely accused Hiss of Communist ties and espionage.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6l4AAAAMAAJ Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), ISBN 0394495462, p. xvii&lt;/ref&gt; With Hiss's cooperation and access to his [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,918154,00.html attorneys' files], Weinstein set out &quot;intending to prove Hiss's innocence,&quot; writes the former [http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 chief of Soviet bloc counterintelligence] at the [[CIA]].&lt;ref&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ng7myCguewAC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 0300121989, p. 273&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;But he was an honest man and the facts he found convinced him (as they do any reader of his book) that Hiss was guilty.&quot; On the basis of information he found in the files of Hiss's own attorneys, Weinstein concluded:<br /> {{cquote|the body of available evidence proves that Hiss perjured himself when describing his secret dealings with Chambers, so that the jury in his second trial made no mistake in finding Alger Hiss guilty as charged.&lt;ref&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6l4AAAAMAAJ Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), ISBN 0394495462, p. 513&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===U.S. Government===<br /> Twenty years after Weinstein's book was published, the bipartisan [[Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy|Moynihan commission]] (which had access to previously-classified [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts unavailable to Weinstein) went further&amp;mdash;not just on perjury, but on espionage&amp;mdash;the commission's unanimous [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/ Final Report] finding, &quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997), [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 (PDF p. 39)&lt;/ref&gt; The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300077564, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Alger Hiss was eventually convicted of perjury rather than espionage,&quot; concurs Michael J. Sulick, former chief of CIA counterintelligence and former director of the National Clandestine Service, &quot;but the declassified VENONA decrypts and documents from the Soviet archives eventually proved without a doubt that Hiss had been a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael J. Sulick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tUsUAAAAQBAJ Spying In America: Espionage from the Revolutionary War to the Dawn of the Cold War]'' (Georgetown University Press, 2012), ISBN 162616066X, p. 167&lt;/ref&gt; A comprehensive [[Department of Defense]] review concludes that Hiss was among the &quot;well-placed Americans&quot; who &quot;gradually drifted into service as Soviet agents,&quot; thus beginning &quot;careers as spies for the Soviets.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Katherine L. Herbig and Martin F. Wiskoff, &quot;[http://www.dhra.mil/perserec/reports/tr02-05.pdf Espionage Against the United States by American Citizens],&quot; Defense Personnel Security Research Center (PERSEREC) Technical Report 02-5 (July 2002), p. 4 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Moynihan commission added that the [[USSR|Soviet]] agent &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) &quot;could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997), [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-34 (PDF p. 36)&lt;/ref&gt; The FBI had come to the same conclusion 47 years earlier: &quot;It would appear likely that this individual [Ales] is Alger Hiss...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001) ISBN 0895262258, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Venona cables confirmed that Alger Hiss (Ales) of the State Department was a GRU agent,&quot; agrees [http://intellit.muskingum.edu/alpha_folder/p_folder/peake.html Hayden Peake], curator of the [[CIA]]’s [https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/historical-intelligence-collection.html Historical Intelligence Collection].&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20061212003123/http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/Review/2000/summer/re2-Su0.htm The Venona Progeny],&quot; ''Naval War College Review'', Vol. 53, no. 3 (Summer 2000) (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the [[National Security Agency]] have also gone on record that [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html exceptionally solid]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; The [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-War&amp;month=0906&amp;week=b&amp;msg=aCgDqWbKqMTj/XUkqzkSAw&amp;user=&amp;pw= late] [[U.S. Air Force]] historian [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0906&amp;week=b&amp;msg=nGh672LlDx94PGFwC3UDMw&amp;user=&amp;pw= Eduard Mark] called this conclusion &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; concurring that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a714040012 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' Vol. 18 Issue 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original)&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html#author1 John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s [https://www.cia.gov/offices-of-cia/intelligence-analysis/index.html Directorate of Intelligence] concludes, &quot;it is clear that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Academic opinions===<br /> &quot;[T]he material we now have from the [[Soviet Union]],&quot; says [http://www.bnc.ox.ac.uk/323/about-brasenose-31/academic-staff-150/professor-vernon-bogdanor-520.html Oxford Professor] Vernon Bogdanor, shows that Hiss &quot;was indeed [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 a Soviet agent].&quot; &quot;Part of Hiss's [[KGB]] file has come out that proves the obvious point he was [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith guilty as charged],&quot; agrees [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge University]'s Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage]. &quot;[C]orroborative evidence now available,&quot; according to Andrew and [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, puts the identification of the Soviet agent &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (London: Gardners Books, 2000) ISBN 0-14-028487-7, p. 599&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Numerous KGB/[[NKVD]] documents... contain extensive references to Hiss,&quot; concurs Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/research_portal/hpcws.html director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;either by name or through the codename Ales, which seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot; According to Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/faculty/plokhii.php Serhii Plokhii], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415, p. xxv&lt;/ref&gt; Jonathan Brent, [http://www.yale.edu/annals/Team.htm executive editor of Yale University Press's &quot;Annals of Communism&quot;] (and&amp;mdash;ironically&amp;mdash;[http://www.bard.edu/academics/faculty/faculty.php?action=details&amp;id=1380 holder of the &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; chair] at Bard College), comments, &quot;We're 99 percent certain that [http://www.heymiller.com/2009/06/the-annals-of-jonathan-brent/ Hiss was a spy].&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;[R]ecently released evidence in U.S. and Soviet archives, taken together with some previously available testimony of persons connected with Soviet intelligence in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s,&quot; writes [http://www.law.virginia.edu/lawweb/faculty.nsf/PrFMPbW/gew University of Virginia Law School Professor] G. Edward White ([https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html son-in-law of Hiss's attorney] John F. Davis), &quot;supports Chambers's charges [http://ssrn.com/abstract=311869 against Hiss].&quot; [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/04/world/arthur-martin-81-british-spy-catcher-who-exposed-blunt.html Soviet espionage expert] Stephen Koch agrees, &quot;I for one have been brought close to certainty, on the basis of archival information, that Chambers was telling the truth.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[http://www.stephenkoch.net/?page_id=156 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Free Press, 1994) ISBN 0-02-918730-3, p. 326&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;We now know,&quot; states [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/mi5_ww2_01.shtml intelligence expert] Nigel West, &quot;that Alger Hiss was a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nigel West, &quot;Venona and Cold War Counterintelligence Methodology,&quot; in Loch K. Johnson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cg39hcj6AxQC Strategic Intelligence]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0275989437, p. 15&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The broad sweep of Chambers' allegations are now beyond doubt,&quot; according to Richard Aldrich [http://www.richardaldrich.co.uk/ of the University of London] and David McKnight [http://jmrc.arts.unsw.edu.au/staff/staff.php?first=David&amp;last=McKnight of the University of New South Wales].&lt;ref&gt;David McKnight and Richard J. Aldrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t4DGUfDWKwgC Espionage and the Roots of the Cold War: The Conspiratorial Heritage]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2002) ISBN 071465163X, p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss not only &quot;had been a communist,&quot; concludes historian [http://history.cua.edu/faculty/Kimmage/ Michael Kimmage], but committed &quot;espionage for Stalin's Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jAfATcPNOhUC The Conservative Turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the Lessons of Anti-Communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, pp. 202, 172, 219. Elsewhere Kimmage writes that Hiss &quot;[http://www.rorotoko.com/index.php/article/michael_kimmage_interview_trilling_chambers_anti-communism_conservative_tur/ spied for the Soviet Union].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Scholarly consensus==<br /> Today, reports [[Oxford University]]'s ''Oxonian Review'', &quot;the Hiss case is one issue upon which [http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ consensus transcends ideological divides].&quot; After decades of debate, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 no serious scholar] of the subject any longer dismisses the voluminous and explicit claims by [[Whittaker Chambers]] and [[Elizabeth Bentley]],&quot; writes [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/summer00/art02.html Cold War specialist] Thomas Powers. By 2006, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith most historians] had come to the conclusion that Hiss was probably guilty,&quot; agrees Aldrich. &quot;Those who have studied the Hiss case by and large believe that he was guilty of perjury and quite likely also guilty of espionage, that is, of passing government documents to the Soviets,&quot; concur Gilbert Geis [http://socialecology.uci.edu/faculty/ggeis of the University of California, Irvine] and Leigh B. Bienen [http://homicide.northwestern.edu/about/LeighBienen/ of Northwestern].&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Lebanon, N.H.: UPNE, 1998), ISBN 1555533604, pp. 130-131&lt;/ref&gt; [http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/~davidgr/ Rutgers historian] David Greenberg refers to &quot;the [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all dwindling band] of those who believe in Hiss&quot;; &quot;the majority of modern American historians today and particularly those specializing in domestic Cold War,&quot; concludes [http://corner.nationalreview.com/post/?q=NTk5Y2ZmNTQ3NWUyZGQwMTZhZjQxYTRkZjZhNGNmZDM liberal historian] David Oshinsky, &quot;see evidence pointing overwhelmingly to Hiss being guilty as charged.”&lt;ref&gt;David Oshinsky, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145006/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_david_oshinsky.pdf Alger Hiss and History]&quot; (Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University), April 5, 2007, p. 4 (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;In the end, the publication of the Venona intercepts settled the matter,&quot; observes Stanley Kutler [http://www.law.wisc.edu/profiles/sikutler@wisc.edu of the University of Wisconsin Law School]. &quot;[T]o [http://writ.lp.findlaw.com/books/reviews/20040806_kutler.html all but the truest of believers], 'Ales' could only be Alger Hiss.&quot; The Soviet agent &quot;Ales&quot; is assumed by &quot;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html most scholars] to be Alger Hiss,&quot; agrees Douglas O. Linder [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTrials/linder.htm of the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law]. &quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground,&quot; concurs R. Bruce Craig, a [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history] and [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/116899.html author of a forthcoming Hiss biography].<br /> <br /> &quot;Since the publication in 1978 of Allen Weinstein’s definitive ''Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case'', only partisans of the [[far left]] have continued to insist that Alger Hiss was innocent,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ronald Radosh, &quot;[https://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/guilty-man_634890.html Guilty Man: Posterity ponders the Hiss case],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 17, No. 29 (April 9, 2012)&lt;/ref&gt; writes Ronald Radosh, [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York], a former leader of the Communist Party youth group.&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; Historians John Earl Haynes [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html of the Library of Congress] and Harvey Klehr [https://web.archive.org/web/20111230155845/http://www.polisci.emory.edu/facultypages/klehr.htm of Emory University] sum up:<br /> {{cquote|Any reasonable person will conclude that the new documentation of Hiss’s assistance to Soviet espionage, along with the massive weight of prior accumulated evidence, closes the case. Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists, it is unlikely that anything will convince the remaining diehards. But to serious students of history, continued claims for Hiss’s innocence are akin to a terminal form of [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece ideological blindness].}}<br /> Robert J. Goldstein, [http://catalog.oakland.edu/preview_entity.php?catoid=11&amp;ent_oid=231&amp;returnto=494 professor emeritus of Political Science at Michigan's Oakland University], admits that his &quot;political views&quot; are &quot;at odds with&quot; Klehr's, but concedes that Klehr and Haynes &quot;quite reasonably&quot; conclude that Hiss was &quot;[http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/91718.html unquestionably]&quot; an espionage agent. The Hiss case &quot;is a controversy that should have died 30 years ago and hasn't only because of the efforts of [http://hnn.us/articles/106101.html a small, vocal group] that is absolutely convinced that Hiss was an innocent victim,&quot; agrees Steven T. Usdin, author of Yale University Press' ''Engineering Communism''.<br /> Yeshiva University Professor Ellen Schrecker [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment16.htm defends American Communist spies] as demurring from &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all traditional forms of patriotism]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ellen Schrecker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gaZrQgAACAAJ Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America]'' (Boston: Little, Brown, 1998), p. 188&lt;/ref&gt; (though critics object that their patriotism was entirely traditional&amp;mdash;toward the Soviet Union);&lt;ref&gt;Like a pair of Soviet [http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/revolut/jb_revolut_hale_1.html Nathan Hale]s, the Rosenbergs, for example, were &quot;loyal unto death [http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html to the Soviet Union].&quot; Likewise, when Hitler attacked the USSR in September 1939, the Communist [http://humanevents.com/2008/04/21/newsmaxs-kessler-spreads-nonsense-about-joe-mccarthy/ Lillian Hellman] actually cried out, &quot;[https://reason.com/archives/2000/06/01/hollywoods-missing-movies/print The motherland has been invaded].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; but even she concedes, &quot;There is now [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment15.htm too much evidence from too many different sources] for anyone but the most die-hard loyalists to argue convincingly for the innocence of Hiss.&quot; Hiss is &quot;among those whose long-suspected involvement in such Soviet espionage seems to be [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/05/09/reviews/990509.09issermt.html confirmed by the Venona cables],&quot; writes Hamilton College history professor Maurice Isserman, probably the best regarded of the left-wing scholars of Communism. &quot;Let's face it,&quot; concludes Isserman, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?pagewanted=all the debate just ended].&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;No amount of documentation, including the fact that documents Vassiliev copied unambiguously identify him as a Soviet agent, can persuade these true believers otherwise.&quot; [http://www.bu.edu/ir/faculty/bacevich.html Boston University professor] Andrew J. Bacevich concurs, &quot;Diehards will still contend that Hiss was innocent.&quot; But, he adds:<br /> {{cquote|At some point, the accumulation of evidence permits us to dismiss such people [http://www.firstthings.com/article/2007/01/venona-decoding-soviet-espionage-in-america-and-the-haunted-wood-soviet-espionage-in-america-the-stalin-era-30 as crackpots]. We are now well past that point with regard to the most controversial spy cases of the 1940s and 1950s.&quot;}}<br /> <br /> ==Hiss in the mass media==<br /> So broad is this consensus that it has begun to penetrate even the popular press: By the time he died in 1996, &quot;the front-page obits... in such supposed bastions of the liberal establishment as the ''New York Times'', the ''Washington Post'', and the ''Boston Globe'' were striking in their dispassionate acceptance of [https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html Hiss's guilt],&quot; observed [http://www.northeastern.edu/journalism/contact/kennedy.html Northeastern University Journalism Professor] Dan Kennedy. Indeed, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/29/books/review/29POWERSL.html?pagewanted=print no serious cold war historian],&quot; reports [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/25/opinion/the-public-editor-is-the-new-york-times-a-liberal-newspaper.html the liberal]&lt;ref&gt;As ''USA Today'' founder Al Neuharth observed in 2000, the ''Times'' had endorsed [http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/big-papers-endorsed-gore/ every Democrat] for president for the previous 40 years (Update: Make that the past [https://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/opinion/timeline/kerry-2004.pdf 52] [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/24/opinion/24fri1.html years]) (Update 2: [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/opinion/sunday/barack-obama-for-president.html?pagewanted=all 56 years]) ([https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/25/opinion/sunday/hillary-clinton-for-president.html 60]).&lt;/ref&gt; ''Times'', now questions &quot;that Hiss lied&quot; (Elsewhere, the ''Times'' reports &quot;the trend of scholarship on the Hiss case in the 1990's -- a [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html growing consensus] that Hiss, indeed, had most likely been a Soviet agent&quot;); “[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2009/05/29/ST2009052902500.html most students of the Hiss case], including many erstwhile defenders, consider him guilty,” agrees the similarly liberal&lt;ref&gt;As ''USA Today'' publisher Al Neuharth observed in 2000, the ''Post'' endorses [http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/big-papers-endorsed-gore/ only Democrats for president] ([https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57584-2004Oct23.html This pattern] has [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/16/AR2008101603436.html since] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/washington-post-endorsement-four-more-years-for-president-obama/2012/10/25/6ca309a2-1965-11e2-bd10-5ff056538b7c_story.html continued])([https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/hillary-clinton-for-president/2016/10/12/665f9698-8caf-11e6-bf8a-3d26847eeed4_story.html Ahem). ''Washington Post'' ombudsman Debra Howell writes, &quot;the conservatives I know here feel [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/14/AR2008111403057.html so outnumbered] that they don't even want to be quoted by name in a memo.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; ''Washington Post'',&lt;ref&gt;Chambers called the ''Post'' &quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers.&quot; (Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HKLbhAG8ma4C Witness]'' (Washington, DC: Regnery, 1987) ISBN 0895267896, p. 710) &quot;The ''Post'' seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as his innocence became increasingly doubtful.&quot; Marvin Olasky, &quot;[http://www.worldmag.com/articles/14220 The Chambers-Hiss case],&quot; ''World Magazine'', July 26, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; adding that &quot;the scholarly consensus&quot; is &quot;that Hiss was almost certainly guilty of both perjury and espionage&quot;; the ''Globe'' concludes that Hiss's guilt is a &quot;[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8396475.html near-certainty].&quot; Even Hiss's hometown newspaper, ''The Baltimore Sun'', where his older brother Bosley had been a reporter, admitted: &quot;[http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1996-03-09/features/1996069051_1_alger-hiss-hiss-case-perjury Most historians] are convinced of his guilt.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===The foreign press on Hiss===<br /> Outside the U.S., where fewer people are invested [http://www.tnr.com/article/bohemian-rhapsody the myth] of Hiss's innocence, the press is less equivocal: &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080829155929/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/daniel_finkelstein/article3441328.ece We know] that Alger Hiss was guilty,&quot; reports the ''Times'' of London, adding that Hiss's guilt is &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article1394730.ece beyond doubt]&quot;; the ''Daily Telegraph'' agrees that the evidence that Hiss was a Soviet agent is now &quot;[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/5648274/Spies-The-Rise-and-Fall-of-the-KGB-in-America-By-John-Earl-Haynes-Harvey-Klehr-and-Alexander-Vassiliev-review.html beyond doubt].&quot; The ''Financial Times'' concurs that there is now &quot;[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/a2819a20-77e2-11de-9713-00144feabdc0.html no doubt] that [Hiss] was indeed a Soviet spy.&quot; Writing in London's &quot;[http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/editorials/editorial-a-liberal-gamble-too-far-8468336.html proudly liberal]&quot; ''Independent'', [http://johannhari.com/2008/10/26/an-interview-with-johann-for-the-newspaper-cherwell/ self-proclaimed &quot;social democrat&quot;] Johann Hari admits that &quot;the left's old ''cause célèbre'', Alger Hiss,&quot; is among those shown by [[Venona project|Venona]] to have been &quot;[http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/johann-hari/the-exhumation-of-joe-mccarthy-567642.html Soviet spies].&quot; Even the ''Guardian'', Britain's [http://www.dooyoo.co.uk/magazines-newspapers/the-guardian-1/1411701/ leading left-wing] newspaper&lt;ref&gt;''Guardian'' readers are often [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3159813.stm stereotyped] as [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4348620.stm politically correct] [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo011119/debtext/11119-08.htm#11119-08_spnew3 caricatures]. The ''Guardian'' is so left-wing (by British standards) that its competitors sometimes refer to it as the British equivalent [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/michael_gove/article2379430.ece of the ''New York Times''].&lt;/ref&gt; concedes that &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/1999/may/15/michaelellison the general view]&quot; is &quot;that Hiss was guilty.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Newsweeklies on Hiss===<br /> ''Time'' magazine reports that [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985571,00.html Hiss's supporters are &quot;dwindling&quot;] as &quot;the weight of historical evidence indicates that Hiss was... a Soviet spy,&quot; adding that [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;seems to [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,26336,00.html remove reasonable doubt] about Alger Hiss's guilt.&quot; &quot;For... Alger Hiss,&quot; agrees ''Newsweek'', we now have &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/197807 irrefutable confirmation] of guilt.&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'' concurs: &quot;Most scholars considered the case against Hiss firmly established by Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', published in 1978,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Barone, &quot;Hiss and History,&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; adding, &quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Other magazines on Hiss===<br /> [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html Anne Applebaum] writes in the [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A53812-2004Jun18.html left-leaning] ''New Republic'', &quot;Alger [http://www.tnr.com/booksarts/story.html?id=e828c17a-787d-4142-af25-b2b4f5cc730d Hiss... spied] for the Soviet Union in the 1940s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Elsewhere, Applebaum writes that the [[Venona project|Venona]] cables &quot;provided direct evidence that... State Department officer Alger Hiss&quot; was &quot;among the Soviet Union's most valued agents.&quot; Anne Applebaum, &quot;[http://www.news.com.au/news/soviet-bears-american-claw/story-fna7dq6e-1225734255620 Soviet bear's American claw],&quot; ''The Australian'', June 12, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; The similarly [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/29/magazine/29Dyson-t.html?pagewanted=all left-leaning] ''New York Review of Books'' concludes, &quot;The evidence now... is simply overwhelming.... Hiss was one of a number of... converts to communism hurrying about Washington in the 1930s recruiting others to serve 'real, existing Socialism' [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 in the Soviet Union].&quot; The (likewise [http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2006/03/newspapers_fail_to_tap_young_c.html left-leaning]) ''Washington Monthly'' calls the evidence against Hiss &quot;quite devastating,&quot; dubbing the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts &quot;damning&quot; and &quot;rock-hard evidence&quot; of [http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/books/1999/9907.ignatius.spy.html Hiss's guilt].<br /> <br /> ===Television on Hiss===<br /> Even television is starting to notice. ABC, where 2008 presidential campaign contributions went [https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2009/06/entertainment-divisions-drive.html 98.6% for Obama], quotes a source saying that &quot;newly-declassified U.S. and Soviet intelligence backs longtime allegations&quot; that Hiss was [https://abcnews.go.com/print?id=1213034 a Soviet spy]. Public Broadcasting is subsidized by taxpayers (more than a billion dollars in 2012)&lt;ref&gt;$444 million via CPB, $60 million in direct federal grants and contracts, and $539 million from state and local taxes. [http://www.cpb.org/stations/reports/revenue/2012PublicBroadcastingRevenue.pdf Public Broadcasting Revenue, Fiscal Year 2012], Corporation for Public Broadcasting, Table 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;and was caught sharing PBS donor lists [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/17/us/pbs-stations-shared-donor-lists-with-democrats-stirring-trouble.html?pagewanted=all with Democratic Party fundraisers]&amp;mdash;but its educational program ''Nova'' identifies Hiss as one of &quot;the foremost Americans [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/resources.html spying for the Soviet Union],&quot; referring to him in its Teachers' Guide as one of &quot;the last century's most [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/overviews/2904_venona.html notorious spies].&quot; Even TruTV ([http://www.trutv.com/newname.html formerly Court TV])&amp;mdash;[http://www.muckety.com/Query?SearchResult=6436&amp;SearchResult=5031895&amp;graph=MucketyMap?_r=2D owned by] [http://nypost.com/1999/09/30/ted-confesses-heartbreak-im-too-rich-to-be-no-2/ self-proclaimed &quot;socialist&quot;] [https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/54/400list08_Robert-E-Ted-Turner_ETX7.html billionaire] Ted Turner (who says &quot;the [[KGB]] ... was an honorable place to work.... [I]t gave people ... an opportunity to do something [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27983385/page/4/ important and worthwhile]&quot;)&amp;mdash;admits: &quot;the bulk of evidence points to Hiss's guilt [https://web.archive.org/web/20091126060054/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/12.html beyond a reasonable doubt].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Online media on Hiss===<br /> Not even the online media are immune. Jacob Heilbrunn (a columnist at the [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/08/AR2007070801213.html &quot;pugnatiously liberal]&quot; Huffington Post), writing at Truthdig.com (&quot;A [[Progressive]] Journal of News and Opinion&quot;), admits, &quot;the evidence that Hiss was innocent of serving as a Soviet spy is sparse. It requires contortions to suggest that he was not and to explain away the evidence suggesting that [http://www.truthdig.com/arts_culture/print/20090320_jacob_heilbrunn_on_alger_hiss/ he was].&quot; By the time Hiss died, &quot;[https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html just about everyone] conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported Salon.com. Weinstein's ''Perjury'' &quot;had convinced even pro-Hiss liberals&quot; that he &quot;had indeed been a Communist and a spy for the Soviet Union.&quot; The [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] &quot;webzine&quot; added that [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;showed Hiss was almost certainly a Soviet agent.... Hiss's defenders have dwindled to a small handful of true believers.&quot; Slate.com (where [http://www.slate.com/id/2203052/ more than 96%] of staff and contributors supported [[Barack Obama]]) admits that &quot;Today, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ most people] who think about Hiss at all, even on the left, tend to think that Hiss was guilty,&quot; and refers to &quot;the [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415 consensus] in the reality-based community that&amp;mdash;back in the '30s and '40s&amp;mdash;one-time State Department luminary Hiss had probably been guilty of ''some'' collaboration with the Soviets.&quot; Elsewhere, it warns, &quot;Heads up: ''Alger [http://www.slate.com/id/2203909/ Hiss was guilty]'',&quot; (Italics in original) concluding, &quot;if we paleo-libs continue in our ancient rancors, we'll start looking like those [https://www.salon.com/books/review/2008/05/13/ronald_reagan/ troglodytes who still plump for Alger Hiss's innocence].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Liberal/left-wing opinion on Hiss==<br /> Even on the left, few authorities disagree. By the late 1970s, even &quot;[http://www.observer.com/2009/books/cold-war-character-still-hot most anti-Communist liberals] became convinced that Hiss had lied to HUAC, and spied for the Soviet Union when he worked for the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the State Department in the 1930s and ’40s,&quot; writes Cornell University professor (and Huffington Post [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/glenn-c-altschuler contributor]) Glenn C. Altschuler. &quot;My own sense of things was that Hiss had been a [Communist] party member in the Thirties and did give Soviet agents documents,&quot; wrote the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] historian, [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] administration official and [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/01/washington/01schlesinger.html &quot;unabashedly liberal partisan&quot;] Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.,&lt;ref&gt;Schlesinger wrote in 1946 that &quot;the faults and injustices in our present system&quot; in the U.S. &quot;make even freedom-loving Americans look wistfully at Russia.&quot; (Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., &quot;The United States Communist Party&amp;mdash;Small But Tightly Disciplined, It Strives with Fanatic Zeal to Promote the Aims of Russia,&quot; ''Life'', July 29, 1946, excerpted in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, [http://ia700406.us.archive.org/31/items/scopeofsovietact4345unit/scopeofsovietact4345unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 43] [Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1957], p. 3022 [PDF p. 26]) Fifty-four years later, Schlesinger, it was written, &quot;equates [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,59746,00.html capitalism with sexism and racism].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who concluded of Hiss, &quot;I believe him to be guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 497-498&lt;/ref&gt; Schlesinger's Harvard colleague, the [[socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Galbraith called for a ''[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C01E5DE113FF932A35756C0A9609C8B63&amp;pagewanted=all new socialism]''.&quot; Cf. chapter XXVII, &quot;The Socialist Imperative,&quot; in John Kenneth Galbraith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=toztAAAAMAAJ Economics and the Public Purpose]'' (New American Library, 1975), pp. 263-269&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Kenneth Galbraith]], likewise blandly accepted &quot;the fact that... Hiss purloined documents.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Kenneth Galbraith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YoXZWqBIIE8C The Great Crash, 1929]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), ISBN 0547248164, p. 165&lt;/ref&gt; Thomas Reed, Secretary of the Air Force in the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, writes, &quot;The Venona transcripts, released in 1997 and identifying Hiss via his code name Ales, and the postwar testimony of defecting Soviet code clerk Igor Gouzenko, remove any doubt about Hiss’s guilt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Reed, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=69Vvboox1JcC At the Abyss: An Insider's History of the Cold War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2005) ISBN 0891418377, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; Berkeley professor J. Bradford DeLong, a former [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration official and [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0307&amp;week=d&amp;msg=%2B1j5choBov/tLTieEa%2B0UA&amp;user=&amp;pw= professed &quot;social democrat,&quot;] writes, &quot;Was Alger Hiss at some time a spy for the Soviet Union? [http://delong.typepad.com/sdj/2007/04/kai_bird_thinks.html Probably].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;DeLong elaborates: &quot;I think that Hiss was guilty.... I think Hiss is more likely than not to be guilty of espionage. I even think that there is clear and convincing evidence that [http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/001822.html Hiss was guilty].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Another [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] official, National Security Adviser Anthony Lake (&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1727695,00.html top foreign policy adviser] to [[Barack Obama]]&quot;), actually went so far as [https://web.archive.org/web/20120317083025/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/fedagencies/february97/lake_2-27a.html to retract] a statement&amp;mdash;made in the wake of Hiss's death&amp;mdash;suggesting that the evidence against Hiss was [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/17/opinion/the-dossier-on-anthony-lake.html less than conclusive]. Even the prominent Democratic Socialist Irving Howe [http://writ.news.findlaw.com/books/reviews/20040806_kutler.html declared Hiss guilty]. [http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/susan_jacoby/2006/12/no_atheists_still_need_apply.html Professed atheist] [http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/susan_jacoby/2008/02/wanted_more_hope_and_charity_l.html Obama supporter] Susan Jacoby writes, &quot;I believe Hiss was guilty of both perjury and spying.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009) ISBN 0300121334, pp. 20-21. Jacoby, who calls herself &quot;an [http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 unabashed liberal and proud of it],&quot; avers, however, that she is &quot;only 98 or 99 percent convinced of Hiss's guilt.&quot; Her residual one to two percent doubt, suggests [[Whittaker Chambers]]' grandson, may be due to her refusal to read the new book, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]''. &quot;According to ''Spies'' co-author Harvey Klehr,&quot; writes Chambers, &quot;Yale's editor Jonathan Brent offered her access to the book's new findings. Apparently, Ms. Jacoby [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/may/22/equally-erring-about-hiss/?page=2 took a pass].&quot; As Jacoby admits, &quot;It has always been difficult for liberals to look objectively at evidence pointing to [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-jacoby22-2009mar22,0,7648164.story Hiss's guilt].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Hiss's ''alma mater'', Harvard Law School, Cass Sunstein, former Administrator of the White House Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs in the Obama administration, agrees, &quot;Most of those who have carefully studied the case, and who have explored evidence emerging long after the trial itself, have concluded that Chambers was telling the truth and that [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-29/how-the-alger-hiss-case-explains-the-tea-party.html Hiss did indeed perjure himself].&quot; Even [http://www.tnr.com/blog/the-plank/reagan-appointee-and-recent-mccain-adviser-charles-fried-supports-obama Obama supporter] Charles Fried, another professor at Harvard Law School (and former Justice of the court that granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the Massachusetts Bar), writes, &quot;it is now clear to [http://www.amacad.org/publications/bulletin/winter2006/Winter2006Bulletin.pdf all but the most obdurate] that Alger Hiss was a Soviet agent.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===''The Nation''===<br /> The lone holdout has been ''[http://www.thenation.com/ The Nation]'', a magazine that &quot;identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-Glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2005) ISBN 0195182553, p. 133.&lt;/ref&gt; The late [http://www.ericbreindel.org/about_eric.html Eric Breindel] tagged it &quot;America's leading forum for Alger Hiss apologia&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in the [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Congressional Record, Vol. 142, No. 50 (Thursday, April 18, 1996)], p. H3645&lt;/ref&gt; [[William F. Buckley]] commented in 1978 that the magazine &quot;has been clinging to the notion of Hiss's innocence over the years with the forlorn adamance of the last survivors of [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&amp;dat=19780518&amp;id=s88VAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=9xEEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=2592,3623339 the Flat Earth Society].&quot; ''The Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948,&quot; writes [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ Princeton Emeritus Professor] John V. Fleming, &quot;and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The magazine's defense of Hiss has tended to ignore the facts and focus on questions of &quot;taste&quot; (&quot;If one has any interest in [http://spectator.org/archives/2008/04/22/the-alger-hiss-democrats our national taste] it is impossible to refrain from asking how American jurors could be persuaded to give credence to such a man as Chambers in preference to such a man as Hiss&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt; Today, according to Slate.com, it is &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [https://web.archive.org/web/20110220084832/http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ remains committed] to the idea of Hiss's innocence.&quot; Nowadays, outside &quot;the ranks of [http://hnn.us/articles/816.html ''Nation'' readers] and a dwindling coterie of academic leftists, there are few people still willing to claim that Alger Hiss and Harry Dexter White were not Soviet agents,&quot; writes Klehr. Radosh agrees, &quot;Except for a dwindling group—mostly [http://hfm.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=publication_details&amp;id=3256 ''Nation'' magazine readers] and editors …. the consensus has solidified: Hiss was undoubtedly a Soviet spy.&quot;<br /> <br /> ====George Soros/The Nation Institute====<br /> While ''The Nation'' itself has managed to avoid substantive discussion of recent evidence concerning the Hiss case in print, the [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 closely-linked] &quot;[http://nationinstitute.org/ Nation Institute]&quot; (funded by billionaire [http://dealbook.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/01/27/george-soros-backs-obama-but-hedges-his-bets/ Obama-booster] [[George Soros]])&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 receives funding from... the Open Society Institute]&quot; which is &quot;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier George Soros]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; has funded two new Web sites dedicated to fighting a rear-guard disinformation campaign against the new evidence.<br /> <br /> =====Tony Hiss=====<br /> The first, called [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/ &quot;The Alger Hiss Story: Search for the Truth&quot;] was created in 2001 &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html with grants from... the Nation Institute].&quot; The site was started by Hiss's son Tony, a visiting scholar at New York University. &quot;The basic question&amp;mdash;whether Alger Hiss was a spy for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s&amp;mdash;was finally settled during the 1990s,&quot; writes Ehrman. &quot;Today, only a small band of true believers, [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html headed by Hiss’s son], still tries to argue his innocence.&quot; [http://www.pulitzer.org/finalists/1983 Pulitzer Prize–winning] author Ted Morgan concurs: &quot;One example of a dupe is Tony Hiss, who has made a career out of filial piety and continues to proclaim the innocence of his father in the face of irrefutable evidence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2004, ISBN 081297302X), p. 635, n. 199&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After Hiss ''fils'' originally set up this site on an NYU server, the university requested that he move it elsewhere &quot;to designate it more clearly as a [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all personal site] rather than an academic one.&quot; The Web site is run [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ out of the home] of &quot;Web master&quot; Jeff Kisseloff, former [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/navobit.html aide to Alger Hiss] and [http://www.thenation.com/authors/jeff-kisseloff archivist] of ''The Nation''.<br /> <br /> Although the site is [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/images/logo2.gif blazoned] &quot;Search for the Truth,&quot; [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html buried] within is the admission that its real purpose is to present only &quot;the case for the defense,&quot; not both sides. Linder warns that &quot;the site maintains a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html decidedly sympathetic] view of Hiss.&quot; Cornell Law Library agrees, &quot;The site has a [http://library2.lawschool.cornell.edu/insiteasp/archive/insite277.html noticeable editorial bias] in favor of Hiss.&quot; ''New York Times Book Review'' editor Sam Tanenhaus concurs, &quot;It's a [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ blatantly pro-Hiss] operation whose agenda is to advocate his innocence.&quot; Greenberg concludes, &quot;I don't think anyone is going to treat this site as the repository of truth, except for those who have [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all already made up their minds] that Hiss was innocent.&quot; Under the snarky headline “[http://sullivanarchives.theatlantic.com/index.php.dish_inc-archives.2001_03_01_dish_archive.html#2902598 FLAT EARTH WATCH],” [https://www.theatlantic.com/daily-dish/archive/2008/11/barack-obama-for-president/209143/ Obama-booster] Andrew Sullivan says the site is dedicated to “the greatest fantasy on the web”&amp;mdash;“the proposition that Alger Hiss was innocent.”<br /> <br /> The site devotes its resources to projects such as hyping the “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/court.html long-awaited]” book, ''The Crimes of Alger Hiss'' (formerly known as ''[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/navasky.html Richard Nixon and the Frameup of Alger Hiss]''), by the late William Reuben, a [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] who once admitted that “if he had heard that on his deathbed Hiss had confessed to being a Communist and Soviet agent, he ‘wouldn’t believe it.’”&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy] (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553, pp. 207-208&lt;/ref&gt; Reuben previously wrote a book called ''The Atom Spy Hoax'', similarly arguing that [[Julius Rosenberg|the Rosenbergs]] were framed.&lt;ref&gt;According to Reuben, the Rosenberg case was &quot;an out-and-out political frame-up&quot; (Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, p. 324), &quot;a vast conspiratorial hoax.... [T]he accused spies...have all been 'framed'...&quot; (Harold Green, &quot;Books,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eAkAAAAAMBAJ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]'', Vol. 8, No. 11 [October 1955], pp. 309-310) <br /> <br /> “Today, with the number of Rosenberg defenders steadily shrinking, let’s stipulate: [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/10/books/review/Roberts-t.html?pagewanted=all Julius was a Soviet spy],” comments the ''New York Times.'' After more than half a century of denial, Rosenberg trial co-defendant Morton Sobell “dramatically reversed himself” in 2008, admitting “for the first time that he had been a Soviet spy.” He also [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all implicated Rosenberg] in a conspiracy to deliver classified information to the Soviets. Even the Rosenbergs' sons have now “admitted to a painful conclusion: that [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?pagewanted=all their father was a spy].”<br /> <br /> While conceding that Julius was a Soviet agent, some on the left claimed that Ethel was innocent. But [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340] New York to Moscow 21 September 1944, made public in 1995, revealed that Ethel was, like Julius, guilty as charged, of conspiracy to commit espionage. This coded Soviet message recorded Ethel's active involvement in Soviet recruitment: “LIBERAL [Julius Rosenberg] recommended the wife of his wife's brother, Ruth GREENGLASS.... She is 21 years old, a TOWNSWOMAN [U.S. citizen], a GYMNAST [“Probably a member of the Young Communist League”] since 1942.... LIBERAL and his wife recommend her as an intelligent and clever girl.<br /> …. [Ruth] learned that her husband ... is now working at the ENORMOUS [Manhattan Project] plant in SANTA FE, New Mexico.” <br /> <br /> Ruth Greenglass's testimony, made public in 2008, corroborated Venona regarding Ethel's guilt. Greenglass testified that Julius urged her to recruit her husband (Ethel's brother), David Greenglass, into a conspiracy to pass atomic secrets to the Soviets, and that Ethel “said that I should at least relay the message, that she felt that David might be interested, he would want to do this.... [S]he urged me to talk to David. She felt that even if I was against it, I should at least discuss it with him and hear what he had to say.” ([http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20080911/rosenbergcasefiles-greenglass-ruth-pg9132to9161.pdf Testimony of Ruth Greenglass], ''U.S. v. Julius Rosenberg, et al.'', August 3, 1950, pp. 6-7)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> =====Svetlana Chervonnaya=====<br /> The second is called “[http://documentstalk.com/ Documents Talk: A Non-Definitive History].” Funding for this project was provided (&quot;[http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely]&quot;) &quot;[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/ by The Nation Institute].” The site was started in 2009 by Svetlana Chervonnaya, who calls herself a “[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/cv_chervonnaya_s.pdf Freelance historian]” operating on a “[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/cv_chervonnaya_s.pdf Research grant from The Nation Institute]” since 2005.<br /> <br /> Chervonnaya is a former &quot;propagandist for the Soviet Union,&quot; according to G. Edward White.&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, &quot;[http://www.greenbag.org/v13n1/v13n1_white.pdf Alexander Vassiliev &amp; Alger Hiss, Part II],&quot; ''The Green Bag'', Vol. 13, No. 1 (Autumn 2009) p. 99 (PDF p. 15)&lt;/ref&gt; Eduard Mark agrees that Chervonnaya was &quot;one of the USSR's more prolific propagandists in the twilight years of the USSR.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.26?journalCode=jcws In Re Alger Hiss: A Final Verdict from the Archives of the KGB] [[Journal of Cold War Studies]] 11.3 (Summer 2009): 26-67&lt;/ref&gt; John Earl Haynes concurs, identifying Chervonnaya as a &quot;Moscow historian/propagandist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hnn.us/comments/135793.html Narcissistic Histrionics] comment on [[History News Network]] July 29, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Chervonnaya is best known&lt;ref&gt;Chervonnaya also collaborated with David Lowenthal (brother of the late John Lowenthal, Alger [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html Hiss's lawyer]), on an [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html online post] seeking to discredit the [[Gorsky memo]].&lt;/ref&gt; as coauthor with Kai Bird (a [http://www.thenation.com/authors/kai-bird contributing editor] at ''The Nation'') of “[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ The Mystery of ‘Ales’],” in which the authors argue that &quot;Ales&quot; was not Hiss, but his colleague Wilder Foote&amp;mdash;despite the fact that, as Eduard Mark shows,&lt;ref&gt;Eduard Mark, “[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a714040012~fulltext=713240930 Who was ‘Venona’s’ ‘Ales’? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],” ''Intelligence and National Security'', 18 [Autumn 2003], pp. 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; Foote spent the 1930s toiling in obscurity as a [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html newspaper editor in rural Vermont], when &quot;Ales&quot; was [http://hnn.us/articles/37456.html working with Harold Glasser] in Whittaker [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf Chambers' GRU group] in Washington. Their argument assumes an [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html all-knowing efficiency] on the part of Gorsky, which, as Mark proved, he did [http://jeffersonflanders.wordpress.com/2009/06/13/the-vassiliev-notebooks-american-elites-and-cold-war-espionage/ not have]. Craig calls Mark's critique &quot;convincing,&quot; adding &quot;I personally find Mark’s overarching conclusion [that “Alger Hiss was an agent of the GRU in the 1930s”] [http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-X-24.pdf convincing].&quot; Moreover, Bird and Chervonnaya's article was based on a flawed and incomplete text of [[Anatoly Gorsky]]’s 5 March 1945 cable, even though the complete, accurate text was [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html made available to them]. In an attempt to clear Hiss, Bird and Chervonnaya accused Foote on the flimsiest of pretexts&amp;mdash;precisely, commented Slate.com, &quot;what they [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415/pagenum/all/ believe McCarthyites did to Hiss].&quot; Haynes and Klehr concur:<br /> {{cquote|Once upon a time, it was called McCarthyism to charge people with being Communists or spies on the basis of slim or no evidence, shaky logic, or the word of one or two informers of dubious reliability. No longer. Bird and Chervonnaya established new standards of proof, in which the absence of evidence is as good as proof. Absolving Alger Hiss of being ALES is apparently that important, even if it means recklessly slandering a long-deceased, distinguished public servant.&lt;ref&gt;4-16-07<br /> John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/37456.html Hiss Was Guilty],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), April 16, 2007&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> &quot;I can only assume that Mr Bird has ulterior motives to besmirch my grandfather's name, possibly for Mr Bird's own celebrity,&quot; commented Foote's grandson. &quot;Quite convenient for him that everyone involved is dead and cannot speak [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith in their own defence].&quot;<br /> <br /> Tellingly, even ''The Nation'' no longer even acknowledges this article. [http://hnn.us/article/98762#sthash.9mATzwSV.dpuf Haynes observes]:<br /> {{cquote|It is likely that THE NATION and Hiss defenders have assigned Chervonnaya, Bird, and their accusations against Wilder Foote to Orwell’s memory hole.}}<br /> <br /> =====The left-wing echo chamber=====<br /> These disinformation sites work together to create a &quot;left-wing echo chamber,&quot; citing one another, repeating the same assertions until they make their way into the mainstream press. For example, in March 2005, Chervonna posted on the H-HOAC Web site an attempt to discredit the [[Gorsky memo]] as containing &quot;[http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=c&amp;msg=czBexT36qyqr0oCHBC%2b8sQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= nonsense&quot; (a term she repeated four times)]. The following month, Kissiloff (citing Chervonnaya) posted on AlgerHiss.com a version of this piece&amp;mdash;dropping the claims of &quot;nonsense,&quot; but adding an assertion that the date on the document, &quot;(Dec. '48),&quot; was &quot;An [sic] [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/gorskylist.html probable mistake in the dating] (read: 1949), either Alexander Vassiliev's or Gorsky's.&quot; The next month, Chervonnaya posted on the HNN Web site a nearly verbatim copy of this version&amp;mdash;but with &quot;probable mistake&quot; now upgraded to &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Obvious mistake].&quot; She then ([http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/little-chocolate-house-stories-colonel-bykov citing Kissiloff]) [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/chambers-whittaker-april-1-1901-july-9-1961 repeated this] [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/currie-lauchlin-bernard-1902-1993 claim] ''[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/mirage ad] [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/budenz-louis-francis-1891-1972 nauseam]'' on DocumentsTalk.com. In June 2009, this claim made its way from the Internet into print&amp;mdash;naturally, [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090525/guttenplan in ''The Nation'']. By the following month it had found its way into the pages of London's venerable ''Times Literary Supplement'', in [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/Subscriber_Archive/History_Archive/article6770834.ece a review] by Amy Knight, who &quot;approaches the politically charged Hiss-Chambers Case [http://wcinbooks.whittakerchambers.org/2009/08/amy-knight-how-cold-war-began.html on the side of Alger Hiss]&quot; and &quot;has never found a source on Soviet intelligence she trusts.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jamie Glazov, [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=36268 Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America], FrontPageMagazine.com, September 11, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; As Haynes and Klehr observe:<br /> {{cquote|[Knight] insists that the former KGB officer Alexander Vassiliev misdated the memo and that it is part of a 1949 report. It isn’t. It is a stand-alone document signed by Gorsky and dated December 1948, as the notebooks show. There is no evidence that the dating is incorrect. But why would Knight have preferred it if the document had been dated 1949 rather than 1948? Because she could then put forth a fantasy to explain away the identification of Hiss. Gorsky, she claims without a shred of evidence, was making it up.... [W]hy would Gorsky have written a memo exaggerating the damage done to Soviet intelligence by adding to the lists of those exposed by defectors the names of people who were not Soviet sources? It is difficult enough to be the bearer of truthful bad news to one’s superiors, but to make up bad news is an act of bureaucratic near-suicide.<br /> But there is more. Although Knight conceals it from TLS readers, two other senior KI officers, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, in a report (also dated December 1948) to the chairman of the KI, wrote about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers (A. Hiss, D. Hiss, Wadleigh, Pigman, Reno)”. Does anyone really believe that three senior Soviet intelligence officers in reports to their agency’s chief identified Soviet agents from American newspaper stories rather than agency records? Additionally, another KGB memo, one from 1950, noted that the Soviet GRU agent “Leonard”, identified as a senior State Department official, had just been convicted. The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html was Alger Hiss].}}<br /> <br /> ====''Nation'' personnel====<br /> But even at ''The Nation'', the ardor for Hiss would appear to be cooling. Bird and Chervonnaya, for example, write&amp;mdash;in an article ''defending'' Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;We do not propose to address the larger question of whether Hiss was [http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ guilty or innocent of espionage].&quot; Another recent defense of Hiss, by [http://www.thenation.com/node/22687 ''Nation'' contributor] Robert L. Weinberg &quot;deliberately takes no position&quot; on the issue of whether &quot;[http://www.nacdl.org/__852566CF0070A126.nsf/0/006CB2391D988158852574940067BE2E Alger Hiss was in fact guilty] of spying.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rather than deny that Hiss was a spy, Weinberg argues technicalities, such as &quot;whether Hiss would have been 'not guilty' of the perjury charge in the indictment as a matter of law, [http://www.nacdl.org/__852566CF0070A126.nsf/0/006CB2391D988158852574940067BE2E even if he were found to have been a Soviet agent].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; ''Nation'' [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] Eric Alterman likewise writes regarding Hiss, &quot;I take no position on guilt or innocence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Eric Alterman, &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/venona4.html I Spy With One Little Eye],&quot; ''The Nation'', April 29, 1996, pp. 20-24. A decade later, Alterman still found the evidence inconclusive, although he grudgingly admitted that it had titled &quot;toward Chambers’ version of late and [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9579023/ against Hiss].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Others connected with ''The Nation'' are more candid: Max Holland, a [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=34303 contributing editor at the ''Nation''], writes that &quot;Alger Hiss has been proven to be the 'Ales'<br /> code-named in the Venona intercepts.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Max Holland, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.144 I. F. Stone: Encounters with Soviet Intelligence],&quot; ''The Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, Issue 3 (Summer 2009) p. 164, fn. 61&lt;/ref&gt; Former [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8013479.html Harvard Law professor] and [http://www.thenation.com/node/22680 ''Nation'' contributor] Susan Estrich (author of ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WA5XUA4v-roC The Case for Hillary Clinton]'') admits that &quot;liberal efforts over the years to champion the Rosenbergs, or Alger Hiss, as something other than Communists [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=17066 were misguided].&quot; Cold War scholars have now &quot;[http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=if_stone_journalist_and_spy nailed Alger Hiss],&quot; agrees ''Nation'' [http://www.thenation.com/authors/todd-gitlin contributor] [[Todd Gitlin]] &quot;&amp;mdash;a nailing long overdue on the left.&quot; [http://www.thenation.com/authors/jim-sleeper ''Nation'' contributor] Jim Sleeper, posting on the [http://www.brendan-nyhan.com/blog/2009/07/more-on-the-tabloidization-of-tpm.html liberal] Talking Points Memo blog, concurs, &quot;it's obvious now that many leftists&quot; defended Hiss &quot;long beyond the point where it made political, moral, or even [http://tpmcafe.talkingpointsmemo.com/2009/07/29/an_imperturbably_valiant_lawyer/ simple cognitive sense].&quot; &quot;Vociferously atheistic,&quot; self-styled &quot;radical&quot; Christopher Hitchens&amp;mdash;one of the &quot;25 [https://www.forbes.com/2009/01/22/influential-media-obama-oped-cx_tv_ee_hra_0122liberal.html most influential liberals] in the U.S. media&quot; (and [http://www.thenation.com/authors/christopher-hitchens long-time columnist] for ''The Nation'')&amp;mdash;calls the myth of Hiss's innocence &quot;one of the most persistent (and [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/36492.html repelling) myths] of the [[fellow traveller|fellow-traveling]] Left.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/15/nyregion/15donohue.html Militant atheist]&quot; Hitchens writes of once quipping to the hostess of a dinner party he attended with Alger Hiss, &quot;Why don't we secure the doors and say: 'Look, Alger, it's just us. Come on. You're among friends. Tell us why you really did it.'&quot; (Christopher Hitchens, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RBGmrDnBs8UC Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere]'' [London: Verso, 2000] ISBN 1859847862, pp. 105-106) Hitchens (who says he is considering writing a book called ''Guilty as Hell: A Short History of the American Left'') suggests that the answer is, &quot;because he thought he was [http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/2932161.html onto a winner].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> =====Victor Navasky=====<br /> According to Ehrman, Victor Navasky, [http://www.thenation.com/authors/victor-navasky long-time publisher of ''The Nation''], is &quot;now [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a01p.htm virtually alone] in his rejection of the case against Hiss.&quot; As editor, one thing Navasky &quot;would not permit&quot; in ''The Nation'', writes Powers, was any &quot;public admission that it was [[Whittaker Chambers]] who told the truth and Alger [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/29/books/review/29POWERSL.html?_r=1&amp;pagewanted=print Hiss who lied].&quot; Morgan calls Navasky a &quot;prime example of an opportunist,&quot; who &quot;wrote that the ''Venona'' transcripts were forgeries. One of his friends described him as being 'frozen into false positions.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X), p. 635, n. 199&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Hiss’s defenders stubbornly tried to rebut each revelation,&quot; recounts Ehrman, &quot;but eventually they [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a01p.htm were overwhelmed].&quot; [http://www.thenation.com/authors/nicholas-von-hoffman ''Nation'' contributor] Nicholas von Hoffman,&lt;ref&gt;Von Hoffman wrote prophetically in 1995 of the need to &quot;make liberalism respectable&quot; to what he called &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/print/article/calling-air-america the impressionable, feckless, white-collar American masses]&quot; in order to &quot;put a lefty in the White House.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; a [http://www.newcriterion.com/articles.cfm/-Organized--crime-6271 protégé of Saul Alinsky], is &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/cold-war-ghosts?page=full anything but a right-winger],&quot; admits Navasky, but even he concedes, &quot;The sum and substance of this growing body of material is that Alger Hiss, a darling of the establishment, was guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nicholas Von Hoffman, &quot;Was McCarthy right about the left?&quot; ''The Washington Post'', April 14, 1996, p. C1&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[E]ven many on the left&amp;mdash;including younger historians such as Rick Perlstein&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Perlstein, a [http://www.thenation.com/authors/rick-perlstein ''Nation'' contributor], writes that [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had Hiss &quot;nailed dead to rights,&quot; even before &quot;[[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] produced clinching evidence&quot; in the form of the pumpkin papers. Rick Perlstein, Introduction, in Rick Perlstein, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wFRSat2M0YEC Richard Nixon: Speeches, Writings, Documents]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691136998, pp. xxv-xxvi&lt;/ref&gt; have become convinced that &quot;Hiss was guilty,&quot; observes Slate.com, &quot;although [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415/ old-school loyalists like Navasky] remained skeptical.&quot;<br /> <br /> But even Navasky (once dubbed &quot;[http://www.tnr.com/article/red-dusk the cheerleader] of the 'everybody was innocent' school&quot;) has now retreated, claiming &quot;[http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/37819.html my point is not guilt or innocence].&quot; Today, &quot;instead of forcefully arguing that Hiss wasn't guilty as he once did, Navasky,&quot; now [http://www.cjr.org/about_us/masthead.php chairman] of the ''Columbia Journalism Review'', &quot;acknowledges that [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all Hiss wasn't telling the truth] when he testified that he didn't know Whittaker Chambers.&quot; Nevertheless, in reference to the activities of people &quot;in US left circles.... many of whom were Marxists, some of whom were Communists, some of whom were critical of US government policy,&quot; during this era, argues Navasky, the word &quot;espionage&quot; is &quot;out of context.&quot; He prefers to characterize their activities as &quot;exchanges of information&quot; that happened to be in &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/cold-war-ghosts?page=full violation of the law].&quot; (As critics have noted, such &quot;exchanges&quot; only went [http://reason.com/archives/2004/04/01/fools-for-communism/print one way].) Finally, Navasky asked, &quot;Espionage, is it so bad?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joyce Milton, &quot;[http://business.highbeam.com/4776/article-1G1-18807177/old-left-fort-mcnair-postcard The Old Left: Fort McNair Postcard],&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 4, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====''The Nation'' on consensus====<br /> Such quibbling aside, even at the ''Nation,'' it is now acknowledged that the consensus is that Hiss was guilty. [http://www.thenation.com/authors/athan-g-theoharis ''Nation'' contributor] Athan Theoharis writes that the &quot;[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200006)87%3A1%3C292%3ATVFAWA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 conventional assessment]&quot; is that Hiss was &quot;an unreconstructed Soviet spy.&quot; Even Bird and Chervonnaya admit, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ Most historians] have conceded the argument to Weinstein.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Chervonnaya has since suggested that this consensus amounts to an orthodoxy, writing of her &quot;hope of dethroning the autocracy of cold war historical scholarship on the matter of Alger Hiss,&quot; describing her motive as &quot;to [http://www.tnr.com/article/correspondence-11 overthrow the regime].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Speaking of the thesis that Hiss was guilty, Navasky himself conceded in 2007 that “for the last 10 years, that has been [http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_victor_navasky.pdf the consensus].”&lt;ref&gt;Victor Navasky, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080706152919/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_victor_navasky.pdf Alger Hiss and History]&quot; (Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University), April 5, 2007, p. 6 (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Communism]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Legacy_of_Alger_Hiss&diff=1611513 Legacy of Alger Hiss 2020-01-07T03:32:54Z <p>FOIA: /* Hiss in the mass media */</p> <hr /> <div>After decades of acrimonious debate, most scholars today regard the matter of [[Alger Hiss]]'s guilt as resolved. As the ''Britannica Online Encyclopedia'' states, [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;provided strong [http://pocket.eb.com/ebc/article-9367140 evidence of Hiss's guilt].&quot; ''The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military'' [http://www.answers.com/topic/alger-hiss dubs this evidence &quot;compelling.&quot;] Venona convinced &quot;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Hiss,+Alger most observers] that he had been guilty,&quot; says ''The Columbia Encyclopedia''. R.F. Holznagel and Paul Hehn's Who2 Biographies agrees, &quot;[http://www.who2.com/algerhiss.html The consensus] has shifted to accepting that Hiss was a spy for the [[Soviet Union]].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Mainstream opinion on Hiss==<br /> &quot;[T]oday [http://www.spymuseum.org/events/algerhiss all but a few diehards agree] that new historical evidence has vindicated Chambers,&quot; according to the International Spy Museum in Washington, DC: &quot;Alger Hiss really was a Soviet spy.&quot; ''American History'' magazine reports that &quot;the preponderance of evidence does weigh heavily [http://www.historynet.com/magazines/american_history/3032686.html?page=4&amp;c=y against Hiss].&quot; The ''Federal Bar News &amp; Journal'' adds, &quot;Whittaker Chambers ... proved that Alger Hiss ... was a communist spy in the 1930s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; ''Federal Bar News &amp; Journal'', Vol. 40 (February 1993), pp. 96-108&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Nowadays, [http://www.publishersweekly.com/978-1-4516-5542-1 few doubt] Alger Hiss (1904–1996) was a Soviet spy,&quot; agrees ''Publishers' Weekly.'' ''Kirkus Reviews'' summarizes:<br /> {{cquote|Hiss, a committed New Dealer, as many communists were, met [Whittaker] Chambers when he was recruited during the mid ’30s into the so-called Ware Group, a communist cell in Washington, D.C. As a high-placed government lawyer, Hiss had access to classified information and passed it to Chambers, who had the documents copied then delivered [https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/christina-shelton/alger-hiss/#review to his Soviet superior].}}<br /> ''Psychology Today'' online concludes, &quot;Sadly for the many honest Americans who supported them, it now seems clear that Alger Hiss, [[Julius Rosenberg]], and [[Harry Dexter White]] really did what they were [http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/bozo-sapiens/200908/00-unamerican accused of].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===''Perjury''===<br /> ''American Diplomacy'' reports that &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html most interested people] were finally persuaded that justice had been done by Allen Weinstein’s painstakingly researched book, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury]'', published in 1978.&quot; ''Library Journal'' agrees, &quot;beginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review: ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124] (1999), p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; ''American Heritage'' magazine editor Geoffrey C. Ward, (author of Ken Burns' PBS miniseries ''The Civil War'') concurs: &quot;I believe the most dispassionate, step-by-step account of the Hiss case is still Allen Weinstein’s ''Perjury.''&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LQUaAAAAYAAJ American originals: the private worlds of some singular men and women]'' (HarperCollins Publishers, 1991), ISBN 0060166940, p. 95&lt;/ref&gt; Weinstein, a former [https://www.archives.gov/about/info/archivist-biography.html Archivist of the United States], started his research convinced that Chambers &quot;had falsely accused Hiss of Communist ties and espionage.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6l4AAAAMAAJ Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), ISBN 0394495462, p. xvii&lt;/ref&gt; With Hiss's cooperation and access to his [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,918154,00.html attorneys' files], Weinstein set out &quot;intending to prove Hiss's innocence,&quot; writes the former [http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 chief of Soviet bloc counterintelligence] at the [[CIA]].&lt;ref&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ng7myCguewAC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 0300121989, p. 273&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;But he was an honest man and the facts he found convinced him (as they do any reader of his book) that Hiss was guilty.&quot; On the basis of information he found in the files of Hiss's own attorneys, Weinstein concluded:<br /> {{cquote|the body of available evidence proves that Hiss perjured himself when describing his secret dealings with Chambers, so that the jury in his second trial made no mistake in finding Alger Hiss guilty as charged.&lt;ref&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6l4AAAAMAAJ Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), ISBN 0394495462, p. 513&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===U.S. Government===<br /> Twenty years after Weinstein's book was published, the bipartisan [[Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy|Moynihan commission]] (which had access to previously-classified [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts unavailable to Weinstein) went further&amp;mdash;not just on perjury, but on espionage&amp;mdash;the commission's unanimous [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/ Final Report] finding, &quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997), [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 (PDF p. 39)&lt;/ref&gt; The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300077564, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Alger Hiss was eventually convicted of perjury rather than espionage,&quot; concurs Michael J. Sulick, former chief of CIA counterintelligence and former director of the National Clandestine Service, &quot;but the declassified VENONA decrypts and documents from the Soviet archives eventually proved without a doubt that Hiss had been a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael J. Sulick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tUsUAAAAQBAJ Spying In America: Espionage from the Revolutionary War to the Dawn of the Cold War]'' (Georgetown University Press, 2012), ISBN 162616066X, p. 167&lt;/ref&gt; A comprehensive [[Department of Defense]] review concludes that Hiss was among the &quot;well-placed Americans&quot; who &quot;gradually drifted into service as Soviet agents,&quot; thus beginning &quot;careers as spies for the Soviets.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Katherine L. Herbig and Martin F. Wiskoff, &quot;[http://www.dhra.mil/perserec/reports/tr02-05.pdf Espionage Against the United States by American Citizens],&quot; Defense Personnel Security Research Center (PERSEREC) Technical Report 02-5 (July 2002), p. 4 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Moynihan commission added that the [[USSR|Soviet]] agent &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) &quot;could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997), [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-34 (PDF p. 36)&lt;/ref&gt; The FBI had come to the same conclusion 47 years earlier: &quot;It would appear likely that this individual [Ales] is Alger Hiss...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001) ISBN 0895262258, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Venona cables confirmed that Alger Hiss (Ales) of the State Department was a GRU agent,&quot; agrees [http://intellit.muskingum.edu/alpha_folder/p_folder/peake.html Hayden Peake], curator of the [[CIA]]’s [https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/historical-intelligence-collection.html Historical Intelligence Collection].&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20061212003123/http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/Review/2000/summer/re2-Su0.htm The Venona Progeny],&quot; ''Naval War College Review'', Vol. 53, no. 3 (Summer 2000) (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the [[National Security Agency]] have also gone on record that [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html exceptionally solid]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; The [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-War&amp;month=0906&amp;week=b&amp;msg=aCgDqWbKqMTj/XUkqzkSAw&amp;user=&amp;pw= late] [[U.S. Air Force]] historian [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0906&amp;week=b&amp;msg=nGh672LlDx94PGFwC3UDMw&amp;user=&amp;pw= Eduard Mark] called this conclusion &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; concurring that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a714040012 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' Vol. 18 Issue 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original)&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html#author1 John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s [https://www.cia.gov/offices-of-cia/intelligence-analysis/index.html Directorate of Intelligence] concludes, &quot;it is clear that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Academic opinions===<br /> &quot;[T]he material we now have from the [[Soviet Union]],&quot; says [http://www.bnc.ox.ac.uk/323/about-brasenose-31/academic-staff-150/professor-vernon-bogdanor-520.html Oxford Professor] Vernon Bogdanor, shows that Hiss &quot;was indeed [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 a Soviet agent].&quot; &quot;Part of Hiss's [[KGB]] file has come out that proves the obvious point he was [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith guilty as charged],&quot; agrees [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge University]'s Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage]. &quot;[C]orroborative evidence now available,&quot; according to Andrew and [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, puts the identification of the Soviet agent &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (London: Gardners Books, 2000) ISBN 0-14-028487-7, p. 599&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Numerous KGB/[[NKVD]] documents... contain extensive references to Hiss,&quot; concurs Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/research_portal/hpcws.html director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;either by name or through the codename Ales, which seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot; According to Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/faculty/plokhii.php Serhii Plokhii], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415, p. xxv&lt;/ref&gt; Jonathan Brent, [http://www.yale.edu/annals/Team.htm executive editor of Yale University Press's &quot;Annals of Communism&quot;] (and&amp;mdash;ironically&amp;mdash;[http://www.bard.edu/academics/faculty/faculty.php?action=details&amp;id=1380 holder of the &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; chair] at Bard College), comments, &quot;We're 99 percent certain that [http://www.heymiller.com/2009/06/the-annals-of-jonathan-brent/ Hiss was a spy].&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;[R]ecently released evidence in U.S. and Soviet archives, taken together with some previously available testimony of persons connected with Soviet intelligence in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s,&quot; writes [http://www.law.virginia.edu/lawweb/faculty.nsf/PrFMPbW/gew University of Virginia Law School Professor] G. Edward White ([https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html son-in-law of Hiss's attorney] John F. Davis), &quot;supports Chambers's charges [http://ssrn.com/abstract=311869 against Hiss].&quot; [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/04/world/arthur-martin-81-british-spy-catcher-who-exposed-blunt.html Soviet espionage expert] Stephen Koch agrees, &quot;I for one have been brought close to certainty, on the basis of archival information, that Chambers was telling the truth.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[http://www.stephenkoch.net/?page_id=156 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Free Press, 1994) ISBN 0-02-918730-3, p. 326&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;We now know,&quot; states [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/mi5_ww2_01.shtml intelligence expert] Nigel West, &quot;that Alger Hiss was a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nigel West, &quot;Venona and Cold War Counterintelligence Methodology,&quot; in Loch K. Johnson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cg39hcj6AxQC Strategic Intelligence]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0275989437, p. 15&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The broad sweep of Chambers' allegations are now beyond doubt,&quot; according to Richard Aldrich [http://www.richardaldrich.co.uk/ of the University of London] and David McKnight [http://jmrc.arts.unsw.edu.au/staff/staff.php?first=David&amp;last=McKnight of the University of New South Wales].&lt;ref&gt;David McKnight and Richard J. Aldrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t4DGUfDWKwgC Espionage and the Roots of the Cold War: The Conspiratorial Heritage]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2002) ISBN 071465163X, p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss not only &quot;had been a communist,&quot; concludes historian [http://history.cua.edu/faculty/Kimmage/ Michael Kimmage], but committed &quot;espionage for Stalin's Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jAfATcPNOhUC The Conservative Turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the Lessons of Anti-Communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, pp. 202, 172, 219. Elsewhere Kimmage writes that Hiss &quot;[http://www.rorotoko.com/index.php/article/michael_kimmage_interview_trilling_chambers_anti-communism_conservative_tur/ spied for the Soviet Union].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Scholarly consensus==<br /> Today, reports [[Oxford University]]'s ''Oxonian Review'', &quot;the Hiss case is one issue upon which [http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ consensus transcends ideological divides].&quot; After decades of debate, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 no serious scholar] of the subject any longer dismisses the voluminous and explicit claims by [[Whittaker Chambers]] and [[Elizabeth Bentley]],&quot; writes [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/summer00/art02.html Cold War specialist] Thomas Powers. By 2006, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith most historians] had come to the conclusion that Hiss was probably guilty,&quot; agrees Aldrich. &quot;Those who have studied the Hiss case by and large believe that he was guilty of perjury and quite likely also guilty of espionage, that is, of passing government documents to the Soviets,&quot; concur Gilbert Geis [http://socialecology.uci.edu/faculty/ggeis of the University of California, Irvine] and Leigh B. Bienen [http://homicide.northwestern.edu/about/LeighBienen/ of Northwestern].&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Lebanon, N.H.: UPNE, 1998), ISBN 1555533604, pp. 130-131&lt;/ref&gt; [http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/~davidgr/ Rutgers historian] David Greenberg refers to &quot;the [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all dwindling band] of those who believe in Hiss&quot;; &quot;the majority of modern American historians today and particularly those specializing in domestic Cold War,&quot; concludes [http://corner.nationalreview.com/post/?q=NTk5Y2ZmNTQ3NWUyZGQwMTZhZjQxYTRkZjZhNGNmZDM liberal historian] David Oshinsky, &quot;see evidence pointing overwhelmingly to Hiss being guilty as charged.”&lt;ref&gt;David Oshinsky, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145006/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_david_oshinsky.pdf Alger Hiss and History]&quot; (Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University), April 5, 2007, p. 4 (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;In the end, the publication of the Venona intercepts settled the matter,&quot; observes Stanley Kutler [http://www.law.wisc.edu/profiles/sikutler@wisc.edu of the University of Wisconsin Law School]. &quot;[T]o [http://writ.lp.findlaw.com/books/reviews/20040806_kutler.html all but the truest of believers], 'Ales' could only be Alger Hiss.&quot; The Soviet agent &quot;Ales&quot; is assumed by &quot;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html most scholars] to be Alger Hiss,&quot; agrees Douglas O. Linder [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTrials/linder.htm of the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law]. &quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground,&quot; concurs R. Bruce Craig, a [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history] and [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/116899.html author of a forthcoming Hiss biography].<br /> <br /> &quot;Since the publication in 1978 of Allen Weinstein’s definitive ''Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case'', only partisans of the [[far left]] have continued to insist that Alger Hiss was innocent,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ronald Radosh, &quot;[https://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/guilty-man_634890.html Guilty Man: Posterity ponders the Hiss case],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 17, No. 29 (April 9, 2012)&lt;/ref&gt; writes Ronald Radosh, [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York], a former leader of the Communist Party youth group.&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; Historians John Earl Haynes [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html of the Library of Congress] and Harvey Klehr [https://web.archive.org/web/20111230155845/http://www.polisci.emory.edu/facultypages/klehr.htm of Emory University] sum up:<br /> {{cquote|Any reasonable person will conclude that the new documentation of Hiss’s assistance to Soviet espionage, along with the massive weight of prior accumulated evidence, closes the case. Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists, it is unlikely that anything will convince the remaining diehards. But to serious students of history, continued claims for Hiss’s innocence are akin to a terminal form of [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece ideological blindness].}}<br /> Robert J. Goldstein, [http://catalog.oakland.edu/preview_entity.php?catoid=11&amp;ent_oid=231&amp;returnto=494 professor emeritus of Political Science at Michigan's Oakland University], admits that his &quot;political views&quot; are &quot;at odds with&quot; Klehr's, but concedes that Klehr and Haynes &quot;quite reasonably&quot; conclude that Hiss was &quot;[http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/91718.html unquestionably]&quot; an espionage agent. The Hiss case &quot;is a controversy that should have died 30 years ago and hasn't only because of the efforts of [http://hnn.us/articles/106101.html a small, vocal group] that is absolutely convinced that Hiss was an innocent victim,&quot; agrees Steven T. Usdin, author of Yale University Press' ''Engineering Communism''.<br /> Yeshiva University Professor Ellen Schrecker [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment16.htm defends American Communist spies] as demurring from &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all traditional forms of patriotism]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ellen Schrecker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gaZrQgAACAAJ Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America]'' (Boston: Little, Brown, 1998), p. 188&lt;/ref&gt; (though critics object that their patriotism was entirely traditional&amp;mdash;toward the Soviet Union);&lt;ref&gt;Like a pair of Soviet [http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/revolut/jb_revolut_hale_1.html Nathan Hale]s, the Rosenbergs, for example, were &quot;loyal unto death [http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html to the Soviet Union].&quot; Likewise, when Hitler attacked the USSR in September 1939, the Communist [http://humanevents.com/2008/04/21/newsmaxs-kessler-spreads-nonsense-about-joe-mccarthy/ Lillian Hellman] actually cried out, &quot;[https://reason.com/archives/2000/06/01/hollywoods-missing-movies/print The motherland has been invaded].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; but even she concedes, &quot;There is now [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment15.htm too much evidence from too many different sources] for anyone but the most die-hard loyalists to argue convincingly for the innocence of Hiss.&quot; Hiss is &quot;among those whose long-suspected involvement in such Soviet espionage seems to be [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/05/09/reviews/990509.09issermt.html confirmed by the Venona cables],&quot; writes Hamilton College history professor Maurice Isserman, probably the best regarded of the left-wing scholars of Communism. &quot;Let's face it,&quot; concludes Isserman, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?pagewanted=all the debate just ended].&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;No amount of documentation, including the fact that documents Vassiliev copied unambiguously identify him as a Soviet agent, can persuade these true believers otherwise.&quot; [http://www.bu.edu/ir/faculty/bacevich.html Boston University professor] Andrew J. Bacevich concurs, &quot;Diehards will still contend that Hiss was innocent.&quot; But, he adds:<br /> {{cquote|At some point, the accumulation of evidence permits us to dismiss such people [http://www.firstthings.com/article/2007/01/venona-decoding-soviet-espionage-in-america-and-the-haunted-wood-soviet-espionage-in-america-the-stalin-era-30 as crackpots]. We are now well past that point with regard to the most controversial spy cases of the 1940s and 1950s.&quot;}}<br /> <br /> ==Hiss in the mass media==<br /> So broad is this consensus that it has begun to penetrate even the popular press: By the time he died in 1996, &quot;the front-page obits... in such supposed bastions of the liberal establishment as the ''New York Times'', the ''Washington Post'', and the ''Boston Globe'' were striking in their dispassionate acceptance of [https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html Hiss's guilt],&quot; observed [http://www.northeastern.edu/journalism/contact/kennedy.html Northeastern University Journalism Professor] Dan Kennedy. Indeed, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/29/books/review/29POWERSL.html?pagewanted=print no serious cold war historian],&quot; reports [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/25/opinion/the-public-editor-is-the-new-york-times-a-liberal-newspaper.html the liberal]&lt;ref&gt;As ''USA Today'' founder Al Neuharth observed in 2000, the ''Times'' had endorsed [http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/big-papers-endorsed-gore/ every Democrat] for president for the previous 40 years (Update: Make that the past [https://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/opinion/timeline/kerry-2004.pdf 52] [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/24/opinion/24fri1.html years]) (Update 2: [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/opinion/sunday/barack-obama-for-president.html?pagewanted=all 56 years]) ([https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/25/opinion/sunday/hillary-clinton-for-president.html 60]).&lt;/ref&gt; ''Times'', now questions &quot;that Hiss lied&quot; (Elsewhere, the ''Times'' reports &quot;the trend of scholarship on the Hiss case in the 1990's -- a [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html growing consensus] that Hiss, indeed, had most likely been a Soviet agent&quot;); “[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2009/05/29/ST2009052902500.html most students of the Hiss case], including many erstwhile defenders, consider him guilty,” agrees the similarly liberal&lt;ref&gt;As ''USA Today'' publisher Al Neuharth observed in 2000, the ''Post'' endorses [http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/big-papers-endorsed-gore/ only Democrats for president] ([https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57584-2004Oct23.html This pattern] has [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/16/AR2008101603436.html since] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/washington-post-endorsement-four-more-years-for-president-obama/2012/10/25/6ca309a2-1965-11e2-bd10-5ff056538b7c_story.html continued])([https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/hillary-clinton-for-president/2016/10/12/665f9698-8caf-11e6-bf8a-3d26847eeed4_story.html Ahem). ''Washington Post'' ombudsman Debra Howell writes, &quot;the conservatives I know here feel [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/14/AR2008111403057.html so outnumbered] that they don't even want to be quoted by name in a memo.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; ''Washington Post'',&lt;ref&gt;Chambers called the ''Post'' &quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers.&quot; (Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HKLbhAG8ma4C Witness]'' (Washington, DC: Regnery, 1987) ISBN 0895267896, p. 710) &quot;The ''Post'' seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as his innocence became increasingly doubtful.&quot; Marvin Olasky, &quot;[http://www.worldmag.com/articles/14220 The Chambers-Hiss case],&quot; ''World Magazine'', July 26, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; adding that &quot;the scholarly consensus&quot; is &quot;that Hiss was almost certainly guilty of both perjury and espionage&quot;; the ''Globe'' concludes that Hiss's guilt is a &quot;[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8396475.html near-certainty].&quot; Even Hiss's hometown newspaper, ''The Baltimore Sun'', where his older brother Bosley had been a reporter, admitted: &quot;[http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1996-03-09/features/1996069051_1_alger-hiss-hiss-case-perjury Most historians] are convinced of his guilt.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===The foreign press on Hiss===<br /> Outside the U.S., where fewer people are invested [http://www.tnr.com/article/bohemian-rhapsody the myth] of Hiss's innocence, the press is less equivocal: &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080829155929/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/daniel_finkelstein/article3441328.ece We know] that Alger Hiss was guilty,&quot; reports the ''Times'' of London, adding that Hiss's guilt is &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article1394730.ece beyond doubt]&quot;; the ''Daily Telegraph'' agrees that the evidence that Hiss was a Soviet agent is now &quot;[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/5648274/Spies-The-Rise-and-Fall-of-the-KGB-in-America-By-John-Earl-Haynes-Harvey-Klehr-and-Alexander-Vassiliev-review.html beyond doubt].&quot; The ''Financial Times'' concurs that there is now &quot;[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/a2819a20-77e2-11de-9713-00144feabdc0.html no doubt] that [Hiss] was indeed a Soviet spy.&quot; Writing in London's &quot;[http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/editorials/editorial-a-liberal-gamble-too-far-8468336.html proudly liberal]&quot; ''Independent'', [http://johannhari.com/2008/10/26/an-interview-with-johann-for-the-newspaper-cherwell/ self-proclaimed &quot;social democrat&quot;] Johann Hari admits that &quot;the left's old ''cause célèbre'', Alger Hiss,&quot; is among those shown by [[Venona project|Venona]] to have been &quot;[http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/johann-hari/the-exhumation-of-joe-mccarthy-567642.html Soviet spies].&quot; Even the ''Guardian'', Britain's [http://www.dooyoo.co.uk/magazines-newspapers/the-guardian-1/1411701/ leading left-wing] newspaper&lt;ref&gt;''Guardian'' readers are often [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3159813.stm stereotyped] as [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4348620.stm politically correct] [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo011119/debtext/11119-08.htm#11119-08_spnew3 caricatures]. The ''Guardian'' is so left-wing (by British standards) that its competitors sometimes refer to it as the British equivalent [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/michael_gove/article2379430.ece of the ''New York Times''].&lt;/ref&gt; concedes that &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/1999/may/15/michaelellison the general view]&quot; is &quot;that Hiss was guilty.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Newsweeklies on Hiss===<br /> ''Time'' magazine reports that [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985571,00.html Hiss's supporters are &quot;dwindling&quot;] as &quot;the weight of historical evidence indicates that Hiss was... a Soviet spy,&quot; adding that [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;seems to [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,26336,00.html remove reasonable doubt] about Alger Hiss's guilt.&quot; &quot;For... Alger Hiss,&quot; agrees ''Newsweek'', we now have &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/197807 irrefutable confirmation] of guilt.&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'' concurs: &quot;Most scholars considered the case against Hiss firmly established by Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', published in 1978,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Barone, &quot;Hiss and History,&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; adding, &quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Other magazines on Hiss===<br /> [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html Anne Applebaum] writes in the [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A53812-2004Jun18.html left-leaning] ''New Republic'', &quot;Alger [http://www.tnr.com/booksarts/story.html?id=e828c17a-787d-4142-af25-b2b4f5cc730d Hiss... spied] for the Soviet Union in the 1940s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Elsewhere, Applebaum writes that the [[Venona project|Venona]] cables &quot;provided direct evidence that... State Department officer Alger Hiss&quot; was &quot;among the Soviet Union's most valued agents.&quot; Anne Applebaum, &quot;[http://www.news.com.au/news/soviet-bears-american-claw/story-fna7dq6e-1225734255620 Soviet bear's American claw],&quot; ''The Australian'', June 12, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; The similarly [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/29/magazine/29Dyson-t.html?pagewanted=all left-leaning] ''New York Review of Books'' concludes, &quot;The evidence now... is simply overwhelming.... Hiss was one of a number of... converts to communism hurrying about Washington in the 1930s recruiting others to serve 'real, existing Socialism' [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 in the Soviet Union].&quot; The (likewise [http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2006/03/newspapers_fail_to_tap_young_c.html left-leaning]) ''Washington Monthly'' calls the evidence against Hiss &quot;quite devastating,&quot; dubbing the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts &quot;damning&quot; and &quot;rock-hard evidence&quot; of [http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/books/1999/9907.ignatius.spy.html Hiss's guilt].<br /> <br /> ===Television on Hiss===<br /> Even television is starting to notice. ABC, where 2008 presidential campaign contributions went [https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2009/06/entertainment-divisions-drive.html 98.6% for Obama], quotes a source saying that &quot;newly-declassified U.S. and Soviet intelligence backs longtime allegations&quot; that Hiss was [https://abcnews.go.com/print?id=1213034 a Soviet spy]. Public Broadcasting is subsidized by taxpayers (more than a billion dollars in 2012)&lt;ref&gt;$444 million via CPB, $60 million in direct federal grants and contracts, and $539 million from state and local taxes. [http://www.cpb.org/stations/reports/revenue/2012PublicBroadcastingRevenue.pdf Public Broadcasting Revenue, Fiscal Year 2012], Corporation for Public Broadcasting, Table 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;and was caught sharing PBS donor lists [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/17/us/pbs-stations-shared-donor-lists-with-democrats-stirring-trouble.html?pagewanted=all with Democratic Party fundraisers]&amp;mdash;but its educational program ''Nova'' identifies Hiss as one of &quot;the foremost Americans [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/resources.html spying for the Soviet Union],&quot; referring to him in its Teachers' Guide as one of &quot;the last century's most [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/overviews/2904_venona.html notorious spies].&quot; Even TruTV ([http://www.trutv.com/newname.html formerly Court TV])&amp;mdash;[http://www.muckety.com/Query?SearchResult=6436&amp;SearchResult=5031895&amp;graph=MucketyMap?_r=2D owned by] [http://nypost.com/1999/09/30/ted-confesses-heartbreak-im-too-rich-to-be-no-2/ self-proclaimed &quot;socialist&quot;] [https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/54/400list08_Robert-E-Ted-Turner_ETX7.html billionaire] Ted Turner (who says &quot;the [[KGB]] ... was an honorable place to work.... [I]t gave people ... an opportunity to do something [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27983385/page/4/ important and worthwhile]&quot;)&amp;mdash;admits: &quot;the bulk of evidence points to Hiss's guilt [https://web.archive.org/web/20091126060054/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/12.html beyond a reasonable doubt].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Online media on Hiss===<br /> Not even the online media are immune. Jacob Heilbrunn (a columnist at the [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/08/AR2007070801213.html &quot;pugnatiously liberal]&quot; Huffington Post), writing at Truthdig.com (&quot;A [[Progressive]] Journal of News and Opinion&quot;), admits, &quot;the evidence that Hiss was innocent of serving as a Soviet spy is sparse. It requires contortions to suggest that he was not and to explain away the evidence suggesting that [http://www.truthdig.com/arts_culture/print/20090320_jacob_heilbrunn_on_alger_hiss/ he was].&quot; By the time Hiss died, &quot;[https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html just about everyone] conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported Salon.com. Weinstein's ''Perjury'' &quot;had convinced even pro-Hiss liberals&quot; that he &quot;had indeed been a Communist and a spy for the Soviet Union.&quot; The [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] &quot;webzine&quot; added that [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;showed Hiss was almost certainly a Soviet agent.... Hiss's defenders have dwindled to a small handful of true believers.&quot; Slate.com (where [http://www.slate.com/id/2203052/ more than 96%] of staff and contributors supported [[Barack Obama]]) admits that &quot;Today, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ most people] who think about Hiss at all, even on the left, tend to think that Hiss was guilty,&quot; and refers to &quot;the [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415 consensus] in the reality-based community that&amp;mdash;back in the '30s and '40s&amp;mdash;one-time State Department luminary Hiss had probably been guilty of ''some'' collaboration with the Soviets.&quot; Elsewhere, it warns, &quot;Heads up: ''Alger [http://www.slate.com/id/2203909/ Hiss was guilty]'',&quot; (Italics in original) concluding, &quot;if we paleo-libs continue in our ancient rancors, we'll start looking like those [https://www.salon.com/books/review/2008/05/13/ronald_reagan/ troglodytes who still plump for Alger Hiss's innocence].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Liberal/left-wing opinion on Hiss==<br /> Even on the left, few authorities disagree. By the late 1970s, even &quot;[http://www.observer.com/2009/books/cold-war-character-still-hot most anti-Communist liberals] became convinced that Hiss had lied to HUAC, and spied for the Soviet Union when he worked for the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the State Department in the 1930s and ’40s,&quot; writes Cornell University professor (and Huffington Post [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/glenn-c-altschuler contributor]) Glenn C. Altschuler. &quot;My own sense of things was that Hiss had been a [Communist] party member in the Thirties and did give Soviet agents documents,&quot; wrote the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] historian, [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] administration official and [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/01/washington/01schlesinger.html &quot;unabashedly liberal partisan&quot;] Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.,&lt;ref&gt;Schlesinger wrote in 1946 that &quot;the faults and injustices in our present system&quot; in the U.S. &quot;make even freedom-loving Americans look wistfully at Russia.&quot; (Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., &quot;The United States Communist Party&amp;mdash;Small But Tightly Disciplined, It Strives with Fanatic Zeal to Promote the Aims of Russia,&quot; ''Life'', July 29, 1946, excerpted in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, [http://ia700406.us.archive.org/31/items/scopeofsovietact4345unit/scopeofsovietact4345unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 43] [Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1957], p. 3022 [PDF p. 26]) Fifty-four years later, Schlesinger, it was written, &quot;equates [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,59746,00.html capitalism with sexism and racism].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who concluded of Hiss, &quot;I believe him to be guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 497-498&lt;/ref&gt; Schlesinger's Harvard colleague, the [[socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Galbraith called for a ''[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C01E5DE113FF932A35756C0A9609C8B63&amp;pagewanted=all new socialism]''.&quot; Cf. chapter XXVII, &quot;The Socialist Imperative,&quot; in John Kenneth Galbraith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=toztAAAAMAAJ Economics and the Public Purpose]'' (New American Library, 1975), pp. 263-269&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Kenneth Galbraith]], likewise blandly accepted &quot;the fact that... Hiss purloined documents.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Kenneth Galbraith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YoXZWqBIIE8C The Great Crash, 1929]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), ISBN 0547248164, p. 165&lt;/ref&gt; Thomas Reed, Secretary of the Air Force in the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, writes, &quot;The Venona transcripts, released in 1997 and identifying Hiss via his code name Ales, and the postwar testimony of defecting Soviet code clerk Igor Gouzenko, remove any doubt about Hiss’s guilt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Reed, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=69Vvboox1JcC At the Abyss: An Insider's History of the Cold War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2005) ISBN 0891418377, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; Berkeley professor J. Bradford DeLong, a former [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration official and [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0307&amp;week=d&amp;msg=%2B1j5choBov/tLTieEa%2B0UA&amp;user=&amp;pw= professed &quot;social democrat,&quot;] writes, &quot;Was Alger Hiss at some time a spy for the Soviet Union? [http://delong.typepad.com/sdj/2007/04/kai_bird_thinks.html Probably].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;DeLong elaborates: &quot;I think that Hiss was guilty.... I think Hiss is more likely than not to be guilty of espionage. I even think that there is clear and convincing evidence that [http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/001822.html Hiss was guilty].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Another [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] official, National Security Adviser Anthony Lake (&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1727695,00.html top foreign policy adviser] to [[Barack Obama]]&quot;), actually went so far as [https://web.archive.org/web/20120317083025/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/fedagencies/february97/lake_2-27a.html to retract] a statement&amp;mdash;made in the wake of Hiss's death&amp;mdash;suggesting that the evidence against Hiss was [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/17/opinion/the-dossier-on-anthony-lake.html less than conclusive]. Even the prominent Democratic Socialist Irving Howe [http://writ.news.findlaw.com/books/reviews/20040806_kutler.html declared Hiss guilty]. [http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/susan_jacoby/2006/12/no_atheists_still_need_apply.html Professed atheist] [http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/susan_jacoby/2008/02/wanted_more_hope_and_charity_l.html Obama supporter] Susan Jacoby writes, &quot;I believe Hiss was guilty of both perjury and spying.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009) ISBN 0300121334, pp. 20-21. Jacoby, who calls herself &quot;an [http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 unabashed liberal and proud of it],&quot; avers, however, that she is &quot;only 98 or 99 percent convinced of Hiss's guilt.&quot; Her residual one to two percent doubt, suggests [[Whittaker Chambers]]' grandson, may be due to her refusal to read the new book, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]''. &quot;According to ''Spies'' co-author Harvey Klehr,&quot; writes Chambers, &quot;Yale's editor Jonathan Brent offered her access to the book's new findings. Apparently, Ms. Jacoby [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/may/22/equally-erring-about-hiss/?page=2 took a pass].&quot; As Jacoby admits, &quot;It has always been difficult for liberals to look objectively at evidence pointing to [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-jacoby22-2009mar22,0,7648164.story Hiss's guilt].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Hiss's ''alma mater'', Harvard Law School, Cass Sunstein, former Administrator of the White House Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs in the Obama administration, agrees, &quot;Most of those who have carefully studied the case, and who have explored evidence emerging long after the trial itself, have concluded that Chambers was telling the truth and that [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-29/how-the-alger-hiss-case-explains-the-tea-party.html Hiss did indeed perjure himself].&quot; Even [http://www.tnr.com/blog/the-plank/reagan-appointee-and-recent-mccain-adviser-charles-fried-supports-obama Obama supporter] Charles Fried, another professor at Harvard Law School (and former Justice of the court that granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the Massachusetts Bar), writes, &quot;it is now clear to [http://www.amacad.org/publications/bulletin/winter2006/Winter2006Bulletin.pdf all but the most obdurate] that Alger Hiss was a Soviet agent.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===''The Nation''===<br /> The lone holdout has been ''[http://www.thenation.com/ The Nation]'', a magazine that &quot;identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-Glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2005) ISBN 0195182553, p. 133.&lt;/ref&gt; The late [http://www.ericbreindel.org/about_eric.html Eric Breindel] tagged it &quot;America's leading forum for Alger Hiss apologia&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in the [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Congressional Record, Vol. 142, No. 50 (Thursday, April 18, 1996)], p. H3645&lt;/ref&gt; [[William F. Buckley]] commented in 1978 that the magazine &quot;has been clinging to the notion of Hiss's innocence over the years with the forlorn adamance of the last survivors of [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&amp;dat=19780518&amp;id=s88VAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=9xEEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=2592,3623339 the Flat Earth Society].&quot; ''The Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948,&quot; writes [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ Princeton Emeritus Professor] John V. Fleming, &quot;and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The magazine's defense of Hiss has tended to ignore the facts and focus on questions of &quot;taste&quot; (&quot;If one has any interest in [http://spectator.org/archives/2008/04/22/the-alger-hiss-democrats our national taste] it is impossible to refrain from asking how American jurors could be persuaded to give credence to such a man as Chambers in preference to such a man as Hiss&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt; Today, according to Slate.com, it is &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [https://web.archive.org/web/20110220084832/http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ remains committed] to the idea of Hiss's innocence.&quot; Nowadays, outside &quot;the ranks of [http://hnn.us/articles/816.html ''Nation'' readers] and a dwindling coterie of academic leftists, there are few people still willing to claim that Alger Hiss and Harry Dexter White were not Soviet agents,&quot; writes Klehr. Radosh agrees, &quot;Except for a dwindling group—mostly [http://hfm.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=publication_details&amp;id=3256 ''Nation'' magazine readers] and editors …. the consensus has solidified: Hiss was undoubtedly a Soviet spy.&quot;<br /> <br /> ====George Soros/The Nation Institute====<br /> While ''The Nation'' itself has managed to avoid substantive discussion of recent evidence concerning the Hiss case in print, the [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 closely-linked] &quot;[http://nationinstitute.org/ Nation Institute]&quot; (funded by billionaire [http://dealbook.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/01/27/george-soros-backs-obama-but-hedges-his-bets/ Obama-booster] [[George Soros]])&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 receives funding from... the Open Society Institute]&quot; which is &quot;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier George Soros]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; has funded two new Web sites dedicated to fighting a rear-guard disinformation campaign against the new evidence.<br /> <br /> =====Tony Hiss=====<br /> The first, called [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/ &quot;The Alger Hiss Story: Search for the Truth&quot;] was created in 2001 &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html with grants from... the Nation Institute].&quot; The site was started by Hiss's son Tony, a visiting scholar at New York University. &quot;The basic question&amp;mdash;whether Alger Hiss was a spy for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s&amp;mdash;was finally settled during the 1990s,&quot; writes Ehrman. &quot;Today, only a small band of true believers, [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html headed by Hiss’s son], still tries to argue his innocence.&quot; [http://www.pulitzer.org/finalists/1983 Pulitzer Prize–winning] author Ted Morgan concurs: &quot;One example of a dupe is Tony Hiss, who has made a career out of filial piety and continues to proclaim the innocence of his father in the face of irrefutable evidence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2004, ISBN 081297302X), p. 635, n. 199&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After Hiss ''fils'' originally set up this site on an NYU server, the university requested that he move it elsewhere &quot;to designate it more clearly as a [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all personal site] rather than an academic one.&quot; The Web site is run [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ out of the home] of &quot;Web master&quot; Jeff Kisseloff, former [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/navobit.html aide to Alger Hiss] and [http://www.thenation.com/authors/jeff-kisseloff archivist] of ''The Nation''.<br /> <br /> Although the site is [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/images/logo2.gif blazoned] &quot;Search for the Truth,&quot; [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html buried] within is the admission that its real purpose is to present only &quot;the case for the defense,&quot; not both sides. Linder warns that &quot;the site maintains a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html decidedly sympathetic] view of Hiss.&quot; Cornell Law Library agrees, &quot;The site has a [http://library2.lawschool.cornell.edu/insiteasp/archive/insite277.html noticeable editorial bias] in favor of Hiss.&quot; ''New York Times Book Review'' editor Sam Tanenhaus concurs, &quot;It's a [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ blatantly pro-Hiss] operation whose agenda is to advocate his innocence.&quot; Greenberg concludes, &quot;I don't think anyone is going to treat this site as the repository of truth, except for those who have [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all already made up their minds] that Hiss was innocent.&quot; Under the snarky headline “[http://sullivanarchives.theatlantic.com/index.php.dish_inc-archives.2001_03_01_dish_archive.html#2902598 FLAT EARTH WATCH],” [https://www.theatlantic.com/daily-dish/archive/2008/11/barack-obama-for-president/209143/ Obama-booster] Andrew Sullivan says the site is dedicated to “the greatest fantasy on the web”&amp;mdash;“the proposition that Alger Hiss was innocent.”<br /> <br /> The site devotes its resources to projects such as hyping the “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/court.html long-awaited]” book, ''The Crimes of Alger Hiss'' (formerly known as ''[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/navasky.html Richard Nixon and the Frameup of Alger Hiss]''), by the late William Reuben, a [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] who once admitted that “if he had heard that on his deathbed Hiss had confessed to being a Communist and Soviet agent, he ‘wouldn’t believe it.’”&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy] (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553, pp. 207-208&lt;/ref&gt; Reuben previously wrote a book called ''The Atom Spy Hoax'', similarly arguing that [[Julius Rosenberg|the Rosenbergs]] were framed.&lt;ref&gt;According to Reuben, the Rosenberg case was &quot;an out-and-out political frame-up&quot; (Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, p. 324), &quot;a vast conspiratorial hoax.... [T]he accused spies...have all been 'framed'...&quot; (Harold Green, &quot;Books,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eAkAAAAAMBAJ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]'', Vol. 8, No. 11 [October 1955], pp. 309-310) <br /> <br /> “Today, with the number of Rosenberg defenders steadily shrinking, let’s stipulate: [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/10/books/review/Roberts-t.html?pagewanted=all Julius was a Soviet spy],” comments the ''New York Times.'' After more than half a century of denial, Rosenberg trial co-defendant Morton Sobell “dramatically reversed himself” in 2008, admitting “for the first time that he had been a Soviet spy.” He also [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all implicated Rosenberg] in a conspiracy to deliver classified information to the Soviets. Even the Rosenbergs' sons have now “admitted to a painful conclusion: that [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?pagewanted=all their father was a spy].”<br /> <br /> While conceding that Julius was a Soviet agent, some on the left claimed that Ethel was innocent. But [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340] New York to Moscow 21 September 1944, made public in 1995, revealed that Ethel was, like Julius, guilty as charged, of conspiracy to commit espionage. This coded Soviet message recorded Ethel's active involvement in Soviet recruitment: “LIBERAL [Julius Rosenberg] recommended the wife of his wife's brother, Ruth GREENGLASS.... She is 21 years old, a TOWNSWOMAN [U.S. citizen], a GYMNAST [“Probably a member of the Young Communist League”] since 1942.... LIBERAL and his wife recommend her as an intelligent and clever girl.<br /> …. [Ruth] learned that her husband ... is now working at the ENORMOUS [Manhattan Project] plant in SANTA FE, New Mexico.” <br /> <br /> Ruth Greenglass's testimony, made public in 2008, corroborated Venona regarding Ethel's guilt. Greenglass testified that Julius urged her to recruit her husband (Ethel's brother), David Greenglass, into a conspiracy to pass atomic secrets to the Soviets, and that Ethel “said that I should at least relay the message, that she felt that David might be interested, he would want to do this.... [S]he urged me to talk to David. She felt that even if I was against it, I should at least discuss it with him and hear what he had to say.” ([http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20080911/rosenbergcasefiles-greenglass-ruth-pg9132to9161.pdf Testimony of Ruth Greenglass], ''U.S. v. Julius Rosenberg, et al.'', August 3, 1950, pp. 6-7)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> =====Svetlana Chervonnaya=====<br /> The second is called “[http://documentstalk.com/ Documents Talk: A Non-Definitive History].” Funding for this project was provided (&quot;[http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely]&quot;) &quot;[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/ by The Nation Institute].” The site was started in 2009 by Svetlana Chervonnaya, who calls herself a “[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/cv_chervonnaya_s.pdf Freelance historian]” operating on a “[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/cv_chervonnaya_s.pdf Research grant from The Nation Institute]” since 2005.<br /> <br /> Chervonnaya is a former &quot;propagandist for the Soviet Union,&quot; according to G. Edward White.&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, &quot;[http://www.greenbag.org/v13n1/v13n1_white.pdf Alexander Vassiliev &amp; Alger Hiss, Part II],&quot; ''The Green Bag'', Vol. 13, No. 1 (Autumn 2009) p. 99 (PDF p. 15)&lt;/ref&gt; Eduard Mark agrees that Chervonnaya was &quot;one of the USSR's more prolific propagandists in the twilight years of the USSR.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.26?journalCode=jcws In Re Alger Hiss: A Final Verdict from the Archives of the KGB] [[Journal of Cold War Studies]] 11.3 (Summer 2009): 26-67&lt;/ref&gt; John Earl Haynes concurs, identifying Chervonnaya as a &quot;Moscow historian/propagandist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hnn.us/comments/135793.html Narcissistic Histrionics] comment on [[History News Network]] July 29, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Chervonnaya is best known&lt;ref&gt;Chervonnaya also collaborated with David Lowenthal (brother of the late John Lowenthal, Alger [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html Hiss's lawyer]), on an [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html online post] seeking to discredit the [[Gorsky memo]].&lt;/ref&gt; as coauthor with Kai Bird (a [http://www.thenation.com/authors/kai-bird contributing editor] at ''The Nation'') of “[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ The Mystery of ‘Ales’],” in which the authors argue that &quot;Ales&quot; was not Hiss, but his colleague Wilder Foote&amp;mdash;despite the fact that, as Eduard Mark shows,&lt;ref&gt;Eduard Mark, “[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a714040012~fulltext=713240930 Who was ‘Venona’s’ ‘Ales’? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],” ''Intelligence and National Security'', 18 [Autumn 2003], pp. 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; Foote spent the 1930s toiling in obscurity as a [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html newspaper editor in rural Vermont], when &quot;Ales&quot; was [http://hnn.us/articles/37456.html working with Harold Glasser] in Whittaker [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf Chambers' GRU group] in Washington. Their argument assumes an [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html all-knowing efficiency] on the part of Gorsky, which, as Mark proved, he did [http://jeffersonflanders.wordpress.com/2009/06/13/the-vassiliev-notebooks-american-elites-and-cold-war-espionage/ not have]. Craig calls Mark's critique &quot;convincing,&quot; adding &quot;I personally find Mark’s overarching conclusion [that “Alger Hiss was an agent of the GRU in the 1930s”] [http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-X-24.pdf convincing].&quot; Moreover, Bird and Chervonnaya's article was based on a flawed and incomplete text of [[Anatoly Gorsky]]’s 5 March 1945 cable, even though the complete, accurate text was [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html made available to them]. In an attempt to clear Hiss, Bird and Chervonnaya accused Foote on the flimsiest of pretexts&amp;mdash;precisely, commented Slate.com, &quot;what they [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415/pagenum/all/ believe McCarthyites did to Hiss].&quot; Haynes and Klehr concur:<br /> {{cquote|Once upon a time, it was called McCarthyism to charge people with being Communists or spies on the basis of slim or no evidence, shaky logic, or the word of one or two informers of dubious reliability. No longer. Bird and Chervonnaya established new standards of proof, in which the absence of evidence is as good as proof. Absolving Alger Hiss of being ALES is apparently that important, even if it means recklessly slandering a long-deceased, distinguished public servant.&lt;ref&gt;4-16-07<br /> John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/37456.html Hiss Was Guilty],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), April 16, 2007&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> &quot;I can only assume that Mr Bird has ulterior motives to besmirch my grandfather's name, possibly for Mr Bird's own celebrity,&quot; commented Foote's grandson. &quot;Quite convenient for him that everyone involved is dead and cannot speak [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith in their own defence].&quot;<br /> <br /> Tellingly, even ''The Nation'' no longer even acknowledges this article. [http://hnn.us/article/98762#sthash.9mATzwSV.dpuf Haynes observes]:<br /> {{cquote|It is likely that THE NATION and Hiss defenders have assigned Chervonnaya, Bird, and their accusations against Wilder Foote to Orwell’s memory hole.}}<br /> <br /> =====The left-wing echo chamber=====<br /> These disinformation sites work together to create a &quot;left-wing echo chamber,&quot; citing one another, repeating the same assertions until they make their way into the mainstream press. For example, in March 2005, Chervonna posted on the H-HOAC Web site an attempt to discredit the [[Gorsky memo]] as containing &quot;[http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=c&amp;msg=czBexT36qyqr0oCHBC%2b8sQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= nonsense&quot; (a term she repeated four times)]. The following month, Kissiloff (citing Chervonnaya) posted on AlgerHiss.com a version of this piece&amp;mdash;dropping the claims of &quot;nonsense,&quot; but adding an assertion that the date on the document, &quot;(Dec. '48),&quot; was &quot;An [sic] [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/gorskylist.html probable mistake in the dating] (read: 1949), either Alexander Vassiliev's or Gorsky's.&quot; The next month, Chervonnaya posted on the HNN Web site a nearly verbatim copy of this version&amp;mdash;but with &quot;probable mistake&quot; now upgraded to &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Obvious mistake].&quot; She then ([http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/little-chocolate-house-stories-colonel-bykov citing Kissiloff]) [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/chambers-whittaker-april-1-1901-july-9-1961 repeated this] [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/currie-lauchlin-bernard-1902-1993 claim] ''[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/mirage ad] [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/budenz-louis-francis-1891-1972 nauseam]'' on DocumentsTalk.com. In June 2009, this claim made its way from the Internet into print&amp;mdash;naturally, [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090525/guttenplan in ''The Nation'']. By the following month it had found its way into the pages of London's venerable ''Times Literary Supplement'', in [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/Subscriber_Archive/History_Archive/article6770834.ece a review] by Amy Knight, who &quot;approaches the politically charged Hiss-Chambers Case [http://wcinbooks.whittakerchambers.org/2009/08/amy-knight-how-cold-war-began.html on the side of Alger Hiss]&quot; and &quot;has never found a source on Soviet intelligence she trusts.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jamie Glazov, [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=36268 Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America], FrontPageMagazine.com, September 11, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; As Haynes and Klehr observe:<br /> {{cquote|[Knight] insists that the former KGB officer Alexander Vassiliev misdated the memo and that it is part of a 1949 report. It isn’t. It is a stand-alone document signed by Gorsky and dated December 1948, as the notebooks show. There is no evidence that the dating is incorrect. But why would Knight have preferred it if the document had been dated 1949 rather than 1948? Because she could then put forth a fantasy to explain away the identification of Hiss. Gorsky, she claims without a shred of evidence, was making it up.... [W]hy would Gorsky have written a memo exaggerating the damage done to Soviet intelligence by adding to the lists of those exposed by defectors the names of people who were not Soviet sources? It is difficult enough to be the bearer of truthful bad news to one’s superiors, but to make up bad news is an act of bureaucratic near-suicide.<br /> But there is more. Although Knight conceals it from TLS readers, two other senior KI officers, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, in a report (also dated December 1948) to the chairman of the KI, wrote about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers (A. Hiss, D. Hiss, Wadleigh, Pigman, Reno)”. Does anyone really believe that three senior Soviet intelligence officers in reports to their agency’s chief identified Soviet agents from American newspaper stories rather than agency records? Additionally, another KGB memo, one from 1950, noted that the Soviet GRU agent “Leonard”, identified as a senior State Department official, had just been convicted. The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html was Alger Hiss].}}<br /> <br /> ====''Nation'' personnel====<br /> But even at ''The Nation'', the ardor for Hiss would appear to be cooling. Bird and Chervonnaya, for example, write&amp;mdash;in an article ''defending'' Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;We do not propose to address the larger question of whether Hiss was [http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ guilty or innocent of espionage].&quot; Another recent defense of Hiss, by [http://www.thenation.com/node/22687 ''Nation'' contributor] Robert L. Weinberg &quot;deliberately takes no position&quot; on the issue of whether &quot;[http://www.nacdl.org/__852566CF0070A126.nsf/0/006CB2391D988158852574940067BE2E Alger Hiss was in fact guilty] of spying.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rather than deny that Hiss was a spy, Weinberg argues technicalities, such as &quot;whether Hiss would have been 'not guilty' of the perjury charge in the indictment as a matter of law, [http://www.nacdl.org/__852566CF0070A126.nsf/0/006CB2391D988158852574940067BE2E even if he were found to have been a Soviet agent].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; ''Nation'' [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] Eric Alterman likewise writes regarding Hiss, &quot;I take no position on guilt or innocence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Eric Alterman, &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/venona4.html I Spy With One Little Eye],&quot; ''The Nation'', April 29, 1996, pp. 20-24. A decade later, Alterman still found the evidence inconclusive, although he grudgingly admitted that it had titled &quot;toward Chambers’ version of late and [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9579023/ against Hiss].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Others connected with ''The Nation'' are more candid: Max Holland, a [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=34303 contributing editor at the ''Nation''], writes that &quot;Alger Hiss has been proven to be the 'Ales'<br /> code-named in the Venona intercepts.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Max Holland, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.144 I. F. Stone: Encounters with Soviet Intelligence],&quot; ''The Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, Issue 3 (Summer 2009) p. 164, fn. 61&lt;/ref&gt; Former [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8013479.html Harvard Law professor] and [http://www.thenation.com/node/22680 ''Nation'' contributor] Susan Estrich (author of ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WA5XUA4v-roC The Case for Hillary Clinton]'') admits that &quot;liberal efforts over the years to champion the Rosenbergs, or Alger Hiss, as something other than Communists [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=17066 were misguided].&quot; Cold War scholars have now &quot;[http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=if_stone_journalist_and_spy nailed Alger Hiss],&quot; agrees ''Nation'' [http://www.thenation.com/authors/todd-gitlin contributor] [[Todd Gitlin]] &quot;&amp;mdash;a nailing long overdue on the left.&quot; [http://www.thenation.com/authors/jim-sleeper ''Nation'' contributor] Jim Sleeper, posting on the [http://www.brendan-nyhan.com/blog/2009/07/more-on-the-tabloidization-of-tpm.html liberal] Talking Points Memo blog, concurs, &quot;it's obvious now that many leftists&quot; defended Hiss &quot;long beyond the point where it made political, moral, or even [http://tpmcafe.talkingpointsmemo.com/2009/07/29/an_imperturbably_valiant_lawyer/ simple cognitive sense].&quot; &quot;Vociferously atheistic,&quot; self-styled &quot;radical&quot; Christopher Hitchens&amp;mdash;one of the &quot;25 [https://www.forbes.com/2009/01/22/influential-media-obama-oped-cx_tv_ee_hra_0122liberal.html most influential liberals] in the U.S. media&quot; (and [http://www.thenation.com/authors/christopher-hitchens long-time columnist] for ''The Nation'')&amp;mdash;calls the myth of Hiss's innocence &quot;one of the most persistent (and [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/36492.html repelling) myths] of the [[fellow traveller|fellow-traveling]] Left.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/15/nyregion/15donohue.html Militant atheist]&quot; Hitchens writes of once quipping to the hostess of a dinner party he attended with Alger Hiss, &quot;Why don't we secure the doors and say: 'Look, Alger, it's just us. Come on. You're among friends. Tell us why you really did it.'&quot; (Christopher Hitchens, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RBGmrDnBs8UC Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere]'' [London: Verso, 2000] ISBN 1859847862, pp. 105-106) Hitchens (who says he is considering writing a book called ''Guilty as Hell: A Short History of the American Left'') suggests that the answer is, &quot;because he thought he was [http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/2932161.html onto a winner].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> =====Victor Navasky=====<br /> According to Ehrman, Victor Navasky, [http://www.thenation.com/authors/victor-navasky long-time publisher of ''The Nation''], is &quot;now [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a01p.htm virtually alone] in his rejection of the case against Hiss.&quot; As editor, one thing Navasky &quot;would not permit&quot; in ''The Nation'', writes Powers, was any &quot;public admission that it was [[Whittaker Chambers]] who told the truth and Alger [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/29/books/review/29POWERSL.html?_r=1&amp;pagewanted=print Hiss who lied].&quot; Morgan calls Navasky a &quot;prime example of an opportunist,&quot; who &quot;wrote that the ''Venona'' transcripts were forgeries. One of his friends described him as being 'frozen into false positions.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X), p. 635, n. 199&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Hiss’s defenders stubbornly tried to rebut each revelation,&quot; recounts Ehrman, &quot;but eventually they [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a01p.htm were overwhelmed].&quot; [http://www.thenation.com/authors/nicholas-von-hoffman ''Nation'' contributor] Nicholas von Hoffman,&lt;ref&gt;Von Hoffman wrote prophetically in 1995 of the need to &quot;make liberalism respectable&quot; to what he called &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/print/article/calling-air-america the impressionable, feckless, white-collar American masses]&quot; in order to &quot;put a lefty in the White House.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; a [http://www.newcriterion.com/articles.cfm/-Organized--crime-6271 protégé of Saul Alinsky], is &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/cold-war-ghosts?page=full anything but a right-winger],&quot; admits Navasky, but even he concedes, &quot;The sum and substance of this growing body of material is that Alger Hiss, a darling of the establishment, was guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nicholas Von Hoffman, &quot;Was McCarthy right about the left?&quot; ''The Washington Post'', April 14, 1996, p. C1&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[E]ven many on the left&amp;mdash;including younger historians such as Rick Perlstein&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Perlstein, a [http://www.thenation.com/authors/rick-perlstein ''Nation'' contributor], writes that [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had Hiss &quot;nailed dead to rights,&quot; even before &quot;[[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] produced clinching evidence&quot; in the form of the pumpkin papers. Rick Perlstein, Introduction, in Rick Perlstein, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wFRSat2M0YEC Richard Nixon: Speeches, Writings, Documents]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691136998, pp. xxv-xxvi&lt;/ref&gt; have become convinced that &quot;Hiss was guilty,&quot; observes Slate.com, &quot;although [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415/ old-school loyalists like Navasky] remained skeptical.&quot;<br /> <br /> But even Navasky (once dubbed &quot;[http://www.tnr.com/article/red-dusk the cheerleader] of the 'everybody was innocent' school&quot;) has now retreated, claiming &quot;[http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/37819.html my point is not guilt or innocence].&quot; Today, &quot;instead of forcefully arguing that Hiss wasn't guilty as he once did, Navasky,&quot; now [http://www.cjr.org/about_us/masthead.php chairman] of the ''Columbia Journalism Review'', &quot;acknowledges that [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all Hiss wasn't telling the truth] when he testified that he didn't know Whittaker Chambers.&quot; Nevertheless, in reference to the activities of people &quot;in US left circles.... many of whom were Marxists, some of whom were Communists, some of whom were critical of US government policy,&quot; during this era, argues Navasky, the word &quot;espionage&quot; is &quot;out of context.&quot; He prefers to characterize their activities as &quot;exchanges of information&quot; that happened to be in &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/cold-war-ghosts?page=full violation of the law].&quot; (As critics have noted, such &quot;exchanges&quot; only went [http://reason.com/archives/2004/04/01/fools-for-communism/print one way].) Finally, Navasky asked, &quot;Espionage, is it so bad?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joyce Milton, &quot;[http://business.highbeam.com/4776/article-1G1-18807177/old-left-fort-mcnair-postcard The Old Left: Fort McNair Postcard],&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 4, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====''The Nation'' on consensus====<br /> Such quibbling aside, even at the ''Nation,'' it is now acknowledged that the consensus is that Hiss was guilty. [http://www.thenation.com/authors/athan-g-theoharis ''Nation'' contributor] Athan Theoharis writes that the &quot;[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200006)87%3A1%3C292%3ATVFAWA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 conventional assessment]&quot; is that Hiss was &quot;an unreconstructed Soviet spy.&quot; Even Bird and Chervonnaya admit, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ Most historians] have conceded the argument to Weinstein.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Chervonnaya has since suggested that this consensus amounts to an orthodoxy, writing of her &quot;hope of dethroning the autocracy of cold war historical scholarship on the matter of Alger Hiss,&quot; describing her motive as &quot;to [http://www.tnr.com/article/correspondence-11 overthrow the regime].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Speaking of the thesis that Hiss was guilty, Navasky himself conceded in 2007 that “for the last 10 years, that has been [http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_victor_navasky.pdf the consensus].”&lt;ref&gt;Victor Navasky, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145017/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_victor_navasky.pdf Alger Hiss and History]&quot; (Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University), April 5, 2007, p. 6 (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Communism]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Legacy_of_Alger_Hiss&diff=1611512 Legacy of Alger Hiss 2020-01-07T03:28:36Z <p>FOIA: update</p> <hr /> <div>After decades of acrimonious debate, most scholars today regard the matter of [[Alger Hiss]]'s guilt as resolved. As the ''Britannica Online Encyclopedia'' states, [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;provided strong [http://pocket.eb.com/ebc/article-9367140 evidence of Hiss's guilt].&quot; ''The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the U.S. Military'' [http://www.answers.com/topic/alger-hiss dubs this evidence &quot;compelling.&quot;] Venona convinced &quot;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Hiss,+Alger most observers] that he had been guilty,&quot; says ''The Columbia Encyclopedia''. R.F. Holznagel and Paul Hehn's Who2 Biographies agrees, &quot;[http://www.who2.com/algerhiss.html The consensus] has shifted to accepting that Hiss was a spy for the [[Soviet Union]].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Mainstream opinion on Hiss==<br /> &quot;[T]oday [http://www.spymuseum.org/events/algerhiss all but a few diehards agree] that new historical evidence has vindicated Chambers,&quot; according to the International Spy Museum in Washington, DC: &quot;Alger Hiss really was a Soviet spy.&quot; ''American History'' magazine reports that &quot;the preponderance of evidence does weigh heavily [http://www.historynet.com/magazines/american_history/3032686.html?page=4&amp;c=y against Hiss].&quot; The ''Federal Bar News &amp; Journal'' adds, &quot;Whittaker Chambers ... proved that Alger Hiss ... was a communist spy in the 1930s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; ''Federal Bar News &amp; Journal'', Vol. 40 (February 1993), pp. 96-108&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Nowadays, [http://www.publishersweekly.com/978-1-4516-5542-1 few doubt] Alger Hiss (1904–1996) was a Soviet spy,&quot; agrees ''Publishers' Weekly.'' ''Kirkus Reviews'' summarizes:<br /> {{cquote|Hiss, a committed New Dealer, as many communists were, met [Whittaker] Chambers when he was recruited during the mid ’30s into the so-called Ware Group, a communist cell in Washington, D.C. As a high-placed government lawyer, Hiss had access to classified information and passed it to Chambers, who had the documents copied then delivered [https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/christina-shelton/alger-hiss/#review to his Soviet superior].}}<br /> ''Psychology Today'' online concludes, &quot;Sadly for the many honest Americans who supported them, it now seems clear that Alger Hiss, [[Julius Rosenberg]], and [[Harry Dexter White]] really did what they were [http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/bozo-sapiens/200908/00-unamerican accused of].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===''Perjury''===<br /> ''American Diplomacy'' reports that &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html most interested people] were finally persuaded that justice had been done by Allen Weinstein’s painstakingly researched book, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury]'', published in 1978.&quot; ''Library Journal'' agrees, &quot;beginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review: ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124] (1999), p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; ''American Heritage'' magazine editor Geoffrey C. Ward, (author of Ken Burns' PBS miniseries ''The Civil War'') concurs: &quot;I believe the most dispassionate, step-by-step account of the Hiss case is still Allen Weinstein’s ''Perjury.''&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LQUaAAAAYAAJ American originals: the private worlds of some singular men and women]'' (HarperCollins Publishers, 1991), ISBN 0060166940, p. 95&lt;/ref&gt; Weinstein, a former [https://www.archives.gov/about/info/archivist-biography.html Archivist of the United States], started his research convinced that Chambers &quot;had falsely accused Hiss of Communist ties and espionage.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6l4AAAAMAAJ Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), ISBN 0394495462, p. xvii&lt;/ref&gt; With Hiss's cooperation and access to his [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,918154,00.html attorneys' files], Weinstein set out &quot;intending to prove Hiss's innocence,&quot; writes the former [http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 chief of Soviet bloc counterintelligence] at the [[CIA]].&lt;ref&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ng7myCguewAC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 0300121989, p. 273&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;But he was an honest man and the facts he found convinced him (as they do any reader of his book) that Hiss was guilty.&quot; On the basis of information he found in the files of Hiss's own attorneys, Weinstein concluded:<br /> {{cquote|the body of available evidence proves that Hiss perjured himself when describing his secret dealings with Chambers, so that the jury in his second trial made no mistake in finding Alger Hiss guilty as charged.&lt;ref&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6l4AAAAMAAJ Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), ISBN 0394495462, p. 513&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===U.S. Government===<br /> Twenty years after Weinstein's book was published, the bipartisan [[Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy|Moynihan commission]] (which had access to previously-classified [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts unavailable to Weinstein) went further&amp;mdash;not just on perjury, but on espionage&amp;mdash;the commission's unanimous [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/ Final Report] finding, &quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997), [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 (PDF p. 39)&lt;/ref&gt; The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300077564, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Alger Hiss was eventually convicted of perjury rather than espionage,&quot; concurs Michael J. Sulick, former chief of CIA counterintelligence and former director of the National Clandestine Service, &quot;but the declassified VENONA decrypts and documents from the Soviet archives eventually proved without a doubt that Hiss had been a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael J. Sulick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tUsUAAAAQBAJ Spying In America: Espionage from the Revolutionary War to the Dawn of the Cold War]'' (Georgetown University Press, 2012), ISBN 162616066X, p. 167&lt;/ref&gt; A comprehensive [[Department of Defense]] review concludes that Hiss was among the &quot;well-placed Americans&quot; who &quot;gradually drifted into service as Soviet agents,&quot; thus beginning &quot;careers as spies for the Soviets.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Katherine L. Herbig and Martin F. Wiskoff, &quot;[http://www.dhra.mil/perserec/reports/tr02-05.pdf Espionage Against the United States by American Citizens],&quot; Defense Personnel Security Research Center (PERSEREC) Technical Report 02-5 (July 2002), p. 4 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Moynihan commission added that the [[USSR|Soviet]] agent &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) &quot;could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997), [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-34 (PDF p. 36)&lt;/ref&gt; The FBI had come to the same conclusion 47 years earlier: &quot;It would appear likely that this individual [Ales] is Alger Hiss...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001) ISBN 0895262258, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Venona cables confirmed that Alger Hiss (Ales) of the State Department was a GRU agent,&quot; agrees [http://intellit.muskingum.edu/alpha_folder/p_folder/peake.html Hayden Peake], curator of the [[CIA]]’s [https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/historical-intelligence-collection.html Historical Intelligence Collection].&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20061212003123/http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/Review/2000/summer/re2-Su0.htm The Venona Progeny],&quot; ''Naval War College Review'', Vol. 53, no. 3 (Summer 2000) (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the [[National Security Agency]] have also gone on record that [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html exceptionally solid]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; The [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-War&amp;month=0906&amp;week=b&amp;msg=aCgDqWbKqMTj/XUkqzkSAw&amp;user=&amp;pw= late] [[U.S. Air Force]] historian [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0906&amp;week=b&amp;msg=nGh672LlDx94PGFwC3UDMw&amp;user=&amp;pw= Eduard Mark] called this conclusion &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; concurring that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a714040012 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' Vol. 18 Issue 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original)&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html#author1 John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s [https://www.cia.gov/offices-of-cia/intelligence-analysis/index.html Directorate of Intelligence] concludes, &quot;it is clear that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Academic opinions===<br /> &quot;[T]he material we now have from the [[Soviet Union]],&quot; says [http://www.bnc.ox.ac.uk/323/about-brasenose-31/academic-staff-150/professor-vernon-bogdanor-520.html Oxford Professor] Vernon Bogdanor, shows that Hiss &quot;was indeed [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 a Soviet agent].&quot; &quot;Part of Hiss's [[KGB]] file has come out that proves the obvious point he was [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith guilty as charged],&quot; agrees [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge University]'s Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage]. &quot;[C]orroborative evidence now available,&quot; according to Andrew and [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, puts the identification of the Soviet agent &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (London: Gardners Books, 2000) ISBN 0-14-028487-7, p. 599&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Numerous KGB/[[NKVD]] documents... contain extensive references to Hiss,&quot; concurs Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/research_portal/hpcws.html director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;either by name or through the codename Ales, which seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot; According to Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/faculty/plokhii.php Serhii Plokhii], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415, p. xxv&lt;/ref&gt; Jonathan Brent, [http://www.yale.edu/annals/Team.htm executive editor of Yale University Press's &quot;Annals of Communism&quot;] (and&amp;mdash;ironically&amp;mdash;[http://www.bard.edu/academics/faculty/faculty.php?action=details&amp;id=1380 holder of the &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; chair] at Bard College), comments, &quot;We're 99 percent certain that [http://www.heymiller.com/2009/06/the-annals-of-jonathan-brent/ Hiss was a spy].&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;[R]ecently released evidence in U.S. and Soviet archives, taken together with some previously available testimony of persons connected with Soviet intelligence in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s,&quot; writes [http://www.law.virginia.edu/lawweb/faculty.nsf/PrFMPbW/gew University of Virginia Law School Professor] G. Edward White ([https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html son-in-law of Hiss's attorney] John F. Davis), &quot;supports Chambers's charges [http://ssrn.com/abstract=311869 against Hiss].&quot; [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/04/world/arthur-martin-81-british-spy-catcher-who-exposed-blunt.html Soviet espionage expert] Stephen Koch agrees, &quot;I for one have been brought close to certainty, on the basis of archival information, that Chambers was telling the truth.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[http://www.stephenkoch.net/?page_id=156 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Free Press, 1994) ISBN 0-02-918730-3, p. 326&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;We now know,&quot; states [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/mi5_ww2_01.shtml intelligence expert] Nigel West, &quot;that Alger Hiss was a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nigel West, &quot;Venona and Cold War Counterintelligence Methodology,&quot; in Loch K. Johnson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cg39hcj6AxQC Strategic Intelligence]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0275989437, p. 15&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The broad sweep of Chambers' allegations are now beyond doubt,&quot; according to Richard Aldrich [http://www.richardaldrich.co.uk/ of the University of London] and David McKnight [http://jmrc.arts.unsw.edu.au/staff/staff.php?first=David&amp;last=McKnight of the University of New South Wales].&lt;ref&gt;David McKnight and Richard J. Aldrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t4DGUfDWKwgC Espionage and the Roots of the Cold War: The Conspiratorial Heritage]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2002) ISBN 071465163X, p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss not only &quot;had been a communist,&quot; concludes historian [http://history.cua.edu/faculty/Kimmage/ Michael Kimmage], but committed &quot;espionage for Stalin's Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jAfATcPNOhUC The Conservative Turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the Lessons of Anti-Communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, pp. 202, 172, 219. Elsewhere Kimmage writes that Hiss &quot;[http://www.rorotoko.com/index.php/article/michael_kimmage_interview_trilling_chambers_anti-communism_conservative_tur/ spied for the Soviet Union].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Scholarly consensus==<br /> Today, reports [[Oxford University]]'s ''Oxonian Review'', &quot;the Hiss case is one issue upon which [http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ consensus transcends ideological divides].&quot; After decades of debate, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 no serious scholar] of the subject any longer dismisses the voluminous and explicit claims by [[Whittaker Chambers]] and [[Elizabeth Bentley]],&quot; writes [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/summer00/art02.html Cold War specialist] Thomas Powers. By 2006, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith most historians] had come to the conclusion that Hiss was probably guilty,&quot; agrees Aldrich. &quot;Those who have studied the Hiss case by and large believe that he was guilty of perjury and quite likely also guilty of espionage, that is, of passing government documents to the Soviets,&quot; concur Gilbert Geis [http://socialecology.uci.edu/faculty/ggeis of the University of California, Irvine] and Leigh B. Bienen [http://homicide.northwestern.edu/about/LeighBienen/ of Northwestern].&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Lebanon, N.H.: UPNE, 1998), ISBN 1555533604, pp. 130-131&lt;/ref&gt; [http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/~davidgr/ Rutgers historian] David Greenberg refers to &quot;the [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all dwindling band] of those who believe in Hiss&quot;; &quot;the majority of modern American historians today and particularly those specializing in domestic Cold War,&quot; concludes [http://corner.nationalreview.com/post/?q=NTk5Y2ZmNTQ3NWUyZGQwMTZhZjQxYTRkZjZhNGNmZDM liberal historian] David Oshinsky, &quot;see evidence pointing overwhelmingly to Hiss being guilty as charged.”&lt;ref&gt;David Oshinsky, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145006/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_david_oshinsky.pdf Alger Hiss and History]&quot; (Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University), April 5, 2007, p. 4 (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;In the end, the publication of the Venona intercepts settled the matter,&quot; observes Stanley Kutler [http://www.law.wisc.edu/profiles/sikutler@wisc.edu of the University of Wisconsin Law School]. &quot;[T]o [http://writ.lp.findlaw.com/books/reviews/20040806_kutler.html all but the truest of believers], 'Ales' could only be Alger Hiss.&quot; The Soviet agent &quot;Ales&quot; is assumed by &quot;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html most scholars] to be Alger Hiss,&quot; agrees Douglas O. Linder [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTrials/linder.htm of the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law]. &quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground,&quot; concurs R. Bruce Craig, a [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history] and [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/116899.html author of a forthcoming Hiss biography].<br /> <br /> &quot;Since the publication in 1978 of Allen Weinstein’s definitive ''Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case'', only partisans of the [[far left]] have continued to insist that Alger Hiss was innocent,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ronald Radosh, &quot;[https://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/guilty-man_634890.html Guilty Man: Posterity ponders the Hiss case],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 17, No. 29 (April 9, 2012)&lt;/ref&gt; writes Ronald Radosh, [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York], a former leader of the Communist Party youth group.&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; Historians John Earl Haynes [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html of the Library of Congress] and Harvey Klehr [https://web.archive.org/web/20111230155845/http://www.polisci.emory.edu/facultypages/klehr.htm of Emory University] sum up:<br /> {{cquote|Any reasonable person will conclude that the new documentation of Hiss’s assistance to Soviet espionage, along with the massive weight of prior accumulated evidence, closes the case. Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists, it is unlikely that anything will convince the remaining diehards. But to serious students of history, continued claims for Hiss’s innocence are akin to a terminal form of [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece ideological blindness].}}<br /> Robert J. Goldstein, [http://catalog.oakland.edu/preview_entity.php?catoid=11&amp;ent_oid=231&amp;returnto=494 professor emeritus of Political Science at Michigan's Oakland University], admits that his &quot;political views&quot; are &quot;at odds with&quot; Klehr's, but concedes that Klehr and Haynes &quot;quite reasonably&quot; conclude that Hiss was &quot;[http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/91718.html unquestionably]&quot; an espionage agent. The Hiss case &quot;is a controversy that should have died 30 years ago and hasn't only because of the efforts of [http://hnn.us/articles/106101.html a small, vocal group] that is absolutely convinced that Hiss was an innocent victim,&quot; agrees Steven T. Usdin, author of Yale University Press' ''Engineering Communism''.<br /> Yeshiva University Professor Ellen Schrecker [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment16.htm defends American Communist spies] as demurring from &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all traditional forms of patriotism]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ellen Schrecker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gaZrQgAACAAJ Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America]'' (Boston: Little, Brown, 1998), p. 188&lt;/ref&gt; (though critics object that their patriotism was entirely traditional&amp;mdash;toward the Soviet Union);&lt;ref&gt;Like a pair of Soviet [http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/revolut/jb_revolut_hale_1.html Nathan Hale]s, the Rosenbergs, for example, were &quot;loyal unto death [http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html to the Soviet Union].&quot; Likewise, when Hitler attacked the USSR in September 1939, the Communist [http://humanevents.com/2008/04/21/newsmaxs-kessler-spreads-nonsense-about-joe-mccarthy/ Lillian Hellman] actually cried out, &quot;[https://reason.com/archives/2000/06/01/hollywoods-missing-movies/print The motherland has been invaded].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; but even she concedes, &quot;There is now [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment15.htm too much evidence from too many different sources] for anyone but the most die-hard loyalists to argue convincingly for the innocence of Hiss.&quot; Hiss is &quot;among those whose long-suspected involvement in such Soviet espionage seems to be [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/05/09/reviews/990509.09issermt.html confirmed by the Venona cables],&quot; writes Hamilton College history professor Maurice Isserman, probably the best regarded of the left-wing scholars of Communism. &quot;Let's face it,&quot; concludes Isserman, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?pagewanted=all the debate just ended].&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;No amount of documentation, including the fact that documents Vassiliev copied unambiguously identify him as a Soviet agent, can persuade these true believers otherwise.&quot; [http://www.bu.edu/ir/faculty/bacevich.html Boston University professor] Andrew J. Bacevich concurs, &quot;Diehards will still contend that Hiss was innocent.&quot; But, he adds:<br /> {{cquote|At some point, the accumulation of evidence permits us to dismiss such people [http://www.firstthings.com/article/2007/01/venona-decoding-soviet-espionage-in-america-and-the-haunted-wood-soviet-espionage-in-america-the-stalin-era-30 as crackpots]. We are now well past that point with regard to the most controversial spy cases of the 1940s and 1950s.&quot;}}<br /> <br /> ==Hiss in the mass media==<br /> So broad is this consensus that it has begun to penetrate even the popular press: By the time he died in 1996, &quot;the front-page obits... in such supposed bastions of the liberal establishment as the ''New York Times'', the ''Washington Post'', and the ''Boston Globe'' were striking in their dispassionate acceptance of [https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html Hiss's guilt],&quot; observed [http://www.northeastern.edu/journalism/contact/kennedy.html Northeastern University Journalism Professor] Dan Kennedy. Indeed, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/29/books/review/29POWERSL.html?pagewanted=print no serious cold war historian],&quot; reports [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/25/opinion/the-public-editor-is-the-new-york-times-a-liberal-newspaper.html the liberal]&lt;ref&gt;As ''USA Today'' founder Al Neuharth observed in 2000, the ''Times'' had endorsed [http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/big-papers-endorsed-gore/ every Democrat] for president for the previous 40 years (Update: Make that the past [https://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/opinion/timeline/kerry-2004.pdf 52] [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/24/opinion/24fri1.html years]) (Update 2: [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/opinion/sunday/barack-obama-for-president.html?pagewanted=all 56 years]) ([https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/25/opinion/sunday/hillary-clinton-for-president.html 60]).&lt;/ref&gt; ''Times'', now questions &quot;that Hiss lied&quot; (Elsewhere, the ''Times'' reports &quot;the trend of scholarship on the Hiss case in the 1990's -- a [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html growing consensus] that Hiss, indeed, had most likely been a Soviet agent&quot;); “[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2009/05/29/ST2009052902500.html most students of the Hiss case], including many erstwhile defenders, consider him guilty,” agrees the similarly liberal&lt;ref&gt;As ''USA Today'' publisher Al Neuharth observed in 2000, the ''Post'' endorses [http://www.aim.org/media-monitor/big-papers-endorsed-gore/ only Democrats for president] ([https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57584-2004Oct23.html This pattern] has [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/16/AR2008101603436.html since] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/washington-post-endorsement-four-more-years-for-president-obama/2012/10/25/6ca309a2-1965-11e2-bd10-5ff056538b7c_story.html continued]). ''Washington Post'' ombudsman Debra Howell writes, &quot;the conservatives I know here feel [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/14/AR2008111403057.html so outnumbered] that they don't even want to be quoted by name in a memo.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; ''Washington Post'',&lt;ref&gt;Chambers called the ''Post'' &quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers.&quot; (Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HKLbhAG8ma4C Witness]'' (Washington, DC: Regnery, 1987) ISBN 0895267896, p. 710) &quot;The ''Post'' seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as his innocence became increasingly doubtful.&quot; Marvin Olasky, &quot;[http://www.worldmag.com/articles/14220 The Chambers-Hiss case],&quot; ''World Magazine'', July 26, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; adding that &quot;the scholarly consensus&quot; is &quot;that Hiss was almost certainly guilty of both perjury and espionage&quot;; the ''Globe'' concludes that Hiss's guilt is a &quot;[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8396475.html near-certainty].&quot; Even Hiss's hometown newspaper, ''The Baltimore Sun'', where his older brother Bosley had been a reporter, admitted: &quot;[http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1996-03-09/features/1996069051_1_alger-hiss-hiss-case-perjury Most historians] are convinced of his guilt.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===The foreign press on Hiss===<br /> Outside the U.S., where fewer people are invested [http://www.tnr.com/article/bohemian-rhapsody the myth] of Hiss's innocence, the press is less equivocal: &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080829155929/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/daniel_finkelstein/article3441328.ece We know] that Alger Hiss was guilty,&quot; reports the ''Times'' of London, adding that Hiss's guilt is &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article1394730.ece beyond doubt]&quot;; the ''Daily Telegraph'' agrees that the evidence that Hiss was a Soviet agent is now &quot;[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/5648274/Spies-The-Rise-and-Fall-of-the-KGB-in-America-By-John-Earl-Haynes-Harvey-Klehr-and-Alexander-Vassiliev-review.html beyond doubt].&quot; The ''Financial Times'' concurs that there is now &quot;[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/a2819a20-77e2-11de-9713-00144feabdc0.html no doubt] that [Hiss] was indeed a Soviet spy.&quot; Writing in London's &quot;[http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/editorials/editorial-a-liberal-gamble-too-far-8468336.html proudly liberal]&quot; ''Independent'', [http://johannhari.com/2008/10/26/an-interview-with-johann-for-the-newspaper-cherwell/ self-proclaimed &quot;social democrat&quot;] Johann Hari admits that &quot;the left's old ''cause célèbre'', Alger Hiss,&quot; is among those shown by [[Venona project|Venona]] to have been &quot;[http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/johann-hari/the-exhumation-of-joe-mccarthy-567642.html Soviet spies].&quot; Even the ''Guardian'', Britain's [http://www.dooyoo.co.uk/magazines-newspapers/the-guardian-1/1411701/ leading left-wing] newspaper&lt;ref&gt;''Guardian'' readers are often [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3159813.stm stereotyped] as [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4348620.stm politically correct] [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo011119/debtext/11119-08.htm#11119-08_spnew3 caricatures]. The ''Guardian'' is so left-wing (by British standards) that its competitors sometimes refer to it as the British equivalent [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/michael_gove/article2379430.ece of the ''New York Times''].&lt;/ref&gt; concedes that &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/1999/may/15/michaelellison the general view]&quot; is &quot;that Hiss was guilty.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Newsweeklies on Hiss===<br /> ''Time'' magazine reports that [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985571,00.html Hiss's supporters are &quot;dwindling&quot;] as &quot;the weight of historical evidence indicates that Hiss was... a Soviet spy,&quot; adding that [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;seems to [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,26336,00.html remove reasonable doubt] about Alger Hiss's guilt.&quot; &quot;For... Alger Hiss,&quot; agrees ''Newsweek'', we now have &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/197807 irrefutable confirmation] of guilt.&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'' concurs: &quot;Most scholars considered the case against Hiss firmly established by Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', published in 1978,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Barone, &quot;Hiss and History,&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; adding, &quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Other magazines on Hiss===<br /> [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html Anne Applebaum] writes in the [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A53812-2004Jun18.html left-leaning] ''New Republic'', &quot;Alger [http://www.tnr.com/booksarts/story.html?id=e828c17a-787d-4142-af25-b2b4f5cc730d Hiss... spied] for the Soviet Union in the 1940s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Elsewhere, Applebaum writes that the [[Venona project|Venona]] cables &quot;provided direct evidence that... State Department officer Alger Hiss&quot; was &quot;among the Soviet Union's most valued agents.&quot; Anne Applebaum, &quot;[http://www.news.com.au/news/soviet-bears-american-claw/story-fna7dq6e-1225734255620 Soviet bear's American claw],&quot; ''The Australian'', June 12, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; The similarly [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/29/magazine/29Dyson-t.html?pagewanted=all left-leaning] ''New York Review of Books'' concludes, &quot;The evidence now... is simply overwhelming.... Hiss was one of a number of... converts to communism hurrying about Washington in the 1930s recruiting others to serve 'real, existing Socialism' [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 in the Soviet Union].&quot; The (likewise [http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2006/03/newspapers_fail_to_tap_young_c.html left-leaning]) ''Washington Monthly'' calls the evidence against Hiss &quot;quite devastating,&quot; dubbing the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts &quot;damning&quot; and &quot;rock-hard evidence&quot; of [http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/books/1999/9907.ignatius.spy.html Hiss's guilt].<br /> <br /> ===Television on Hiss===<br /> Even television is starting to notice. ABC, where 2008 presidential campaign contributions went [https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2009/06/entertainment-divisions-drive.html 98.6% for Obama], quotes a source saying that &quot;newly-declassified U.S. and Soviet intelligence backs longtime allegations&quot; that Hiss was [https://abcnews.go.com/print?id=1213034 a Soviet spy]. Public Broadcasting is subsidized by taxpayers (more than a billion dollars in 2012)&lt;ref&gt;$444 million via CPB, $60 million in direct federal grants and contracts, and $539 million from state and local taxes. [http://www.cpb.org/stations/reports/revenue/2012PublicBroadcastingRevenue.pdf Public Broadcasting Revenue, Fiscal Year 2012], Corporation for Public Broadcasting, Table 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;and was caught sharing PBS donor lists [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/17/us/pbs-stations-shared-donor-lists-with-democrats-stirring-trouble.html?pagewanted=all with Democratic Party fundraisers]&amp;mdash;but its educational program ''Nova'' identifies Hiss as one of &quot;the foremost Americans [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/resources.html spying for the Soviet Union],&quot; referring to him in its Teachers' Guide as one of &quot;the last century's most [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/overviews/2904_venona.html notorious spies].&quot; Even TruTV ([http://www.trutv.com/newname.html formerly Court TV])&amp;mdash;[http://www.muckety.com/Query?SearchResult=6436&amp;SearchResult=5031895&amp;graph=MucketyMap?_r=2D owned by] [http://nypost.com/1999/09/30/ted-confesses-heartbreak-im-too-rich-to-be-no-2/ self-proclaimed &quot;socialist&quot;] [https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/54/400list08_Robert-E-Ted-Turner_ETX7.html billionaire] Ted Turner (who says &quot;the [[KGB]] ... was an honorable place to work.... [I]t gave people ... an opportunity to do something [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27983385/page/4/ important and worthwhile]&quot;)&amp;mdash;admits: &quot;the bulk of evidence points to Hiss's guilt [https://web.archive.org/web/20091126060054/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/12.html beyond a reasonable doubt].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Online media on Hiss===<br /> Not even the online media are immune. Jacob Heilbrunn (a columnist at the [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/08/AR2007070801213.html &quot;pugnatiously liberal]&quot; Huffington Post), writing at Truthdig.com (&quot;A [[Progressive]] Journal of News and Opinion&quot;), admits, &quot;the evidence that Hiss was innocent of serving as a Soviet spy is sparse. It requires contortions to suggest that he was not and to explain away the evidence suggesting that [http://www.truthdig.com/arts_culture/print/20090320_jacob_heilbrunn_on_alger_hiss/ he was].&quot; By the time Hiss died, &quot;[https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html just about everyone] conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported Salon.com. Weinstein's ''Perjury'' &quot;had convinced even pro-Hiss liberals&quot; that he &quot;had indeed been a Communist and a spy for the Soviet Union.&quot; The [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] &quot;webzine&quot; added that [[Venona project|Venona]] &quot;showed Hiss was almost certainly a Soviet agent.... Hiss's defenders have dwindled to a small handful of true believers.&quot; Slate.com (where [http://www.slate.com/id/2203052/ more than 96%] of staff and contributors supported [[Barack Obama]]) admits that &quot;Today, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ most people] who think about Hiss at all, even on the left, tend to think that Hiss was guilty,&quot; and refers to &quot;the [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415 consensus] in the reality-based community that&amp;mdash;back in the '30s and '40s&amp;mdash;one-time State Department luminary Hiss had probably been guilty of ''some'' collaboration with the Soviets.&quot; Elsewhere, it warns, &quot;Heads up: ''Alger [http://www.slate.com/id/2203909/ Hiss was guilty]'',&quot; (Italics in original) concluding, &quot;if we paleo-libs continue in our ancient rancors, we'll start looking like those [https://www.salon.com/books/review/2008/05/13/ronald_reagan/ troglodytes who still plump for Alger Hiss's innocence].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Liberal/left-wing opinion on Hiss==<br /> Even on the left, few authorities disagree. By the late 1970s, even &quot;[http://www.observer.com/2009/books/cold-war-character-still-hot most anti-Communist liberals] became convinced that Hiss had lied to HUAC, and spied for the Soviet Union when he worked for the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the State Department in the 1930s and ’40s,&quot; writes Cornell University professor (and Huffington Post [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/glenn-c-altschuler contributor]) Glenn C. Altschuler. &quot;My own sense of things was that Hiss had been a [Communist] party member in the Thirties and did give Soviet agents documents,&quot; wrote the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] historian, [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] administration official and [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/01/washington/01schlesinger.html &quot;unabashedly liberal partisan&quot;] Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.,&lt;ref&gt;Schlesinger wrote in 1946 that &quot;the faults and injustices in our present system&quot; in the U.S. &quot;make even freedom-loving Americans look wistfully at Russia.&quot; (Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., &quot;The United States Communist Party&amp;mdash;Small But Tightly Disciplined, It Strives with Fanatic Zeal to Promote the Aims of Russia,&quot; ''Life'', July 29, 1946, excerpted in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, [http://ia700406.us.archive.org/31/items/scopeofsovietact4345unit/scopeofsovietact4345unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 43] [Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1957], p. 3022 [PDF p. 26]) Fifty-four years later, Schlesinger, it was written, &quot;equates [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,59746,00.html capitalism with sexism and racism].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who concluded of Hiss, &quot;I believe him to be guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 497-498&lt;/ref&gt; Schlesinger's Harvard colleague, the [[socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Galbraith called for a ''[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C01E5DE113FF932A35756C0A9609C8B63&amp;pagewanted=all new socialism]''.&quot; Cf. chapter XXVII, &quot;The Socialist Imperative,&quot; in John Kenneth Galbraith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=toztAAAAMAAJ Economics and the Public Purpose]'' (New American Library, 1975), pp. 263-269&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Kenneth Galbraith]], likewise blandly accepted &quot;the fact that... Hiss purloined documents.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Kenneth Galbraith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YoXZWqBIIE8C The Great Crash, 1929]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), ISBN 0547248164, p. 165&lt;/ref&gt; Thomas Reed, Secretary of the Air Force in the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, writes, &quot;The Venona transcripts, released in 1997 and identifying Hiss via his code name Ales, and the postwar testimony of defecting Soviet code clerk Igor Gouzenko, remove any doubt about Hiss’s guilt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Reed, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=69Vvboox1JcC At the Abyss: An Insider's History of the Cold War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2005) ISBN 0891418377, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; Berkeley professor J. Bradford DeLong, a former [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration official and [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0307&amp;week=d&amp;msg=%2B1j5choBov/tLTieEa%2B0UA&amp;user=&amp;pw= professed &quot;social democrat,&quot;] writes, &quot;Was Alger Hiss at some time a spy for the Soviet Union? [http://delong.typepad.com/sdj/2007/04/kai_bird_thinks.html Probably].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;DeLong elaborates: &quot;I think that Hiss was guilty.... I think Hiss is more likely than not to be guilty of espionage. I even think that there is clear and convincing evidence that [http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/001822.html Hiss was guilty].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Another [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] official, National Security Adviser Anthony Lake (&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1727695,00.html top foreign policy adviser] to [[Barack Obama]]&quot;), actually went so far as [https://web.archive.org/web/20120317083025/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/fedagencies/february97/lake_2-27a.html to retract] a statement&amp;mdash;made in the wake of Hiss's death&amp;mdash;suggesting that the evidence against Hiss was [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/17/opinion/the-dossier-on-anthony-lake.html less than conclusive]. Even the prominent Democratic Socialist Irving Howe [http://writ.news.findlaw.com/books/reviews/20040806_kutler.html declared Hiss guilty]. [http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/susan_jacoby/2006/12/no_atheists_still_need_apply.html Professed atheist] [http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/susan_jacoby/2008/02/wanted_more_hope_and_charity_l.html Obama supporter] Susan Jacoby writes, &quot;I believe Hiss was guilty of both perjury and spying.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009) ISBN 0300121334, pp. 20-21. Jacoby, who calls herself &quot;an [http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 unabashed liberal and proud of it],&quot; avers, however, that she is &quot;only 98 or 99 percent convinced of Hiss's guilt.&quot; Her residual one to two percent doubt, suggests [[Whittaker Chambers]]' grandson, may be due to her refusal to read the new book, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]''. &quot;According to ''Spies'' co-author Harvey Klehr,&quot; writes Chambers, &quot;Yale's editor Jonathan Brent offered her access to the book's new findings. Apparently, Ms. Jacoby [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/may/22/equally-erring-about-hiss/?page=2 took a pass].&quot; As Jacoby admits, &quot;It has always been difficult for liberals to look objectively at evidence pointing to [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-jacoby22-2009mar22,0,7648164.story Hiss's guilt].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Hiss's ''alma mater'', Harvard Law School, Cass Sunstein, former Administrator of the White House Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs in the Obama administration, agrees, &quot;Most of those who have carefully studied the case, and who have explored evidence emerging long after the trial itself, have concluded that Chambers was telling the truth and that [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-29/how-the-alger-hiss-case-explains-the-tea-party.html Hiss did indeed perjure himself].&quot; Even [http://www.tnr.com/blog/the-plank/reagan-appointee-and-recent-mccain-adviser-charles-fried-supports-obama Obama supporter] Charles Fried, another professor at Harvard Law School (and former Justice of the court that granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the Massachusetts Bar), writes, &quot;it is now clear to [http://www.amacad.org/publications/bulletin/winter2006/Winter2006Bulletin.pdf all but the most obdurate] that Alger Hiss was a Soviet agent.&quot;<br /> <br /> ===''The Nation''===<br /> The lone holdout has been ''[http://www.thenation.com/ The Nation]'', a magazine that &quot;identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-Glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2005) ISBN 0195182553, p. 133.&lt;/ref&gt; The late [http://www.ericbreindel.org/about_eric.html Eric Breindel] tagged it &quot;America's leading forum for Alger Hiss apologia&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in the [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Congressional Record, Vol. 142, No. 50 (Thursday, April 18, 1996)], p. H3645&lt;/ref&gt; [[William F. Buckley]] commented in 1978 that the magazine &quot;has been clinging to the notion of Hiss's innocence over the years with the forlorn adamance of the last survivors of [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&amp;dat=19780518&amp;id=s88VAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=9xEEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=2592,3623339 the Flat Earth Society].&quot; ''The Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948,&quot; writes [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ Princeton Emeritus Professor] John V. Fleming, &quot;and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The magazine's defense of Hiss has tended to ignore the facts and focus on questions of &quot;taste&quot; (&quot;If one has any interest in [http://spectator.org/archives/2008/04/22/the-alger-hiss-democrats our national taste] it is impossible to refrain from asking how American jurors could be persuaded to give credence to such a man as Chambers in preference to such a man as Hiss&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt; Today, according to Slate.com, it is &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [https://web.archive.org/web/20110220084832/http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ remains committed] to the idea of Hiss's innocence.&quot; Nowadays, outside &quot;the ranks of [http://hnn.us/articles/816.html ''Nation'' readers] and a dwindling coterie of academic leftists, there are few people still willing to claim that Alger Hiss and Harry Dexter White were not Soviet agents,&quot; writes Klehr. Radosh agrees, &quot;Except for a dwindling group—mostly [http://hfm.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=publication_details&amp;id=3256 ''Nation'' magazine readers] and editors …. the consensus has solidified: Hiss was undoubtedly a Soviet spy.&quot;<br /> <br /> ====George Soros/The Nation Institute====<br /> While ''The Nation'' itself has managed to avoid substantive discussion of recent evidence concerning the Hiss case in print, the [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 closely-linked] &quot;[http://nationinstitute.org/ Nation Institute]&quot; (funded by billionaire [http://dealbook.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/01/27/george-soros-backs-obama-but-hedges-his-bets/ Obama-booster] [[George Soros]])&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 receives funding from... the Open Society Institute]&quot; which is &quot;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier George Soros]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; has funded two new Web sites dedicated to fighting a rear-guard disinformation campaign against the new evidence.<br /> <br /> =====Tony Hiss=====<br /> The first, called [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/ &quot;The Alger Hiss Story: Search for the Truth&quot;] was created in 2001 &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html with grants from... the Nation Institute].&quot; The site was started by Hiss's son Tony, a visiting scholar at New York University. &quot;The basic question&amp;mdash;whether Alger Hiss was a spy for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s&amp;mdash;was finally settled during the 1990s,&quot; writes Ehrman. &quot;Today, only a small band of true believers, [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html headed by Hiss’s son], still tries to argue his innocence.&quot; [http://www.pulitzer.org/finalists/1983 Pulitzer Prize–winning] author Ted Morgan concurs: &quot;One example of a dupe is Tony Hiss, who has made a career out of filial piety and continues to proclaim the innocence of his father in the face of irrefutable evidence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2004, ISBN 081297302X), p. 635, n. 199&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After Hiss ''fils'' originally set up this site on an NYU server, the university requested that he move it elsewhere &quot;to designate it more clearly as a [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all personal site] rather than an academic one.&quot; The Web site is run [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ out of the home] of &quot;Web master&quot; Jeff Kisseloff, former [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/navobit.html aide to Alger Hiss] and [http://www.thenation.com/authors/jeff-kisseloff archivist] of ''The Nation''.<br /> <br /> Although the site is [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/images/logo2.gif blazoned] &quot;Search for the Truth,&quot; [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html buried] within is the admission that its real purpose is to present only &quot;the case for the defense,&quot; not both sides. Linder warns that &quot;the site maintains a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html decidedly sympathetic] view of Hiss.&quot; Cornell Law Library agrees, &quot;The site has a [http://library2.lawschool.cornell.edu/insiteasp/archive/insite277.html noticeable editorial bias] in favor of Hiss.&quot; ''New York Times Book Review'' editor Sam Tanenhaus concurs, &quot;It's a [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ blatantly pro-Hiss] operation whose agenda is to advocate his innocence.&quot; Greenberg concludes, &quot;I don't think anyone is going to treat this site as the repository of truth, except for those who have [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all already made up their minds] that Hiss was innocent.&quot; Under the snarky headline “[http://sullivanarchives.theatlantic.com/index.php.dish_inc-archives.2001_03_01_dish_archive.html#2902598 FLAT EARTH WATCH],” [https://www.theatlantic.com/daily-dish/archive/2008/11/barack-obama-for-president/209143/ Obama-booster] Andrew Sullivan says the site is dedicated to “the greatest fantasy on the web”&amp;mdash;“the proposition that Alger Hiss was innocent.”<br /> <br /> The site devotes its resources to projects such as hyping the “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/court.html long-awaited]” book, ''The Crimes of Alger Hiss'' (formerly known as ''[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/navasky.html Richard Nixon and the Frameup of Alger Hiss]''), by the late William Reuben, a [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] who once admitted that “if he had heard that on his deathbed Hiss had confessed to being a Communist and Soviet agent, he ‘wouldn’t believe it.’”&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy] (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553, pp. 207-208&lt;/ref&gt; Reuben previously wrote a book called ''The Atom Spy Hoax'', similarly arguing that [[Julius Rosenberg|the Rosenbergs]] were framed.&lt;ref&gt;According to Reuben, the Rosenberg case was &quot;an out-and-out political frame-up&quot; (Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, p. 324), &quot;a vast conspiratorial hoax.... [T]he accused spies...have all been 'framed'...&quot; (Harold Green, &quot;Books,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eAkAAAAAMBAJ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]'', Vol. 8, No. 11 [October 1955], pp. 309-310) <br /> <br /> “Today, with the number of Rosenberg defenders steadily shrinking, let’s stipulate: [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/10/books/review/Roberts-t.html?pagewanted=all Julius was a Soviet spy],” comments the ''New York Times.'' After more than half a century of denial, Rosenberg trial co-defendant Morton Sobell “dramatically reversed himself” in 2008, admitting “for the first time that he had been a Soviet spy.” He also [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all implicated Rosenberg] in a conspiracy to deliver classified information to the Soviets. Even the Rosenbergs' sons have now “admitted to a painful conclusion: that [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?pagewanted=all their father was a spy].”<br /> <br /> While conceding that Julius was a Soviet agent, some on the left claimed that Ethel was innocent. But [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340] New York to Moscow 21 September 1944, made public in 1995, revealed that Ethel was, like Julius, guilty as charged, of conspiracy to commit espionage. This coded Soviet message recorded Ethel's active involvement in Soviet recruitment: “LIBERAL [Julius Rosenberg] recommended the wife of his wife's brother, Ruth GREENGLASS.... She is 21 years old, a TOWNSWOMAN [U.S. citizen], a GYMNAST [“Probably a member of the Young Communist League”] since 1942.... LIBERAL and his wife recommend her as an intelligent and clever girl.<br /> …. [Ruth] learned that her husband ... is now working at the ENORMOUS [Manhattan Project] plant in SANTA FE, New Mexico.” <br /> <br /> Ruth Greenglass's testimony, made public in 2008, corroborated Venona regarding Ethel's guilt. Greenglass testified that Julius urged her to recruit her husband (Ethel's brother), David Greenglass, into a conspiracy to pass atomic secrets to the Soviets, and that Ethel “said that I should at least relay the message, that she felt that David might be interested, he would want to do this.... [S]he urged me to talk to David. She felt that even if I was against it, I should at least discuss it with him and hear what he had to say.” ([http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20080911/rosenbergcasefiles-greenglass-ruth-pg9132to9161.pdf Testimony of Ruth Greenglass], ''U.S. v. Julius Rosenberg, et al.'', August 3, 1950, pp. 6-7)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> =====Svetlana Chervonnaya=====<br /> The second is called “[http://documentstalk.com/ Documents Talk: A Non-Definitive History].” Funding for this project was provided (&quot;[http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely]&quot;) &quot;[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/ by The Nation Institute].” The site was started in 2009 by Svetlana Chervonnaya, who calls herself a “[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/cv_chervonnaya_s.pdf Freelance historian]” operating on a “[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/cv_chervonnaya_s.pdf Research grant from The Nation Institute]” since 2005.<br /> <br /> Chervonnaya is a former &quot;propagandist for the Soviet Union,&quot; according to G. Edward White.&lt;ref&gt;G. Edward White, &quot;[http://www.greenbag.org/v13n1/v13n1_white.pdf Alexander Vassiliev &amp; Alger Hiss, Part II],&quot; ''The Green Bag'', Vol. 13, No. 1 (Autumn 2009) p. 99 (PDF p. 15)&lt;/ref&gt; Eduard Mark agrees that Chervonnaya was &quot;one of the USSR's more prolific propagandists in the twilight years of the USSR.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.26?journalCode=jcws In Re Alger Hiss: A Final Verdict from the Archives of the KGB] [[Journal of Cold War Studies]] 11.3 (Summer 2009): 26-67&lt;/ref&gt; John Earl Haynes concurs, identifying Chervonnaya as a &quot;Moscow historian/propagandist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://hnn.us/comments/135793.html Narcissistic Histrionics] comment on [[History News Network]] July 29, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Chervonnaya is best known&lt;ref&gt;Chervonnaya also collaborated with David Lowenthal (brother of the late John Lowenthal, Alger [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html Hiss's lawyer]), on an [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html online post] seeking to discredit the [[Gorsky memo]].&lt;/ref&gt; as coauthor with Kai Bird (a [http://www.thenation.com/authors/kai-bird contributing editor] at ''The Nation'') of “[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ The Mystery of ‘Ales’],” in which the authors argue that &quot;Ales&quot; was not Hiss, but his colleague Wilder Foote&amp;mdash;despite the fact that, as Eduard Mark shows,&lt;ref&gt;Eduard Mark, “[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a714040012~fulltext=713240930 Who was ‘Venona’s’ ‘Ales’? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],” ''Intelligence and National Security'', 18 [Autumn 2003], pp. 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; Foote spent the 1930s toiling in obscurity as a [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html newspaper editor in rural Vermont], when &quot;Ales&quot; was [http://hnn.us/articles/37456.html working with Harold Glasser] in Whittaker [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf Chambers' GRU group] in Washington. Their argument assumes an [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html all-knowing efficiency] on the part of Gorsky, which, as Mark proved, he did [http://jeffersonflanders.wordpress.com/2009/06/13/the-vassiliev-notebooks-american-elites-and-cold-war-espionage/ not have]. Craig calls Mark's critique &quot;convincing,&quot; adding &quot;I personally find Mark’s overarching conclusion [that “Alger Hiss was an agent of the GRU in the 1930s”] [http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-X-24.pdf convincing].&quot; Moreover, Bird and Chervonnaya's article was based on a flawed and incomplete text of [[Anatoly Gorsky]]’s 5 March 1945 cable, even though the complete, accurate text was [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html made available to them]. In an attempt to clear Hiss, Bird and Chervonnaya accused Foote on the flimsiest of pretexts&amp;mdash;precisely, commented Slate.com, &quot;what they [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415/pagenum/all/ believe McCarthyites did to Hiss].&quot; Haynes and Klehr concur:<br /> {{cquote|Once upon a time, it was called McCarthyism to charge people with being Communists or spies on the basis of slim or no evidence, shaky logic, or the word of one or two informers of dubious reliability. No longer. Bird and Chervonnaya established new standards of proof, in which the absence of evidence is as good as proof. Absolving Alger Hiss of being ALES is apparently that important, even if it means recklessly slandering a long-deceased, distinguished public servant.&lt;ref&gt;4-16-07<br /> John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/37456.html Hiss Was Guilty],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), April 16, 2007&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> &quot;I can only assume that Mr Bird has ulterior motives to besmirch my grandfather's name, possibly for Mr Bird's own celebrity,&quot; commented Foote's grandson. &quot;Quite convenient for him that everyone involved is dead and cannot speak [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/apr/08/russia.davidsmith in their own defence].&quot;<br /> <br /> Tellingly, even ''The Nation'' no longer even acknowledges this article. [http://hnn.us/article/98762#sthash.9mATzwSV.dpuf Haynes observes]:<br /> {{cquote|It is likely that THE NATION and Hiss defenders have assigned Chervonnaya, Bird, and their accusations against Wilder Foote to Orwell’s memory hole.}}<br /> <br /> =====The left-wing echo chamber=====<br /> These disinformation sites work together to create a &quot;left-wing echo chamber,&quot; citing one another, repeating the same assertions until they make their way into the mainstream press. For example, in March 2005, Chervonna posted on the H-HOAC Web site an attempt to discredit the [[Gorsky memo]] as containing &quot;[http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=c&amp;msg=czBexT36qyqr0oCHBC%2b8sQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= nonsense&quot; (a term she repeated four times)]. The following month, Kissiloff (citing Chervonnaya) posted on AlgerHiss.com a version of this piece&amp;mdash;dropping the claims of &quot;nonsense,&quot; but adding an assertion that the date on the document, &quot;(Dec. '48),&quot; was &quot;An [sic] [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/gorskylist.html probable mistake in the dating] (read: 1949), either Alexander Vassiliev's or Gorsky's.&quot; The next month, Chervonnaya posted on the HNN Web site a nearly verbatim copy of this version&amp;mdash;but with &quot;probable mistake&quot; now upgraded to &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Obvious mistake].&quot; She then ([http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/little-chocolate-house-stories-colonel-bykov citing Kissiloff]) [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/chambers-whittaker-april-1-1901-july-9-1961 repeated this] [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/currie-lauchlin-bernard-1902-1993 claim] ''[http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/mirage ad] [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/budenz-louis-francis-1891-1972 nauseam]'' on DocumentsTalk.com. In June 2009, this claim made its way from the Internet into print&amp;mdash;naturally, [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090525/guttenplan in ''The Nation'']. By the following month it had found its way into the pages of London's venerable ''Times Literary Supplement'', in [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/Subscriber_Archive/History_Archive/article6770834.ece a review] by Amy Knight, who &quot;approaches the politically charged Hiss-Chambers Case [http://wcinbooks.whittakerchambers.org/2009/08/amy-knight-how-cold-war-began.html on the side of Alger Hiss]&quot; and &quot;has never found a source on Soviet intelligence she trusts.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jamie Glazov, [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=36268 Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America], FrontPageMagazine.com, September 11, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; As Haynes and Klehr observe:<br /> {{cquote|[Knight] insists that the former KGB officer Alexander Vassiliev misdated the memo and that it is part of a 1949 report. It isn’t. It is a stand-alone document signed by Gorsky and dated December 1948, as the notebooks show. There is no evidence that the dating is incorrect. But why would Knight have preferred it if the document had been dated 1949 rather than 1948? Because she could then put forth a fantasy to explain away the identification of Hiss. Gorsky, she claims without a shred of evidence, was making it up.... [W]hy would Gorsky have written a memo exaggerating the damage done to Soviet intelligence by adding to the lists of those exposed by defectors the names of people who were not Soviet sources? It is difficult enough to be the bearer of truthful bad news to one’s superiors, but to make up bad news is an act of bureaucratic near-suicide.<br /> But there is more. Although Knight conceals it from TLS readers, two other senior KI officers, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, in a report (also dated December 1948) to the chairman of the KI, wrote about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers (A. Hiss, D. Hiss, Wadleigh, Pigman, Reno)”. Does anyone really believe that three senior Soviet intelligence officers in reports to their agency’s chief identified Soviet agents from American newspaper stories rather than agency records? Additionally, another KGB memo, one from 1950, noted that the Soviet GRU agent “Leonard”, identified as a senior State Department official, had just been convicted. The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html was Alger Hiss].}}<br /> <br /> ====''Nation'' personnel====<br /> But even at ''The Nation'', the ardor for Hiss would appear to be cooling. Bird and Chervonnaya, for example, write&amp;mdash;in an article ''defending'' Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;We do not propose to address the larger question of whether Hiss was [http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ guilty or innocent of espionage].&quot; Another recent defense of Hiss, by [http://www.thenation.com/node/22687 ''Nation'' contributor] Robert L. Weinberg &quot;deliberately takes no position&quot; on the issue of whether &quot;[http://www.nacdl.org/__852566CF0070A126.nsf/0/006CB2391D988158852574940067BE2E Alger Hiss was in fact guilty] of spying.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rather than deny that Hiss was a spy, Weinberg argues technicalities, such as &quot;whether Hiss would have been 'not guilty' of the perjury charge in the indictment as a matter of law, [http://www.nacdl.org/__852566CF0070A126.nsf/0/006CB2391D988158852574940067BE2E even if he were found to have been a Soviet agent].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; ''Nation'' [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] Eric Alterman likewise writes regarding Hiss, &quot;I take no position on guilt or innocence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Eric Alterman, &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/venona4.html I Spy With One Little Eye],&quot; ''The Nation'', April 29, 1996, pp. 20-24. A decade later, Alterman still found the evidence inconclusive, although he grudgingly admitted that it had titled &quot;toward Chambers’ version of late and [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9579023/ against Hiss].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Others connected with ''The Nation'' are more candid: Max Holland, a [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=34303 contributing editor at the ''Nation''], writes that &quot;Alger Hiss has been proven to be the 'Ales'<br /> code-named in the Venona intercepts.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Max Holland, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.144 I. F. Stone: Encounters with Soviet Intelligence],&quot; ''The Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, Issue 3 (Summer 2009) p. 164, fn. 61&lt;/ref&gt; Former [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8013479.html Harvard Law professor] and [http://www.thenation.com/node/22680 ''Nation'' contributor] Susan Estrich (author of ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WA5XUA4v-roC The Case for Hillary Clinton]'') admits that &quot;liberal efforts over the years to champion the Rosenbergs, or Alger Hiss, as something other than Communists [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=17066 were misguided].&quot; Cold War scholars have now &quot;[http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=if_stone_journalist_and_spy nailed Alger Hiss],&quot; agrees ''Nation'' [http://www.thenation.com/authors/todd-gitlin contributor] [[Todd Gitlin]] &quot;&amp;mdash;a nailing long overdue on the left.&quot; [http://www.thenation.com/authors/jim-sleeper ''Nation'' contributor] Jim Sleeper, posting on the [http://www.brendan-nyhan.com/blog/2009/07/more-on-the-tabloidization-of-tpm.html liberal] Talking Points Memo blog, concurs, &quot;it's obvious now that many leftists&quot; defended Hiss &quot;long beyond the point where it made political, moral, or even [http://tpmcafe.talkingpointsmemo.com/2009/07/29/an_imperturbably_valiant_lawyer/ simple cognitive sense].&quot; &quot;Vociferously atheistic,&quot; self-styled &quot;radical&quot; Christopher Hitchens&amp;mdash;one of the &quot;25 [https://www.forbes.com/2009/01/22/influential-media-obama-oped-cx_tv_ee_hra_0122liberal.html most influential liberals] in the U.S. media&quot; (and [http://www.thenation.com/authors/christopher-hitchens long-time columnist] for ''The Nation'')&amp;mdash;calls the myth of Hiss's innocence &quot;one of the most persistent (and [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/36492.html repelling) myths] of the [[fellow traveller|fellow-traveling]] Left.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/15/nyregion/15donohue.html Militant atheist]&quot; Hitchens writes of once quipping to the hostess of a dinner party he attended with Alger Hiss, &quot;Why don't we secure the doors and say: 'Look, Alger, it's just us. Come on. You're among friends. Tell us why you really did it.'&quot; (Christopher Hitchens, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RBGmrDnBs8UC Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere]'' [London: Verso, 2000] ISBN 1859847862, pp. 105-106) Hitchens (who says he is considering writing a book called ''Guilty as Hell: A Short History of the American Left'') suggests that the answer is, &quot;because he thought he was [http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/2932161.html onto a winner].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> =====Victor Navasky=====<br /> According to Ehrman, Victor Navasky, [http://www.thenation.com/authors/victor-navasky long-time publisher of ''The Nation''], is &quot;now [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a01p.htm virtually alone] in his rejection of the case against Hiss.&quot; As editor, one thing Navasky &quot;would not permit&quot; in ''The Nation'', writes Powers, was any &quot;public admission that it was [[Whittaker Chambers]] who told the truth and Alger [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/29/books/review/29POWERSL.html?_r=1&amp;pagewanted=print Hiss who lied].&quot; Morgan calls Navasky a &quot;prime example of an opportunist,&quot; who &quot;wrote that the ''Venona'' transcripts were forgeries. One of his friends described him as being 'frozen into false positions.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X), p. 635, n. 199&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Hiss’s defenders stubbornly tried to rebut each revelation,&quot; recounts Ehrman, &quot;but eventually they [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a01p.htm were overwhelmed].&quot; [http://www.thenation.com/authors/nicholas-von-hoffman ''Nation'' contributor] Nicholas von Hoffman,&lt;ref&gt;Von Hoffman wrote prophetically in 1995 of the need to &quot;make liberalism respectable&quot; to what he called &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/print/article/calling-air-america the impressionable, feckless, white-collar American masses]&quot; in order to &quot;put a lefty in the White House.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; a [http://www.newcriterion.com/articles.cfm/-Organized--crime-6271 protégé of Saul Alinsky], is &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/cold-war-ghosts?page=full anything but a right-winger],&quot; admits Navasky, but even he concedes, &quot;The sum and substance of this growing body of material is that Alger Hiss, a darling of the establishment, was guilty.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nicholas Von Hoffman, &quot;Was McCarthy right about the left?&quot; ''The Washington Post'', April 14, 1996, p. C1&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[E]ven many on the left&amp;mdash;including younger historians such as Rick Perlstein&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Perlstein, a [http://www.thenation.com/authors/rick-perlstein ''Nation'' contributor], writes that [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had Hiss &quot;nailed dead to rights,&quot; even before &quot;[[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] produced clinching evidence&quot; in the form of the pumpkin papers. Rick Perlstein, Introduction, in Rick Perlstein, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wFRSat2M0YEC Richard Nixon: Speeches, Writings, Documents]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691136998, pp. xxv-xxvi&lt;/ref&gt; have become convinced that &quot;Hiss was guilty,&quot; observes Slate.com, &quot;although [http://www.slate.com/id/2170415/ old-school loyalists like Navasky] remained skeptical.&quot;<br /> <br /> But even Navasky (once dubbed &quot;[http://www.tnr.com/article/red-dusk the cheerleader] of the 'everybody was innocent' school&quot;) has now retreated, claiming &quot;[http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/37819.html my point is not guilt or innocence].&quot; Today, &quot;instead of forcefully arguing that Hiss wasn't guilty as he once did, Navasky,&quot; now [http://www.cjr.org/about_us/masthead.php chairman] of the ''Columbia Journalism Review'', &quot;acknowledges that [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/magazine/cold-war-without-end.html?sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all Hiss wasn't telling the truth] when he testified that he didn't know Whittaker Chambers.&quot; Nevertheless, in reference to the activities of people &quot;in US left circles.... many of whom were Marxists, some of whom were Communists, some of whom were critical of US government policy,&quot; during this era, argues Navasky, the word &quot;espionage&quot; is &quot;out of context.&quot; He prefers to characterize their activities as &quot;exchanges of information&quot; that happened to be in &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/cold-war-ghosts?page=full violation of the law].&quot; (As critics have noted, such &quot;exchanges&quot; only went [http://reason.com/archives/2004/04/01/fools-for-communism/print one way].) Finally, Navasky asked, &quot;Espionage, is it so bad?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joyce Milton, &quot;[http://business.highbeam.com/4776/article-1G1-18807177/old-left-fort-mcnair-postcard The Old Left: Fort McNair Postcard],&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 4, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====''The Nation'' on consensus====<br /> Such quibbling aside, even at the ''Nation,'' it is now acknowledged that the consensus is that Hiss was guilty. [http://www.thenation.com/authors/athan-g-theoharis ''Nation'' contributor] Athan Theoharis writes that the &quot;[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(200006)87%3A1%3C292%3ATVFAWA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 conventional assessment]&quot; is that Hiss was &quot;an unreconstructed Soviet spy.&quot; Even Bird and Chervonnaya admit, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/ Most historians] have conceded the argument to Weinstein.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Chervonnaya has since suggested that this consensus amounts to an orthodoxy, writing of her &quot;hope of dethroning the autocracy of cold war historical scholarship on the matter of Alger Hiss,&quot; describing her motive as &quot;to [http://www.tnr.com/article/correspondence-11 overthrow the regime].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Speaking of the thesis that Hiss was guilty, Navasky himself conceded in 2007 that “for the last 10 years, that has been [http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_victor_navasky.pdf the consensus].”&lt;ref&gt;Victor Navasky, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145017/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_victor_navasky.pdf Alger Hiss and History]&quot; (Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University), April 5, 2007, p. 6 (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Communism]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_3&diff=1600232 User:FOIA/Archive 3 2019-11-29T07:32:42Z <p>FOIA: /* Keynesian economics */ sp</p> <hr /> <div>=Fascism and the New Deal=<br /> <br /> It is &quot;absurd to ignore, as all our textbooks do, the fact that the New Deal and European fascism grew from the same ideological roots, produced strikingly similar policies, and fostered national cultures that, if not identical, bore the resemblance of siblings,&quot; writes Thaddeus Russell, professor of American Studies at Occidental College,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.oxy.edu/x10401.xml Thaddeus Russell], Occidental College&lt;/ref&gt; where President Obama matriculated.&lt;ref&gt;David Remnick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=F6HAasv2v-4C The bridge: the life and rise of Barack Obama]'' (Alfred A. Knopf / Random House Digital, Inc., 2010) ISBN 1400043603, p. 105&lt;/ref&gt; Naziism and Fascism were in fact &quot;organically connected,&quot; argues Russell, author of ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ohV_-4GJaU0C A Renegade History of the United States]'', to &quot;the New Deal, the basis of what we now know as 'liberalism',&quot; which he calls the &quot;most influential American political movement of the twentieth century.&quot; The New Deal, concludes Russell, &quot;created an economic system that was virtually identical to the national economies established in Italy and Germany, and further consolidated power in the hands of the president.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thaddeus Russell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ohV_-4GJaU0C A Renegade History of the United States]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2011), ISBN 1416576134, pp. 240, 245&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Both Stalin's Russia and Mussolini's Italy influenced the New Deal enormously,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Amity Shlaes, &quot;[http://www.aei.org/article/26390 The Real Deal],&quot; ''The Wall Street Journal'', June 25, 2007&lt;/ref&gt; writes Amity Schlaes, author of ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7fZ6AAAACAAJ The Forgotten Man]''. &quot;[T]he New Deal was often compared with Fascism,&quot; according to cultural historian Wolfgang Schivelbusch.&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 22&lt;/ref&gt; “The slogan into which the Nazis condensed their economic philosophy, ''Gemeinnutz geht vor Eigennutz'' (i.e., the commonweal ranks above private profit) is likewise the idea underlying the American New Deal,” wrote Ludwig von Mises.&lt;ref&gt;Ludwig von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/books/socialism.pdf Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis]'' (Yale University Press, 1951), pp. 578-579&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==&quot;Dictatorial powers&quot;==<br /> Roosevelt presented the New Deal in militaristic terms of &quot;discipline,&quot; sacrificing individual rights for &quot;leadership&quot; promising a greater good. His first inaugural address contained an exhortation that could have been made by Mussolini or Hitler:<br /> {{cquote|[I]f we are to go forward, we must move as a trained and loyal army willing to sacrifice for the good of a common discipline, because without such discipline no progress can be made, no leadership becomes effective.... We are, I know, ready and willing to submit our lives and our property to such discipline, because it makes possible a leadership which aims at the larger good.... I assume unhesitatingly the leadership of this great army of our people.... [I]n the event that the Congress shall fail... I shall ask the Congress for the one remaining instrument to meet the crisis -- broad Executive power to wage a war against the emergency, as great as the power that would be given to me if we were in fact invaded by a foreign foe.&lt;ref&gt;Franklin Delano Roosevelt's First Inaugural Address, Washington, DC, March 4, 1933, in Michael Waldman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bHpQCczJrwkC My Fellow Americans: The Most Important Speeches of America's Presidents, from George Washington to Barack Obama]'' (Sourcebooks, Inc., 2010), ISBN 1402243677, pp. 98-101. In 1932, members of FDR's inner circle urged the new president to deputize the American Legion as -- in Alter's words -- an &quot;extraconstitutional&quot; &quot;private army.&quot; In prepared remarks to be delivered to a meeting of the American Legion (and broadcast as his first radio address after his inauguration), FDR was to tell the assembled veterans, &quot;As new commander-in-chief under the oath to which you are still bound, I reserve to myself the right to command you in any phase of the situation which now confronts us.&quot; (Alter calls this &quot;dictator talk -- an explicit power grab.&quot;) Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, pp. 4-5, as cited in Jonah Goldberg, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/the-raw-deal/ The Raw Deal: A review of ''The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression'' by Amity Shlaes],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. VIII , Number 1 - Winter 2007/08&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Meanwhile, [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a benevolent dictator to force through reforms.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Caldwell, “[http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/the_book_club/features/1999/eleanor_roosevelt_volume_2_19331938/er_authoritarian_and_aristocratic.html ER: Authoritarian and Aristocratic], Slate.com, July 28, 1999. In the crisis of World War II, the First Lady wrote, &quot;I've come to one very clear decision, namely, that all of us -- men in the services, and men and women at home -- should be drafted and told what is the job we are to do. It seems to me there should be immediately a freezing of prices, of profits and of wages .... The only way I can see to get the maximum service out of our citizens, is to draft us all and to tell us all where we can be most useful and where our work is needed.&quot; She thought that private citizens should be regimented into &quot;complying with the wishes and doing the things which those in authority thought should be done.&quot; Eleanor Roosevelt, [https://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1942&amp;_f=md056129 &quot;My Day,&quot; May 10, 1942]&lt;/ref&gt; Soviet intelligence source&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Walter Lippmann]] told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume dictatorial powers&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Griffith, “[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html NEWSWATCH: Comrade of the Powerful],” ''Time'', September 15, 1980&lt;/ref&gt; in his influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann is widely regarded as “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;is essential.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Russell Baker, “[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 A Revolutionary President], ''The New York Review of Books'', Vol. 56, No. 2 (February 12, 2009)&lt;/ref&gt; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved the inauguration with the headline &quot;FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 Author Reconstructs FDR's 'Defining Moment'],” ''Weekend Edition Saturday'', National Public Radio, July 1, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;We called for a Man of Action, and we got one,&quot; wrote New Dealer Donald Richberg. For only the Man of Action could overcome the &quot;inefficiencies and corruptions of popular government&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|The American people might well go down upon their knees and thank God that in that dreadful day there came into power the man who alone could save them — the Man of Action.&lt;ref&gt;Donald Randall Richberg, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=od1AAAAAIAAJ The rainbow: after the sunshine of prosperity, the deluge of the depression, the rainbow of the NRA, what have we learned? Where are we going?]'' (Doubleday, Doran &amp; company, inc., 1936), pp. 2, 14, 294. Cf. James Q. Whitman, &quot;[http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1656&amp;context=fss_papers Of Corporatism, Fascism, and the First New Deal],&quot; ''The American Journal of Comparative Law'', Vol. 39, No. 4 (Autumn, 1991), pp. 747-778. N.B. The New York Times had identified Mussolini as a &quot;man of action&quot; nine years before Richie's [https://books.google.com/books?id=cfIhAQAAMAAJ&amp;focus=searchwithinvolume&amp;q=%22man+of+action%22 first recorded application] of [https://archive.org/stream/Electrical_Workers_Journal_1933-08/Electrical_Workers_Journal_1933-08_djvu.txt this title to FDR]: &quot;Being a man of action rather than words he was among the first to fly to the colors.&quot; Alice Rohe, &quot;[https://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/?action=click&amp;contentCollection&amp;region=TopBar&amp;WT.nav=searchWidget&amp;module=SearchSubmit&amp;pgtype=Homepage#/Mussolini,%20Hope%20of%20Youth,%20Italy%E2%80%99s%20%E2%80%98Man%20of%20Tomorrow%E2%80%99 MUSSOLINI, HOPE OF YOUTH, ITALY'S 'MAN OF TOMORROW'; HARD WORK HIS CREED Scholar and Editor, Self Taught, Is Premier at Thirty-Eight ONCE A SOCIALIST LEADER Spectre of a Bolshevik Government Led Him to Organize Fascisti and Upset Cabinet],&quot; ''The New York Times'', November 5, 1922, p. 109&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> A [[Hollywood]] movie was released about a President of the United States who &quot;revokes the Constitution, becomes a reigning dictator,&quot; and employs &quot;brown-shirted storm troopers,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 Gabriel Over the White House],&quot; allmovie.com&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;by means of whom he not only &quot;declares martial law,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Glenn Erickson, &quot;[http://www.dvdsavant.com/s3054gabr.html Gabriel Over the White House],&quot; dvdsavant.com&lt;/ref&gt; but “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a firing squad.”&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Alter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; This movie was made not by a conservative such as Frank Capra, but by Walter Wanger, a &quot;liberal Hollywood mogul&quot;; in the film, the dictator (&quot;an FDR lookalike&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;Saverio Giovacchini, &quot;[http://archive.li/fJoAG Benjamin L. Alpers, ''Dictators, Democracy, &amp; American Public Culture: Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy, 1920s-1950s''],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 109, No. 2 (April 2004), p. 553&lt;/ref&gt; is not the villain, but ''the hero'', who by such dictatorial means &quot;solves all of the nation's problems.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 Gabriel Over the White House],&quot; allmovie.com&lt;/ref&gt; Roosevelt enjoyed the movie and saw it several times.&lt;ref&gt;Terry Christensen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HnSFQgAACAAJ Reel Politics: American Political Movies from Birth of a Nation to Platoon]'' (Blackwell, 1987) ISBN 0631158448, p. 34. Cf. Peter C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eyTFPMFOskkC Hollywood's White House: The American Presidency in Film and History]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 2005) ISBN 0813191262, p. 153&lt;/ref&gt; Most chilling, FDR wrote that he thought this film “should do much to help.”&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Alter, ''The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007), p. 185. ISBN 0-7432-4601-2. Cf. Jonathan Alter, “[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?_r=1&amp;pagewanted=all The Defining Moment],” ''The New York Times'', May 7, 2006&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Contemporary reporting and commentary==<br /> The mood in Washington at FDR's inauguration was “strangely reminiscent of Rome in the first weeks after the march of the Blackshirts, of Moscow at the beginning of the Five-Year Plan” reported ''The New York Times''. “America today literally asks for orders.” The Roosevelt administration, reported the ''Times,'' “envisages a federation of industry, labor and government after the fashion of the corporative State as it exists in Italy.”&lt;ref&gt;Anne O'Hare McCormick, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60A1FFF3E5C16738DDDAE0894DD405B838FF1D3 VAST TIDES THAT STIR THE CAPITAL; Behind the Tremendous Activity and the Revolutionary Experiments in Washington],&quot; ''The New York Times'' Sunday Magazine, May 7, 1933, p. SM1&lt;/ref&gt; Progressive writer Roger Shaw described the New Deal as “Fascist means to gain liberal ends.”&lt;ref&gt;Roger Shaw, &quot;[http://ia600504.us.archive.org/19/items/northamreview238miscrich/northamreview238miscrich.pdf Fascism and the New Deal],&quot; ''The North American Review'', Vol. 238, No. 6 (December 1934), pp. 559-564&lt;/ref&gt; George Soule, editor of the pro-Roosevelt ''New Republic'' magazine, wrote, &quot;We are trying out the economics of Fascism without having suffered all its social or political ravages.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Henry Soule, ''[http://books.google.com/books?ei=R4CcSoqXK6SCywSm9tzwDg&amp;id=I89fAAAAIAAJ The Coming American Revolution]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1934), p. 294&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;We in America,” wrote liberal journalist Mauritz Hallgren, “are being forced rapidly and definitely into Fascism...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''[http://www.spectator.co.uk/ Spectator]'', August 18, 1933, p. 211&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Fascists on the New Deal==<br /> Mussolini was convinced that the New Deal was copying Fascist economic policies.&lt;ref&gt;Stanley G. Payne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NLiFIEdI1V4C A History of Fascism, 1914-1945]'' (University of Wisconsin Press, 1996) ISBN 0299148742, p. 230&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Reminiscent of Fascism is the principle that the state no longer leaves the economy to its own devices,&quot; wrote Mussolini in a review of FDR's book ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OOiQlusINSUC Looking Forward]''. &quot;Without question, the mood accompanying this sea-change is reminiscent of Fascism.&quot; Mussolini wrote that the book ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nqUCAAAAMAAJ New Frontiers]'', by FDR's Secretary of Agriculture [[Henry Wallace]], was &quot;just as 'corporativistic' as the individual solutions put forth in it... The book leaves no doubt that it is on the road to corporatism...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, pp. 23-24&lt;/ref&gt; On a visit to New York, Mussolini said to Grover Whalen, Chairman of Mayor Fiorello La Guardia's Committee on Receptions to Distinguished Guests, &quot;You want to know what Fascism is? It is like your New Deal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Grover Aloysius Whalen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=t5MsAAAAMAAJ Mr. New York: the autobiography of Grover A. Whalen]'' (Putnam, 1955), p. 188&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nazi Minister of Economics Hjalmar Schacht declared that Roosevelt had the same economic idea as Hitler and Mussolini;&lt;ref&gt;William E. Leuchtenburg, ''[http://ia311511.us.archive.org/3/items/franklindrooseve006302mbp/franklindrooseve006302mbp.pdf Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal]'' (Harper &amp; Row, 1963), p. 203&lt;/ref&gt; the official Nazi Party organ, ''Völkischer Beobachter'', praised what it called &quot;Roosevelt's Dictatorial Recovery Measures&quot;, writing, &quot;We, too, as German National Socialists are looking toward America.... Roosevelt is carrying out experiments and they are bold. We, too, fear only the possibility that they might fail.&quot; The paper applauded “Roosevelt’s adoption of National Socialist strains of thought in his economic and social policies,” commenting, &quot;Many passages in [Roosevelt's] book ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OOiQlusINSUC Looking Forward]'' could have been written by a National Socialist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, pp. 18-19&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hitler himself admired FDR’s approach, saying, “I have sympathy with President Roosevelt because he marches straight toward his objective over Congress, over lobbies, over stubborn bureaucracies.”&lt;ref&gt;Anne O'Hare McCormick, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20716F839591A728DDDA90994DF405B838FF1D3 HITLER SEEKS JOBS FOR ALL GERMANS; 'Does Anything Else Matter?' He Asks, Stressing Efforts to End Unemployment. CROMWELL IS HIS HERO Chancellor Admires Roosevelt for Marching to Objectives Over Congress and Lobbies],&quot; ''The New York Times'', July 10, 1933&lt;/ref&gt; Hitler likewise congratulated Roosevelt for &quot;his heroic effort in the interest of the American People.&quot; He added:<br /> {{cquote|The President's successful struggle against economic distress is being followed by the entire German People with interest and admiration. The Reich Chancellor is in accord with the President that the virtues of sense of duty, readiness for sacrifice, and discipline must be the supreme rule of the whole Nation. This moral demand, which the President is addressing to every single citizen, is also the quintessence of German philosophy of the State, expressed in its motto &quot;The public weal before private gain.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cdojerusalem.org/icons-multimedia/ClientsArea/HoH/LIBARC/ARCHIVE/Chapters/Forging/Foreign/Message.html A Message from Hitler to Roosevelt], history-of-the-holocaust.org&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> But Hitler's admiration for Roosevelt gave way to contempt upon the opening of hostilities. With the German declaration of war against the United States, Hitler would deprecate Roosevelt, not as a tool of the Bolsheviks, but as &quot;the candidate of a Capitalist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/hitler_declares_war.html Hitler Declares War on the United States] (December 11, 1941). Jewish Virtual Library (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Socialists and Communists on the New Deal==<br /> As early as 1933, the manifesto of the first United States Congress Against War and Fascism (a Communist front) &quot;pointed to the NRA, the CCC, and the other policies of the Roosevelt administration as indications of America's preparedness for war and Fascism,&quot; according to FDR's Attorney General Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;Attorney General's list of Subversive Organizations, 1942, page photographically reproduced in M. Stanton Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemys]'' (Crown Forum, 2007), p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; The well-known socialist [[Theodore Dreiser]] (who would become an open Communist in 1945),&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, &quot;Request to Become a Communist,&quot; ''[[The Daily Worker]]'', July 30, 1945, reprinted in Albert Fried, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLJbT3NMbN4C Communism in America: A History in Documents]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231102356, pp. 348-350&lt;/ref&gt; classed FDR with Hitler, Stalin and Mussolini, saying that all used the ideas of [[Karl Marx]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F7061FFF355C1B7A93C0AB1783D85F4C8385F9 Says Roosevelt Uses Karl Marx's Ideas; Theodore Dreiser Adds That So Do Hitler and Stalin],&quot; ''The New York Times'', August 22, 1938&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Dealers on fascism==<br /> &quot;Anyone who wants to look at the writings of the Brain Trust of the New Deal will find that President Roosevelt’s advisers admired the fascist system,&quot; observed President [[Ronald Reagan]], himself a former New Dealer. &quot;They thought that private ownership with government management and control ''a la'' the Italian system was the way to go, and that has been evident in all their writings.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Steven F. Hayward, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=R6N3AAAAMAAJ The age of Reagan: the fall of the old liberal order, 1964-1980] (Forum/Prima, 2001), ISBN 076151337X, p. 681&lt;/ref&gt; Even &quot;intellectual observers of economics and social policies who were otherwise Roosevelt allies,&quot; observes Schivelbusch, &quot;saw a Fascist element at the core of the New Deal.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 27&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Roosevelt’s economic adviser, Rexford Tugwell, the “most prominent of the Brain Trusters and the man often considered the chief ideologist of the 'first New Deal' (roughly, 1933–34),”&lt;ref&gt;Ralph Raico, &quot;[http://www.fff.org/freedom/0201e.asp FDR — The Man, the Leader, the Legacy, Part 11],&quot; ''Freedom Daily'', February 2001&lt;/ref&gt; was &quot;open in his respect for Mussolini's economic policies.&quot; Of the Fascist system he wrote, &quot;It's the cleanest, neatnest [sic], most efficiently operating piece of social machinery I've ever seen. It makes me envious.&quot; Tugwell, &quot;the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; said, “I find Italy doing many of the things which seem to me necessary... Mussolini certainly has the same people opposed to him as FDR has. But he has the press controlled so that they cannot scream lies at him daily.”&lt;ref&gt;Rexford G. Tugwell papers, Series 1, Box 14, Folder: Diary 1934, No. 2, National Archives and Records Administration, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, NY, cited in Maurizio Vaudagna, &quot;[http://rhr.dukejournals.org/content/1977/14-15/3.full.pdf+html The New Deal and Corporativism in Italy],&quot; ''Radical History Review'' (Marxist and Radical Historians' Organization), Vol. 4, No. 2-3 (Spring/Summer 1977), pp. 3-35; doi:10.1215/1636545-1977-14-15-3&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Roosevelt was also a secret admirer of Mussolini, writing to his friend John Lawrence, &quot;I don't mind telling you in confidence, that I am keeping in fairly close touch with that admirable Italian gentleman.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;David F. Schmitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Pzt2AAAAMAAJ The United States and Fascist Italy, 1922-1940]'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1988) ISBN 080781766X, p. 139&lt;/ref&gt; FDR also wrote to U.S. Ambassador to Italy Breckinridge Long about Mussolini, &quot;I am much interested and deeply impressed by what he has accomplished and by his evidenced honest purpose of restoring Italy and seeking to prevent general European trouble.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Elliott Roosevelt, Ed., [http://books.google.com/books?id=aHEbAAAAIAAJ ''F.D.R., His Personal Letters'', Vol. 3] (Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1947), p. 352&lt;/ref&gt; According to ex-Marxist&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Saxon, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/30/us/lewis-feuer-89-scholar-in-sociology-and-government.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Lewis Feuer, 89, Scholar in Sociology and Government], ''The New York Times'', November 30, 2002&lt;/ref&gt; Lewis Feuer, FDR privately acknowledged that “what we were doing in this country were some of the things that were being done in Russia and even some of the things that were being done under Hitler in Germany. But we were doing them in an orderly way.”&lt;ref&gt;Lewis S. Feuer, &quot;American Travelers to the Soviet Union, 1917-32: The Formation of a Component of New Deal Ideology,&quot; ''American Quarterly'', summer 1962, pp. 147-48&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Fabian socialism==<br /> Tugwell was deeply interested in the ideas of the Fabian Society (which &quot;set up the banner of Socialism militant&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;G. Bernard Shaw, &quot;[http://walterschafer.com/fabiansocietyhistory.htm Fabian Tract No. 41: The Fabian Society, Its Early History],&quot; (Fabian Society Reprint, 1899)&lt;/ref&gt; particularly those of [[George Bernard Shaw]] and [[H.G. Wells]]. Referring to Roosevelt's Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins, Tugwell commented, “Miss Perkins was literate in the Fabian tradition, and so were some of the rest of us.” Roosevelt himself, observed Tugwell, “had a good Harvard education when Fabianism was developing, and he probably knew quite well the work of Wells and Shaw.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anne Jackson Fremantle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IRQdAAAAIAAJ This Little Band of Prophets: The British Fabians]'' (New American Library, 1960), p. 233&lt;/ref&gt; But as John T. Flynn, who had supported Roosevelt in the 1932 election, observed, &quot;the line between fascism and Fabian socialism is very thin. Fabian socialism is the dream. Fascism is Fabian socialism plus the inevitable dictator.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John T. Flynn, &quot;The Road Ahead,&quot; ''Reader's Digest'', February 1950, reprinted in Gregory P. Pavlik. ''[http://mises.org/books/forgotten_lessons_flynn.pdf Forgotten Lessons: Selected Essays of John T. Flynn]'' (The Foundation for Economic Education, Inc., 1995) p. 189&lt;/ref&gt; One Fabian socialist from the 1920s and '30s, Oswald Mosley,&lt;ref&gt;Rose L. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9_vvAAAAMAAJ Fabian Freeway: High Road to Socialism in the U.S.A., 1884-1966]'' (Fidelis, 1968), p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; went on to found and lead the British Union of Fascists, in which role he was lauded by Shaw,&lt;ref&gt;Gareth Griffith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aGAEWDI3SR4C Socialism and Superior Brains: The Political Thought of Bernard Shaw]'' (CRC Press, 2002) ISBN 0203210832, p. 263&lt;/ref&gt; who also admired both [[Mussolini]] and [[Hitler]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70810FA3C5513738DDDA90994DA415B838FF1D3 Shaw Heaps Praise Upon the Dictators: While Parliaments Get Nowhere, He Says, Hitler, Mussolini and Stalin Do Things],&quot; From an Address By George Bernard Shaw, ''The New York Times'', December 10, 1933&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Shaw had contempt for freedom. Mussolini, Hitler and other dictators, he wrote, &quot;can depend on me to judge them by their ability to deliver the goods,&quot; rather than by what Shaw dismissed as &quot;comfortable notions of freedom.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHollander98|Hollander 1998]]: 169&lt;/ref&gt; Asked what [[Briton]]s should do if the [[Nazi]]s crossed the channel into [[Britain]], Shaw replied, &quot;Welcome them as tourists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Sowell, &quot;[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/sowell092401.asp Pacifism and war],&quot; ''Jewish World Review'', September 24, 2001 (7 Tishrei, 5762)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Shaw thoroughly endorsed&lt;ref&gt;Edvins Snore, ''[http://www.sovietstory.com/ The Soviet Story]'' ([http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQvsf2MUKRQ Clip])&lt;/ref&gt; the [[Nazi]] doctrine of &quot;life unworthy of life&quot; (''Lebensunwertes Leben'').&lt;ref&gt;Dr. Stuart D. Stein, [http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/mord.htm &quot;Life Unworthy of Life&quot; and other Medical Killing Programmes], University of the West of England&lt;/ref&gt; In the [[BBC]]'s weekly magazine, he made a 1933 &quot;appeal to the chemists to discover a humane gas that will kill instantly and painlessly. Deadly by all means, but humane not cruel...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''The Listener'' (London), February 7, 1934&lt;/ref&gt; His appeal would shortly come to fruition in [[Nazi]] Germany.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The use of poison gas&amp;mdash;first carbon monoxide and then Zyklon B&amp;mdash;was the technological achievement permitting 'humane killing'.&quot; Robert Jay Lifton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bv8IAqVh8EAC The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide]'' (Basic Books, 1986) ISBN 0465049052, p. 453&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> H.G. Wells had similar contempt for human life, writing, &quot;No doubt Utopia will kill all deformed and monstrous and evilly diseased births.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Herbert George Wells, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w_HY2By17g4C A Modern Utopia]'' (London, Odoms Press Ltd., 1908, reprint: Forgotten Books, 2008) ISBN 1606201840, p. 86&lt;/ref&gt; In a 1932 speech at Oxford University, Wells exhorted his audience, “I am asking for a Liberal Fascisti, for enlightened Nazis.”&lt;ref&gt;H.G. Wells, “Liberalism and the Revolutionary Spirit,” ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NxzTAAAAMAAJ After Democracy: Addresses and Papers on the Present World Situation]'' (London: Watts, 1932), p. 24&lt;/ref&gt; Two years later Roosevelt and key members of his “Brains Trust” met with Wells, who judged FDR “the most effective transmitting instrument possible for the coming of the new world order... He is continually revolutionary in the new way without ever provoking a stark revolutionary crisis.”&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mj3VmJ38tHIC The Coming of the New Deal, 1933-1935]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003) ISBN 0618340866, p. 588&lt;/ref&gt; Wells had no difficulty identifying FDR's program as socialism:<br /> {{cquote|The New Deal is plainly an attempt to achieve a working socialism and avert a social collapse in America; it is extraordinarily parallel to the successive 'policies' and 'Plans' of the Russian experiment. Americans shirk the word 'socialism', but what else can one call it?&lt;ref&gt;H. G. Wells, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hzpR2uASeT8C The New World Order]'' (Filiquarian Publishing, LLC., 2007) ISBN 1599868431, p. 46&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wells observed that &quot;the President ... has made himself the spear-head of the collectivising drive&quot;; that he was engaged in &quot;progressive socialisation of the nation&quot;; and that his opposition threatened to &quot;slow down the drift to socialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;H. G. Wells, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hzpR2uASeT8C The New World Order]'' (Filiquarian Publishing, LLC., 2007) ISBN 1599868431, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt; Wells suggested that the President and First Lady were particularly incurious about the source of the ideas they took for granted:<br /> {{cquote|I doubt if these two fine, active minds have ever inquired how it is they know what they know and think as they do. Nor have they ever thought of what they might have been if they had grown up in an entirely different culture. They have the disposition of all politicians the world over to deal only with made opinion. They have never inquired how it is that opinion is made.&lt;ref&gt;H. G. Wells, ''[http://archive.org/download/fateofman013812mbp/fateofman013812mbp.pdf The Fate Of Man]'' (1939), pp. 224-225&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ==Keynesian economics==<br /> &quot;Combined with the relief program and with public works,&quot; wrote Perkins, the the National Recovery Administration (NRA), the [https://exhibitions.cul.columbia.edu/exhibits/show/perkins/national-recovery/national-recovery centerpiece of the &quot;first New Deal,&quot;] constituted &quot;an effective demonstration of the theories which John Maynard Keynes had been preaching and urging upon the English government,&quot; adding:<br /> {{cquote|[Keynes] pointed out that the combination of relief, public works, raising wages by NRA codes, distributing moneys to farmers under agricultural adjustment, was doing exactly what his theory would indicate as correct procedure. He was full of faith that we in the United States would prove to the world that this was the answer.&lt;ref&gt;Frances Perkins, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=AIEhAAAAMAAJ The Roosevelt I Knew]'' (The Viking press, 1946) p. 225&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Keynes had long been sympathetic to corporatist ideas. According to James R. Crotty, Professor Emeritus of Economics and Sheridan Scholar at the University of Massachusetts Amherst:<br /> {{cquote|When Keynes heralded the death of laissez-faire in the 1920s, it was not just macroeconomic policy he had in mind. He called with equal enthusiasm for the state to adopt powerful industrial policies to regulate enterprise and industry behavior. At least in this period, Keynes was unabashedly corporatist.&lt;ref&gt;James Crotty (1998), &quot;[http://people.umass.edu/crotty/JEI_Keynes-corp.pdf Was Keynes a Corporatist? Keynes’s Radical Views on Industrial Policy and Macro Policy in the 1920s],&quot; pp. 2-3&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In his 1936 book, ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money,'' Keynes advocated &quot;a somewhat comprehensive socialization of investment.&quot; Agreeing with Lenin's NEP, Mussolini's corporatism, and Hitler's national socialism, he added, &quot;This need not exclude all manner of compromises and devices by which public authority will co-operate with private initiative.&quot; Nevertheless, he insisted, &quot;The central controls necessary to ensure full employment will, of course, involve a large extension of the traditional functions of government.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Maynard Keynes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xpw-96rynOcC The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money],'' (Atlantic Publishers &amp; Dist, 2006) ISBN 8126905913, p. 378&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In a 1939 interview by the [http://www.amazon.com/Socialism-welfare-state-Fabian-tract/dp/B0007JKJG4 Fabian] Kingsley Martin, published in the ''New Statesman'' (a British journal [http://www.fabians.org.uk/about/the-fabian-story/ founded by leading Fabians]), Keynes conceded that his economic proposals envisioned -- again like the NEP, Fascism and National Socialism -- an &quot;amalgam of private capitalism and state socialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Gilles Dostaler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kyxmAwAAQBAJ Keynes and His Battles]'' (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2007) ISBN 178100837X, p. 98&lt;/ref&gt; In this interview, Keynes dubbed his system &quot;liberal socialism&quot;; in 1944 he would explicitly refer to this approach as yet another a &quot;middle way.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter Kriesler and Claudio Sardoni, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iJGKAgAAQBAJ Keynes, Post-Keynesianism and Political Economy: Essays in Honour of Geoff Harcourt, Volume 3]'' (Routledge, 2002) ISBN 1134825978, p. 164&lt;/ref&gt; That year, he would work together with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr, and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (Yale University Press, 2009) ISBN 0300155727, p. 258&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Dexter White]] to create the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, quintessential [https://www.tni.org/en/archives/act/1495 &quot;Third Way&quot; globalist institutions].<br /> <br /> Keynes had been involved with Fabian socialism since at least his student days at Cambridge.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Holroyd, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hL1GPQAACAAJ Lytton Strachey: A Critical Biography, Vol.1: The Unknown Years,1880-1910]'' (Heinemann, 1967), p. 250; Anne Jackson Fremantle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IRQdAAAAIAAJ This Little Band of Prophets: The British Fabians]'' (New American Library, 1960), p. 230&lt;/ref&gt; Mosley had been a Fabian socialist in 1930, when Keynesian economics was the &quot;officially accepted Fabian line,&quot; notes former Trotskyite&lt;ref&gt;Joel T. LeFevre, [http://www.keynesatharvard.org/site.html About the Author], keynesatharvard.org&lt;/ref&gt; Zygmund Dobbs. Mosley went on to found the British Union of Fascists, which &quot;at first was modeled after Mussolini’s example but later became patterned after Hitler. Through all these tergiversations, Mosley never had to abandon his Keynesist principles.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Zygmund Dobbs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N-g1AQAAIAAJ Keynes at Harvard: economic deception as a political credo],'' (New York: Veritas Foundation, 1960), pp. 88-90&lt;/ref&gt; As a leading Fascist propagandist&lt;ref&gt;James Strachey Barnes led a &quot;major group&quot; established &quot;to promote ... fascism,&quot; and circulate &quot;fascist propaganda,&quot; emphasizing &quot;the positive nature of fascism.&quot; Roger Griffin with Matthew Feldman, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xeHuSpHzqGUC Fascism: The 'Fascist Epoch']'' (Taylor &amp; Francis, 2004) ISBN 0415290198, p. 255&lt;/ref&gt; noted (in a book with a preface by Mussolini):&lt;ref&gt;Gaetano Salvemini, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CaONx1VLelsC Under the Axe of Fascism]'' (Read Books, 2008) ISBN 1443736708, p. 115&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> ::Fascism entirely agrees with Mr. Maynard Keynes, despite the latter’s prominent position as a Liberal. In fact, Mr. Keynes’ excellent little book, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pKBdAAAAIAAJ The End of Laissez-Faire]'' (1926) might, so far as it goes, serve as a useful introduction to fascist economics. There is scarcely anything to object to in it and there is much to applaud.... All this is pure fascist premises.&lt;ref&gt;James Strachey Barnes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?cd=1&amp;id=N_jSAAAAMAAJ Universal Aspects of Fascism]'' (London: Williams and Norgate, 1929), pp. 113-115&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[William Z. Foster]] commented, &quot;The Nazi fascists were especially enthusiastic supporters of Keynes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Z. Foster, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0AdnAAAAMAAJ Outline Political History of the Americas]'' (International Publishers, 1951), p. 597.&lt;/ref&gt; As Harvard economist Joseph Schumpeter observed, in Nazi Germany, &quot;A work like Keynes’ ''General Theory'' could have appeared unmolested&amp;mdash;and did.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph A. Schumpeter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pl4DABZfGREC History of Economic Analysis]'' (Routledge, 2006) ISBN 1134838700, p. 1156&lt;/ref&gt; In the introduction to the 1936 German edition of his treatise, Keynes himself suggested that the total state that the National Socialists were then building was perfectly suited for the implementation of his investment schemes: <br /> {{cquote|The theory of aggregate production that is the goal of the following book can be much more easily applied to the conditions of a totalitarian state than the theory of production and distribution of a given output turned out under the conditions of free competition and a considerable degree of ''laissez-faire''.&lt;ref&gt;Translation in Henry Hazlitt, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HfGxAAAAIAAJ The Failure of the &quot;New Economics&quot;: An Analysis of the Keynesian Fallacies]'' (Van Nostrand, 1959), p. 277 (Original: &quot;Trotzdem kann die Theorie der Produktion als Ganzes, die den Zweck des folgenden Buches bildet, viel leichter den Verhältnissen eines totalen Staates angepaßt werden als die Theorie der Erzeugung und Verteilung einer gegebenen, unter Bedingungen des freien Wettbewerbes und eines großen Maßes von ''laissez-faire'' erstellten Produktion.&quot; John Maynard Keynes, ''Allgemeine Theorie der Beschäftigung, des Zinses und des Geldes'' [Berlin: Duncker &amp; Humbolt, 1936], p. ix)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Moreover, Keynes was at least an ambivalent anti-Semite. He called Albert Einstein &quot;a naughty Jew boy... that kind of Jew... who have not sublimated immortality into compound interest.&quot; This he contrasted with<br /> {{cquote|the other kind of Jews, the ones who are... serving devils, with small horns, pitch forks, and oily tails. It is not agreeable to see civilization so under the ugly thumbs of its impure Jews who have all the money and the power and brains.&lt;ref&gt;Charles Henry Hession, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=S1BqF0GpL3UC John Maynard Keynes: a personal biography of the man who revolutionized capitalism and the way we live]'' (Macmillan, 1984) ISBN 0025513109, pp. 225-226, as cited in Nina Paulovicova, &quot;[http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article/viewFile/1591/1117 The Immoral Moral Scientist. John Maynard Keynes],&quot; ''Past Imperfect'', Vol. 13 (2007), pp. 43-44 (PDF 20-21)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to Keynes:<br /> {{cquote|[Jews] have in them deep-rooted instincts that are antagonistic and therefore repulsive to the European, and their presence among us is a living example of the insurmountable difficulties that exist in merging race characteristics, in making cats love dogs.&lt;ref&gt;Gilles Dostaler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fGIamxBxQgsC Keynes and his battles]'' (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2007) ISBN 1858982669, p. 85&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ==New Deal programs==<br /> ===National Recovery Administration===<br /> Just as Roosevelt expressed to Ambassador Long his admiration of Mussolini, Long in turn reported to Tugwell regarding Fascist economics, “Your mind runs along these lines.... It may have some bearing on the code work under N.R.A.”&lt;ref&gt;Long to Tugwell, May 16, 1934, [http://lccn.loc.gov/mm%2078030502 Breckinridge Long Papers], Box 111, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress&lt;/ref&gt; The NRA&amp;mdash;“the New Deal’s attempt to bring to America the substance of Mussolini’s corporativism”&lt;ref&gt;Leonard Peikoff, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2_xpAAAAIAAJ The Ominous Parallels]'' (Stein and Day, 1982) ISBN 081282850X, p. 293&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;was established by the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933--[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/landmark_schechter.html centerpiece of the New Deal legislation]--which was “similar to experiments being carried out by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy and by the Nazis in Adolf Hitler's Germany,” according to John A. Garraty,&lt;ref&gt;John Arthur Garraty, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DGRuAAAAMAAJ The American Nation]'', 4th ed., vol. 2 (Harper &amp; Row, 1979) ISBN 0060422696, p. 656. Cf. John A. Garraty, &quot;[http://www.wagner.edu/departments/gap/sites/wagner.edu.departments.gap/files/download/garraty%20new%20deal.pdf The New Deal, National Socialism, and the Great Depression],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 78, No. 4 (Oct., 1973), pp. 907-944&lt;/ref&gt; president of the Society of American Historians.&lt;ref&gt;[http://sah.columbia.edu/content/history History], The Society of American Historians&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;There was hardly a commentator who failed to see elements of Italian corporatism in Roosevelt's managed economy under the National Recovery Administration, the institution formed in 1933 to maintain mandatory production and price 'codes' for American industry,&quot; wrote Schivelbusch.&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 23&lt;/ref&gt; According to Leon Keyserling, chairman of [[Harry Truman|President Truman]]'s Council of Economic Advisers, NIRA had grown out of the 1931 &quot;Swope Plan,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/keyserl1.htm Oral History Interview with Leon H. Keyserling], Washington, D. C., May 3, 1971, p. 7 (Harry S. Truman Library, National Archives and Records Administration)&lt;/ref&gt; which, aping Mussolini, had proposed &quot;a national organization of modified cartels in which competition would be limited, overproduction governed, workers and investors vigorously protected,&quot; all controlled by &quot;some Federal supervisory body.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,742325,00.html INDUSTRY: Swope Plan], ''Time'', Monday, September 28, 1931&lt;/ref&gt; As one NRA study concluded, “The Fascist principles are very similar to those which have been evolving in America and so are of particular interest at this time.”&lt;ref&gt;Janet C. Wright, &quot;Capital and Labor Under Fascism,&quot; National Archives, Record Group 9, Records of the National Recovery Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/009.html#9.2.4 Special Research and Planning Reports and Memoranda, 1933-35], Entry 31, Box 3&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The Italian Fascist Party journal of political theory ''Gerarchia'' (Leadership) characterized the NRA as &quot;bearing a Fascist signature&quot; and as &quot;corporatism without the corporations.&quot; Progressive journalist Roger Shaw agreed, &quot;The NRA... was plainly an American adaptation of the Italian corporate state.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roger Shaw, &quot;[http://ia600504.us.archive.org/19/items/northamreview238miscrich/northamreview238miscrich.pdf Fascism and the New Deal],&quot; ''The North American Review'', Vol. 238, No. 6 (December 1934), pp. 559-564&lt;/ref&gt; When Roosevelt referred to the industrial cartels established by the NRA as &quot;modern guilds,&quot; writes Schivelbusch, he was making &quot;reference to the corporatist system associated with Fascism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, pp. 24, 27, 30&lt;/ref&gt; FDR's own economics instructor at Harvard&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.montaguemillennium.com/familyresearch/h_1961_gilbert.htm Gilbert Holland Montague, 1880-1961], montaguemillennium.com&lt;/ref&gt; concurred, identifying the NRA as &quot;essentially fascistic.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert H. Montague, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1019193 Is NRA Fascistic?]&quot; ''The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences,'' July, 1935, pp. 149-161&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Just as Mussolini “organized each trade or industrial group or professional group into a state supervised trade association” that “operated under state supervision and could plan production, quality, prices, distribution, labor standards, etc.,”&lt;ref&gt;John T. Flynn, ''[http://mises.org/books/rooseveltmyth.pdf The Roosevelt Myth]'' (The Devin-Adair Company, 1948) pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt; the NRA “forced virtually all American industry, manufacturing, and retail business into cartels possessing the power to set prices and wages, and to dictate the levels of production.”&lt;ref&gt;Richard M. Ebeling, &quot;[http://www.fee.org/pdf/the-freeman/1005RMEColumn.pdf When the Supreme Court Stopped Economic Fascism in America],&quot; ''The Freeman'', Vol. 55, No. 8 (October 2005), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hugh Johnson====<br /> As head of the NRA and thus “FDR’s leading bureaucrat,”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/hsjohnson.htm Hugh Samuel Johnson], arlingtoncemetary.net&lt;/ref&gt; the President appointed&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.condenaststore.com/Politicians/General-Hugh-Johnson/invt/103630 General Hugh Johnson], Condé Nast store&lt;/ref&gt; General Hugh Johnson, who was granted “almost unlimited powers over industry.”&lt;ref&gt;Associated Press, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FC3E5F1A7A93CBA8178ED85F478385F9 Johnson Chosen Industry Chief],&quot; ''The New York Times'', May 19, 1933, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; According to economist Thayer Watkins (who teaches economic history at California’s San José State University),&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/economics/faculty/thayer.htm Thayer Watkins, Ph.D.], Faculty &amp; Staff, Economics, San José State University&lt;/ref&gt; Johnson was “an admirer of Mussolini’s National Corporatist system in Italy and he drew upon the Italian experience in formulating the New Deal.”&lt;ref&gt;Thayer Watkins, &quot;[http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/corporatism.htm The Economic System of Corporatism],&quot; Department of Economics, San José State University&lt;/ref&gt; Walker F. Todd, research fellow at the American Institute for Economic Research, agrees that Johnson “did admire greatly what Mussolini appeared to have done,” identifying the NRA as a “thoroughly corporativist” idea.&lt;ref&gt;Walker F. Todd, &quot;[http://www.aei.org/docLib/Todd%20-%20The%20Federal%20Reserve%20Board%20and%20the%20Rise%20of%20the%20Corporate%20State.pdf The Federal Reserve Board and the Rise of the Corporate State, 1931-1934],&quot; ''Economic Education Bulletin'', Vol. XXXV No. 9 (September 1995) pp. 6, 34&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Jonah Goldberg, Johnson displayed a portrait of ''Il Duce'' in his NRA office and actually distributed a memo at the 1932 Democratic Convention proposing that [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/the-raw-deal/ the entire Congress and Supreme Court be sent into temporary exile] and that &quot;FDR become a Mussolini-like dictator.”&lt;ref&gt;Jonah Goldberg, [http://corner.nationalreview.com/post/?q=Mjc0ZmFlMDFiNDJkODdjYjE3NDY5OGVlY2JiZWRmNjM= Hendrick Hertzberg &amp; The F-Word], The Corner (National Review Online), March 5, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; In his retirement speech, Johnson invoked what he called the “shining name” of Mussolini.&lt;ref&gt;Hugh Samuel Johnson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7J1YAAAAYAAJ The Blue Eagle, from Egg to Earth, Vol. 4]'' (Doubleday, Doran &amp; company, inc., 1935), p. 405&lt;/ref&gt; Johnson was said to carry around with him a copy of Raffaello Viglione’s pro-Mussolini book,&lt;ref&gt;Sheldon Richman, &quot;[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Fascism.html Fascism],&quot; ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics'', econlib.org&lt;/ref&gt; ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vIJQHAAACAAJ The Corporate State]'', and presented a copy to Perkins.&lt;ref&gt;Frances Perkins, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=AIEhAAAAMAAJ The Roosevelt I Knew]'' (The Viking press, 1946) p. 206. Socialist (Kent Worcester, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TwTTArAPWswC C.L.R. James: A Political Biography]'' [SUNY Press, 1995] ISBN 079142751X, p. 175) George Rawich wrote that Perkins told him Johnson gave each member of the Cabinet a book by [http://www.marxists.org/archive/rawick/1969/xx/self.html Fascist theoretician Giovanni Gentile], “and we all read it with great care.” Schivelbusch suggests the book was actually [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo172.html Mussolini advisor] Fausto Pitigliani’s ''The Italian Corporativist State.'' (Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' [Macmillan, 2006] ISBN 080507452X, p. 203, n. 28)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> Roosevelt appointed Johnson’s former business partner George Peek to head the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). Both men had “worked with the War Industries Board, the agency that regulated American production during World War I, and they believed their experience of managing an economy almost totally sealed off from the world market would suit the country now.”&lt;ref&gt;Eric Rauchway, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BtSU6ZaCbzMC The Great Depression &amp; the New Deal: A Very Short Introduction]'' (Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 0195326342, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; They had long advocated a policy of expanding tariffs to keep foreign agricultural products out of the United States,&lt;ref&gt;William J. Barber, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Nks8pTPnsVYC From New Era to New Deal: Herbert Hoover, the Economists, and American Economic Policy, 1921-1933]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1989) ISBN 0521367379, p. 50&lt;/ref&gt; a policy that would have again rendered the U.S. economy “almost totally sealed off from the world market”&lt;ref&gt; Neil Vousden, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uabXBMnp7XgC The Economics of Trade Protection]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1990) ISBN 052134669X, p. 91&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a fair approximation of “[http://www.economist.com/research/economics/alphabetic.cfm?letter=A#autarky autarky],” an economic policy particularly but not exclusively “associated with Nazi economic organization.”&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Pleuger, &quot;[http://www.history-ontheweb.co.uk/concepts/autarky.htm Economic autarky],&quot; ''new perspective'' Vol 6, No 3&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, the AAA was analogous to the Reich Food Estate, which had been established in Germany by the Nazis to similarly dictate agricultural production quotas and prices.&lt;ref&gt;Matthew S. Seligmann, John Davison and John McDonald, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=g13k9CMYTbsC Daily life in Hitler's Germany]'' (Macmillan, 2004), ISBN 0312328117, p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; Like the AAA (and Mussolini's &quot;Battle for Grain&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;John Francis Pollard, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=UpzyGA3PKqcC The Fascist experience in Italy]'' (Psychology Press, 1998), ISBN 0415116325, p. 88&lt;/ref&gt; the Reich Food Estate promoted agricultural protectionism&lt;ref&gt;Shelley Baranowski, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iA-NZ_RgP5kC Nazi Empire: German Colonialism and Imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2010) ISBN 0521674085, p. 195&lt;/ref&gt; in pursuit of autarky.&lt;ref&gt;Richard J. Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006), ISBN 0143037900, p. 346&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Civilian Conservation Corps===<br /> &quot;The German Labor Service (''Reichsarbeitsdienst''&amp;mdash;RAD) arose from a party organization set up in 1931 and known as the ''NS-Arbeitsdienst'' for the purpose of easing unemployment,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;United States War Department, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b3W1tiuHzcoC Handbook on German Military Forces]'' (Washington: GPO, 1945) p. 203&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;like its New Deal equivalent, the Civilian Conservation Corps [CCC],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;David Schoenbaum, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1wNCSxrUlyMC Hitler's Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933-1939]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1997) ISBN 0393315541, p. 78&lt;/ref&gt; which would be established two years later.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14609 Executive Order 6101 Starting The Civilian Conservation Corps], The American Presidency Project, University of California - Santa Barbara&lt;/ref&gt; According to Garraty, both<br /> {{cquote|were essentially designed to keep young men out of the labor market. Roosevelt described work camps as a means for getting youth ‘off the city street corners,’ Hitler as a way of keeping them from ‘rotting helplessly in the streets.' In both countries much was made of the beneficial social results of mixing thousands of young people from different walks of life in the camps. Furthermore, both were organized on semimilitary lines with the subsidiary purposes of improving the physical fitness of potential soldiers and stimulating public commitment to national service in an emergency.&lt;ref&gt;John A. Garraty, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1858346 The New Deal, National Socialism, and the Great Depression],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 78, No. 4 (October, 1973), pp. 907-944&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The CCC &quot;smacks of Fascism, of Hitlerism, of a form of Sovietism,&quot; observed William Green, president of the American Federation of Labor.&lt;ref&gt;Jean Edward Smith ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Uezmu4jQC_UC FDR]'' (Random House, 2008), ISBN 0812970497, p. 340&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The American side, and especially President Roosevelt himself, was strikingly open and receptive to ideas emanating from Nazi Germany,&quot; writes historian [http://www.eui.eu/DepartmentsAndCentres/HistoryAndCivilization/People/Professors/Patel.aspx Kiran Klaus Patel]. According to Patel, there was at least one actual &quot;intercultural transfer,&quot; in which the CCC studied and adopted (&quot;on personal orders from Roosevelt&quot;) a program for training aviation mechanics modeled after the Flyer Hitler Youth.&lt;ref&gt;Kiran Klaus Patel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nqTsBdOzNF4C Soldiers of labor: labor service in Nazi Germany and New Deal America, 1933-1945]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005), ISBN 0521834163, pp. 278, 289&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===National Youth Administration===<br /> The National Youth Administration (NYA) was conceived as a New Deal “alternative to the Hitler Youth,” designed to hold young people “to their patriotic loyalties.”&lt;ref&gt;Richard A. Reiman , ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=wRNiQgAACAAJ The New Deal &amp; American Youth: Ideas &amp; Ideals in a Depression],'' (University of Georgia Press, 1992) ISBN 0820314072. Cf. Herbert Mitgang, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/13/books/books-of-the-times-on-the-new-deal-s-effort-to-put-youth-to-work.html On the New Deal's Effort to Put Youth to Work],&quot; ''The New York Times'', January 13, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Harry Hopkins -- whom Ishkak Akhmerov, the NKVD's leading illegal officer in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718, p. 154&lt;/ref&gt; identified as &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053, p. 230&lt;/ref&gt; (according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2001/jan/30/freedomofinformation.uk highest-ranking KGB officer ever to defect]) -- told the the NYA's Advisory Committee, “we have a lawyer who will declare anything you want to do legal.”&lt;ref&gt;Barton J. Bernstein and Allen J. Matusow (eds.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=W-U5AAAAMAAJ Twentieth-Century America: Recent Interpretations]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972) ISBN 0155923919, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Hopkins had hired the Communist&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]&lt;/ref&gt; lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] back into the government immediately after he was &quot;purged&quot; from AAA.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]&lt;/ref&gt; According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32)&lt;/ref&gt; Among his other hires was [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]'s [http://www.sappho.com/letters/e_roosevelt.html close friend] Lorena Hickok, whom Hopkins brought into the government on [http://web.archive.org/web/20101104032911/http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/hickok-lorena.htm Mrs. Roosevelt's recommendation]. Hickok wrote, &quot;If I were 20 years younger and weighed 75 pounds less, I think I'd start out to be the Joan of Arc of the Fascist Movement of the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lorena A. Hickok, et al., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nstfz85S4ccC One Third of a Nation: Lorena Hickok Reports on the Great Depression]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1983) ISBN 0252010965, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==&quot;Friendly Fascism&quot;==<br /> Even some New Dealers have come to see the essential similarities between their ideology and fascism. For example, according to ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KLmyw-p7IwUC Friendly Fascism]'', by left-wing political science professor Bertram Gross, a leading architect of liberal social policy under presidents Roosevelt, Truman and Carter:&lt;ref&gt;Richard Poe , “[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=22062 Third Way or Third Reich?]” FrontPageMagazine, June 22, 2000&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|I sought solutions for America's ills... through more power in the hands of central government.... In this I was not alone. Almost all my fellow planners, reformers, social scientists, and urbanists presumed the benevolence of more concentrated government power.<br /> Big Business-Big Government partnerships ..., were the central facts behind the power structures of old fascism in the days of Mussolini, Hitler and the Japanese empire builders.... I see Big Business and Big Government as a joint danger.... Anyone looking for black shirts, mass parties or men on horseback will miss the telltale clues of this creeping fascism.... In America, it would be supermodern and multiethnic&amp;mdash;as American as Madison Avenue, executive luncheons, credit cards and apple pie. It would be fascism with a smile.}}<br /> While writing his book, Gross dreamed that he was searching through a huge, empty house for &quot;friendly fascists.&quot;<br /> {{cquote|I flung open one of the doors,&quot; Gross writes. &quot;And there sitting at a typewriter and smiling back at me, I saw myself.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bertram Myron Gross, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KLmyw-p7IwUC Friendly Fascism: The New Face of Power in America]'' (South End Press, 1980) ISBN 0896081494, pp. 3-5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ==Myths==<br /> Several myths have formed around the Great Depression. Among these are the myth that the Depression was brought to an end by the New Deal, or by the &quot;wartime prosperity&quot; of World War II. Neither of these is true. One study found that New Deal policies actually prolonged the depression by about seven years.&lt;ref&gt;Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian, &quot;[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 New Deal Policies and the Persistence of the Great Depression: A General Equilibrium Analysis],&quot; ''Journal of Political Economy'', Vol. 112, No. 4 (August 2004), pp. 779-816; Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian, &quot;[http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf New Deal Policies and the Persistence of the Great Depression: A General Equilibrium Analysis],&quot; Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staff Report XXX, February 2003. Cf. Meg Sullivan, &quot;[http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx FDR's policies prolonged Depression by 7 years, UCLA economists calculate], UCLA Newsroom, August 10, 2004&lt;/ref&gt; In fact, Americans' personal consumption did not rebound to 1929 levels until 1941.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.census.gov/statab/hist/02HS0034.xls No. HS--34. Personal Consumption Expenditures in Current and Real (1996) Dollars, 1929 to 2001], The 2009 Statistical Abstract: Historical Statistics, U.S. Census Bureau&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[T]he consensus among historians today,&quot; writes Schivelbusch, is &quot;that the United States completely emerged from the Depression only with its entry into World War II.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; Although the conscription of some 10 million young men into the armed forces reduced the civilian unemployment rate during World War II, the standard of living in the U.S. actually declined during the war. Using the Friedman-Schwartz price index, economist Robert Higgs found that real personal consumption per capita actually declined by more than 6 percent during 1941-1943, and did not recover to the 1941 level until 1946.&lt;ref&gt;Robert Higgs, &quot;[http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/eb/alston/econ8534/SectionXII/Higgs,_Wartime_Prosperity.pdf Wartime Prosperity? A Reassessment of the U.S. Economy in the 1940s],&quot; ''The Journal of Economic History'' (Economic History Association: Cambridge University Press), Vol. 52, No. 1 (March 1992), pp. 41-60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> &lt;references/&gt;</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_1&diff=1600226 User:FOIA/Archive 1 2019-11-29T06:13:14Z <p>FOIA: /* Fabian Society */ sp</p> <hr /> <div>=Left-wing anti-Semitism=<br /> Although many leftists [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2009-08-11/news/0908100426_1_town-hall-meetings-swastikas-bob-macguffie try] to [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNQTwSZCPo deny] it, “modern, political anti-Semitism is a creature of the left as well as the right,” admits Warwick University Sociology Professor Robert Fine, a [http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/emeritus/robertfine/home/mycv/ member] of the [http://www.cseweb.org.uk/ Conference of Socialist Economists].&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006).&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[A]nti-Semitism that we might call populist or democratic.... is linked equally to the left and right,&quot; agrees George L. Mosse, professor of history at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, &quot;to the new nationalism, but also to certain tendencies in socialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; Omer Bartov of Brown University comments:<br /> {{cquote|[O]ne of the most frightening aspects of Hitler's book is not that he said what he said at the time, but that much of what he said can be found today in innumerable places ... As long as it does not have Hitler's name attached to it, this deranged discourse will be ignored or allowed to pass. The voices that express these opinions do not belong to a single political or ideological current ... They belong to the right and the left, to the religious and the secular, to the West and the East, to the rabble and the leaders, to terrorists and intellectuals, students and peasants, pacifists and militants, expansionists and anti-globalization activists.&lt;ref&gt;Omer Bartov, &quot;[http://www.tnr.com/article/he-meant-what-he-said He Meant What He Said],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 2, 2004&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Twenty-five years ago in the heart of the Cold War debate, anti-Americanism, anti-Israeli sentiment, and anti-Semitism &quot;were fringe phenomena while now they are more fashionable and mainstream ... [T]hese sentiments are no longer the monopoly of any particular part of the political spectrum. They are there on the European Left, Right, and in the center,&quot; agrees Jeffrey Gedman, president of London's Legatum Institute.&lt;ref&gt;Jeffrey Gedmin, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=633&amp;TTL=Experiencing_European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Israelism Experiencing European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Israelism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 27 (December 2004), Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Origins of left-wing anti-Semitism==<br /> There were “strong anti-Semitic currents on the European left in Marx’s time,&quot; writes Fine; &quot;[T]here is a strong tradition of [https://www.ushmm.org/media/emu/get?irn=544974&amp;mm_irn=32140&amp;file=primary anti-Semitism on the Left].”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; One &quot;need not venture far into the pre-1930 literature of anti-economics before encountering conspicuous anti-Semitic effusions,&quot; observes William Coleman of the Australian National University. &quot;One may say that, before about 1930, anti-economics and anti-Semitism existed in striking conjunction.&quot; He adds that &quot;the conjunction was not accidental... [A]nti-economics and modern anti-Semitism shared some leading ideological contentions.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Coleman, &quot;[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/history_of_political_economy/v035/35.4coleman.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'', Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), pp. 759-777&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> From the outset, according to French historian Marc Crapez, European racism and socialism were closely affiliated.&lt;ref&gt;Marc Crapez, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=l-dtAAAAMAAJ L'antisémitisme de gauche au XIXe siècle]'' (Paris: Berg international, 2002) ISBN 2-911289-43-9&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, &quot;anti-capitalism and anti-Semitism were deeply intertwined,&quot; writes Mosse. &quot;[I]n fact, they had been connected since the middle-ages.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For centuries, Jewish economic success led anti-Semites to condemn capitalism as a form of Jewish domination and exploitation,&quot; writes Columbia University history professor Jerry Z. Muller, &quot;or to attribute Jewish success to unsavory qualities of the Jews themselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jerry Z. Muller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nMZ_w0mFGIgC Capitalism and the Jews]'' (Princeton University Press, 2010) ISBN 0691144788, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The Marxist, postmodern and post-Zionist pseudo-liberal views on democracy lead back to the totalitarian democracy of the French Enlightenment, in which anti-Semitism formed an essential ingredient,” writes Shlomo Sharan of Tel Aviv University.&lt;ref&gt;Shlomo Sharan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5U-Dk-5p0mIC Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk]'' (Sussex Academic Press, 2003) ISBN 1903900522 , p. 125&lt;/ref&gt; At that time, &quot;the Jews symbolised the distressing symptoms of modernity ushered in by capitalism and political liberalism,&quot; writes Christian Wiese, professor of Jewish history at the University of Sussex.&lt;ref&gt;Christian Wiese, &quot;Modern Antisemitism and Jewish Responses in Germany and France,&quot; in Michael Brenner, Vicki Caron and Uri R. Kaufmann, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b2DN7yDuCyoC Jewish emancipation reconsidered: the French and German models]'' (Mohr Siebeck, 2003) ISBN 316148018X, p. 136&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> {{cquote|Dissatisfaction with the practical consequences of Liberalism was even stronger in economic than in political matters; anti-capitalism was, after all, one of the oldest and most natural forms of anti-Semitism. Liberal society was characterized by a high degree of social mobility with a premium on individual worth and ability. Perhaps this pill was the hardest to swallow. All those who had an assured place in an ordered hierarchy, even if it was a comparatively low one, looked with distaste on an order which allowed others to rise to positions of eminence and influence ... anti-Semitism is anti-capitalist since capitalism is one of the causes of social mobility.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The Rise of Political Anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria] (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> “[T]he sudden prominence of a few Jews who benefited from economic liberalisation provoked a backlash from the Left.”&lt;ref&gt;David Cesarani, ''[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/ressources/left_jews/Left_Jews_final.pdf The Jews and the Left] (Labour Friends of Israel 2004) ISBN 0 9500536-5-1, p. 3 (PDF p.9)&lt;/ref&gt; In France, writes Göttingen historian Karlheinz Weissmann, many on the left saw the Jews &quot;as the embodiment of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Some of the most prominent thinkers of the Enlightenment were virulent anti-Semites: Voltaire denounced the Jews as &quot;the greatest scoundrels who have ever sullied the face of the globe&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Hertzberg and Aron Hirt-Manheimer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hiWBs5HM_E0C Jews: the essence and character of a people]'' (HarperCollins, 1998) ISBN 0060638354, p. 164&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews, he wrote, &quot;deserve to be punished,&quot; for it is their &quot;destiny.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Avner Falk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_0WOiZj0oC Anti-semitism: a history and psychoanalysis of contemporary hatred]'' (ABC-CLIO, 2008) ISBN 0313353840, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jewish nation dares to display an irreconcilable hatred toward all nations, and revolts against all masters,&quot; wrote Voltaire, &quot;always superstitious, always greedy for the well-being enjoyed by others, always barbarous&amp;mdash;cringing in misfortune and insolent in prosperity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Voltaire, ''Essai sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations'', Introduction, [http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/11/07INTFIN.html#i42 XLII: Des Juifs depuis Saül], 1753&lt;/ref&gt; Immanuel Kant expressed similar views: &quot;'The Jews still cannot claim any true genius, any truly great man. All their talents and skills revolve around stratagems and low cunning ... They are a nation of swindlers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Socialist Anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;It was in those days that the complaint arose that Jews were 'unproductive middle men,' 'economic parasites,'&quot; wrote Edward H. Flannery, a professor at the Institute of Judeo-Christian Studies at Seton Hall University.&lt;ref&gt;Eric Pace, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/22/us/the-rev-edward-flannery-86-priest-who-fought-anti-semitism.html The Rev. Edward Flannery, 86, Priest Who Fought Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The New York Times'', October 22, 1998&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;It was shaped for the most part by socialist writers and became a favorite theme with later racist antisemites of a socialist stripe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward H. Flannery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J40gNC7cxfYC The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism]'' (Paulist Press, 2004) ISBN 0809143240, p. 168&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Certain anti-economists affiliated with the socialist movement held Jews<br /> to be potentates of an oppressive contemporary social order.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt; Among the French Left, observes Weissmann, were &quot;numerous individuals and groups who considered class struggle and race struggle as one and the same thing&amp;mdash;especially with reference to the Jews....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “Socialist anti-Semitism is indeed almost as old as modern Socialism,” writes historian Edmund Silberner of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” Scripta Hierosolymitana, vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; Early socialism was inseparable from anti-Semitism, portraying Jews as exploiters, leeches and parasites.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” ''Scripta Hierosolymitana'', vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[V]irtually every major figure in the early history of socialism — including Friedrich Engels, Charles Fourier, Ferdinand Lassalle, Marx, and Joseph Proudhon — showed a marked antipathy to Jews,&quot; observes Daniel Pipes.&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Pipes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PPdv8sAtZ4UC Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1999) ISBN 0684871114, p. 88&lt;/ref&gt; In his comprehensive survey of French socialist literature from 1820 to 1920, historian Zosa Szajkowski found not a single word on behalf of Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Zosa Szajkowski, ''[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4464737 The Jewish Saint-Simonians and Socialist Antisemites in France]'', ''Jewish Social Studies'', Vol. 9, No. 1 (January, 1947), pp. 33-60 &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Leroux===<br /> Pierre Leroux (1797-1871), who coined the word &quot;socialism&quot;, “identified the Jews with the despised capitalism, and regarded them as the incarnation of mammon, who lived by exploiting others.”&lt;ref&gt;Dennis Prager and Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC Why the Jews?: the reason for antisemitism]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2003) ISBN 0743246209, p. 127&lt;/ref&gt; He said, &quot;When we speak of the Jews, we mean the Jewish spirit – the spirit of profit, of lucre, of gain, the spirit of commerce, of speculation, in a word, the banker spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lewis S. Feuer and Irving Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8TwfWRr21zEC Ideology and the Ideologists]'' (Transaction Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1412814421, p. 141&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The true successor of Napoleon,&quot; wrote Leroux, &quot;is the Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fichte===<br /> &quot;[T]hrough almost all countries of Europe there is spreading a powerful, hostile state, which is perpetually at war with all other States, and which in some of them oppresses the citizens with the utmost severity: it is Jewry.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Leshem, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NGSAAAAAIAAJ Balaam's curse: how Israel lost its way, and how it can find it again]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1989) ISBN 067167918X, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt; wrote the early socialist Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814). &quot;I see no other means of protecting ourselves against them, than by conquering their Promised Land and sending them all there.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; Elsewhere, he suggested a more radical solution, in which Gentiles &quot;chop off all their [Jews'] heads and replace them with new ones, in which there would not be a single Jewish idea.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jon Stratton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Blh7RLQVIUcC Jewish identity in Western pop culture: the Holocaust and trauma through modernity]'' (Macmillan, 2008), ISBN 0230604749, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt; In Fichte's text &quot;we see the beginnings of the 'anticapitalist' impulse in modern antisemitism, which became central to revolutionist agendas for the redemption of humanity through the regeneration of Jewry,&quot; observes [http://www.gf.org/fellows/8291-anthony-j-la-vopa Guggenheim Fellow] Anthony J. LaVopa.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony J. LaVopa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vQx0_69P4z4C Fichte: the self and the calling of philosophy, 1762-1799]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2001), ISBN 052179145, p. 135&lt;/ref&gt; Duquesne University professor Tom Rockmore comments that &quot;available evidence points strongly to an early and perhaps enduring Marxian interest in Fichte's position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Tom Rockmore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qrS4AAAAIAAJ Fichte, Marx, and the German philosophical tradition]'' (Southern Illinois University Press, 1980), ISBN 0809309556, p. 126&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fourier===<br /> Early socialist Charles Fourier (1768-1830) attacked (classical) &quot;liberal retrogression&quot; (i.e, ''laissez faire'' capitalism) for what he called &quot;monstrous actions, such as the admission of the Jews to the rights of citizens&quot; which, he wrote, introduce into society &quot;parasites, unproductives.&quot; He added, &quot;The Jewish nation is not civilised ... it devotes itself exclusively to traffic, to usury, and to mercantile depravity ... Every government having regard to good morals ought to repress the Jews,&quot; whom Fourier described as &quot;all parasites, merchants, usurers, etc.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Fourier (Tr. Julian H. Franklin), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w2CgXn5jAm8C Selections from the Works of Fourier]'' (Allen &amp; Unwin, 1901), p. 96. Cf. Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' [W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999] ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; Fourier's disciple, Alphonse Toussenel, called Jews &quot;the kings of the epoch,&quot; writing that &quot;Europe is entailed to the domination of Israel. This universal domination, of which so many conquerors have dreamed, the Jews have in their hands.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Lichtheim, &quot;Socialism and the Jews,&quot; [http://search.opinionarchives.com/Dissent_Web/DigitalArchive.aspx?panes=1&amp;aid=01504314_1 ''Dissent'', Vol. 15, No. 4 (July 1968)], p. 320&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[I]ndustrial feudalism&quot;&amp;mdash;as Toussenel called capitalism&amp;mdash;&quot;is personified in the cosmopolitan Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jacob Katz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FeH_uNpWbZAC From prejudice to destruction: anti-Semitism, 1700-1933]'' (Harvard University Press, 1980) ISBN 0674325079, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dühring===<br /> Marx's mentor Bruno Bauer published antisemitic articles by Marx's intellectual rival in the German Social Democratic Party, Eugen Dühring, &quot;descibing Jews as idle usurers exploiting productive labor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard S. Levy, ''[http://books.google.com.au/books/about/Antisemitism.html?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia Of Prejudice And Persecution]'', Volume 1 (ABC-CLIO, 2005) ISBN 1851094393, pp. 61-62&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Proudhon===<br /> Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), one of the [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/grahamproudhon.html leading socialist] theorists of his day (and a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1846/letters/46_05_05.htm correspondent of Marx]), called Jews “the race which poisons everything” and “the enemy of the human race”;&lt;ref&gt;Norman Podhoretz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QUfFP_Q_nqIC Why are Jews Liberals?]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 0385529198, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jew is by temperament an anti-producer, neither a farmer nor an industrialist nor even a true merchant,&quot; wrote Prodhon. &quot;He is an intermediary, always fraudulent and parasitic, who operates, in trade as in philosophy, by means of falsification, counterfeiting, and horse-trading.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; He wrote, &quot;This race must be sent back to Asia, or exterminated.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Halévy and Pierre Haubtmann, eds., ''Carnets de P.J. Proudhon'' (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1961), Vol. II, p. 337; Vol. VI, p. 178&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;By fire or fusion, or by expulsion the Jew must disappear.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard L. Rubenstein and John K. Roth, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy] (Westminster John Knox Press, 2003) ISBN 0664223532, p. 77&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Bakhunin===<br /> Mikhail Bakunin, Marx's intellectual rival in the First International, called Jews “an exploiting sect, a bloodsucking people, a unique devouring parasite,”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, “[http://leobaeck.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/37/1/111 Socialism and Judeophobia: Antisemitism in Europe before 1914],” ''Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook'', Vol. 37, No. 1 (January 1992), pp. 111-145&lt;/ref&gt; Jews, he wrote, are disqualified from socialist leadership by &quot;that mercantile passion which constitutes one of the principle traits of their national character.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===L'Affaire Dryfus/&quot;J'Accuse&quot;===<br /> When the bourgeois&lt;ref&gt;&quot;M. Doumic on Victor Hugo as a Bourgeois,&quot; Boston ''Transcript'' (reprinted in Theodore Stanton, &quot;M. René Doumic,&quot; New York ''Evening Post'', March 24, 1898, as cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=Y94aAAAAYAAJ ''Public Opinion'', Vol. XXIV, No. 12] (January-June, 1898), p. 374&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Hugo, a cultural Catholic,&lt;ref&gt;John Andrew Frey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=olFboDm4bcgC A Victor Hugo encyclopedia]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999) ISBN 0313298963, p. 222&lt;/ref&gt; defended Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer scapegoated by the French army, the French socialist press published a manifesto denouncing Hugo's crusade on the grounds that Jewish capitalists would use the rehabilitation of a single Jew to wash out &quot;all the sins of Israel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bIHtJzYCkqEC Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know About the Jewish Religion, Its People, and Its History]'' (HarperCollins, 2008) ISBN 0061374989, p. 275&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Hyndman===<br /> Henry Hyndman, founder of Britain's atheistic, Marxist Social Democratic Federation (Britain's first socialist party) and National Socialist Party (now part of the Labour Party), &quot;repeatedly invoked the stereotype of the 'rich capitalist Jew' in his anti-semitic remarks.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karin Hofmeester, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hYZrdkniDYkC Jewish Workers and the Labour Movement: A Comparative Study of Amsterdam, London and Paris, 1870-1914]'' (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004) ISBN 0754609073, p. 304&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jew moneylenders,&quot; complained Hyndman's ''Justice, Organ of the Social Democracy'' (the first Marxist periodical in England),&lt;ref&gt;Laurel Brake and Marysa Demoor, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qVrUTUelE6YC Dictionary of nineteenth-century journalism in Great Britain and Ireland]'' [Academia Press, 2009] ISBN 9038213409, p. 328&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;now control nearly every Foreign Office in Europe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Guido Kisch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5h8WAAAAIAAJ Historia judaica: a journal of studies in Jewish history, especially in legal and economic history of the Jews'', Volumes 13-14] (Historia Judaica, 1951), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt; He blamed the Boer war on &quot;Jew financial cliques&quot; and the &quot;Jew-jingo press.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Crick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eea_kByVYsoC The History of the Social-Democratic Federation] (Edinburgh University Press, 1994) ISBN 1853310913, p. 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Sombart===<br /> Werner Sombart, a German economist, sociologist and self-proclaimed &quot;convinced Marxist&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hermynia Zur Mühlen (Tr. Lionel Gossman), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_gd1Aw0ZlEwC The End and the Beginning: The Book of My Life, Volume 1]'' (Open Book Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1906924279, p. 241&lt;/ref&gt; -- praised by Friedrich Engels as the only German professor who understood ''Das Kapital''&lt;ref&gt;Frederick Engels, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/supp.htm Introduction], ''Capital'' Volume III (Supplement), 1894. Cf. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/letters/95_03_11.htm Engels To W. Sombart in Breslaun, London, March 11, 1895], in ''Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutscher Arbeiterbewegung'' No. 3, 1961, reprinted in Marx and Engels, ''Selected Works'', Volume 3, pp. 504-506. Marxists Internet Archive (marxists.org)&lt;/ref&gt; -- wrote &quot;modern capitalism is nothing more or less than an expression of the Jewish spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; According to the ''Universal Jewish Encyclopaedia'', Sombart “[http://econlog.econlib.org/archives/2009/09/capitalism_and.html accused the Jews of having created capitalism]” -- as should perhaps be expected of a &quot;convinced Marxist&quot; (Marx viewed Jews as &quot;responsible for capitalism,&quot; according Princeton's Bernard Lewis.)&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dreiser===<br /> Theodore Dreiser, an [[atheist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html Religion: Atheist's Oath],&quot; ''Time'', August 20, 1928&lt;/ref&gt; as well as a [[Communist]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, &quot;Request to Become a Communist,&quot; ''[[The Daily Worker]]'', July 30, 1945, reprinted in Albert Fried, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLJbT3NMbN4C Communism in America: A History in Documents]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231102356, pp. 348-350&lt;/ref&gt; was also a virulent [[anti-Semite]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;the Jew ... has been in America all of two hundred years, and he has not faded into a pure American by any means, and he will not. As I said before, he maintains his religious dogmas and his racial sympathies, race characteristics, and race cohesion as against all the types or nationalities surrounding him wheresoever.&quot; Dreiser quoted in Lee Bernstein, &quot;The Avengers of Christie: Street Racism and Jewish Working-Class Rebellion in Mike Gold’s 'Jews Without Money'',&quot; in Janet Galligani Casey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wLliXDo2iwC The Novel and the American Left: Critical Essays on Depression-Era Fiction]'' (University of Iowa Press, 2004) 1587294753, p. 118&lt;/ref&gt; and defender of [[Hitler]].&lt;ref&gt; Dreiser excused the Holocaust, saying that British rule in India &quot;makes Germany's cruelties seem like a pipe dream,&quot; and &quot;If Germany can beat England at the game of mass human torture ... it will have to go some.&quot; The editor explains in a footnote that Dreiser was parroting the Communist Party line during the Nazi-Soviet pact &quot;by portraying Britain as a greater threat to world democracy and peace than Germany.&quot; (Frederic E. Rusch and Donald Pizer, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tQL7UitACW4C Theodore Dreiser: Interviews]'' (University of Illinois Press, 2004) ISBN 0252029437, p. 305) Cf. H. Elias, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKtEAAAAYAAJ Letters of Theodore Dreiser: A Selection, vol. 2]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959), pp. 405, 650–52; Richard Tuerk, “The American Spectator Symposium Controversy: Was Dreiser Anti-Semitic?” ''Prospects 16'' (1991), pp. 367–89; Louis Harap, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC Creative Awakening: The Jewish Presence in Twentieth-Century American Literature, 1900-1940s],'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987) ISBN 0313253862, pp. 128-132.&lt;/ref&gt; New York is a &quot;kike's dream of a ghetto,&quot; he wrote; Jews are not &quot;pure Americans&quot; and &quot;lack integrity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Organizations==<br /> Perhaps more important than the widespread anti-Semitism among socialist leaders was the anti-semitism of socialist groups such as the Socialist International and the Fabian Society.<br /> <br /> ===Second International===<br /> After reference to the exploitation of workers by Jewish capitalists and denunciation of &quot;philo-Semitic agitation,&quot; the Second International (the original Socialist International) adopted a resolution condemning not just antisemitic, but &quot;philo-Semite outbursts as one of the means by which the capitalist class and the reactionary circles seek to divert the Socialist movement from its purpose and divide the workers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0018_0_18779.html Socialism], ''[http://www.gale.cengage.com/servlet/ItemDetailServlet?region=9&amp;imprint=000&amp;titleCode=M355&amp;cf=p&amp;type=4&amp;id=194102 Encyclopaedia Judaica]'' (The Gale Group, 2008), via [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/indexold.html The Jewish Virtual Library]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fabian Society===<br /> Britain's Fabian Society (which &quot;set up the banner of socialism militant&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;G. Bernard Shaw, &quot;[http://walterschafer.com/fabiansocietyhistory.htm Fabian Tract No. 41: The Fabian Society, Its Early History],&quot; (Fabian Society Reprint, 1899)&lt;/ref&gt; hosted a number of anti-Semites, including Beatrice Webb, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, J.A. Hobson, and Oswald Mosley.<br /> <br /> Beatrice Webb, who played a crucial role in the founding of the Fabian Society, wrote that “the strongest impelling motive of the Jewish race” was “the love of ''profit'' as distinct from other forms of money-earning.” (Italics in original.)&lt;ref&gt;Beatrice Webb, “East London Labour,” ''[http://books.google.com/bookes?id=udcaAAAAYAAJ The Nineteenth Century]'', Vol. XXIV (July-December 1888), p. 176.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;A careful study of anti-Semitism, prejudice and accusations might be of great value to many Jews,&quot; wrote H.G. Wells, &quot;who do not adequately realize the irritation they inflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; George Bernard Shaw once exhorted Jews to &quot;stop being Jews and start being human beings.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Shaw Society of America, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HERbAAAAMAAJ The Shaw review, Volumes 3-4] (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1960), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> J.A. Hobson blamed London poverty on &quot;the foreign Jew,&quot; whom he described as &quot;a terrible competitor. He is ... almost void of social morality. No compunction or consideration for his fellow-worker will keep him from underselling and overreaching them; he acquires a thorough mastery of all the dishonourable tricks of trade which are difficult to restrain by law; the superior calculating intellect, which is a national heritage, is used unsparingly to enable him to take advantage of every weakness, folly, and vice of the society in which he lives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John A. Hobson, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10710/10710-h/10710-h.htm Problems of Poverty: An Inquiry into the Industrial Condition of The Poor]'' (1891), Project Gutenberg&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;He craves the position of a sweating-master, the lowest step in a ladder that may lead to a life of magnificence, supported out of usury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England]'' (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, p. 405&lt;/ref&gt; In his 1898 book ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Hobson/hbsnImp.html Imperialism: A Study]'' -- which would profoundly influence Lenin's ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/ Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism]'' (1917) -- Hobson blamed the Boer War on &quot;Jew power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, <br /> [http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England] (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, pp. 201-202&lt;/ref&gt; That war, he wrote, was fought for the benefit of &quot;a small group of international financiers, chiefly German in origin and Jewish in race.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bryan Cheyette, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HTdwPbE6KoIC Constructions of &quot;the Jew&quot; in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations, 1875-1945]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1995) ISBN 0521558778, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> One Fabian socialist from the 1920s and '30s, Oswald Mosley,&lt;ref&gt;Rose L. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9_vvAAAAMAAJ Fabian Freeway: High Road to Socialism in the U.S.A., 1884-1966]'' (Fidelis, 1968), p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; went on to found and lead the British Union of Fascists (which &quot;at first was modeled after Mussolini’s example but later became patterned after Hitler&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Zygmund Dobbs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N-g1AQAAIAAJ Keynes at Harvard: economic deception as a political credo],'' (New York: Veritas Foundation, 1960), pp. 88-90&lt;/ref&gt; in which role he was lauded by Shaw.&lt;ref&gt;Gareth Griffith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aGAEWDI3SR4C Socialism and Superior Brains: The Political Thought of Bernard Shaw]'' (CRC Press, 2002) ISBN 0203210832, p. 263&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalist anti-semitism in Germany==<br /> During the 19th century, the center of left-wing anti-Semitism gradually shifted from Paris to Vienna, where the &quot;radical-democratic and nationalist left wing&quot; was headed by German Liberal Party leader Georg von Schönerer,&lt;ref&gt;Viktor Karády, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline]'' (Central European University Press, 2004) ISBN 9639241520, p. 360&lt;/ref&gt; one of a group of &quot;left-wing German liberals&quot; who demanded &quot;the exclusion of Jews from the new movement and as far as possible from public life&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Robert A. Kann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cG570mijBF4C A history of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918]'' (University of California Press, 1980) ISBN 0520042069, p. 433&lt;/ref&gt; Hitler would later ascribe to Schönerer &quot;the wisdom of a prophet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Adolf Hitler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EBUBUEeUwxUC Mein Kampf: zwei Bände in einem Band'', Vol. 1], 40th ed., (Bottom of the Hill, 1938) ISBN 1935785079, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; Wilhelm Marr, who [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anti-Semitism coined the term] &quot;antisemitism,&quot; wrote that &quot;anti-Semitism is a Socialist movement, only in nobler and purer forms than Social Democracy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In late 19th century Germany, a popular critical view held that capitalism was a product of Jewish culture.&lt;ref&gt;Cristobal Young, &quot;[http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/3/0/8/9/5/pages308953/p308953-1.php Christianity, Judaism, and the Spirit of Capitalism: The Weber-Sombart Debates],&quot; Department of Sociology, Princeton University, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; Adolf Stöcker, leader of the left-wing Christian Social Party, wrote, &quot;I see in unrestrained capitalism the evil of our epoch and am naturally also an opponent of modern Judaism on account of my socio-political views.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 95.&lt;/ref&gt; Meanwhile, anti-capitalist leader Adam Müller said, “The Jewish messiah, the Antichrist, has come to earth in the guise of the steam engine, and this in order to speed up the end of the world.”&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The doctrine of egalitarian free economics and of corresponding human rights in economics, as they were formulated in a humanely well-meaning way by the Scotsmen Hume and Smith, were used by the Jews in order to derive from them their monopoly,&quot; according to the anti-semitic ''Die Judenfrage''.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 51&lt;/ref&gt; According to Tyler Cowen, professor of economics at George Mason University:<br /> {{cquote|German writers picked up on earlier anti-Enlightenment theories of a Judeo-Masonic conspiracy to rule the world. During the French Revolution, the Jews, along with the Masons, were identified as forces for liberalism, secularism, and capitalism. German writers quickly found the Jews to be a more popular target than the Masons, perhaps because they were more visible or more different. The originally Judeo-Masonic theories eventually discarded the other conspirators, such as the Templars and the Illuminati, and focused on the Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Cowen, &quot;[http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/the-socialist-roots-of-modern-anti-semitism/ The Socialist Roots of Modern Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The Freeman'' (Foundation for Economic Education), January 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ==20th century: Stalinist anti-Semitism==<br /> According to Henry L. Feingold, director of the Jewish Resource Center at Baruch College, &quot;socialism contained the seeds to become the anti-Semitism of the intellectuals of the Left.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry L. Feingold, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-ZrhFjuebEEC Lest memory cease: finding meaning in the American Jewish past]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1996) ISBN 0815604009, p. 81&lt;/ref&gt; In the 20th century, those seeds took root and grew into a forest bearing poisonous fruit. For example, in the former Soviet Union, even after the death of the anti-Semite Stalin,&lt;ref&gt;See Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov, &quot;[http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 4, No. 1 (Winter 2002), pp. 66-80. Cf. Louis Rapoport, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990) ISBN 0029258219&lt;/ref&gt; Soviet anti-Semitism persisted:<br /> {{cquote|Since World War II Jews and Judaism have been liberated in every country and territory where capitalism has been restored to vigorous growth&amp;mdash;and this includes Germany. By contrast, wherever anticapitalism or precapitalism has prevailed the status of Jews and Judaism has either undergone deterioration or is highly precarious. Thus at this very moment the country where developing global capitalism is most advanced, the United States, accords Jews and Judaism a freedom that is known nowhere else in the world and that was never known in the past. It is a freedom that is not matched even in Israel ... By contrast, in the Soviet Union, the citadel of anticapitalism, the Jews are cowed by anti-Semitism, threatened by extinction, and barred from access to their God.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Rivkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MUk1SwAACAAJ The shaping of Jewish history: A radical new interpretation],'' (C. Scribner's Sons, 1971) ISBN 0684132362, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> According to Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal, during the Six Day War on Israel in 1967, the East German Communist regime employed former Nazi propagandists to write anti-Israeli propaganda, with the substitution of a few words such as “Israeli” for “Jew” and “progressive forces” for “National Socialism.”&lt;ref&gt;Simon Wiesenthal, ''The Same Language: First for Hitler&amp;mdash;Now for Ulbricht'' (Bonn: Rolf Vogel, Deutschland Berichte, 1968), as cited in Jeffrey Herf, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yahqnBEEbQEC Divided memory: the Nazi past in the two Germanys]'' (Harvard University Press, 1997) ISBN 0674213033, p. 189&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Historian Susan Urban of the Jersusalem Center for Public Affairs writes, &quot;Germany has seen a growth of leftist anti-Semitism along with anti-imperialist, antiglobalization, and anti-Zionist attitudes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Susanne Urban, &quot;Anti-Semitism In Germany Today: Its Roots And Tendencies1,&quot; ''Jewish Political Studies Review'' Vol. 16 (Fall 2004), pp. 3-4&lt;/ref&gt; The Tupamoros-West Berlin, a Communist group headed by Dieter Kunzelmann (who would later become a leader of the Green Party),&lt;ref&gt;Aribert Reimann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MGKnrkMmY5cC Dieter Kunzelmann: Avantgardist, Protestler, Radikaler],'' (Vandenhoeck &amp; Ruprecht, 2009), ISBN 3525370105, pp. 274-286&lt;/ref&gt; attempted to bomb Berlin's Jewish Community Center during a commemoration of the anniversary of ''Kristallnacht'' in 1969.&lt;ref&gt;Walter Laqueur, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMGeXXBSY8wC The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2006) ISBN 0195304292, p. 147&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Berlin's Red Army Faction (RAF), a Communist group, was led by Ulrike Meinhof, who stated, &quot;Auschwitz means that six million Jews were murdered and carted on to the rubbish dumps of Europe for being that which was maintained of them&amp;mdash;Money-Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''Auschwitz heisst, das sechs Millionen Juden ermordet und auf die Müllkippen Europas gekarrt wurden als das, als was man sie ausgab — als Geldjuden.''&quot;) Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=acBtAAAAMAAJ Hitler's apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi legacy]'' (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 1985) ISBN 0297787195, p. 230&lt;/ref&gt; She added that &quot;Anti-Semitism is really hatred of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''Antisemitismus eigentlich Haß auf Kapitalismus ist.'' George Watson, &quot;Race and the Socialists. On the Progressive Principle of Revolutionary Extermination,&quot; ''Encounter'' 47, 1976, pp. 15-18&lt;/ref&gt; Another founder of this Communist group, Horst Mahler, an anti-Semite and Holocaust denier,&lt;ref&gt;“[http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,550430,00.html One-Man Right-Wing Circus Act: German Sentenced to 10 Months for Hitler Greeting],” ''Der Speigel'' Online International&lt;/ref&gt; was sentenced to six years in prison for incitement to racial hatred in 2005.&lt;ref&gt;”[http://www.ejpress.org/article/12601 Neo-Nazi Horst Mahler transferred to prison in Bavaria],” ''European Jewish Press'', December 29, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Despite being labeled “right-wing” in the media, this Communist revolutionary insisted in a 2007 interview that his beliefs had not changed (&quot;[http://shoabloger.wordpress.com/texts/michael-friedman-interviews-horst-mahler-full-text/ The enemy is the same]&quot;)&lt;ref&gt; “Der Feind ist derselbe.” Hoerst Mahler in Michael Friedman, “[https://archive.org/download/Friedman-Michel-Interview-mit-Horst-Mahler-und-Sylvia-Stolz/FriedmanMichel-InterviewMitHorstMahlerUndSylviaStolz200789S.Text.pdf So spricht man mit Nazis],” ''Vanity Fair (German edition), November, 2007, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt; since his days as an informant for the Stasi,&lt;ref&gt;Helen Pidd, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/01/baader-m einhof-gang-founder-stasi Baader-Meinhof terrorist may have worked for the Stasi],&quot; ''The Guardian'', August 1, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the secret police of Communist East Germany. (After the fall of East German Communism in 1990, it was revealed that the Stasi had been supplying the RAF with funds and logistic support, including false identities and network of safehouses in West Berlin.)&lt;ref&gt;John Schmeidel &quot;[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02684529308432225#preview My Enemy's Enemy: Twenty Years of Co-operation between West Germany's Red Army Faction and the GDR Ministry for State Security],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' Vol. 8, No. 4 (October 1993), pp. 59–72.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1976, the Revolutionary Cells (''Revolutionäre Zellen''), another German Communist group, joined with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (a hard-line Marxist&lt;ref&gt;Edmund L. Andrews and John Kifner, [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/africa/27iht-obits.1.9523942.html George Habash, 82, founder of Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine], ''The New York Times'', January 27, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; terrorist group) to hijack an Air France flight to Entebbe, Uganda, where they singled out the Jewish passengers in a plot to murder them.&lt;ref&gt;Stephen E. Atkins, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b8k4rEPvq_8C Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313324859, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1979, the Sandinistas, a [http://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/timeline-nicaragua.php Marxist-Leninist] group, seized control of the government of Nicaragua, supporting a newspaper that proclaimed that &quot;the world's money, banking and finance are in the hands of descendants of Jews ... [C]ontrolling economic power, they control political power as now happens in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''El Nuevo Diario'', July 17, 1982, as cited in Porfirio R. Solórzano, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tFwSAQAAIAAJ The Nirex Collection: Nicaraguan Revolution Extracts, Twelve Years, 1978-1990, Vol VII: Of War and Peace]'' [Litex, 1993] ISBN 1877970018)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|In 1979 many of the country's approximately 250 Jews fled abroad in the face of persecution and imprisonment by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). The FSLN bombed and partially destroyed the country's only synagogue, then confiscated the property shortly afterward and converted it into a youth training camp.&lt;ref&gt;Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5681.htm Nicaragua], Annual Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2001). Cf. Elliott Abrams, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1079/is_v84/ai_3408623/?tag=content;col1 Persecution and Restrictions of Religion in Nicaragua],&quot; (Transcript), ''Department of State bulletin'', October-December 1984, pp. 49-50&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1985, the Palestinian Liberation Front, then a [http://www.adl.org/terrorism/symbols/palestinian_liberation_front.asp Communist group], which had hijacked an Italian cruise ship, the MS ''Achille Lauro'', murdered 69-year-old passenger Leon Klinghoffer, an American, shooting him to death and rolling his wheelchair off the deck, dumping his body into the ocean. The PLF singled out Klinghoffer for murder [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2003-04-17/news/0304161228_1_achille-lauro-abul-abbas-palestinian-authority because he was Jewish]. <br /> <br /> &quot;Outside of the Western communist parties, which were mostly oriented solidly towards Moscow’s anti-Zionism, a fully articulated anti-Zionism appeared only in the early 1970s with the formation of the so-called New Left, which interpreted the Middle-East conflict in terms of its anti-imperialist and anti-colonialist rhetoric,&quot; reports the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. &quot;As many authors have shown since, the anti-Zionism of the 1970s was largely not just ideological criticism of Israel, but a form of [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/184-AS-Main-report.pdf secondary anti-Semitism]. The rhetoric of these organizations, whose remnants survive into the present day, often indicates the antisemitic nature of their criticism.&quot; A 2016 study by the Research Association on the SED [Socialist Unity Party] State at Berlin's Free University, financed by Germany's Federal Ministry of Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, found that &quot;there has been more left-wing violence in Germany since 2009 than right-wing violence.&quot; Researchers found extensive anti-Semitism among left-wing extremists in Germany, and said the view of anti-Jewish extremist leftism can be traced to the word [http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/German-left-wing-radicals-say-Jews-have-too-much-influence-460773 “Jew” as a synonym for “capitalist” and “exploiter.”]<br /> <br /> ==21st-century anti-Semitism: the union of leftism and Islamism==<br /> In the 21st century these seeds have festered into full flower, with the embrace of Islamist anti-Semitism by the Left:<br /> {{cquote|Although traditional Trotskyite ideology is in no way close to radical Islamic teachings and the shariah, since the radical Islamists also subscribed to anticapitalism, antiglobalism, and anti-Americanism, there seemed to be sufficient common ground for an alliance. Thus, the militants of the far left began to march side by side with the radical Islamists in demonstrations, denouncing American aggression and Israeli crimes. In Britain a new political party named Respect was established, uniting Trotskyites, Stalinists, Muslim Brotherhood militants, and similar groups.&lt;ref&gt;Walter Laquer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMGeXXBSY8wC The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day]'' [Oxford University Press US, 2006] ISBN 0195304292, p. 186&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> For example, the European Union's European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia decided not to publish its comprehensive study of the causes of anti-Semitism in Europe in 2003, a source familiar with the report told London's ''Financial Times'', after the report uncovered &quot;a trend towards Muslim anti-Semitism,&quot; and that &quot;on the left there is also mobilization against Israel that is not always free of prejudice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Reuters, &quot;[http://www.haaretz.com/news/eu-racism-watchdog-shelves-anti-semitism-report-1.106473 EU racism watchdog shelves anti-Semitism report],&quot; ''Haaretz'', November 22, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> That year, one academic, Michael Neumann, Professor of Philosophy at Canada's Trent University, wrote that he wants to<br /> {{cquote|help the Palestinians.... I am not interested in the truth, or justice, or understanding, or anything else, except so far as it serves that purpose. If an effective strategy means that some truths about the Jews don’t come to light, I don’t care. If an effective strategy means encouraging reasonable anti-Semitism, or reasonable hostility to Jews, I also don’t care. If it means encouraging vicious racist anti-Semitism, or the destruction of the State of Israel, I still don’t care.&lt;ref&gt;Yoni Petel, &quot;Antisemitism on Campus: A Student's Perspective,&quot; League for Human Rights, B'nai B'rith of Canada, ''[http://www.bnaibrith.ca/briefs/klein/klein030925.html Submission to the Special Rapporteur on Racism]'', Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, September 25, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> According to the progressive magazine ''Tikkun'', &quot;A.N.S.W.E.R. refuses to acknowledge or support the right of the Jewish people to national self-determination&amp;mdash;though it supports that right for every other group with a history of oppression. When Jews are denied the rights of others, it is a tell-tale sign of anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20041019075845/http://www.tikkun.org/magazine/index.cfm/action/tikkun/issue/tik0305/article/030512a.html Authoritarianism and Anti-Semitism in the Anti-War Movement?],&quot; ''Tikkun'', May-June 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[L]eftists who despise their own capitalist societies inevitably come to sympathize with militants&amp;mdash;communists, Tier-mondistes, Islamists, it doesn't make any difference&amp;mdash;who attack those societies from without. Right now, the only corner of the world putting up any sort of serious ideological fight against Western-style capitalism and liberalism is the Muslim Middle East. So, just as the left uncritically swallowed Stalin's propaganda in the 1930s, expect the left to increasingly swallow Arabist propaganda in our own era. And since one of the key elements of Arabist propaganda is a hatred of Israel and a suspicion of Jews, these building blocks of anti-Semitism will become more and more a part of mainstream leftist discourse.&lt;ref&gt;Johnathan Kay, quoted in Jamie Glazov, Symposium: &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=19272 Anti-Semitism - the New Call of the Left],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, March 14, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Thus in 2009, the &quot;progressive&quot; webzine Counterpunch.org, edited by Alexander Cockburn, son of Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn, could publish a revival of the &quot;Blood Libel,&quot; alleging that Israeli Jews were killing Palestinian Muslims to harvest their organs.&lt;ref&gt;Alison Weir, &quot;[http://www.counterpunch.org/weir08282009.html Israeli Organ Harvesting],&quot; Counterpunch.org, August 28-30, 2009) Cf. David Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=azE5qoXTgoAC Unholy alliance: radical Islam and the American left]'' (Regnery Publishing, 2004) ISBN 089526076X, p. 148&lt;/ref&gt; By 2011, the Anti-Defamation League had documented the growing list of [https://web.archive.org/web/20140413064836/http://archive.adl.org:80/main_extremism/occupy_wall_street.html#.WY5m_lGQzIU anti-semitic incidents] at rallies of the left-wing &quot;Occupy&quot; movement. A 2012 survey of 5,847 Jews in the European Union found that more than three out of four said anti-Semitism had increased over the preceding five years, and more respondents blamed perpetrators of the most serious incidents on the political left than the right, according to the EU's Fundamental Rights Agency.&lt;ref&gt;European Union Fundamental Rights Agency, [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2013-discrimination-hate-crime-against-jews-eu-member-states_en.pdf Discrimination and hate crime against Jews in EU Member States: experiences and perceptions of anti-Semitism] (Vienna: EU-FRA, 2013) ISBN 978-92-9239-262-8, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers at Tel Aviv University reported that anti-Semitic violence worldwide surged 40 percent in 2014.&lt;ref&gt;Kim Hjelmgaard, &quot;[http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/04/15/jewish-anti-semitic-attacks-western-europe/25807273/ Anti-Semitic violence surged 40% worldwide last year],&quot; ''USA Today'', April 16, 2015&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;[T]he left's anti-Semitism&amp;mdash;which, of course, it never acknowledges and fervently denies&amp;mdash;rather than the right's conventional version of this hatred comprises the key ingredient of anti-Semitism's current European existence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Andrei S. Markovits, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=1754&amp;TTL=%22Twin_Brothers%22:_European_Anti-Semitism_and_Anti-Americanism 'Twin Brothers': European Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 6 [January 2006] Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt; Antisemitism may be found within much contemporary &quot;antihegemonic, radical, liberal and socialist&quot; discourse, admits David Hirsh of the University of London, who concedes that &quot;antisemitism is a live and virulent threat.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;David Hirsh, Book Review: &quot;[http://engageonline.wordpress.com/2009/05/07/book/ Perry and Schweitzer, ''Antisemitic myths: a historical and contemporary anthology''],&quot; ''[http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/01419870.asp Ethnic and Racial Studies]'', Vol. 32, No. 4 (May 2009), pp. 749-750&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[T]he locus of anti-Semitism has moved from the right side of the political spectrum to the left ... These days, the hatemongers targeting Jews’ right to live peacefully spout the mantras of 'social justice' and 'peace studies,' not racial purity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Kay, &quot;[http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/03/02/jonathan-kay-on-the-lesson-from-israel-apartheid-week-anti-semitism-is-now-a-creature-of-the-left.aspx The lesson from Israel Apartheid Week: Anti-Semitism is now a creature of the left],&quot; ''National Post'', March 2, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|The resurgence of anti-Semitism in Europe &quot;hails much more from the left than the right. The latter&amp;mdash;mainly because of the continued illegitimacy and unacceptability of Nazism and fascism in European public opinion&amp;mdash;has had a much more circumspect influence on how Jews and Israel are depicted than the left has had. Because classical anti-Semitism&amp;mdash;certainly in its praxis&amp;mdash;was mostly associated with the European right, the left enjoyed a certain bonus when it came to discussing all matters relating to Jews and Israel. The left could take liberties with being anti-Israeli and anti-Semitic that the right could never have. This legitimacy bonus enabled the left to employ anti-Israeli discourse that&amp;mdash;in the meantime&amp;mdash;has become completely common and acceptable parlance in Europe. Because of this general acceptability and overall legitimacy, left-wing anti-Semitism is much more relevant and disturbing than right-wing anti-Semitism.&lt;ref&gt;Andrei S. Markovits, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-markovits-05.htm European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 2 [August 2005], Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> As Urban concludes: &quot;The extreme leftist trend in Germany contains elements that envision [http://jcpa.org/article/being-leftist-and-anti-semitic-in-germany/ a world cleansed of the Jewish state].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalism, Anti-Americanism and anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;[I]n North America,&quot; wrote Marx, the &quot;practical domination of Judaism over the Christian world&quot; had achieved what he called &quot;its unambiguous and normal expression.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, &quot;On The Jewish Question,&quot; ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'', February 1844, reprinted in Karl Marx, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKdLO2jvbqsC Early writings]'' (Penguin, 1992) ISBN 0140445749, p. 232&lt;/ref&gt; According to Sombart, “what we call Americanism is nothing else, if we may say so, than the Jewish spirit distilled.”&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The anti-American left... is at least as anti-Jewish as the clerical conservative right, especially among those who have embraced a pronounced 'antifascist' and 'antiracist' credo.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42D75369-D582-4380-8395-D25925B85EAF%7D/wistrich.pdf European Anti-Semitism Reinvents Itself],'' [The American Jewish Committee, 2002], p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Anti-Americanism in the Islamic world and Anti-Americanism in Europe are in fact linked, and both bear an uncanny resemblance to anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Natan Sharansky, &quot;On Hating Jews: The inextricable link between anti-Semitism and anti-Americanism,&quot; ''The Wall Street Journal'', November 17, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;America and Jews are seen by many Europeans as paragons of a modernity they dislike and distrust: money-driven, profit-hungry, urban, universalistic, individualistic, mobile, rootless, inauthentic, and thus hostile to established traditions and values.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=658&amp;TTL=European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Semitism:_Similarities_and_Differences European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Semitism: Similarities and Differences],&quot; An Interview with Andrei S. Markovits, ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'' [Institute for Global Jewish Affairs], No. 16 [January 1, 2004]&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jews were blamed for the evils of capitalism in earlier centuries. Americans are blamed for globalization, that is, technological and economic change to the max, in our days.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Josef Joffe, quoted in Mark O'Keefe, &quot;[http://pewforum.org/Politics-and-Elections/Anti-Semitism-and-Anti-Americanism.aspx Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; Pew Forum on Religion &amp; Public Life, May 5, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;America today has become the world's market-dominant minority,&quot; while &quot;Jews are a market-dominant mionority in the Middle East.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Amy Chua, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KSp1okOggpkC World on fire: how exporting free market democracy breeds ethnic hatred and global instability]'' [Random House, Inc., 2004] ISBN 0385721862, pp. 218, 229&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Thus post-unification Germany, observed a journalist in 2005, is marked by &quot;a poisonous cocktail of the three big As: anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism and anti-capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Munchau, &quot;[http://www.spectator.co.uk/essays/13684/part_2/antiamericanism-antisemitism-anticapitalism.thtml Anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism, anti-capitalism],&quot; ''The Spectator'', May 21, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; This association of Jews with America was illustrated in 2006, when German Neo-Nazis burned a copy of ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y50yo2rnJHcC Anne Frank: Diary of a Young Girl]'' together [http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/germany/9582 with an American flag].<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> {{reflist|3}}</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Advisory_Committee_of_Postwar_Foreign_Policy&diff=1542772 Advisory Committee of Postwar Foreign Policy 2019-07-23T15:25:35Z <p>FOIA: linked MacLeishe</p> <hr /> <div>The '''Advisory Committee of Postwar Foreign Policy''' was a secretive committee created on February 12, 1942, to prepare recommendations for President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] on post [[World War II]] [[foreign policy]]. The committee appointed various subcommittees.<br /> <br /> Chairman of the committee was Secretary of State Cordell Hull; vice chairman, Under Secretary of State Sumner Welles, Dr. Leo Pasvolsky (director of the Division of Special Research) was appointed Executive Officer. The committee included [[Dean Acheson]], [[Ester C. Brunauer]], [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Laurence Duggan]], [[Alger Hiss]], [[Harry Hopkins]], [[Philip Jessup]], [[Archibald MacLeish]], [[George C. Marshall]], [[Henry Wadleigh]], [[Henry Agard Wallace]], and [[Harry Dexter White]]. Several experts were brought in from outside the [[State Department]], such as Hamilton Fish Armstrong, Isaiah Bowman, Benjamin V. Cohen, Norman H. Davis, and James T. Shotwell.&lt;ref&gt;''Studpidity, Treason or Irrationality?'', Alfred Kohlberg, (LA:First Congregational Church 1952), p. 18.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=1536453 Alger Hiss 2019-07-04T02:25:31Z <p>FOIA: /* The Trials */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [https://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,&lt;ref&gt;Francis P. Sempa, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection],&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a &quot;liberal&quot; rather than a communist, referring to &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself],&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. He also had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party].&quot; Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301&lt;/ref&gt; putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, &quot;Conspiracy Theories,&quot; in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].&lt;/ref&gt; The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot; (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]] [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to ex-Communist (&quot;I belonged for a little while to the Young Communist League, and thereafter to the Socialist party.&quot; [[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 11) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4)<br /> The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) &quot;Growing up, all five children had music and art lessons, as well as German language lessons for Alger. They attended private colleges or universities and vacationed on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During college, the three boys spent summers in Europe.&quot; ([[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 12). Young Alger went [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 141); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After such a series of tragic losses, suggested Hiss's son, Alger might have found himself &quot;susceptible, as some may have been, to the seeming solidarity offered by the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 141&lt;/ref&gt; Among others susceptible to this lure was Hiss's [[#refHUAC8-17-48|future tenant]], [[Whittaker Chambers]], who wrote of the suicide of his own brother at age 21:<br /> {{cquote|[M]y brother's death stunned me ... this is the point at which I became a thorough Communist. I felt that any society which could result in the death of a boy like my brother was wrong and I was at war with it. This was the beginning of my fanaticism.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3HUvm91KDn8C The conservative turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the lessons of anti-communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim to have already been socially and politically progressive and anti-business when he went to college.&lt;ref&gt;Alger Hiss, [http://algerhiss.com/alger-hiss/in-his-own-words/alger-hisss-liberal-manifesto/l Draft of a Chapter Written By Alger Hiss on the Foundations For His Liberalism] ([http://holliscatalog.harvard.edu//?itemid=|library%2fm%2faleph|010072878 Alger Hiss papers], Small Manuscript Collection, [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/index.html Special Collections], [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/index.html Harvard Law School Library]), algerhiss.com. Cf. Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/ivan_chen/1/ Alger Hiss, 1926-1929]; [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 22-24.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor]]s included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as &quot;[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion.&quot; (Herbert Romerstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). &quot;[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[Atheism|atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt; (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no &quot;Hopkins Babbit [sic],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A misspelled reference to the [http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-babbi/char.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]&lt;/ref&gt; according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics &quot;from Soviets to styles&quot; with &quot;irresistible logic and rhetoric.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a &quot;militant communist,&quot; Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [https://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Paul Avrich, a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, &quot;[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)],&quot; ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&amp;psid=3381 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [https://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]&lt;ref&gt;Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan &amp; Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss became &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]]&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;On July 4, 1914, three IWW members were killed in New York when a bomb they were constructing exploded. The bomb also killed a woman in the next apartment, maimed many others, and destroyed the building. (&quot;Anarchist bomb believed for Rockefeller kills three I.W.W. makers and a woman--injures many--wrecks tenement house,&quot; New York Sun, 5 July 1914, p. 1.) Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including IWW boss [[&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]]) for a series of such acts, at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist]]ic (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist]]ic') cheek?&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; serving (along with various &quot;Communists, Socialists, and nonaffiliated radicals&quot;) on the Advisory Board of American Labor Associates;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87&lt;/ref&gt; Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [https://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join FDR's administration.<br /> <br /> [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). <br /> That [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline &quot;[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote &quot;I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help.&quot; Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185&lt;/ref&gt; agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot;). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot; who &quot;was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy...&quot; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already &quot;[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot;<br /> &quot;In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families].&quot; &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt; son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; Ware recruited Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; known as the [[Ware group]].&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed &quot;Marxist&quot;] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hope Hale Davis, &quot;Looking Back at my Years in the Party,&quot; ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., &quot;Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87&lt;/ref&gt; This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [https://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was &quot;the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA&lt;ref&gt;Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. &quot;Leonora Fuller&quot; in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&amp;id=70 Gardner Jackson]:&lt;ref&gt;Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): &quot;When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss's laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-HOAC&amp;month=0704&amp;week=d&amp;msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&amp;user=&amp;pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> [[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;merchants of death,&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to &quot;drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle&quot; with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]&lt;ref&gt;John Whiteclay Chambers II, &quot;[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.],&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515&lt;/ref&gt; maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was &quot;as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant,&quot; particularly toward the &quot;business leaders he cross-examined caustically.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]&lt;/ref&gt; One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement--who wrote that Christianity should &quot;aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism.&quot; (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; would report to Moscow that &quot;‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51&lt;/ref&gt; (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, &quot;neighbors&quot; was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; three years after that, Gorsky would identify &quot;Karl&quot; as &quot;Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss's 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&amp;user=&amp;pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [https://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as &quot;[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is &quot;Yes&quot;.... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)&lt;/ref&gt; notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. &quot;[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&amp;dat=19510317&amp;id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round,&quot; ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (to whom she refers by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222&lt;/ref&gt; Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a 25% pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://archives.williams.edu/williamshistory/biographies/sayre-francis.php son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639&lt;/ref&gt; had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;[https://solidarity-us.org/atc/62/p2424/ Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996],&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May–June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (the victims of which would number [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt; That June, [http://americanthinker.com/2014/07/diana_and_ron_what_was_going_on_.html at Stalin's behest], FDR abolished the State Department's Eastern European Division, headed by the anti-Communist Robert F. Kelley,&lt;ref&gt;Cathal J. Nolan, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZMeeXLSQhsC Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997) ISBN 0313291950, p. 207&lt;/ref&gt; reassigning its staff and dispersing its excellent library.<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' defection===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Trying to explain how a such a reversal happened, Chambers related how a certain German diplomat who &quot;had been extremely pro-Communist, had become an implacable anti-Communist.&quot; According to the diplomat's daughter, &quot;[O]ne night – in Moscow – he heard screams. That’s all. Simply one night he heard screams.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;What Communist has not heard those screams?&quot; wrote Chambers. &quot;...What man can call himself a Communist who has not accepted the fact that Terror is an instrument of policy ...? Those screams have reached every Communist’s mind. Usually they stop there ....&quot;<br /> {{cquote|But one day the Communist really hears those screams. He is going about his routine party tasks.... Suddenly, there closes around that Communist a separating silence, and in that silence he hears screams. He hears them for the first time. For they do not merely reach his mind. They pierce beyond. They pierce to his soul.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is &quot;man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God.&quot; This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:<br /> {{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: &quot;No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design.&quot; The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Far Eastern Division===<br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt; Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had &quot;dubious, Left Wing characters in his office.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, &quot;[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow],&quot; ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627224903/http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/levine700/?keywords=levine Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned friends (including HUAC investigator Joseph Brown Matthews), &quot;If they ever try to prove that I took my own life, [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html don't believe it],&quot; his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. (&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11F93959167B93C3A81789D85F458485F9 Gen. Krivitsky Found Dead; Suicide Finding Questioned; Notes Convince Washington Police He Shot Himself, but Friends Charge Former Ogpu Officer Was Slain by Reds KRIVITSKY'S DEATH IS INVESTIGATED],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1941, p. 1) Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [https://www.hoover.org/research/dark-memories corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30&lt;/ref&gt; where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, &quot;most of them Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Louis Rapoport, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, &quot;[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&amp;b=395031 Writers in Extremis],&quot; ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the Foreign Agents Registration Act [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91&lt;/ref&gt; According to Levine:<br /> {{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to &quot;go jump in a lake&quot; upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive&lt;ref&gt;&quot;an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&amp;t=1314204947 obscene or profane]&quot;; &quot;an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&amp;reversed=False&amp;action=define&amp;homonym=0&amp;text=expletive swearword].&quot; Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of &quot;expletive&quot; as a euphemism for &quot;[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; remark on this order: &quot;Oh, forget it, Adolf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/books/review/Mallon-t.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/1993_dubinsky.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/walter_winchell.htm Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; After he informed FDR that Hiss was spying for Moscow, according to Winchell, &quot;Leaning closer and pointing a finger in my face, he [Roosevelt] angrily said, 'I don't want to hear another thing about it! It isn't true.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schechter 2002]]: 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; According to Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians], Roosevelt was uninterested when confronted with reports of Soviet spying in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokhin 2000]]: 107&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot; ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: &quot;Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody...&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr:<br /> {{cquote|Many young leftists in the early 1930’s had entered the government in the early throes of the New Deal and embraced a Communist siren under whose call significant numbers of them were willing to pass along valuable information to the Soviet Union during the war. A general leftist tilt in the government meant that these ideologues blended well into the Washington bureaucracy while keeping their strong Soviet sympathies largely hidden. The tradecraft of Soviet intelligence personnel, the well honed Communist Party tradition of conspiracy, and a [https://www.fbi.gov/history/history-publications-reports/in-the-enemys-house-venona-and-the-maturation-of-american-counterintelligence lack of concern in the Roosevelt administration towards Soviet spying] meant that little of this growing Soviet intelligence web was found except by accident in the opening years of the war.}}<br /> Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131008202927/https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Initially, Dies supported the New Deal.&quot; (William D. Pederson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) &quot;He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants.&quot; Dies also had a record of &quot;support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity.&quot; George N. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70&lt;/ref&gt; [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was &quot;furious&quot;&amp;mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&amp;mdash;&quot;you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed,&quot; he railed, adding &quot;there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20030707171840/http://boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook.&quot;]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite2|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99&lt;/ref&gt; Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710063742/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/article/268394/pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies,&lt;ref&gt;Although one American public school teacher's guide claims that the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] &quot;was not an alliance. At the start of World War II, Joseph Stalin (...strongly anti-fascist) was aligned with Great Britain and France against the Axis Powers of Germany,&quot; etc., (''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1KtAAFE2nAwC World War II]'' [Social Studies School Service, 2007] ISBN 156004313X, p. S11), this is false. As French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thoruz and Jacques Duclos put it upon the Nazi conquest of France, &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of German imperialism. It is a fact that in this sense there is a temporary alliance.&quot; ([[#refTolstoy82|Tolstoy 1982]]: 113) As late as January 1941, the Soviets were appealing to the Nazis for permission to join as full members of the Axis. (Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlsrAxuWekQC A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521618266, p. 202) Six months later, when the pact collapsed, the USSR rushed into the arms of the Allies, which the Communists viewed as yet another &quot;temporary alliance.&quot; David Gress, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NKyzGG92uMUC From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2004) ISBN 0743264886, p. 408&lt;/ref&gt; including Communists.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [https://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt;As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106&lt;/ref&gt; the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Haslam, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel P. Mikhailov&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [https://web.archive.org/web/20100210161901/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs-and-george-dasch Nazi and fascist agents].&lt;ref&gt;According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr., &quot;From the entry of the US into the war in 1941, the FBI, with cooperation of its fellow agencies and significant foreign allies, effectively negated Axis intelligence operations in the US and the western hemisphere. The Bureau was distinctly [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona less successful in identifying the Soviet threat] during the same period.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed the U.S. Lend-Lease program for Britain&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87. The Communist front [[American Peace Mobilization]] picketed the White House, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790078,00.html protesting Lend-Lease] aid to the U.K. When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Nazism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world” (&quot;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm reaktionärste Kraft in der Welt]&quot;). “The German government declared itself ready to establish peaceful relations with the Soviet Union, whilst the Anglo-French war bloc want war against the Soviet Union,” [http://www.marxists.org/archive/ulbricht/1940/die-welt.htm declared Ulbricht]. During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html the blitzed areas of London],&quot; writes [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Orwell prize winning] journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;/ref&gt; (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm officially dissolving] the [[Comintern]], forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern&lt;ref&gt;“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989&lt;/ref&gt; (which included “control over the CPUSA”),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center&lt;/ref&gt; whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, &quot;the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease,&quot; was [[Harry Dexter White]],&lt;ref&gt;Albert Loren Weeks, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> one of &quot;the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents],&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named &quot;Map.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; Strong boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt; These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124&lt;/ref&gt; from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.&lt;ref&gt;Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208&lt;/ref&gt; Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and a Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; (code-named ''Lyre''),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; but also the mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [https://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity,&quot; but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt &quot;Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)&lt;/ref&gt; noted that &quot;Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/https://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, &quot;[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind,&quot; according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].&lt;ref&gt;Felix Wittmer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently,&quot; agreed former Soviet propagandist&lt;ref&gt;David C. Engerman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201&lt;/ref&gt; W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; His face was &quot;gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function,&quot; wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Burt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35&lt;/ref&gt; John Gunther. &quot;I felt certain that he was going to die.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Gunther, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:<br /> {{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell Cordell Hull] and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...&lt;ref&gt;James A. Farley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which<br /> {{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States. He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&amp;mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.&lt;ref&gt;Steven Lomazow , &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta'],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In [https://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister<br /> {{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. &quot;Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?&quot; he [Churchill] asked. &quot;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta].&quot;}}<br /> The deterioration in Roosevelt's judgement became evident in some of his more controversial statements at Yalta, including the following, recorded in the formerly [http://archive.today/p3GKt Top Secret minutes] two weeks after the liberation of Aushwitz:<br /> {{cquote|MARSHAL STALIN asked whether the President intended to make any concessions to Ibn Saud [King of Saudi Arabia].<br /> THE PRESIDENT replied that there was only one concession he thought he might offer and that was to give him the six million Jews in the United States.}}<br /> ====United Nations planning====<br /> As what Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/serhii-plokhii Serhii Plokhii] calls &quot;the State Department's expert on the United Nations&quot; at Yalta, Hiss was involved in discussions preceeding the secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; to give the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Although Hiss officially opposed this decision, there is some mystery as to how it came about: Hiss would later claim that the British informed him that US agreement to this Soviet demand had come from Stettinius himself, but Stettinus denied that he had ever made such an agreement.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plohky 2010]]: 192&lt;/ref&gt; Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kort, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===='Traitors'====<br /> The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; But Venona is not the only source: According to Plokhii, the [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2012/September%202012/0912yalta.aspx foremost modern analyst of Yalta], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]]: xxv&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was, according to Sudoplatov, &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein, who had been one of Hiss’s control officers in 1935-38, when he served as vice-consul at the Soviet consulate New York, and was now deputy director of the GRU. Hiss's briefings revealed not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====Poland====<br /> Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [https://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]]&amp;mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta &quot;went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures].&quot; It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes,&quot; he wrote. &quot;To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====China====<br /> Hiss had input even on China. During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to the formerly [https://archive.is/HTiIW Top Secret minutes], &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record resorts to the passive voice, obscuring Hiss's role in this incident: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press reports relying on this [https://books.google.com/books?id=kotPYEqx7kMC&amp;q=memory+hole#v=snippet&amp;q=memory%20hole&amp;f=false bowdlerized] official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot; FDR apologists such as liberal &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/weekinreview/04tanenhaus.html court historian]&quot; Arthur Schlesinger parroted this official version as dogma: &quot;As for Yalta, Alger Hiss had nothing to do with the Far Eastern discussions, and knew nothing of their existence,&quot; etc. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MegmQB1MxqkC The Politics of Hope: And, The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691134758, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Too much stress cannot be laid on the hope that our economic assistance be carried out in China through the medium of a government fully and fairly representative of all important Chinese political elements, including the Chinese Communists,&quot; said Acheson. (Freda Utley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JmAcAAAAMAAJ The China story]'' [H. Regnery Co., 1951], p. 15) This was the pretext for the U.S. embargo on arms to China in July 1946. Even after the embargo ended in May 1947, Acheson was able to delay shipments another six months. In 1949, he would explicitly instruct his subordinates that &quot;it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action.&quot; (David S. McLellan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: &quot;Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China.&quot; John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the &quot;memoranda for the President&quot; Stettinius directed be placed &quot;in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss,&quot; according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/https://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944 [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Other secret agreements====<br /> According to [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon [http://education-research.org/images/FDR-Stalin-Jews.jpg Stalin requested] the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, in Washington, sent [https://archive.is/TDxrP a Top Secret telegram] to Stettinius at Yalta, objecting to the repatriation as a violation of the Geneva Convention and of the traditional American policy of granting political asylum. The U.S. nevertheless agreed to the repatriation (which would become known as [[Operation Keelhaul]]), but that agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of [[reparations]] … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/01/03/reviews/990103.03persict.html Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; continuously since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told.&quot; ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. According to Stettinius, Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Powell, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were &quot;loaned&quot; to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: &quot;I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions.&quot; (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hoping to obtain &quot;control of the entire [[Mediterranean]],&quot; the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding &quot;an immediate boycott&quot; of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking &quot;[[Communist]] expansion world-wide,&quot; the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:&lt;ref&gt;United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.&lt;ref&gt;William B. Dunham, &quot;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career],&quot; Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which were [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that &quot;Ales&quot; and his group were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify &quot;the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow,&quot; Gouzenko would repeat that &quot;there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius.&quot; Bruce Craig, &quot;Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed,&quot; David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, &quot;We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss.&quot; [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 29, the Canadian Prime Minister met with Truman and Acheson in the White House, telling them that, according to Gouzenko, &quot;an assistant secretary of the Secretary of State's department was supposed to be implicated&quot; in GRU espionage. According to King, Truman &quot;turned to Acheson and said something to the effect that it would not be surprising.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who stated that Hiss's assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]], p. 1181 (PDF p. 121)&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John T. Donovan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; reported, &quot;In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Cronin, S.S., &quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945],&quot; p. 49 (PDF p. 58)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23&lt;/ref&gt; She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://archive.mrc.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/02/09.htm a speech] regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;In 1946, Stalin declared that the world would never be safe from war so long as capitalism survived. This inaugurated the cold war period.&quot; [http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/CIA%20Murphy%20Collection%20Pt1-1.pdf Fact sheet], Records of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Raymond E. Murphy Collection on International Communism, 1917–1958. Part 1: Eastern Europe. Cf. Walter LaFeber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38. &quot;The West never chose to have a Cold War, and never would,&quot; write Soviet dissident/exiles Vladimir Bukovsky and Pavel Stroilov. &quot;[I]t was always imposed on us [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=32645 by the Kremlin aggressors].&quot; “The Cold War was [http://www.raleighspyconference.com/wrapup/2003.aspx caused by the Soviet Union], was sustained by the Soviet Union, and was ended by the Soviet Union when it collapsed,” according to Christopher Andrew (so-called “[http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians]”). “It was and is as simple as that.”&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']]An extensive [[FBI]] investigation helped develop a great deal of evidence verifying Chambers’ statements and [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/january/a-byte-out-of-history-the-alger-hiss-story revealing Hiss’ cover-ups]. [[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the Bureau that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69&lt;/ref&gt; On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;Panuch would testify that &quot;...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'&quot; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, &quot;it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department.&quot; [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[https://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]&quot; (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&amp;hp&amp;oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, an investigation concluded that Hiss had taken home top-secret reports he was not cleared to see.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hQjvrgC_zAgC A Covert Life - Jay Lovestone: Communist, Anti-Communist and Spymaster]'' (House, 1999) ISBN 0307805662, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; That month the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 1 20)]&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; During the campaign, House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged, &quot;first we will give our efforts to cleaning out the Communists, their fellow travelers and parlor pinks from [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19460921&amp;id=nNtXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=g_UDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1774,4765653 high positions in our Government].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify &quot;any disloyal or subversive person&quot; from federal service. Truman's actions &quot;left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress,&quot; according to the journal of the National Archives. &quot;Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[https://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program],&quot; but no action was taken for three months. Finally, on June 10, members of the newly Republican-controlled Senate sent a secret report to Truman's new Secretary of State, [[George Marshall]], warning him about Undersecretary Dean Acheson, who had fired Panuch:<br /> {{cquote|It becomes necessary due to the gravity of the situation to call your attention to a condition that developed and still flourishes in the State Department under the administration of Dean Acheson. It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect communist personnel in high places but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity … On file in the department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States which involves a large number of State Department employees, some in high official positions. This report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department with the apparent tacit approval of Mr. Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;David Lawrence, &quot;Stevenson Held Unfamiliar with Red Issue,&quot; [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19520917&amp;id=gflXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=Z_YDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3180,2556457 ''Spokane Daily Chronicle,'' September 17, 1952, p. 4]&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marshall didn't respond to this report and, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 security cases] in the State Department the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that &quot;an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999&lt;/ref&gt; conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/No+Bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a [https://archive.is/5BcPM single federal official] for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/subpena subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html reported] to the chairman of Soviet intelligence about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers ('''A. Hiss''', [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”&lt;ref&gt;Truman &quot;wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow.&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named &quot;PAZh/Page.&quot; [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117&lt;/ref&gt; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.<br /> <br /> The Hiss forces launched a &quot;frightful campaign of vilification&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hilton Kramer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss's &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period].&quot; On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif/image.gif confinement in mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Just two days after their public testimony,&lt;ref&gt;Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; The New York ''Daily News'' asked, &quot;Well Alger, where's that suit?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281. Cf. Lloyd Chiasson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBC1QaeWyDAC The press on trial: crimes and trials as media events]'' (ABC-CLIO, 1997) ISBN 0275959368, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post''&amp;mdash;&quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers,&quot; according to Chambers&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 710. &quot;The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding.&quot; Marvin N. Olasky, &quot;[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950],&quot; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1–4, 1987), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to put up or shut up ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.&lt;ref&gt;Chalmers McGeagh Roberts, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SRhlAAAAMAAJ The Washington post: the first 100 years]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1977) ISBN 0395258545, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss's suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers.&quot; David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted &quot;an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Grand jury==<br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;John J. Danahy, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss's machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> [[Image:Alger Hiss testifies.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss testifies in 1950]]<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis], fresh from his [http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/defenders.html defeated defense of segregation] in ''Brown v. Board of Education''. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked &quot;strictly confidential&quot; or &quot;strictly confidential, for the Secretary,&quot; would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&amp;st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says],&quot; ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].&lt;ref&gt;Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense reverted to Hiss's original &quot;insanity defense&quot; (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. &quot;I never liked him. I knew him...&quot; said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. &quot;There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy.&quot; Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Naftali, “[https://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; (Italics in original) later concluded that &quot;[http://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/newby-sacvan.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,&lt;ref&gt;James Bell, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty],&quot; ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted &quot;it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life.&quot; Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988&lt;/ref&gt; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot; So fearful of the implications was the President that [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ Truman ordered the Venona documents destroyed]—an order that, fortunately for historians, was disobeyed.<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; orchestrated by&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;The Faithful Traitor,&quot; ''National Review'', February 10, 1997&lt;/ref&gt; long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed &quot;communist&quot; (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.” Among Hiss's fellow prisoners was avowed Communist Maurice Braverman. According to [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo196.html leftist] historian Garry Wills:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hen it came time for Hiss to be released, Braverman's lawyer said that the Party hoped he would have an eloquent statement to read when he came out the gate. Television cameras were bound to be there. Braverman asked Hiss what he meant to say; Hiss said he had not thought of making a statement. Braverman said he thought it would be a good idea. &quot;What should I say?&quot; Hiss asked, and Braverman composed his first draft for him. He behaved like one still serving the Party.&lt;ref&gt;Garry Wills, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByGIJIhocj0C Lead time: a journalist's education]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004) ISBN 0618446907, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == Later life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In 1956, surrounded by quite a bit of controversy, the [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] at [[Princeton University]] invited Hiss as a guest speaker.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBBbAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA8-PA31 Princeton Alumni Weekly, Volume 56], Princeton Alumni Weekly, 1955&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication.&quot; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of [[radical left-wing]] politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [https://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&amp;off=0&amp;f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss's conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as &quot;our agent.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [https://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Summers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.&lt;/ref&gt; Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]<br /> <br /> * &lt;cite id=reflegacy&gt;[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refShelton2012&gt;Christina Shelton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_XyzyNEy1McC Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treason]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2012) ISBN 1451655452&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlokhy2010&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorgan04&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerken03&gt; Gregg Herken, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPickersgill70&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTolstoy82&gt; Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yOoNAQAAMAAJ Stalin's secret war]'' (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982) ISBN 0030472660&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss2000&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss,&quot; ''[https://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refYalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112860 Black Notebook]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 White Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112566 White Notebook #3]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 Yellow Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refSilv6.106&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120310004029/http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&amp;page=1 Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48.2&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part Two], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48-2R&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [https://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTrohan1970&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refRJG06&gt;Robert Justin Goldstein, &quot;[https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist],&quot; ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [https://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120034728/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021232049/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May–June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes5-10-05&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss Case], May 10, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September–October 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[https://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; ''National Review'', February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[https://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-80900413/hiss-defenders-covering-for-the-old-man-the-last Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]<br /> [[Category:United States Political Scandals]]<br /> [[Category:Featured articles]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=J._Robert_Oppenheimer&diff=1532421 J. Robert Oppenheimer 2019-06-20T22:20:12Z <p>FOIA: sp</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox person<br /> | name = J. Robert Oppenheimer<br /> | image = Imer.jpg<br /> | birth_date = April 22, 1904<br /> | birth_place = New York City, New York<br /> | death_date = February 18, 1967<br /> | death_place = Princeton, New Jersey<br /> | nationality = <br /> | spouse = Katherine &quot;Kitty&quot; Harrison<br /> | religion = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Julius&lt;ref&gt;Although Oppenheimer always insisted that the initial J. in his name stood for &quot;nothing&quot; (Jeremy Bernstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kajvAAAAMAAJ Oppenheimer: Portrait of an Enigma]'' [Ivan R. Dee, 2004] ISBN 1566635691, p. x), his birth certificate identifies him as &quot;Julius Robert Oppenheimer.&quot; [[#refPK|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 355&lt;/ref&gt; Robert Oppenheimer''' (April 22, 1904 – February 18, 1967) was an American theoretical physicist and director of the [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]], one of four laboratories&lt;ref&gt;The others were the [http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/fermi.html Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago], under [http://www.aip.org/history/gap/Compton/Compton.html Arthur Compton];[https://web.archive.org/web/20130906064529/http://www.ornl.gov/ornl/news/communications/graphite-reactor Clinton Laboratories at Oak Ridge, Tennessee], under [http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev25-34/chapter1.shtml Martin Whitaker]; and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20111023190523/http://www.hanford.gov/page.cfm/WorldWarIIEra Hanford Engineer Works] in Hanford, Washington, under Crawford Greenewalt. S. L. Sanger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgjuoe2W4BoC Working on the Bomb: An Oral History of WWII Hanford]'' (Continuing Education Press, 1995) ISBN 0876781156, p. 3. Cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100527133244/http://www.energy.gov/media/Manhattan_Project_Map.pdf Manhattan Project Map], United States Department of Energy&lt;/ref&gt; involved in the [[Manhattan Project]] to develop the first [[atomic bomb]]. He was also a secret member of the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev, tr. Philip Redko, Yellow notebook #1 (Cold War International History Center, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars), [https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Yellow_Notebook_No._1_Original.pdf orig.], PDF p. 6; [https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Yellow_Notebook_No.1_Translated.pdf trans.], p. 10. Cf. [[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 120; [[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 49&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Like other [[liberal]]s, Oppenheimer was not as smart as he wanted to be: he was rejected by [[Ernest Rutherford]] as a student, and was not at the high level of [[Enrico Fermi]], [[John von Neumann]], or [[Robert Dicke]]. Like a fellow communist later on, former [[CIA]] director [[John Brennan]], Oppenheimer's security clearance was permanently revoked by presidential directive for [[colluding]] with the [[KGB]] and sparking the [[Cold War]] nuclear arms race.<br /> <br /> == Early life ==<br /> Oppenheimer was born in [[New York]] in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 7 (PDF 17)&lt;/ref&gt; the eldest son of Julius and Ella (née Freedman) Oppenheimer. His father was a wealthy textile importer who had immigrated from [[Germany]] in 1895, his mother a scion of [[Philadelphia]] society who had studied painting in Paris.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/oppenheimer.shtml The Oppenheimer Years, 1943-1945], Los Alamos National Laboratory&lt;/ref&gt; They collected original art, including a Renoir and three Van Goghs; they also owned a 40-foot yacht,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 4&lt;/ref&gt; and his father gave him his own 27-foot sloop.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes86|Rhodes 1986]]: 123&lt;/ref&gt; Precocious but socially backward, Oppenheimer began collecting minerals at age five, was elected to the New York Minerological Club at eleven,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/oppenheimer.shtml The Oppenheimer Years, 1943-1945], Los Alamos National Laboratory&lt;/ref&gt; and delivered his first paper there at age 12.&lt;ref&gt;Peter Goodchild, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A4MgAQAAIAAJ J. Robert Oppenheimer: Shatterer of Worlds]'' (Fromm International Pub. Corp., 1985) ISBN 0880640219, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; His shy awkwardness earned him the nickname &quot;Booby&quot; Oppenheimer among his peers; he was bullied, culminating in being locked naked in an icehouse overnight as retribution for alleged tattling.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 4&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer's parents were of [[Jewish]] descent, but did not observe religious traditions, sending him (via limousine)&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Beard, &quot;[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18424793.500 Biographies: J. Robert Oppenheimer and Patrick Blackett],&quot; ''New Scientist'', December 25, 2004&lt;/ref&gt; to New York's elite&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431&lt;/ref&gt; Ethical Culture&lt;ref&gt;Sean McManus, &quot;[http://nymag.com/news/features/46214/ If God Is Dead, Who Gets His House?]&quot; ''New York'', April 21, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; Society School.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Bios/Oppenheimer.shtml J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904 - 1967)], atomicarchive.com&lt;/ref&gt; Ethical Culture, a [[Secular Humanism|secular humanist]] religion,&lt;ref&gt;[http://openjurist.org/249/f2d/127 Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia], 101 U.S. App. D.C. 371, 249 F.2d 127. Cf. Jone Johnson Lewis, [http://aeuleaders.net/web/content/ethical-culture-religion Ethical Culture as Religion], American Ethical Union Library, 2003; Tom Flynn, [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&amp;page=sh_defined2 Secular Humanism Defined], Council for Secular Humanism; [http://www.americanhumanist.org/Who_We_Are/About_Humanism/Humanist_Manifesto_II Humanist Manifesto II], American Humanist Association&lt;/ref&gt; is indifferent to the existence of [[God]], replacing the [[Ten Commandments]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ethicalsociety.org/article.php?id=30 Is Ethical Culture based on Judaism and the Ten Commandments?], Washington Ethical Society&lt;/ref&gt; with a commitment to &quot;social justice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Chuman, [http://www.ethicalfocus.org/dr-joe-chuman/chuman-platforms/113-ethical-culture-and-the-ongoing-quest-for-social-justice Ethical Culture and the Ongoing Quest for Social Justice], The Ethical Culture Society of Bergen County&lt;/ref&gt; Such an education conditions students to yield to &quot;the totalitarian temptation,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;An &quot;unacknowledged desire to live under Stalinism, not in spite of what it is, but because of what it is.&quot; Jean François Revel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HTqFAAAAMAAJ The Totalitarian Temptation]'' (Doubleday, 1977) ISBN 0385122748, p. 25&lt;/ref&gt; as [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1974/hayek.html Nobel Prize-winning] economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] observed:<br /> {{cquote|'Social justice' can be given a meaning only in a directed or 'command' economy (such as an army) in which the individuals are ordered what to do; and any particular conception of 'social justice' could be realized only in such a centrally-directed system.&lt;ref&gt;Friedrich August Hayek, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qq6p11NPdOoC Law, Legislation and Liberty: The Mirage of Social Justice]'' (University of Chicago Press, 1978) ISBN 0226320839, p. 69&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Oppenheimer never did embrace [[Judaism]], turning instead to philosophical [[Hinduism]]. He apparently never studied [[Hebrew]] but learned [[Sanskrit]] and read the Bhavagad Gita in the original language; he would later list it as one of the ten books that did most to shape his “philosophy of life.”&lt;ref&gt;''[http://www.christiancentury.org/ Christian Century]'', May 15, 1963, p. 647, cited in James A. Hijiya, &quot;[http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/Hijiya.pdf The Gita of Robert Oppenheimer],&quot; ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,'' Vol. 144, No. 2 (June 2000), p. 130 (PDF p. 8)&lt;/ref&gt; What flashed through his mind upon witnessing the [[Trinity explosion]], he said, was a line from this Hindu scripture:<br /> {{cquote|I am become death, the destroyer of worlds.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,853367,00.html The Eternal Apprentice],&quot; ''Time'', November 8, 1948&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Temperton, James (August 9, 2017). [https://www.wired.co.uk/article/manhattan-project-robert-oppenheimer 'Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds'. The story of Oppenheimer's infamous quote]. ''Wired''. Retrieved August 1, 2018.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Education===<br /> Oppenheimer attended [[Harvard University]], where he majored in chemistry, graduating ''summa cum laude'' in just three years.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: xvii&lt;/ref&gt; One of his physics professors, Percy Bridgman, noted in his graduate-school recommendation that &quot;it appears to me that it is a bit of a gamble as to whether Oppenheimer will ever make any real contributions of an important character.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer went to England for postgraduate study at [[Cambridge University]], where he hoped to work under the [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/rutherford-bio.html Nobel Prize winner] [[Ernest Rutherford]]. &quot;But Rutherford wouldn't have me,&quot; according to Oppenheimer.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes86|Rhodes 1986]]: 123&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Cambridge, Oppenheimer became deeply depressed and jealous of the success of some of the people around him, particularly of his tutor, the future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1948/blackett-bio.html Nobel laureate] Patrick Blackett, three years his senior. According to Oppenheimer's friend John Edsall:<br /> {{cquote|Oppenheimer's feeling toward Blackett was one of intense admiration, combined perhaps with an intense jealousy&amp;mdash;jealousy because of his feeling that Blackett was brilliant and handsome and a man of great social charm, and combining all this with great brilliance as a scientist&amp;mdash;and I think he had a sense of his own comparative awkwardness and perhaps a sense of being physically unattractive compared to Blackett and so on.&lt;ref&gt;Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In the fall of 1925, Oppenheimer left a &quot;poisoned apple&quot; laced with chemicals (possibly cyanide) from the laboratory on Blackett's desk.&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mpgs6qqNERwC Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius]'' (Harvard University Press, 2008) ISBN 0674028287, p. 142&lt;/ref&gt; University authorities immediately informed Oppenheimer's parents (who were visiting Cambridge at the time) what had happened. According to a Pulitzer Prize-winning&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2006-Biography-or-Autobiography The 2006 Pulitzer Prize Winners, Biography or Autobiography]&lt;/ref&gt; biography of Oppenheimer:<br /> {{cquote|His father frantically&amp;mdash;and successfully&amp;mdash;lobbied the university not to press criminal charges. After protracted negotiations, it was agreed that Robert would be put on probation and have regular sessions with a prominent Harley Street psychiatrist in London. This Freudian analyst diagnosed dementia praecox, a now archaic label for symptoms associated with schizophrenia. He concluded that Oppenheimer was a hopeless case and that &quot;further analysis would do more harm than good&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 46&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Oppenheimer went to Paris for a rest. His boyhood friend Francis Fergusson visited him there, and mentioned that he had become engaged. For the second time, Oppenheimer committed an apparent attempted murder:<br /> {{cquote|&quot;I leaned over to pick up a book,&quot; Fergusson recalled, &quot;and he jumped on me from behind with a trunk strap and wound it around my neck. I was quite scared for a little while. We must have made some noise. And then I managed to pull aside and he fell on the ground weeping.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In 1926, Oppenheimer left Cambridge for the University of Göttingen in Germany. He developed a reputation for obnoxiousness, once chiding a graduate student couple for what he called their &quot;peasant&quot; ways in not being able to afford a baby-sitter.&lt;ref&gt;David Bodanis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MmjreCHCq_gC E=mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation]'' (Random House, Inc., 2001) ISBN 0385258917, p. 147&lt;/ref&gt; He had a habit of interrupting others (including his professor) and commandeering the blackboard; the future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1963/mayer.html Nobel Prize-winner] Maria Göppart once presented Oppenheimer's faculty adviser, Max Born, with a petition threatening a boycott of his seminar unless the &quot;child prodigy&quot; were reigned in.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer obtained a Ph.D. in physics in 1927, then obtained a National Research Council fellowship funded by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; He did post-doctoral work at Harvard, then the California Institute of Technology, finally taking a position as an associate professor of physics at the [[University of California at Berkeley]].<br /> <br /> == Scientific contributions ==<br /> Oppenheimer worked with other scientists such as [[Hans Bethe]], [[Niels Bohr]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Richard Feynman]], [[Willard Libby]], and [[Eugene Wigner]], who won Nobel prizes, although Oppenheimer never did.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer's best-known scientific contribution was to suggest a limit to the size of [[neutron star]]s; larger neutron stars would collapse into [[black holes]] according to the [[theory of relativity]]. But Oppenheimer is best known not for any scientific contribution, but for his managerial role as scientific director of the [[Manhattan Project]], under the supervision of project director Gen. Leslie Groves. His moment of greatest [[insight]] was when his subordinates came to him with the notion of explosive lensing. At that moment, he wheeled around the entire project toward that goal and thereby achieved the device that detonated over Nagasaki at the altitude of maximum throw weight, maximizing the damage despite the adverse weather conditions.<br /> <br /> == Personal life and Communist affiliation ==<br /> At Caltech, Oppenheimer had befriended Linus Pauling, and wrote him poems Pauling found &quot;troubling,&quot; which included allusions to pederasty. Pauling broke off the friendship after Oppenheimer made a pass at his wife, Ava Helen Pauling, who told her husband, &quot;I think he was in love with you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Hager, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FNXaAAAAMAAJ Force of nature: the life of Linus Pauling]'' (Simon &amp; Schuster, 1995) ISBN 0684809095, pp. 150-152&lt;/ref&gt; At Berkeley, rumors circulated of an affair between Oppenheimer and a homosexual student who lived with him,&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the shadow of the bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the moral responsibility of the scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 203, n. 69. Oppenheimer's colleague Abrahaim Pais wrote that &quot;I was convinced that strong latent homosexuality was an important ingredient in Robert's emotional makeup.&quot; (Abraham Pais, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrYrAAAAYAAJ A tale of two continents: a physicist's life in a turbulent world]'' [Oxford University Press, 1997] ISBN 0198501994, p. 241) One biographer comments, &quot;it seems fairly likely that sexual ambivalence was one aspect of Oppenheimer's youthful problems of identity.&quot; Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 51&lt;/ref&gt; but in 1936 he began an affair with Jean Tatlock, a medical student at Stanford&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 236&lt;/ref&gt; and daughter of Oppenheimer's fellow Berkeley professor John S.P. Tatlock,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 109&lt;/ref&gt; a contributor to ''[[Nation (magazine)|The Nation]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.thenation.com/authors/john-s-p-tatlock Author Bios: John S.P. Tatlock, thenation.com]&lt;/ref&gt; Then, In 1939, Oppenheimer began an affair with [http://foia.fbi.gov/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Katherine &quot;Kitty&quot; Puening Dallet Harrison]. After moving in with Oppenheimer and becoming pregnant,&lt;ref&gt;David Cassidy, ''J. Robert Oppenheimer and the American Century'' (Pi Press: 2004) ISBN 0-13-147996-2, pp. 186-187&lt;/ref&gt; Kitty abandoned her third husband,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/15/books/review/15RHODESL.html Nuclear Options],&quot; ''The New York Times'', May 15, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; a cancer researcher at Caltech,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 214&lt;/ref&gt; to marry Oppenheimer in 1940, though he continued his affair with Tatlock until at least June 1943. During [[World War II]], while married to Kitty, Oppenheimer began an affair with another married woman, Ruth Tolman, the wife of Caltech physicist Richard Tolman, whom Oppenheimer testified was &quot;a very close and dear friend of mine.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; The affair &quot;devastated Richard Tolman,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;C. Mott Woolley, &quot;[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/HE10Aa02.html The tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer],&quot; ''Asia Times'', May 10, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; who died, according to [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence.html Nobel Prize-winning] physicist Ernest Lawrence, &quot;of a broken heart.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 365&lt;/ref&gt; Kitty took to drinking.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 407-409&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer had a history of pro-Communist associations, starting at Caltech with Pauling, a &quot;long-serving [[USSR|Soviet]] tool.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Schwartz, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=23794 Communists and Islamic Extremists - Then and Now],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, July 8, 2002. A 1951 investigation by HUAC, then chaired by Democrat John Stephens Wood, concluded that Pauling was &quot;primarily engrossed in placing his scientific attainments at the service of a host of organizations which have in common their complete subservience to the Communist Party, USA, and the Soviet Union. Professor Pauling has not deviated a hair's breadth from this pattern of loyalty to the Communist cause since 1946.&quot; (House Committee on Un-American Activities, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/14/items/reportoncommunis00unit/reportoncommunis00unit_bw.pdf Report on the Communist &quot;Peace&quot; Offensive, the Attempt to Disarm and Defeat America]'' [Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1951], p. 86) In 1970, the Soviet government would reward Pauling for his long service [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1970n.13.html with the Lenin prize].&lt;/ref&gt; Later, at Berkeley, Oppenheimer's mistress Tatlock was a [[Communist]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 36&lt;/ref&gt; as was his wife Kitty,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 122. Cf. [[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/alba_032/bioghist.html widow of Communist political commissar Joe Dallet], killed in the [[Spanish Civil War]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://foia.fbi.gov/filelink.html?file=/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Hoover to Lansdale], May 23, 1944 (FBI file: Katherine Oppenheimer, PDF p. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; (perhaps by his Soviet superiors, or fragged by his own men, according to various rumors).&lt;ref&gt;William Herrick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vKWZ9Vo69GwC Jumping the Line: The Adventures and Misadventures of an American Radical]'' (AK Press, 2001) ISBN 1902593421, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; In January 1944, Tatlock would be found drowned in her bathtub, in circumstances termed &quot;suspicious.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 232, 253.&lt;/ref&gt; Some writers suspect Soviet involvement in Tatlock's death. Stephen Schwartz mentions &quot;Khyron&quot;—the Cyrillic transliteration of Chyron, ferryman of the dead in ancient Greek mythology&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Schwartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PvoUAAAAYAAJ From West To East: California and the Making of the American Mind]'' (Free Press, 1998) ISBN 0684831341, p. 380. Cf. Cornell Simpson, ''[https://www.amazon.com/death-James-Forrestal-Cornell-Simpson/dp/B0006BOU86 The Death of James Forrestal]'' (Western Islands, 1966) ASIN B0006BOU86)&lt;/ref&gt;—which was also [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]]' [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Venona-San%20Francisco-KGB.pdf code name].<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer’s brother Frank, and Frank’s wife Jackie, were also active members of the [[Communist Party]],&lt;ref&gt;“[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,800436,00.html The Brothers],” ''Time'', June 27, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; as was even Oppenheimer's landlady; in addition, several of Oppenheimer’s closest friends and protégés among his graduate students at Berkeley, including [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz]], Joe Weinberg, David Bohm, Philip Morrison and Bernard Peters were Communist Party members.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 147&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] (August 1939-June 1941), the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] expanded its surveillance of suspected Nazis to include [[Communist Party]] leaders.&lt;ref&gt;As soon as Roosevelt was inaugurated in March 1933, FDR's Secretary of State Cordell Hull told the FBI to investigate German Nazi groups [https://web.archive.org/web/20031128111253/http://www.uvm.edu/~apreston/Taken_Into_Custody.html in the United States]; the following year Roosevelt ordered the Bureau to investigate &quot;the activity of the Nazi movement [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/html/ChurchB3_0200a.htm in this country].&quot; During the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], when the [[Soviet Union]] was a [[Nazi]] ally in the invasion of Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Romania (and Nazi collaborator in the conquest of France and [[Battle of Britain]]), this investigation was expanded to include the [[CPUSA]]. Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcHJCCUcm-oC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300061838, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; In 1940, William Schneiderman, the California state chairman of the Communist Party, met with [[Isaac Folkoff]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 185 (PDF 195)&lt;/ref&gt; West Coast liaison between the Communist Party and [[NKVD|Soviet intelligence]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 357&lt;/ref&gt; at the home of then-secret (later confessed) Communist&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/document1.html Chevalier to Oppenheimer, July 23, 1964] (Robert Oppenheimer papers, Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Haakon Chevalier]]. Also present at this meeting, according to FBI surveillance, was J. Robert Oppenheimer.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: J. Robert Oppenheimer, March 28, 1941, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated). Cf. [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 228 (PDF 237)&lt;/ref&gt; The following year, Oppenheimer was added to [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s Custodial Detention Index,&lt;ref&gt;On September 6, 1939, in the wake of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], [[Franklin Roosevelt|FDR]] directed the FBI &quot;to take charge of investigative work in matters relating to espionage...&quot; (Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (Office of National Counterintelligence Executive), [http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol1/Vol1Chap4.pdf Vol. 1, Ch. 4], p. 177) Three days later, FDR created the Emergency Detention Program (EDP), giving the Justice Department the power to “arrest and detain those persons deemed dangerous in the event of war, invasion, or insurrection in and of a foreign enemy.” (Athan Theoharis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hguHAAAAMAAJ Spying on Americans: political surveillance from Hoover to the Huston plan]'' [Temple University Press, 1978] ISBN 0877221413, p. 40) (The EDP would provide the basis for Roosevelt's wartime internment of Japanese, Germans and Italians in the United States during World War II.) That month, in a reference to the [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/saccov/redscare.html Red Scare] of 1919, Attorney General Cullen Murphy stated, “There will be no repetition of the confusion and laxity and indifference of [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/html/ChurchB3_0206a.htm twenty years ago].” The CDI originated the following year in the Justice Department's [http://www.gaic.info/lps/LP%201%20Overview.pdf Special Defense Unit] (previously known as the Neutrality Laws Unit), later renamed the [https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/civilian/rg-60.html War Division]. During the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], the list was expanded to include Communists.&lt;/ref&gt; listed as “Nationalistic Tendency: Communist.”&lt;ref&gt;Custodial Detention Memorandum, May 27, 1941, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Communist front activity ===<br /> Upon his father's death in 1937, Oppenheimer inherited more than $300,000&lt;ref&gt;“[http://ohst.berkeley.edu/oppenheimer/exhibit/text/ch2page2.html Oppenheimer: A Life],” Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than $4.5 million today),&lt;ref&gt;[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], United States Bureau of Labor Statistics&lt;/ref&gt; and began contributing approximately $150 a month&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 185 (PDF 195)&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than $2,000 a month today),&lt;ref&gt;[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], United States Bureau of Labor Statistics&lt;/ref&gt; at first via [[Communist front]]s&lt;ref&gt;Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, pp. 82, 140, and 180; Attorney General Tom Clark, letter to Loyalty Review Board, released April 27, 1949; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 69 (PDF p. 85)&lt;/ref&gt; such as the Spanish Aid Committee&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)&lt;/ref&gt; (aiding the [[Soviet]]-armed forces in the [[Spanish Civil War]]), then directly to [[Isaac Folkoff|Folkoff]] or Communist Party official Thomas Addis.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 123. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 352&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> When he joined the [[Manhattan Project]] in 1942,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer wrote on his personal security questionnaire that he had been &quot;a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Filling in a security questionnaire, Oppie had lately admitted that he had been 'a member of just about every Communist-front organization on the West Coast'...&quot; Peter Wyden, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IlZ6AAAAIAAJ Day One: Before Hiroshima and After]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1984) ISBN 0671461427, p. 49. Cf. &quot;As Oppenheimer was to write on a 1942 security questionnaire... : '...I have been a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast.'&quot; Rachel Teukolsky, &quot;[http://sciencereview.berkeley.edu/articles/issue1/scientistx.pdf Regarding Scientist X],&quot; ''Berkeley Science Review,'' Issue 1 (Spring 2001), p. 17; &quot;When he joined the atomic bomb project he admitted in his security questionnaire that he had been 'a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast.'&quot; [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/peopleevents/pandeAMEX65.html J. Robert Oppenheimer, (1904 - 1967)], &quot;Race for the Superbomb,&quot; ''American Experience'', PBS&lt;/ref&gt; In September 1943, he repeated to Gen. Leslie Groves, head of the Manhattan Project, that he had &quot;probably belonged to every Communist-front organization on the west coast.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 159 (PDF 169). Cf. Philip M. Stern with Harold P. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i_tBAAAAIAAJ The Oppenheimer Case: Security on Trial]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1969) ISBN 0246640359, p. 15&lt;/ref&gt; Later that month, Lt. Col. John Lansdale, Jr., head of Security and Intelligence for the Manhattan Project, interviewed Oppenheimer, stating: &quot;You've probably belonged to every front organization on the coast&quot;; Oppenheimer reiterated: &quot;Just about.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 204 (PDF 214)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> More than a decade later, when the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was considering whether to renew his security clearance, Oppenheimer would change his story, writing that he did not remember saying this, that it was not true, and that if he had said anything along those lines, it was “a half-jocular overstatement.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; Yet less than four months after writing this, when the AEC got Oppenheimer on the witness stand, he would again change his story: Asked, “If you said that to Colonel Lansdale, were you jocular?” Oppenheimer would admit under oath, “I don’t think I could have been jocular during this interview.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 204 (PDF 214)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer confessed, &quot;I was associated with the Communist movement,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 110 (PDF 120)&lt;/ref&gt; and admitted having subscribed to the Communist Party organ ''People's World''&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 8 (PDF 18)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;for several years.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;According to the FBI, he was subscribed as early as 1938. ([[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 [PDF 236]) Asked if his subscription expired after he joined the Manhattan Project, Oppenheimer said: &quot;Since I don't know when it was, I can't answer that question.&quot; He admitted, &quot;I think I paid for it&quot; and &quot;I don't believe I canceled the subscription.&quot; [[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 157 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], when many other formerly stalwart Communists dropped out of the movement in disgust, Oppenheimer was, by his own admission, active in a number of [[Communist front]]s. He admitted having been a member of the western council of the Consumers Union&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; (according to the FBI, he actually became a member of the Board of Counselors of this organization),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)&lt;/ref&gt; which was designated as subversive by the [[HUAC|Dies committee]] in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;Paul Gray, Tom Curry and Jane Van Tessel, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,982525,00.html Evaluating the Buyer's Bible],&quot; ''Time'', February 20, 1995&lt;/ref&gt; during the pact. In addition, from 1939 until at least 1942&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 158 (PDF 168)&lt;/ref&gt; (throughout the duration of the pact), admitted Oppenheimer, he was a member of the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom, which was identified by [[HUAC]] as a Communist front in 1942 and by a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations as subversive and un-American the following year.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 3 (PDF 13)&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer claimed not to remember sponsoring the American Friends of the Chinese People&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; (identified as a Communist front by HUAC in 1944),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 3 (PDF 13)&lt;/ref&gt; but the organization listed him as a sponsor&lt;ref&gt;Senate Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities, California Legislature, [http://ia331325.us.archive.org/3/items/reportofsenatefa00calirich/reportofsenatefa00calirich.pdf Un-American Activities in California, 1948: Communist Front Organizations, Fourth Report] (Sacramento, 1948), p. 144 (PDF p. 154)&lt;/ref&gt; in 1940,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 124&lt;/ref&gt; during the pact.<br /> <br /> In addition, according to the FBI, Oppenheimer reportedly co-founded the Berkeley Conference for Civic Betterment (identified by the FBI as a &quot;[[Communist front|front group]]&quot;); was &quot;a member of the Executive Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union, a Communist Party front group [in 1939, during the pact]&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Under threat of being listed by HUAC in the wake of the Nazi-Soviet pact, the ACLU purged any &quot;member of any political organization which supports totalitarian dictatorship in any country, or who by his public declaration and connections indicates his support of [http://content.cdlib.org/view?query=&amp;docId=kt396n99b3&amp;chunk.id=d0e2699&amp;toc.depth=1&amp;toc.id=0&amp;brand=oac&amp;x=0&amp;y=0 such a principle]&quot; (including future CPUSA Chairman Elizabeth Gurley Flynn) from its Executive Committee in 1940, although its continued front activity caused it to be listed as a Communist front by a joint committee of the California Legislature in 1943: &quot;The American Civil Liberties Union may be definitely classed as a Communist front or 'transmission belt' organization.&quot; [http://ia331324.us.archive.org/3/items/reportofsenatefa00calirich/reportofsenatefa00calirich.pdf Communist Front Organizations], Fourth Report of the Senate Fact-Finding Committee On Un-American Activities, California Legislature, 1948, p. 107 (PDF p. 117)&lt;/ref&gt; a member of the Medical Bureau to Aid Spanish Democracy&lt;ref&gt;Oppenheimer was listed as a donor to this organization in ''People's World'', January 29, 1938, cited in [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF p. 236)&lt;/ref&gt; (identified by [[HUAC]] in 1944 as one in a &quot;series of Communist enterprises&quot;);&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, Annual Report, House Report 2233, June 7, 1946, p. 27; Cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 55 (PDF p. 71)&lt;/ref&gt; a member of the National Emergency Conference for Democratic Rights (identified as subversive and un-American by a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations in 1943, and as a Communist front by HUAC the following year);&lt;ref&gt;Special Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations, Report, April 21, 1943, p. 3; Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, VV- 48 and 102; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 62 (PDF p. 78)&lt;/ref&gt; and a donor to the Spanish Aid Committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)&lt;/ref&gt; identified as a Communist front by HUAC in 1944 and as Communist by [[Harry Truman|Truman]] administration [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]] in 1949.&lt;ref&gt;Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, pp. 82, 140, and 180; Attorney General Tom Clark, letter to Loyalty Review Board, released April 27, 1949; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 69 (PDF p. 85)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Communist Party membership===<br /> But Oppenheimer “was not simply a casual Popular Front liberal who ignorantly bumped up against the [[CPUSA]] in some of the areas in which it operated,&quot; according to John Earl Haynes, a Soviet espionage expert in the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress:&lt;ref&gt;Patricia Villamil, &quot;2009-2010 Kluge Staff Fellow,&quot; [http://www.loc.gov/loc/kluge/newsletters/KlugeNewsletteFall2009.pdf ''Newsletter'', the John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, Vol. 2, No. 2 (November 2009)], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;He was, in fact, a concealed member of the CPUSA in the late 1930s,&quot; write Haynes, Emory University Professor Harvey Klehr and ex-[[KGB]] agent Alexander Vassiliev.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 58&lt;/ref&gt; “Robert Oppenheimer was a member of a so-called closed unit of the Communist Party's professional section in Berkeley, from 1938 to 1942,” agrees Gregg Herken, a former senior Historian at the Smithsonian Institution.&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/documents.html Documents], Brotherhood of the Bomb&lt;/ref&gt; Stanford University historian Barton Bernstein, an expert on Oppenheimer, concurs that &quot;it seems to me far more likely than not from the amalgam of evidence that Oppenheimer was a member, at least covert, for a few years.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Burress, &quot;[http://articles.sfgate.com/2004-04-23/news/17423704_1_communist-party-oppenheimer-uc-berkeley The Oppenheimer Riddle: New evidence of Communist membership debated by scholars of Berkeley scientist],&quot; ''The San Francisco Chronicle'', April 23, 2004&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Berkeley cell====<br /> During 1938-42, throughout the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], Oppenheimer was a member at Berkeley of what he called a &quot;discussion group,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; which was later identified by fellow members [[Haakon Chevalier|Chevalier]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/document1.html Chevalier to Oppenheimer, July 23, 1964] (Robert Oppenheimer papers, Library of Congress); Barbara Chevalier, &quot;[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_2.html Robert Oppenheimer and Haakon Chevalier: From the Memoirs of Barbara Chevalier],&quot; excerpts (brotherhoodofthebomb.com)&lt;/ref&gt; and Gordon Griffiths&lt;ref&gt;Gordon Griffiths, &quot;[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor],&quot; excerpts&lt;/ref&gt; as a “closed” (secret)&lt;ref&gt;Jessica Mitford, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8KUEAQAAIAAJ A fine old conflict]'' (Knopf, 1977) ISBN 0394499956, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; unit of the Communist Party for Berkeley faculty. If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he was the only member of this group who was not.&lt;ref&gt;S. S. Schweber, “[http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/a-puzzle-of-a-man A Puzzle of a Man],” ''American Scientist'', Vol. 2, No. 5 (September–October 2004)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In addition, if he was not a Communist, Oppenheimer fooled his close friends in this small, secretive group into thinking he was. According to Chevalier, “O. had been, from 1937 to 1943, a CP member, which I knew directly.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431&lt;/ref&gt; He added that he and Oppenheimer belonged to “the same unit of the CP from 1938 to 1942.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 341, n. 35&lt;/ref&gt; Griffiths, who served as the Communist Party's “liaison with the Faculty group at the University of California,” confirmed that among the “members of the communist group” at Berkeley were “[[Haakon Chevalier]] of the French Department and Robert Oppenheimer of Physics.”&lt;ref&gt;Gordon Griffiths' ''[http://brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor]'' (excerpts), Brotherhood of the Bomb&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer was the primary author of a report signed “College Faculties Committee, Communist Party of California,” which he also paid to have printed, said Chevalier.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; It defended the Soviet invasion of Finland (during the Nazi-Soviet pact), calling [[President]] [[Roosevelt]] a &quot;counter-revolutionary war-monger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; The report contains unusual wording characteristic of Oppenheimer’s writing, suggesting that Oppenheimer might at least have &quot;had a hand in editing a draft,&quot; according to [http://www.tufts.edu/home/feature/?p=sherwin historian] Martin J. Sherwin.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 144-145&lt;/ref&gt; [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] physics professor emeritus (and former Oppenheimer pupil) Philip Morrison, an ex-Communist,&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82d Cong., 2d sess., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SB65AAAAIAAJ Subversive Influence in the Educational Process'', Parts 7-14] (Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1955), p. 899&lt;/ref&gt; confirmed that in 1939 (during the Pact) he delivered to the printers a pamphlet Oppenheimer wrote (and paid for) taking “the strict Party line in defending the Soviet invasion of Finland.”&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/17008 The Oppenheimer Case: An Exchange],&quot; ''The New York Review of Books'', Vol. 51, No. 5 (March 25, 2004)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Alameda County Communist Party====<br /> If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he also fooled Communist Party officials into thinking he was. Paul Crouch, Communist Party organizer for Alameda County in 1941, testified that Oppenheimer had been a Communist at that time, and even described the interior layout of his home:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 440&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Chairman: Is there any doubt in your mind that Oppenheimer was a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Crouch: No, sir, none whatever. I met him in a closed meeting of the Communist Party in a house which was subsequently found to have been his residence at the time... and following that I met him at quite a number of Communist Party affairs in Alameda County.&lt;ref&gt;Crouch, Paul (1953-09-15). United States Senate, &quot;[https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume3.pdf Executive Sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, Vol. 3], 83d Cong., 1st sess., 1953, pp. 1837 (PDF p. 37)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1945, in an Executive Committee meeting of the Communist Party branch for Alameda County,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 46&lt;/ref&gt; both the Communist Jack Manley and his wife, Communist Party functionary Katrina Sandow (alias “Katherine Sanders”),&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Dickson P. Hill, Committee on Un-American Activities, [http://ia341012.us.archive.org/2/items/investigationofcsf195402unit/investigationofcsf195402unit_bw.pdf Hearings on Communist Activities in the San Francisco Area&amp;mdash;Part 2] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 3193-3196 (PDF pp. 45-48)&lt;/ref&gt; according to FBI surveillance, “stated that Oppenheimer was a Communist Party member.”&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9, p. 318, fn.; [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 46&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Soviet intelligence====<br /> If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he not only convinced the Communist Party he was, he convinced Soviet intelligence itself. A 1944 report by [[NKVD]] [[San Francisco]] ''[[rezident]]'' (station chief) [[Grigory Kheifetz]]&lt;ref&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'' (Fort George G. Meade, Md.: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, 2001), p. 41&lt;/ref&gt; states: “According to 'Uncle' ([[Isaac Folkoff]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 56&lt;/ref&gt; both brothers [Robert and Frank Oppenheimer] were associated with the fellowcountrymen,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alexandr Vassiliev, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.1_Translated1.pdf White Notebook #1] (tr. Steve Shabad), p. 138&lt;/ref&gt; [[NKVD]] code name for the Communist Party.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 36&lt;/ref&gt; That year, NKVD agents [[Gaik Ovakimian]] and Andrei Graur reported to NKVD chief Boris Merkulov, identifying the code name &quot;Chester&quot; as &quot;Robert Oppenheimer, b. 1906, an Amer. Jew, secret member of the fellowcountryman org., a professor at the U. of California, works on ‘En-s’,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #1 ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No._1_Original.pdf Orig.]), PDF p. 6; ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.1_Translated.pdf Trans].), p. 10. Cf. [[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; i.e., 'Enormoz,' Soviet code name for the Manhattan Project.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 87&lt;/ref&gt; Merkulov, reporting in turn to Soviet Commissar for Internal Affairs [[Lavrenty Beria]], identified “one of the leaders of scientific work on uranium in the USA, Professor R. Oppenheimer,” as “an unlisted [''nglastny'']&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. 50&lt;/ref&gt; member of the apparatus of Comrade [[Earl Browder|Browder]],” General Secretary of the [[CPUSA]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111512 Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer is also mentioned as an unlisted member of the CPUSA in a January 7, 1946, Soviet intelligence document from the Russian Presidential Archives and Ministry of Atomic Energy.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The State of Work in the Utilization of Atomic Energy in Capitalist Countries,&quot; in &quot;Atomic Project in the USSR, Volume II, 1938-54&quot; (Moscow: Ministry of Atomic Energy of Russia, 2000). See Jerrold and Leona Schechter, &quot;[http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0210&amp;week=c&amp;msg=VJUrY5l1Cc7MVWpd5C6O1g&amp;user=&amp;pw= Clarification of Steven Aftergood's posting of August 30, 2002],&quot; H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online, October 14, 2002&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Cover-up====<br /> In April 1942 Oppenheimer's name was formally submitted for security clearance for the Manhattan Project; the following month, observed William L. Borden, executive director of the congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (JCAE), Oppenheimer &quot;either stopped contributing funds to the Communist Party or else made his contributions through a new channel not yet discovered.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 837 (PDF 849)&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer &quot;appears to have dropped out of the party in early 1942,” write Haynes, Klehr and Vassiliev.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 58&lt;/ref&gt; According to Jerrold L. Schecter, spokesman for the National Security Administration in the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, &quot;Robert Oppenheimer’s long time membership in the Communist Party of the United States was made secret in 1942.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.publications&amp;doc_id=43900&amp;group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> FBI surveillance in 1942-43 reported that Alameda County Communist Party Secretary Bernadette Doyle told John Murra, a “suspected intelligence agent of the USSR,” that “OPPENHEIMER was a party member but that his name should be removed from any mailing lists in John Murra’s possession and he should not mention it in any way,” and told [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion Comintern agent] &quot;[[Steve Nelson]]&quot; (Stjepan Mesaros), according to a telephone intercept,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 234&lt;/ref&gt; “that she believes the matter should be taken up with the state committee regarding the two OPPIES, inasmuch as they were regularly registered [as members of the Communist Party] and everyone in the county knew they were Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The FBI report adds: &quot;It is believed that the two OPPIES mentioned above had reference to subject J. ROBERT OPPENHEIMER and his brother FRANK OPPENHEIMER.&quot; FBI report: J. Robert Oppenheimer, December 2, 1943, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated). Cf. [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 229 (PDF 238); M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9, p. 316-318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Grigory Kheifetz|Kheifetz]], &quot;due to their special military work, the connection with them [Robert and Frank Oppenheimer] was suspended.”&lt;ref&gt;Alexandr Vassiliev, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.1_Translated1.pdf White Notebook #1] (tr. Steve Shabad), p. 138&lt;/ref&gt; Ovakimian and Graur reported to Merkulov: “In view of the special significance and importance of the work he does... the fellowcountryman organization received orders from its center to break off relations with ‘Ch.’ [i.e., &quot;Chester,&quot; Oppenheimer's code name] to avoid his exposure.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; Merkulov summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Due to complications of the operational situation in the USA, dissolution of the [[Comintern]]&lt;ref&gt;In 1943, Stalin officially dissolved the [[Comintern]] ([http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm Dissolution of the Communist International], Marxists Internet Archive), forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States. ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.publications&amp;doc_id=43900&amp;group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars). The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern ([http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989), which included “control over the CPUSA,” (Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507, p. 48)&amp;mdash;gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct NKVD control. [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface], Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; and explanations of Comrades Zarubin and Kheifets on the Mironov affair&lt;ref&gt;In 1943, Lt. Col. Vasili Mironov, an NKVD officer in the Washington, DC ''rezidentura'', sent an [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2005/august/history_082605 unsigned letter] to [[J. Edgar Hoover]], exposing the intelligence activities of the [[Vasily Zarubin|Zarubin]]s and [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]].&lt;/ref&gt; it is expedient to immediately sever contacts of leaders and activists of the American Communist Party with scientists and specialists engaged in work on uranium.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=va2.document&amp;identifier=5034E2FB-96B6-175C-967BCF8290DD3AD9&amp;sort=Collection&amp;item=Intelligence%20Operations%20in%20the%20Cold%20War Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to Sudoplatov, &quot;My deputy, Leonid Eitingon, and I also instructed Kheifetz and Semyonov to turn over to our old moles all their confidential contacts with friendly sources around Oppenheimer in California.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George J. Church, &quot;[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980756,00.html Did Oppenheimer Really Help Moscow?]&quot; ''Time'', Vol. 143, No. 21 (May 23, 1994), p. 68&lt;/ref&gt; A 1945 Soviet code-message refers to instructions to “send GURON [‘Huron’]&lt;ref&gt;Huron was identified in the [[Gorsky memo]] in 1948 by [[Anatoly Gorsky]] (NKVD ''rezident'' in Washington in 1945) as Byron T. Darling, who would be fired from a post as associate professor of physics at Ohio State University in 1953 when he refused to answer a question about his Communist Party ties before HUAC.&lt;/ref&gt; to CHICAGO to re-establish contact with VEKSEL….” The National Security Agency’s [[Venona project]] analysts identified VEKSEL as “Probably Dr. Julius Robert Oppenheimer.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/venona/releases/21_Mar_1945_R1_p2.gif Venona 256 Moscow to New York], 21 March 1945&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Espionage at Los Alamos ==<br /> In testimony before the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]] (PSI), Crouch was asked about Oppenheimer:<br /> {{cquote|The CHAIRMAN. ...Is there any doubt in your mind... [that] Oppenheimer was under Communist party discipline at the time you were attending these Communist meetings with him?<br /> <br /> Mr. CROUCH. No, sir, none whatever.<br /> <br /> The CHAIRMAN. And if he were under Communist party discipline, he, of course, would be bound to turn over any atomic secrets to them that he had available?<br /> <br /> Mr. CROUCH. That the party directed.<br /> <br /> The CHAIRMAN. And naturally they would be interested in any atomic information he had?<br /> <br /> Mr. CROUCH. Yes, sir. Just as a matter of fact, the Communist Party might have chosen to direct him to turn over the information; they might have chosen to direct him to appoint other Communists to key positions who would in turn, turn over the information. It is a matter of record that Dr. Oppenheimer has appointed many Communists to key positions to the atomic energy program...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume3.pdf Executive Sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, Vol. 3], 83d Cong., 1st sess., 1953, pp. 1840-41 (PDF pp. 40-41)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to Sudoplatov, &quot;Oppenheimer, together with Fermi and Szilard, helped us place moles in Tennessee, Los Alamos and Chicago as assistants in those three labs.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nigel West, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=AcUIAQAAMAAJ Venona: the greatest secret of the Cold War]'' (HarperCollins, 1999) ISBN 0006530710, p. 186&lt;/ref&gt; Among those Oppenheimer brought into Los Alamos were his former grad students Bohm, Peters and [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz|Lomanitz]]; his brother Frank; and David Hawkins&amp;mdash;all of whom were well known to him to be “members of the Communist Party or closely associated with activities of the Communist Party.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/opp06.asp Decision and Opinions of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer], Washington, D.C., June 29, 1954 (Avalon Project, Yale Law School)&lt;/ref&gt; Frank testified that he was a member (under the cover name &quot;Frank Fulsome&quot;) from 1937 until 1940 or '41;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 359. Cf. [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 402&lt;/ref&gt; Hawkins testified that he was a member at Berkeley from 1938 to 1943;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 81st Congr., 2d sess., [http://ia341025.us.archive.org/3/items/hearingsregardin194903unit/hearingsregardin194903unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Infiltration of Radiation Laboratory and Atom Bomb Project at the University of California, Berkeley, Calif., Vol. 3] (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 3418 (PDF p. 9)&lt;/ref&gt; Bohm officially joined the Communist Party in 1942&lt;ref&gt;F. David Peat, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pobZMUmZbAEC Infinite Potential: The Life and Times of David Bohm]'' (Basic Books, 1997) ISBN 0201328208, p. 58&lt;/ref&gt; and later testified that he was a member at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory during [[World War II]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 122&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1942, FBI surveillance recorded Lomanitz telling Nelson he was working on a highly secret weapon; Nelson advised Lomanitz to keep his Party activity quiet&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713757446 Soviet Military-Industrial Espionage in the United States and the Emergence of an Espionage Paradigm in US-Soviet Relations, 1941-45],&quot; ''American Communist History'', Vol. 2, Iss. 1 (June 2003), pp. 21-51&lt;/ref&gt; as he was now considered a member of the underground.&lt;ref&gt;San Francisco FBI report 15 March 1947, COMRAP file. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 325; Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer said he knew &quot;for a fact&quot; by August 1943 that Lomanitz was a Communist Party member.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 875 (PDF 887). Cf. [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 245; [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 111&lt;/ref&gt; Yet when, following an espionage investigation,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 128 (PDF 138)&lt;/ref&gt; the Army released Lomanitz from Berkeley, causing him to lose his draft deferment, Oppenheimer sent an &quot;urgent request&quot; by telegram, urging Lomanitz' &quot;continued availability to project,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 123 (PDF 133)&lt;/ref&gt; and subsequently attempted to get the Army to release Lomanitz to return to the Radiation Laboratory.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 124 (PDF 134)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1949, just before Lomanitz was to testify before HUAC, Oppenheimer met him on a sidewalk in Princeton, N.J., (where presumably &quot;the FBI found it difficult to monitor his conversations&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; and discussed what he would say to the committee. Oppenheimer testified that the meeting was by chance, and that he only advised Lomanitz to tell the truth. But when he testified, Lomanitz refused on grounds of potential self-incrimination to answer whether or not he had been a Communist.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 151 (PDF 161)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer also testified that he knew &quot;for a fact&quot; by August 1943 that Weinberg was a Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 875 (PDF 887). Cf. [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 245; [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 111&lt;/ref&gt; and had heard even at Berkeley that Weinberg had been a member of the Young Communist League.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 194 (PDF 204)&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance recorded Weinberg, who had gotten into the Manhattan project using Oppenheimer as a reference, telling Nelson he had been a Communist Party member since 1938.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 14 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; Nelson warned Weinberg to burn his party membership book.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; In 1943, FBI surveillance recorded Weinberg (&quot;[http://ia341038.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregardin194902unit/hearingsregardin194902unit_bw.pdf Scientist X]&quot;) reading to Nelson &quot;what appeared to be a technical formula used in the Project,&quot; which Nelson copied down.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 6 (PDF 8)&lt;/ref&gt; Weinberg told Nelson he had to return the formula to the University of California Radiation Laboratories in the morning. Several days later Nelson met with Peter Ivanov (a [[GRU]] agent operating out of the Soviet consulate in San Francisco,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]&lt;/ref&gt; where [[Grigory Kheifetz|Kheifetz]] was undercover as vice consul),&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?doc_id=43900&amp;fuseaction=topics.publications&amp;group_id=13349&amp;topic_id=1409 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; and gave him a package.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; A few days later, &quot;Zubilin&quot; ([[Vasily Zarubin]], NKVD station chief in the U.S. from 1941 to 1944) was transferred from the Soviet Embassy in Washington to the San Francisco consulate. Shortly thereafter, Zubilin gave Nelson ten bills of unknown denominations.&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 81st Cong., 1st sess., [http://ia311304.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregarding1949unit/hearingsregarding1949unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Steve Nelson] (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949), pp. VIII-IX (PDF pp. 12-13)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At least three of the five scientists under Oppenheimer's direct supervision [[leak]]ed secret information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. These include [[Klaus Fuchs]], [[Theodore Hall]], and [[David Greenglass]].&lt;ref&gt;For '''Karl Fuchs''', see: {{hnb|Andrew &amp; Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=114-115, 127-128, 131-132, 155, 164, 397}} Noting that Klaus Fuchs, a committed Stalinist, began spying while in Great Britain after fleeing Nazi Germany, and continued when he came to the United States to work on the Manhattan Project. For '''Theodore Hall''', see: {{hnb|Andrew &amp; Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=128-129, 131-132, 147-48, 164-65, 205}} (Cf. &quot;[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sanders/214/other/news/obit-hall-ap.html Scientist, Spy for Soviets Dies],&quot; The Associated Press, November 10, 1999). For '''David Greenglass''', see {{hnb|Andrew &amp; Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=128, 131}}. For all see also also {{hnb|LANL|2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; KGB archival data smuggled out by Vassiliev reveal that two more spies, Boris Podolsky (code-named Quantum) and Russell McNutt (code-named Fogel, later changed to Pers), were also at Los Alamos during Oppenheimer's tenure.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 73, 339&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Allegations against Oppenheimer===<br /> &quot;The secrets in KGB memoirs, Soviet archival records and translations, and NSA decrpytions of Soviet war time cable traffic, codenamed VENONA, reveal: The cooperation of J. Robert Oppenheimer in atomic espionage from 1942 to 1944....&quot; writes Schecter.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. xxvi&lt;/ref&gt; Herbert Romerstein, former chief of the U.S. Information Agency's Office to Counter Soviet Disinformation and Active Measures,&lt;ref&gt;[http://0-www.gpo.gov.library.colby.edu/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-10-21/html/CREC-1996-10-21-pt1-PgS12411.htm ''Congressional Record'', Vol. 142, Iss. 143 (Monday, October 21, 1996), p. S12415]&lt;/ref&gt; agrees: &quot;Atomic scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer performed work on behalf of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 449&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer supplied the Soviets with classified reports on atom bomb development&amp;mdash;in part via Elizabeth Zarubina (wife of [[Vasily Zarubin]]), who was in direct contact with Oppenheimer's wife, Kitty&amp;mdash;according to Pavel Sudoplatov, Moscow-based overseer of Soviet atom-bomb espionage. In his 1994 memoir, Sudoplatov wrote:<br /> {{cquote|I set up a network of illegals who convinced Robert Oppenheimer, [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Leo Szilard]], [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], Alan Nunn May, [[Klaus Fuchs]] and other scientists in America and Great Britain to share atomic secrets with us..... We received reports on the progress of the Manhattan Project from Oppenheimer and his friends in oral form, through comments and asides, and from documents transferred through clandestine methods with their full knowledge that the information they were sharing would be passed on. One agent cited Oppenheimer's stressing that information should be leaked so as not to be traceable to those who worked in Los Alamos. In all, there were five classified reports made available by Oppenheimer describing the progress of work on the atomic bomb.&lt;ref&gt;Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, pp. 192, 196, 206-207&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Sudoplatov's allegations are corroborated by a 1982 letter he wrote to then-Soviet Premier [[Yuri Andropov]], stating: &quot;Department S [Sudoplatov's department] rendered considerable help to our scientists by giving them the latest materials on atom bomb research, obtained from such sources as the famous nuclear physicists R. Oppenheimer, E. Fermi, [[Klaus Fuchs|K. Fuchs]] and others.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, Appendix.&lt;/ref&gt; Romerstein and Breindel comment: &quot;It would have made no sense for Sudoplatov to lie to Andropov, the former head of KGB and dictator of the Soviet Union, who would have easily found him out.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 275&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to FBI surveillance in 1943, Nelson (who often visited Oppenheimer's wife in Berkeley)&lt;ref&gt;Rachel Teukolsky, &quot;[http://sciencereview.berkeley.edu/articles/issue1/scientistx.pdf Regarding Scientist X: Big Science, the War Effort, and Communist Activity at Berkeley Radiation Lab (1929-1949)],&quot; ''Berkeley Science Review'' Issue 1 (Spring 2001), p. 18&lt;/ref&gt; advised Weinberg &quot;that OPPENHEIMER had indicated to him the basic idea of the project&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 26 (PDF 28)&lt;/ref&gt; in 1945, Jack Manley would state that “Oppenheimer told Steven Nelson several years ago that the Army was working on the atomic bomb.”&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9, p. 318, fn.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Merkulov reported to [[Lavrenty Beria|Beria]], &quot;In 1942 one of the leaders of scientific work on uranium in the USA, Professor R. Oppenheimer... informed us about the beginning of work. On the request of Comrade Kheifitz,&lt;ref&gt;NKVD ''[[rezident]]'' (station chief), San Francisco. Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'' (Fort George G. Meade, Md.: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, 2001), p. 41&lt;/ref&gt; confirmed by [[Earl Browder|Comrade Browder]], he provided cooperation in access to research for several of our tested sources including a relative of Comrade Browder.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111512 Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; (Browder's niece, [[Helen Lowry]], was a Soviet agent married to [[Iskhak Akhmerov]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 234, 218, 239, 486, 503&lt;/ref&gt; the leading NKVD &quot;illegal&quot; in the United States.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 154&lt;/ref&gt; Schecter concludes that Oppenheimer “was being used as a Soviet intelligence asset by the Communist Underground to help obtain atomic secrets.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.publications&amp;doc_id=43900&amp;group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Sergei Leskov, science correspondent for ''Izvestia'', a Moscow newspaper in which the Russian government holds a controlling stake, reported in 1994 that Russian government officials informed him<br /> {{cquote|that as well as Klaus Fuchs, who was imprisoned for espionage in Britain for 14 years, and &quot;Perseus,&quot; an unidentified agent who has been mentioned frequently in recent years, there were 10 agents of similar caliber working in the West. Six worked in the United States, four in Britain. They were significant figures who remain unknown to the FBI to this day.&lt;ref&gt;Sergey Leskov, &quot;An Unreliable Witness,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VAwAAAAAMBAJ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]'', July/August, 1994, p. 36&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====The Chevalier incident====<br /> In 1943, the Soviets tried to establish direct contact with Oppenheimer. Ivanov instructed George Eltenton (a British-born Soviet intelligence source code-named “Dorin”)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; to feel Oppenheimer out about covertly leaking American nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union, according to Eltenton’s statement to the FBI.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 548&lt;/ref&gt; Eltenton said he asked Chevalier to pitch the idea to Oppenheimer.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 200. Cf. [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; Chevalier approached Oppenheimer in February or March 1943, but Oppenheimer failed to report the incident for some eight months.&lt;ref&gt;Jennet Conant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DkXvYAzoobYC 109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the secret city of Los Alamos],'' (Simon and Schuster, 2005) ISBN 0743250079, p. 175&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Overruling the objections of security officers, according to Groves, on July 20 he issued written orders that:<br /> {{cquote|In accordance with my verbal directions of July 15, it is desired that clearance be issued to Julius Robert Oppenheimer without delay irrespective of the information which you have concerning Mr Oppenheimer. He is absolutely essential to the project.&lt;ref&gt;Leslie R. Groves, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uBIIAQAAIAAJ Now It Can Be Told: The Story Of The Manhattan Project]'' (Harper &amp; Row, 1962), p. 63&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The following month, after Oppenheimer's security clearance had come through, Lieutenant Lyall Johnson, the security officer at Berkeley, questioned Oppenheimer about [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz|Lomanitz]], whom Oppenheimer had tried to keep on the Manhattan Project, even though he had supplied highly sensitive information to the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 75&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer stated that he had heard that Eltenton, too, had offered to supply technical data to the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;Jennet Conant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DkXvYAzoobYC 109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the secret city of Los Alamos],'' (Simon and Schuster, 2005) ISBN 0743250079, p. 175&lt;/ref&gt; Johnson immediately called Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash, Chief of Counter-Intelligence for the Ninth Army Corps on the West Coast.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 190&lt;/ref&gt; The following day, Pash and Johnson interrogated Oppenheimer about Eltenton. Oppenheimer stated:<br /> {{cquote|I think it is true that a man, whose name I never heard, who was attached to the Soviet consul, has indicated indirectly through intermediary people concerned in this project that he was in a position to transmit, without any danger of a leak, or scandal, or anything of that kind, information, which they might supply.}}<br /> Oppenheimer then named Eltenton, stating:<br /> {{cquote|He has probably been asked to do what he can to provide information. Whether he is successful or not, I do not know, but he talked to a friend of his who is also an acquaintance of one of the men on the project, and that was one of the channels by which this thing went.}}<br /> Johnson asked whether &quot;there was a particular person, maybe a person on the project that they were trying to pump information from.&quot;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer answered, &quot;I have known of 2 or 3 cases, and I think two of the men were with me at Los Alamos&amp;mdash;they are men who are very closely associated with me.&quot; Eltenton, he added, &quot;had very good contacts with a man from the embassy attached to the consulate who was a very reliable guy (that's his story) and who had a lot of experience in microfilm work, or whatever the hell.&quot; Eltenton did not contact anyone on the Manhattan Project directly, said Oppenheimer, but through an intermediary, &quot;a member of the [Berkeley] faculty, but not on the project.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcript of Conversation between Dr. J.R. Oppenheimer, Lt. Col. Boris T. Pash, and Lt. Lyall Johnson, August 27, 1943, [[#refAEC|AEC Hearing]]: 845-847 (PDF 857-859)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The following month Colonel Lansdale told Oppenheimer that &quot;we have known since February that several people were transmitting information about this project to the Soviet Government.&quot; Oppenheimer said the intermediary, whom he still refused to name, was &quot;an acquaintance of mine, I've known over many years,&quot; adding, &quot;I know him as a fellow traveler.&quot; Lansdale confronted Oppenheimer, stating: &quot;I have reason to believe that you yourself were felt out, I don't say asked, but felt out to ascertain how you felt about it, passing a little information, to the party.&quot; Then Lansdale struck home:<br /> {{cquote|L. [Lansdale] How about Haakon Chevalier?<br /> <br /> O. [Oppenheimer] Is he a member of the party?<br /> <br /> L. I don't know.<br /> <br /> O. He is a member of the faculty and I know him well. I wouldn't be surprised if he were a member, he is quite a Red.&lt;ref&gt;Transcript of Interview with Dr. Oppenheimer by Lt. Col. Lansdale, September 12, 1943, [[#refAEC|AEC Hearing]]: 871-877 (PDF 883-889)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> [[Image:Veksel7.JPG|thumb|275px|left|In March 1945 Moscow orders agent &quot;Guron&quot; ([[Byron Darling]])&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev, Notes on A. Gorsky’s Report to Savchenko S.R., 23 December 1949. Translation of [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page44.html#_ftnref88 KGB file 43173 vol. 2 (v)] pp. 46-55.&lt;/ref&gt; to reestablish contact with &quot;Veksel&quot; (&quot;probably&quot; Oppenheimer).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 499&lt;/ref&gt;]]Oppenheimer refused to admit Chevalier's involvement for ten months.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html The Atom: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, in December 1943, Groves told Oppenheimer to divulge the name. &quot;I told him if you don't tell me, I am going to have to order you to do it,&quot; Groves would later testify. Oppenheimer promptly answered that it was Chevalier. When Groves asked the names of the three people Chevalier had approached, however, Oppenheimer changed his story: there were not three people, but only one&amp;mdash;Oppenheimer himself. From what Oppenheimer told him, Groves concluded:<br /> {{cquote|that there was an approach made, that Dr. Oppenheimer knew of this approach, that at some point he was involved in that the approach was made to him&amp;mdash;I don't mean involved in the sense that he gave anything&amp;mdash;I mean he just knew about it personally from the fact that he was in the chain, and that he didn't report it in its entirety as he should have done.}}<br /> Groves did not believe Oppenheimer's new story, testifying that he &quot;had the very definite impression that Dr. Oppenheimer<br /> wanted to protect his friends of long standing, possibly his brother.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAEC|AEC Hearing]]: 167 (PDF 177)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But Oppenheimer insisted that what he had told Pash about the three contacts was actually just “a cock-and-bull story.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 137 (PDF 147)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;This whole thing was a pure fabrication except for the one name Eltenton,&quot; testified Oppenheimer, who called his previous story &quot;a piece of idiocy&quot; that was &quot;wholly false.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 149 (PDF 159)&lt;/ref&gt; Asked &quot;You lied to him?&quot; Oppenheimer answered &quot;Yes.&quot; Asked under oath for an explanation of why he had lied, the brilliant physicist testified, “Because I was an idiot.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 137 (PDF 147)&lt;/ref&gt; Despite this incident, Oppenheimer was still meeting with Chevalier a decade later, including once in Paris,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 150 (PDF 140)&lt;/ref&gt; where, again, presumably &quot;the FBI found it difficult to monitor his conversations.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Policy influence===<br /> The successful development of the atomic bomb gave the [[United States]] an enormous advantage over the [[Soviet Union]]. Following the bombing of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]], NKVD Chief [[Lavrenty Beria]] &quot;said we should think how to use Oppenheimer, [[Leo Szilard|Szilard]] and others around them in the peace campaign against nuclear armament,&quot; according to Sudoplatov. &quot;Disarmament and the inability to impose nuclear blackmail would deprive the United States of its advantage.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, pp. 207-208&lt;/ref&gt; On October 3, 1945, [[President]] [[Harry Truman|Truman]] read an address to [[United States Congress|Congress]] stating that &quot;atomic energy constitutes a new force too revolutionary to consider in the framework of old ideas.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Mandelbaum, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VcUS4f736wgC The Nuclear Revolution: International Politics Before and After Hiroshima]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1981) ISBN 052128239X, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; The speech advocated &quot;the renunciation of the use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Paul Vorbeck Lettow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=36pYekyje-kC Ronald Reagan and His Quest to Abolish Nuclear Weapons]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2006) ISBN 0812973267, p. 4&lt;/ref&gt; of the atom bomb, and proposed &quot;international collaboration and exchange of scientific information&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Military Affairs, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XcMLN8sUQCYC Mobilization of Civilian Manpower (Hearings)] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1945), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; about it. On October 19, wrote [[Henry Wallace]],&lt;ref&gt;Three years later, Wallace would run for President as the candidate of the [[Progressive]] Party&amp;mdash;a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of CPUSA General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; (Arthur Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' [New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000] ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456) Wallace once said if he were to become President, he would appoint [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf Soviet agent] [[Laurence Duggan]] as [[Secretary of State]]; had [[FDR]] died a few months earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President. (Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; ''The New York Times'', October 18, 1998) Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]] in 1952. (Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952) Three years later, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would cite the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer &quot;told me that the President’s statement to Congress had been written by [[Dean Acheson]]’s assistant, a Mr. Herbert Marks,&lt;ref&gt;The following year, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, would accuse Marks (along with [[Alger Hiss]] and others) of being part of “an enormous [[espionage]] ring in [[Washington]]” seeking to make information about the use of “atomic energy... as an instrument of war... available to the Soviet Union” (Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: the American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999] ISBN 0300080794, p. 69); at his confirmation hearing to become an AEC commissioner in 1947, a witness would testify that she had attended Communist Party meetings with Marks. Senate Section, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=B32lOQAACAAJ Hearings on Confirmation of Atomic Energy Commission and General Manager] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1947), p. 165&lt;/ref&gt; and that he [Oppenheimer] had had something to do with helping Marks on the message.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace (John Morton Blum, ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua2sAAAAIAAJ The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942-1946]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1973) ISBN 0395171210, p. 494&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Peace offensive====<br /> Two days previously, Wallace and Oppenheimer had attended a meeting at [[Washington, DC|Washington]]'s Statler Hotel&lt;ref&gt;Less than four months before, this very hotel was the scene of FBI surveillance recording [[State Department]] official [[John Stewart Service]] handing off &quot;a document which dealt with matters the Chinese had furnished to the United States government in confidence&quot; (Report of the United States Senate Subcommittee on the Investigation of Loyalty of State Department Employees, 1950, Vol. 2, appendix, p. 2051) to the secret [[Communist]] [[Philip Jaffe]]. Philip Jaffe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YTUPGQAACAAJ The Amerasia Case from 1945 to the Present]'' (New York: Philip J. Jaffe, 1979), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; with [[Leo Szilard|Szilard]], Fermi, Edward U. Condon,&lt;ref&gt;Condon, a classmate of Oppenheimer's at Göttingen, was among those (along with [[Alger Hiss]]) who would be named by Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, the following year as part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” seeking to make information about the use of “atomic energy... as an instrument of war... available to the Soviet Union” (Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Secrecy: the American Experience [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999] ISBN 0300080794, pp. 68-69). Condon was such a blatant security risk that Gen. [[Leslie Groves]]&amp;mdash;who considered Oppenheimer an acceptable risk&amp;mdash;would kick him out of the Manhattan Project after just six weeks. M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9, pp. 325-326&lt;/ref&gt; Harlow Shapley,&lt;ref&gt;Shapely, a member of at least 20 Communist fronts (Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' [New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977] ISBN 0405099428, p. 239), was the object of praise from no less an authority than CPUSA General Secretary [[William Z. Foster]]. William Z. Foster, &quot;The Communist Party and the Professionals,&quot; ''The Communist'', No. 17 (September 1938), pp. 805-809&lt;/ref&gt; and others. &quot;The scientists presented in very vigorous terms the peril in which the United States now finds herself... chiefly... the threat to peace,&quot; wrote Wallace. &quot;Oppenheimer said he very much wanted to see me and I made arrangements...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace (John Morton Blum, ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua2sAAAAIAAJ The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942-1946]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1973) ISBN 0395171210, pp. 493-494&lt;/ref&gt; At their meeting two days later, wrote Wallace:<br /> {{cquote|I never saw a man in such an extremely nervous state as Oppenheimer. He seemed to feel that the destruction of the entire human race was imminent... He has been in charge of the scientists in New Mexico and says... that all they think about now are the social and economic implications of the bomb... He wanted to know if I thought it would do any good for him to see the President. I said yes, and he is going to try to get either Secretary Patterson&lt;ref&gt;Robert P. Patterson was then Secretary of War.&lt;/ref&gt; or Senator Kilgore&lt;ref&gt;Senator Harley M. Kilgore (D-WV) accused U.S. &quot;military government officials&quot; in occupied Germany of putting &quot;our national security and the security of our allies... in jeopardy&quot; for &quot;private and selfish ends,&quot; due to &quot;their connections with industrial and financial enterprises which had close pre-war ties with the Nazis.&quot; Howard Watson Armbruster, ''[http://ia600404.us.archive.org/10/items/treasonspeaceger00ambrrich/treasonspeaceger00ambrrich.pdf Treason's Peace: German Dyes &amp; American Dupes]'' (New York: Beechhurst Press, 1947), p. 401&lt;/ref&gt; to make an appointment for him.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace (John Morton Blum, ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua2sAAAAIAAJ The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942-1946]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1973) ISBN 0395171210, pp. 496-497&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Within a week, Oppenheimer met with Truman at the [[White House]]. Oppenheimer urged the President to surrender the U.S. nuclear monopoly to international control. Truman was outraged, telling [[Secretary of State]] [[Dean Acheson]], &quot;I don't want to see that son-of-a-bitch in this office ever again.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 331-332&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Nevertheless, Truman later appealed to Oppenheimer for help in &quot;giving the army permanent control over atomic energy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer did just the opposite, using his influence to turn the army's control of nuclear power over to the civilian AEC in 1946.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/civilian_control.htm Civilian Control of Atomic Energy, 1945-1946], The Manhattan Project, An Interactive History (Department of Energy)&lt;/ref&gt; That year, Oppenheimer was one of the primary architects of the [http://www.learnworld.com/ZNW/LWText.Acheson-Lilienthal.html Acheson-Lillienthal Report], which proposed turning control of the U.S. nuclear arsenal over to the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;Jessica Wang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok_A5UV1mdoC American science in an age of anxiety: scientists, anticommunism, and the cold war]'' (Phoenix: UNC Press Books, 1999) ISBN 0807847496, p. 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During their June 2000 meeting, Russian President Vladimir Putin, an ex-KGB agent, told U.S. President Bill Clinton a story concerning &quot;Joseph Stalin's decision to put his secret police chief, Lavrenti Beria, in charge of ferreting out the secrets of the American crash program to develop the atomic bomb during World War II.&quot;<br /> {{cquote|Putin had words of praise for the American scientists who willingly helped the USSR develop its own A-bomb. They were not traitors to their country, he said. Rather, they were serving the cause of international peace.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. xix&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In 2012, according to Russia's government news agency Itar-Tass, Putin amplified these remarks:<br /> {{cquote|You know, when the States already had nuclear weapons and the Soviet Union was only building them, we got a significant amount of information through Soviet foreign intelligence channels ... They were carrying the information away not on microfilm but literally in suitcases. Suitcases! ... It was the cream of the scientific world that was gathered in America, and I personally have gotten the impression that they consciously gave us information on the atom bomb ... They did this consciously because the atom bomb had been used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and scientists from mankind’s intellectual elite at the time understood what unilateral possession of such a weapon might lead to.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/putin-praises-cold-war-spies.aspx?pageID=238&amp;nID=14477&amp;NewsCatID=353 Putin praises Cold War spies], ''Hurriyet Daily News'' (Turkey), February 22, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====The H-bomb====<br /> In 1947, Oppenheimer became Chairman of the AEC's General Advisory Committee (GAC) on Science.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0422.html J. Robert Oppenheimer, Atom Bomb Pioneer, Dies],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 19, 1967&lt;/ref&gt; On September 23, 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had exploded their own atomic bomb.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1234&amp;st=&amp;st1= Statement by the President on Announcing the First Atomic Explosion in the U.S.S.R.], September 23, 1949, Harry S. Truman Library &amp; Museum&lt;/ref&gt; (Within a month of breaking the U.S. nuclear monopoly, Soviet-backed Communist rebels would seize control of [[China]], inaugurating a regime that would eventually murder some 70 million Chinese;&lt;ref&gt;Courtois et al. estimate Communist China's murders at 65 million (Stephane Courtois, Jean-Louis Panne, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartosek, Jean-Louis Margolin [Mark Kramer, ed.; Jonathan Murphy, trans.], ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999] ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4); Jung and Halladay estimate &quot;well over 70 million&quot; (Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' [London: Jonathan Cape, 2005] ISBN 0224071262, pp. 3, 560, 651); Rummel estimates 77 million. R.J. Rummel, &quot;[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php Death by Government: Stalin Beat Hitler but Mao Surpassed Both],&quot; ''Orthodoxy Today'', December 4, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; within a year, Soviet and Communist Chinese-backed [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|North Korea]] would invade its neighbor to the south, launching a war that would claim more than 30,000 American lives.)&lt;ref&gt;John W. Chambers, II, ed. in chief, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=O7hmQgAACAAJ The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-19-507198-0, p. 849&lt;/ref&gt; AEC Commissioner Lewis Strauss, president of the board of trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton (where Oppenheimer was director), responded with a proposal that the U.S. make it &quot;highest priority&quot; to build a hydrogen bomb (then called the &quot;super bomb&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/correspondence/strauss-lewis/corr_strauss_1949-11-25.htm Letter on the development of the Thermonuclear Bomb], From: Lewis L Strauss, To: Harry S Truman, President of the United States of America, Date: November 25, 1949&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On October 14, 1949, one GAC member, Glenn Seaborg, then a future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.html Nobel Laureate] (and future AEC Chairman), wrote to Oppenheimer, “I have been unable to come to the conclusion that we should not” proceed with this crash program to develop an H-bomb. “I would have to hear some good arguments before I could take on sufficient courage to recommend not going toward such a program.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 238 (PDF 248)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Yet, ten days later, Oppenheimer told the AEC that among GAC members there was “a surprising unanimity&amp;mdash;to me very surprising&amp;mdash;that the United States ought not to take the initiative... in an all out program for the development of thermonuclear weapons.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 77 (PDF 87)&lt;/ref&gt; He claimed that didn't know how Seaborg felt about it, as he “was in Sweden, and there was no communication with him.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 233 (PDF 243)&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer later confessed that he had received Seaborg's letter before he made these claims, yet he repeated them three months later, before the JCAE.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 239 (PDF 249)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> When nuclear physicist [[Edward Teller]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Jewish]] refugee from [[Nazi Germany]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/obituaries/10TELL.html Edward Teller Is Dead at 95; Fierce Architect of H-Bomb,]&quot; ''The New York Times'', September 10, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; known as the &quot;father of the H-bomb,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Francie Grace, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/09/10/tech/main572437.shtml 'Father Of The H-Bomb' Dies At 95],&quot; CBS News, September 10, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; had sought Oppenheimer's support to build an H-bomb at Los Alamos in 1945, Oppenheimer had refused. Now, argued Teller, the need for an H-bomb had become urgent. Oppenheimer disagreed, signing his name to an official statement that &quot;a super bomb should never be produced.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 401&lt;/ref&gt; With Fermi and others, he lobbied Henry Wallace to stop H-bomb development; Wallace complied, issuing a statement that “we should prefer defeat in war to victory obtained at the expense of the enormous human disaster that would be caused by its determined use.”&lt;ref&gt;Andrew Jon Rotter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_KOtRIZEDMC Hiroshima: the world's bomb]'' (Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 0192804375, p. 256&lt;/ref&gt; As Teller would later testify:<br /> {{cquote|In a great number of cases I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act... in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more... If it is a question of wisdom and judgment, as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/tellertestimony.html not to grant clearance].&lt;ref&gt;Although he made no accusations, Teller's testimony against Oppenheimer made him [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Although he made no accusations, his testimony regarding Oppenheimer made Teller [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.<br /> <br /> ==HUAC hearing==<br /> In 1943, Lansdale had asked Oppenheimer, &quot;Do you know a fellow named Rudy Lambert [chief of security for the California Communist Party, identified in Venona as a Soviet intelligence source on uranium]?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 324&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer answered, &quot;I'm not sure, do you know what he looks like?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 201 (PDF 215)&lt;/ref&gt; Yet in 1949, Oppenheimer testified before HUAC that he had met Lambert half a dozen times before 1943, and not only knew then that he was a Communist official,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 140 (PDF 150)&lt;/ref&gt; but even described him (&quot;A lean, rather handsome man, moderate height, rather an effective speaker in conversation.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9, 139-140, 155, 183 (PDF 19, 149-150, 165, 193)&lt;/ref&gt; The following colloquy would ensue:<br /> {{cquote|You knew what Rudy Lambert looked like, didn't you?<br /> <br /> A. Sure.<br /> <br /> Q. Why did you ask Lansdale what he looked like?<br /> <br /> A. I don't know that I did.<br /> <br /> Q. If you did, Doctor, would it mean that you were ducking the question?<br /> <br /> A. I would think so.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 201 (PDF 215)&lt;/ref&gt;}}Although Oppenheimer has long been presented as a &quot;martyr to McCarthyism,&quot; it has been suggested that had Oppenheimer not been stripped of his clearance, he might be disrespected (like Elia Kazan)&lt;ref&gt;In 1999, when Kazan received an honorary Academy Award, many Hollywood liberals present, including Warren Beatty, Helen Hunt, Meryl Streep, Nick Nolte, Ed Harris, Ian McKellen and Amy Madigan, petulantly [http://articles.latimes.com/1999/mar/22/news/mn-19738 refused to applaud].&lt;/ref&gt; for &quot;naming names&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kai Bird, quoted in [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43634-2005Apr11.html Transcript: Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, authors, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer], Book World Live, ''Washington Post'', April 12, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; to save his own skin.&lt;ref&gt;Carrie Rossenfeld, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/hbomb/page_15.shtml The Red Scare], The Race for the Hydrogen Bomb, atomicarchive.com&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer testified that he thought one of his graduate students, Bernard Peters (husband of Communist Party official Hannah Peters),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 589, 825, 877 (PDF 599, 837, 889)&lt;/ref&gt; told him circa 1938 that he [Peters] had been a member of the Communist Party.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 122 (PDF 132)&lt;/ref&gt; Yet in 1942 or '43 Oppenheimer invited Peters to join him at Los Alamos.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 120 (PDF 130)&lt;/ref&gt; A few months later, during a background interview to obtain his security clearance, Oppenheimer identified Peters &quot;as a Communist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 121&lt;/ref&gt; The following year, Major Peer De Silva, chief of security at Los Alamos, interviewed Oppenheimer. Among his former students, Oppenheimer named Bohm and Peters as &quot;truly dangerous,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 150 (PDF 160)&lt;/ref&gt; according to De Silva's report, singling out Peters in particular as a &quot;crazy person&quot; who was &quot;quite a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 877 (PDF 889). Cf. Louisa Gilder, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5i4isqpu-I8C The Age of Entanglement: When Quantum Physics Was Reborn]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 1400095263, pp. 189-190; F. David Peat, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pobZMUmZbAEC Infinite Potential: The Life and Times of David Bohm]'' (Basic Books, 1997) ISBN 0201328208, p. 90&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer also testified before HUAC that Peters told him that he had been &quot;a member of the German National Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 211 (PDF 221)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After this testimony was leaked to the press,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 210 (PDF 220)&lt;/ref&gt; Condon, then Director of the Commerce Department's National Bureau of Standards (dealing with classified data on nuclear weapons, radar, and guided missiles), wrote a letter to the editor containing “a severe attack on Dr. Oppenheimer”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3foX8lGuXz4C In the matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: transcript of hearing before Personnel Security Board and texts of principal documents and letters]'' (MIT Press, 1971) ISBN 0262710021, p. 1018&lt;/ref&gt; and tried to start various rumors alleging that Oppenheimer was either losing his mind or converting to the [[Catholic Church]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; He also wrote Oppenheimer a letter accusing him of trying to &quot;buy immunity for yourself by turning informer&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt; and demanding that he &quot;try to make restitution,&quot; threatening that if Oppenheimer's own &quot;file were ever made public, it would be a much bigger flap&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 212 (PDF 222)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;You know very well that once these people decide to go into your own dossier and make it public that it will make the 'revelations' that you have made so far look pretty tame.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Under pressure from Condon and others, Oppenheimer wrote a letter to the editor that &quot;retracted some of the testimony,&quot; stating that &quot;Dr. Peters has recently informed me... that I was wrong in believing... that he had ever held a membership in the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 213 (PDF 223)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer &quot;was very much influenced [in 1942]... by the influence of Dr. Condon,&quot; according to Groves. Condon, Groves testified, &quot;did a tremendous amount of damage at Los Alamos in the initial setup.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 166 (PDF 176)&lt;/ref&gt; Groves testified that he believed that Condon was &quot;responsible for the rules&amp;mdash;that tended to break down compartmentalization&quot; at Los Alamos, thus making it difficult to control the diffusion of secrets and prevent espionage. Just before the [[Trinity explosion]], the Soviets scheduled a scientific conference in Moscow. The [[Kremlin]] invited several U.S. scientists to attend&amp;mdash;a fact that a member of the [[State Department]] tried to keep secret from the Army, according to Groves. Among those invited was Condon, but the U.S. government revoked his passport to prevent him from attending. Condon &quot;made a terrific battle to go,&quot; testified Groves:<br /> {{cquote|That battle was so unrealistic and so completely lacking in appreciation of what was the best interest of the United States that you couldn't help but feel that either he was such an utter fool that he could not be trusted, or else that he put his own personal desires above those of the welfare of the country and therefore he was in effect disloyal, even if it was not a case of deliberately going out to aid the enemy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 173 (PDF 183)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == AEC hearing ==<br /> Pursuant to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]]'s Executive Order 10450 of April 27, 1953, new security standards were applied to all federal officials, including Oppenheimer. On May 15, Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] (R-WI), Chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations|PSI]], asked FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] if the Bureau would object to the PSI holding hearings on Oppenheimer. Hoover told him that the FBI had no objections. Syndicated columnist Joseph Alsop, a blood relative of both Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt (and a friend of Oppenheimer's) delivered a seven-page letter to the White House asking Ike to block the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;Barton J. Bernstein, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1229016 The Oppenheimer Loyalty-Security Case Reconsidered],&quot; ''Stanford Law Review'', Vol. 42, No. 6 (Jul., 1990), pp. 1383-1484&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prospect of a McCarthy hearing spooked the administration into finally taking action: on June 22, Strauss asked Hoover to get McCarthy to hold off until the AEC could conduct its own hearings. In November, Borden wrote to Hoover, stating in his “exhaustively considered opinion, based upon years of study, of the available classified evidence, that more probably than not J. Robert Oppenheimer is an agent of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 837 (PDF 849)&lt;/ref&gt; The following month (the same month Oppenheimer met with Chevalier in Paris), after reviewing material brought to his attention by the Department of Justice, Eisenhower, in consultation with the Secretary of Defense, the Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization and the AEC Chairman, ordered that, pending a security review, “a blank wall be placed between Dr. Oppenheimer and any secret data,”&lt;ref&gt;“AEC Statement,” ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hw4AAAAAMBAJ The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' (Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.), May 1954], p. 187&lt;/ref&gt; and the AEC notified Oppenheimer that his clearance was under review, sending him a letter laying out charges against him.<br /> <br /> On March 4, 1954, Oppenheimer sent a written response to AEC General Manager K.D. Nichols. The following month, Oppenheimer released the text of the administration's charges to the press, along with his response.<br /> <br /> ===PSB Hearing===<br /> On April 12, the AEC's Personnel Security Board (PSB) opened hearings on the charges. The PSB was a three-member panel headed by former Secretary of the Army Gordon Gray, President of the University of North Carolina (after whom it is sometimes referred to as the “Gray board”). Also on the PSB were Ward V. Evans, professor emeritus of chemistry at Loyola University of Chicago; and Thomas Morgan, 66, a retired businessman.<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer was represented ''pro bono'' by the white shoe firm&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Greenspan: The Man Behind Money |last=Martin |first=Justin |authorlink= |year=2001 |publisher=Da Capo Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0738205249 |page=191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JKjZujJgwYMC |accessdate=8 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton &amp; Garrison, joined by former AEC general counsel Herbert Marks, the former Special Assistant to Under Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] who, with Oppenheimer's help, had written Truman's 1945 address proposing international sharing of nuclear secrets.<br /> <br /> After eight weeks of testimony and cross-examination, and exhibits including transcripts and FBI reports, the panel voted 2-1 to strip Oppenheimer of his “Q clearance” access to atomic secrets. Gray and Morgan carried the majority, with Evans dissenting. Joseph and Stewart Alsop, &quot;long-standing Oppenheimer partisans,&quot; used their influential syndicated columns to put forward a conspiracy theory: the Gray board's findings, alleged the Alsops, were part of a conspiracy by AEC Chairman Strauss to even an old personal grudge against Oppenheimer. Despite the fact that it &quot;conveniently overlooked the matter of Gray's record and integrity,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; the left adopted the Alsops' conspiracy theory as the dogmatic explanation of Oppenheimer's security problems.<br /> <br /> ===Appeal===<br /> Oppenheimer appealed the PSB's decision to the full Atomic Energy Commission. Joining his legal team was former Democratic Party presidential candidate John W. Davis,&lt;ref&gt;Alan Simpson, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=2AsAAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA387#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false The Re-Trial of the Oppenheimer Case],&quot; ''The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' (Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.), Vol. 10, No. 10 (December 1954), p. 387&lt;/ref&gt; fresh from his defeated defense of segregation in ''[[Brown vs. Board of Education|Brown v. Board of Education]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Judge Arnette R. Hubbard, &quot;[http://www.illinoisbrownvboard.org/article/bvbarnettehubbardarticle.htm Brown, et al v. Board of Education],&quot; Illinois Commission on the 50th Anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education&lt;/ref&gt; Davis had previously testified as a character witness for Soviet agent [[Alger Hiss]].&lt;ref&gt;Doug Linder (2003), &quot;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary],&quot; The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50, Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Citing “proof of fundamental defects in his ‘character’,” to wit, “his associations with persons known to him to be Communists,” which associations, said the AEC, “have extended far beyond the tolerable limits of prudence and self-restraint which are to be expected of one holding the high positions that the Government has continuously entrusted to him since 1942,” the commission upheld the decision stripping the former chairman of its own GAC&lt;ref&gt;From 1947 to 1952, Oppenheimer had served as chairman of the GAC. [[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 328&lt;/ref&gt; of his security clearance.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Oppenheimer/OppyAEC2.shtml Decision and Opinions of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer], Washington, D.C., June 29, 1954&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death and Legacy==<br /> Oppenheimer died in Princeton, New Jersey on February 18, 1967 from throat cancer.&lt;ref&gt;[http://history1900s.about.com/cs/robertoppenheimer/p/oppenheimer.htm J. Robert Oppenheimer]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1963, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]] reinstated Oppenheimer's clearance, and the AEC awarded him the Enrico Fermi Award.&lt;ref&gt;[http://dsd.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/SEABORG-ARCHIVE/index/96B05399.html J. Robert Oppenheimer receiving the AEC Enrico Fermi Award], photograph and description, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In June 1997, the KGB museum in Moscow featured an exhibit of &quot;leading atomic espionage agents and espionage documents.&quot; The exhibit featured Oppenheimer's image, displayed along with a photograph of convicted Soviet atomic spy Klaus Fuchs, and a shot of a Manhattan Project laboratory site. &quot;Oppenheimer and other top scientists cooperated with us,&quot; former KGB official Yuri Kolesnikov told reporter Michael Chapman of ''[http://humanevents.com Human Events]''. They weren't Soviet agents, Kolesnikov said. But they &quot;gave us information about the atom bomb,&quot; first because they were fearful that Hitler might defeat the Soviet Union in World War II and later because &quot;Oppenheimer and the other scientists wanted to create a balance of power between the United States, which had the bomb, and the USSR, which didn't.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Goode, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n37_v13/ai_19836506/ We Told You So: Secret Venona Intercepts],&quot; ''Insight on the News'', Vol. 13, No. 37 (October 6–13, 1997)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Oppenheimer was not a Soviet agent like Fuchs,&quot; the museum's director told Chapman. &quot;But, yes, he did cooperate with Soviet intelligence. That's why his picture is here.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://old.nationalreview.com/14july97/week.html The Week],&quot; ''National Review'', July 14, 1997; &quot;[http://old.nationalreview.com/28july97/week.html The Week],&quot; ''National Review'', July 28, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Haynes and Klehr, &quot;Throughout his life Oppenheimer declined to provide a detailed or accurate accounting of his relationship with the CPUSA in the late 1930s and early 1940s and of his knowledge of Communists who worked on the Manhattan Project.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 330&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Albert Einstein]]<br /> * [[Niels Bohr]]<br /> * [[Richard Feynman]]<br /> * [[Elizabeth Zarubina]]<br /> * [[Lev Vasilevsky]]<br /> * [[Grigory Kheifets]]<br /> * [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz]]<br /> * [[Rudy Lambert]]<br /> * [[Steve Nelson]]<br /> * [[Edward Teller]]<br /> * [[Enrico Fermi]]<br /> * [[Leo Szilard]]<br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> *&lt;cite id=refAECH&gt;United States Atomic Energy Commission, [https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesatom007206mbp In the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1954)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refCINRAD&gt;FBI report: [http://education-research.org/PDFs/CINRAD%20REPORT.pdf Communist Infiltration of Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California] (CINRAD), January 31, 1947&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology] (Washington: Cold War International History Center, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2008)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHKV09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials that Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) ISBN 0521674077&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHerken&gt;Gregg Herken ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lV8ipprn61sC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refBird-Sherwin&gt;Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9uS0wysYoUC American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer]'' (Random House, Inc., 2006) ISBN 0375726268&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refRhodes86&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgFMMNQ6G4C The Making of the Atomic Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1986) ISBN 0684813785&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refRhodes96&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refPK06&gt;Abraham Pais and Robert P. Crease, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KCo2gG5fRaQC J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Life]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195166736&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refSW95&gt;Alice Kimball Smith and Charles Weiner, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jwH4X5htJaYC Robert Oppenheimer, Letters and Recollections]'' (Stanford University Press, 1995) ISBN 0804726205&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *{{Harvard reference<br /> | Surname1 = Andrew <br /> | Given1 = Christopher<br /> | Surname2 = Mitrokhin <br /> | Given2 = Vasili<br /> | Authorlink2 = Vasili Mitrokhin<br /> | Year = 1999<br /> | Title = The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB<br /> | Publisher = Basic Books<br /> | ID = ISBN 0-465-00310-9<br /> | URL = https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C<br /> }}<br /> *{{Harvard reference<br /> | Surname = LANL <br /> | Given = Los Alamos National Laboratory<br /> | Authorlink = Los Alamos<br /> | Year = 2007<br /> | Title = Spies<br /> | Publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory<br /> | URL = http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/spies.shtml<br /> }} Retrieved on 05-18-2007<br /> *{{Harvard reference<br /> | Surname = Laes<br /> | Given = HB<br /> | Year = 2001<br /> | Date = 2001-01-14<br /> | Title = Theory of Fielding - Set O - Oppenheimer<br /> | Publisher = HB Laes (Self published) }} Reproduced [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204173143/http://www.tof.blogspot.com/#SO here]. Retrieved on 05-18-2007<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHB2000&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery, 2000) ISBN 0895262754&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=va2.document&amp;identifier=5034F6F1-96B6-175C-9170648C02EA02F8&amp;sort=Collection&amp;item=Post%20Stalin%20succession%20struggle Merkulov to Beria], 2 October 1944.<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Oppenheimer, J. Robert}}<br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Physicists|Oppenheimer, J. Robert]]<br /> [[Category:American Jews]]<br /> [[Category:World War II]]<br /> [[Category:Manhattan Project]]<br /> [[Category:Communists]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=J._Robert_Oppenheimer&diff=1526239 J. Robert Oppenheimer 2019-05-20T03:42:12Z <p>FOIA: /* Communist Party membership */ Number (subject-verb agreement)</p> <hr /> <div>{{Infobox person<br /> | name = J. Robert Oppenheimer<br /> | image = Imer.jpg<br /> | birth_date = April 22, 1904<br /> | birth_place = New York City, New York<br /> | death_date = February 18, 1967<br /> | death_place = Princeton, New Jersey<br /> | nationality = <br /> | spouse = Katherine &quot;Kitty&quot; Harrison<br /> | religion = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''Julius&lt;ref&gt;Although Oppenheimer always insisted that the initial J. in his name stood for &quot;nothing&quot; (Jeremy Bernstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kajvAAAAMAAJ Oppenheimer: Portrait of an Enigma]'' [Ivan R. Dee, 2004] ISBN 1566635691, p. x), his birth certificate identifies him as &quot;Julius Robert Oppenheimer.&quot; [[#refPK|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 355&lt;/ref&gt; Robert Oppenheimer''' (April 22, 1904 – February 18, 1967) was an American theoretical physicist and director of the [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]], one of four laboratories&lt;ref&gt;The others were the [http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/fermi.html Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago], under [http://www.aip.org/history/gap/Compton/Compton.html Arthur Compton];[https://web.archive.org/web/20130906064529/http://www.ornl.gov/ornl/news/communications/graphite-reactor Clinton Laboratories at Oak Ridge, Tennessee], under [http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev25-34/chapter1.shtml Martin Whitaker]; and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20111023190523/http://www.hanford.gov/page.cfm/WorldWarIIEra Hanford Engineer Works] in Hanford, Washington, under Crawford Greenewalt. S. L. Sanger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgjuoe2W4BoC Working on the Bomb: An Oral History of WWII Hanford]'' (Continuing Education Press, 1995) ISBN 0876781156, p. 3. Cf. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100527133244/http://www.energy.gov/media/Manhattan_Project_Map.pdf Manhattan Project Map], United States Department of Energy&lt;/ref&gt; involved in the [[Manhattan Project]] to develop the first [[atomic bomb]]. He was also a secret member of the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev, tr. Philip Redko, Yellow notebook #1 (Cold War International History Center, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars), [https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Yellow_Notebook_No._1_Original.pdf orig.], PDF p. 6; [https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Yellow_Notebook_No.1_Translated.pdf trans.], p. 10. Cf. [[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 120; [[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 49&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Like other [[liberal]]s, Oppenheimer was not as smart as he wanted to be: he was rejected by [[Ernest Rutherford]] as a student, and was not at the high level of [[Enrico Fermi]], [[John von Neumann]], or [[Robert Dicke]]. Like a fellow communist later on, former [[CIA]] director [[John Brennan]], Oppenheimer's security clearance was permanently revoked by presidential directive for [[colluding]] with the [[KGB]] and sparking the [[Cold War]] nuclear arms race.<br /> <br /> == Early life ==<br /> Oppenheimer was born in [[New York]] in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 7 (PDF 17)&lt;/ref&gt; the eldest son of Julius and Ella (née Freedman) Oppenheimer. His father was a wealthy textile importer who had immigrated from [[Germany]] in 1895, his mother a scion of [[Philadelphia]] society who had studied painting in Paris.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/oppenheimer.shtml The Oppenheimer Years, 1943-1945], Los Alamos National Laboratory&lt;/ref&gt; They collected original art, including a Renoir and three Van Goghs; they also owned a 40-foot yacht,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 4&lt;/ref&gt; and his father gave him his own 27-foot sloop.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes86|Rhodes 1986]]: 123&lt;/ref&gt; Precocious but socially backward, Oppenheimer began collecting minerals at age five, was elected to the New York Minerological Club at eleven,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lanl.gov/history/people/oppenheimer.shtml The Oppenheimer Years, 1943-1945], Los Alamos National Laboratory&lt;/ref&gt; and delivered his first paper there at age 12.&lt;ref&gt;Peter Goodchild, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A4MgAQAAIAAJ J. Robert Oppenheimer: Shatterer of Worlds]'' (Fromm International Pub. Corp., 1985) ISBN 0880640219, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; His shy awkwardness earned him the nickname &quot;Booby&quot; Oppenheimer among his peers; he was bullied, culminating in being locked naked in an icehouse overnight as retribution for alleged tattling.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 4&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer's parents were of [[Jewish]] descent, but did not observe religious traditions, sending him (via limousine)&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Beard, &quot;[http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18424793.500 Biographies: J. Robert Oppenheimer and Patrick Blackett],&quot; ''New Scientist'', December 25, 2004&lt;/ref&gt; to New York's elite&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431&lt;/ref&gt; Ethical Culture&lt;ref&gt;Sean McManus, &quot;[http://nymag.com/news/features/46214/ If God Is Dead, Who Gets His House?]&quot; ''New York'', April 21, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; Society School.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Bios/Oppenheimer.shtml J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904 - 1967)], atomicarchive.com&lt;/ref&gt; Ethical Culture, a [[Secular Humanism|secular humanist]] religion,&lt;ref&gt;[http://openjurist.org/249/f2d/127 Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia], 101 U.S. App. D.C. 371, 249 F.2d 127. Cf. Jone Johnson Lewis, [http://aeuleaders.net/web/content/ethical-culture-religion Ethical Culture as Religion], American Ethical Union Library, 2003; Tom Flynn, [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&amp;page=sh_defined2 Secular Humanism Defined], Council for Secular Humanism; [http://www.americanhumanist.org/Who_We_Are/About_Humanism/Humanist_Manifesto_II Humanist Manifesto II], American Humanist Association&lt;/ref&gt; is indifferent to the existence of [[God]], replacing the [[Ten Commandments]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ethicalsociety.org/article.php?id=30 Is Ethical Culture based on Judaism and the Ten Commandments?], Washington Ethical Society&lt;/ref&gt; with a commitment to &quot;social justice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Chuman, [http://www.ethicalfocus.org/dr-joe-chuman/chuman-platforms/113-ethical-culture-and-the-ongoing-quest-for-social-justice Ethical Culture and the Ongoing Quest for Social Justice], The Ethical Culture Society of Bergen County&lt;/ref&gt; Such an education conditions students to yield to &quot;the totalitarian temptation,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;An &quot;unacknowledged desire to live under Stalinism, not in spite of what it is, but because of what it is.&quot; Jean François Revel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HTqFAAAAMAAJ The Totalitarian Temptation]'' (Doubleday, 1977) ISBN 0385122748, p. 25&lt;/ref&gt; as [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1974/hayek.html Nobel Prize-winning] economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] observed:<br /> {{cquote|'Social justice' can be given a meaning only in a directed or 'command' economy (such as an army) in which the individuals are ordered what to do; and any particular conception of 'social justice' could be realized only in such a centrally-directed system.&lt;ref&gt;Friedrich August Hayek, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qq6p11NPdOoC Law, Legislation and Liberty: The Mirage of Social Justice]'' (University of Chicago Press, 1978) ISBN 0226320839, p. 69&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Oppenheimer never did embrace [[Judaism]], turning instead to philosophical [[Hinduism]]. He apparently never studied [[Hebrew]] but learned [[Sanskrit]] and read the Bhavagad Gita in the original language; he would later list it as one of the ten books that did most to shape his “philosophy of life.”&lt;ref&gt;''[http://www.christiancentury.org/ Christian Century]'', May 15, 1963, p. 647, cited in James A. Hijiya, &quot;[http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/Hijiya.pdf The Gita of Robert Oppenheimer],&quot; ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,'' Vol. 144, No. 2 (June 2000), p. 130 (PDF p. 8)&lt;/ref&gt; What flashed through his mind upon witnessing the [[Trinity explosion]], he said, was a line from this Hindu scripture:<br /> {{cquote|I am become death, the destroyer of worlds.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,853367,00.html The Eternal Apprentice],&quot; ''Time'', November 8, 1948&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Temperton, James (August 9, 2017). [https://www.wired.co.uk/article/manhattan-project-robert-oppenheimer 'Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds'. The story of Oppenheimer's infamous quote]. ''Wired''. Retrieved August 1, 2018.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Education===<br /> Oppenheimer attended [[Harvard University]], where he majored in chemistry, graduating ''summa cum laude'' in just three years.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: xvii&lt;/ref&gt; One of his physics professors, Percy Bridgman, noted in his graduate-school recommendation that &quot;it appears to me that it is a bit of a gamble as to whether Oppenheimer will ever make any real contributions of an important character.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer went to England for postgraduate study at [[Cambridge University]], where he hoped to work under the [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/rutherford-bio.html Nobel Prize winner] [[Ernest Rutherford]]. &quot;But Rutherford wouldn't have me,&quot; according to Oppenheimer.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes86|Rhodes 1986]]: 123&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Cambridge, Oppenheimer became deeply depressed and jealous of the success of some of the people around him, particularly of his tutor, the future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1948/blackett-bio.html Nobel laureate] Patrick Blackett, three years his senior. According to Oppenheimer's friend John Edsall:<br /> {{cquote|Oppenheimer's feeling toward Blackett was one of intense admiration, combined perhaps with an intense jealousy&amp;mdash;jealousy because of his feeling that Blackett was brilliant and handsome and a man of great social charm, and combining all this with great brilliance as a scientist&amp;mdash;and I think he had a sense of his own comparative awkwardness and perhaps a sense of being physically unattractive compared to Blackett and so on.&lt;ref&gt;Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In the fall of 1925, Oppenheimer left a &quot;poisoned apple&quot; laced with chemicals (possibly cyanide) from the laboratory on Blackett's desk.&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mpgs6qqNERwC Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius]'' (Harvard University Press, 2008) ISBN 0674028287, p. 142&lt;/ref&gt; University authorities immediately informed Oppenheimer's parents (who were visiting Cambridge at the time) what had happened. According to a Pulitzer Prize-winning&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2006-Biography-or-Autobiography The 2006 Pulitzer Prize Winners, Biography or Autobiography]&lt;/ref&gt; biography of Oppenheimer:<br /> {{cquote|His father frantically&amp;mdash;and successfully&amp;mdash;lobbied the university not to press criminal charges. After protracted negotiations, it was agreed that Robert would be put on probation and have regular sessions with a prominent Harley Street psychiatrist in London. This Freudian analyst diagnosed dementia praecox, a now archaic label for symptoms associated with schizophrenia. He concluded that Oppenheimer was a hopeless case and that &quot;further analysis would do more harm than good&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 46&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Oppenheimer went to Paris for a rest. His boyhood friend Francis Fergusson visited him there, and mentioned that he had become engaged. For the second time, Oppenheimer committed an apparent attempted murder:<br /> {{cquote|&quot;I leaned over to pick up a book,&quot; Fergusson recalled, &quot;and he jumped on me from behind with a trunk strap and wound it around my neck. I was quite scared for a little while. We must have made some noise. And then I managed to pull aside and he fell on the ground weeping.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In 1926, Oppenheimer left Cambridge for the University of Göttingen in Germany. He developed a reputation for obnoxiousness, once chiding a graduate student couple for what he called their &quot;peasant&quot; ways in not being able to afford a baby-sitter.&lt;ref&gt;David Bodanis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MmjreCHCq_gC E=mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation]'' (Random House, Inc., 2001) ISBN 0385258917, p. 147&lt;/ref&gt; He had a habit of interrupting others (including his professor) and commandeering the blackboard; the future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1963/mayer.html Nobel Prize-winner] Maria Göppart once presented Oppenheimer's faculty adviser, Max Born, with a petition threatening a boycott of his seminar unless the &quot;child prodigy&quot; were reigned in.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer obtained a Ph.D. in physics in 1927, then obtained a National Research Council fellowship funded by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; He did post-doctoral work at Harvard, then the California Institute of Technology, finally taking a position as an associate professor of physics at the [[University of California at Berkeley]].<br /> <br /> == Scientific contributions ==<br /> Oppenheimer worked with other scientists such as [[Hans Bethe]], [[Niels Bohr]], [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Richard Feynman]], [[Willard Libby]], and [[Eugene Wigner]], who won Nobel prizes, although Oppenheimer never did.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer's best-known scientific contribution was to suggest a limit to the size of [[neutron star]]s; larger neutron stars would collapse into [[black holes]] according to the [[theory of relativity]]. But Oppenheimer is best known not for any scientific contribution, but for his managerial role as scientific director of the [[Manhattan Project]], under the supervision of project director Gen. Leslie Groves. His moment of greatest [[insight]] was when his subordinates came to him with the notion of explosive lensing. At that moment, he wheeled around the entire project toward that goal and thereby achieved the device that denoted over Nagasaki at the altitude of maximum throw weight, maximizing the damage despite the adverse weather conditions.<br /> <br /> == Personal life and Communist affiliation ==<br /> At Caltech, Oppenheimer had befriended Linus Pauling, and wrote him poems Pauling found &quot;troubling,&quot; which included allusions to pederasty. Pauling broke off the friendship after Oppenheimer made a pass at his wife, Ava Helen Pauling, who told her husband, &quot;I think he was in love with you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Hager, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FNXaAAAAMAAJ Force of nature: the life of Linus Pauling]'' (Simon &amp; Schuster, 1995) ISBN 0684809095, pp. 150-152&lt;/ref&gt; At Berkeley, rumors circulated of an affair between Oppenheimer and a homosexual student who lived with him,&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the shadow of the bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the moral responsibility of the scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 203, n. 69. Oppenheimer's colleague Abrahaim Pais wrote that &quot;I was convinced that strong latent homosexuality was an important ingredient in Robert's emotional makeup.&quot; (Abraham Pais, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XrYrAAAAYAAJ A tale of two continents: a physicist's life in a turbulent world]'' [Oxford University Press, 1997] ISBN 0198501994, p. 241) One biographer comments, &quot;it seems fairly likely that sexual ambivalence was one aspect of Oppenheimer's youthful problems of identity.&quot; Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 51&lt;/ref&gt; but in 1936 he began an affair with Jean Tatlock, a medical student at Stanford&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 236&lt;/ref&gt; and daughter of Oppenheimer's fellow Berkeley professor John S.P. Tatlock,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 109&lt;/ref&gt; a contributor to ''[[Nation (magazine)|The Nation]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.thenation.com/authors/john-s-p-tatlock Author Bios: John S.P. Tatlock, thenation.com]&lt;/ref&gt; Then, In 1939, Oppenheimer began an affair with [http://foia.fbi.gov/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Katherine &quot;Kitty&quot; Puening Dallet Harrison]. After moving in with Oppenheimer and becoming pregnant,&lt;ref&gt;David Cassidy, ''J. Robert Oppenheimer and the American Century'' (Pi Press: 2004) ISBN 0-13-147996-2, pp. 186-187&lt;/ref&gt; Kitty abandoned her third husband,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/15/books/review/15RHODESL.html Nuclear Options],&quot; ''The New York Times'', May 15, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; a cancer researcher at Caltech,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 214&lt;/ref&gt; to marry Oppenheimer in 1940, though he continued his affair with Tatlock until at least June 1943. During [[World War II]], while married to Kitty, Oppenheimer began an affair with another married woman, Ruth Tolman, the wife of Caltech physicist Richard Tolman, whom Oppenheimer testified was &quot;a very close and dear friend of mine.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; The affair &quot;devastated Richard Tolman,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;C. Mott Woolley, &quot;[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/HE10Aa02.html The tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer],&quot; ''Asia Times'', May 10, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; who died, according to [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence.html Nobel Prize-winning] physicist Ernest Lawrence, &quot;of a broken heart.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 365&lt;/ref&gt; Kitty took to drinking.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 407-409&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer had a history of pro-Communist associations, starting at Caltech with Pauling, a &quot;long-serving [[USSR|Soviet]] tool.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Schwartz, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=23794 Communists and Islamic Extremists - Then and Now],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, July 8, 2002. A 1951 investigation by HUAC, then chaired by Democrat John Stephens Wood, concluded that Pauling was &quot;primarily engrossed in placing his scientific attainments at the service of a host of organizations which have in common their complete subservience to the Communist Party, USA, and the Soviet Union. Professor Pauling has not deviated a hair's breadth from this pattern of loyalty to the Communist cause since 1946.&quot; (House Committee on Un-American Activities, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/14/items/reportoncommunis00unit/reportoncommunis00unit_bw.pdf Report on the Communist &quot;Peace&quot; Offensive, the Attempt to Disarm and Defeat America]'' [Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1951], p. 86) In 1970, the Soviet government would reward Pauling for his long service [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1970n.13.html with the Lenin prize].&lt;/ref&gt; Later, at Berkeley, Oppenheimer's mistress Tatlock was a [[Communist]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPK06|Pais, Crease 2006]]: 36&lt;/ref&gt; as was his wife Kitty,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 122. Cf. [[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/alba_032/bioghist.html widow of Communist political commissar Joe Dallet], killed in the [[Spanish Civil War]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://foia.fbi.gov/filelink.html?file=/oppenheimer_katherine/oppenheimer_katherine_part01.pdf Hoover to Lansdale], May 23, 1944 (FBI file: Katherine Oppenheimer, PDF p. 2)&lt;/ref&gt; (perhaps by his Soviet superiors, or fragged by his own men, according to various rumors).&lt;ref&gt;William Herrick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vKWZ9Vo69GwC Jumping the Line: The Adventures and Misadventures of an American Radical]'' (AK Press, 2001) ISBN 1902593421, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; In January 1944, Tatlock would be found drowned in her bathtub, in circumstances termed &quot;suspicious.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 232, 253.&lt;/ref&gt; Some writers suspect Soviet involvement in Tatlock's death. Stephen Schwartz mentions &quot;Khyron&quot;—the Cyrillic transliteration of Chyron, ferryman of the dead in ancient Greek mythology&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Schwartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PvoUAAAAYAAJ From West To East: California and the Making of the American Mind]'' (Free Press, 1998) ISBN 0684831341, p. 380. Cf. Cornell Simpson, ''[https://www.amazon.com/death-James-Forrestal-Cornell-Simpson/dp/B0006BOU86 The Death of James Forrestal]'' (Western Islands, 1966) ASIN B0006BOU86)&lt;/ref&gt;—which was also [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]]' [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Venona-San%20Francisco-KGB.pdf code name].<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer’s brother Frank, and Frank’s wife Jackie, were also active members of the [[Communist Party]],&lt;ref&gt;“[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,800436,00.html The Brothers],” ''Time'', June 27, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; as was even Oppenheimer's landlady; in addition, several of Oppenheimer’s closest friends and protégés among his graduate students at Berkeley, including [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz]], Joe Weinberg, David Bohm, Philip Morrison and Bernard Peters were Communist Party members.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 147&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] (August 1939-June 1941), the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] expanded its surveillance of suspected Nazis to include [[Communist Party]] leaders.&lt;ref&gt;As soon as Roosevelt was inaugurated in March 1933, FDR's Secretary of State Cordell Hull told the FBI to investigate German Nazi groups [https://web.archive.org/web/20031128111253/http://www.uvm.edu/~apreston/Taken_Into_Custody.html in the United States]; the following year Roosevelt ordered the Bureau to investigate &quot;the activity of the Nazi movement [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/html/ChurchB3_0200a.htm in this country].&quot; During the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], when the [[Soviet Union]] was a [[Nazi]] ally in the invasion of Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Romania (and Nazi collaborator in the conquest of France and [[Battle of Britain]]), this investigation was expanded to include the [[CPUSA]]. Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcHJCCUcm-oC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300061838, p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; In 1940, William Schneiderman, the California state chairman of the Communist Party, met with [[Isaac Folkoff]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 185 (PDF 195)&lt;/ref&gt; West Coast liaison between the Communist Party and [[NKVD|Soviet intelligence]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 357&lt;/ref&gt; at the home of then-secret (later confessed) Communist&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/document1.html Chevalier to Oppenheimer, July 23, 1964] (Robert Oppenheimer papers, Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Haakon Chevalier]]. Also present at this meeting, according to FBI surveillance, was J. Robert Oppenheimer.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: J. Robert Oppenheimer, March 28, 1941, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated). Cf. [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 228 (PDF 237)&lt;/ref&gt; The following year, Oppenheimer was added to [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s Custodial Detention Index,&lt;ref&gt;On September 6, 1939, in the wake of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], [[Franklin Roosevelt|FDR]] directed the FBI &quot;to take charge of investigative work in matters relating to espionage...&quot; (Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (Office of National Counterintelligence Executive), [http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol1/Vol1Chap4.pdf Vol. 1, Ch. 4], p. 177) Three days later, FDR created the Emergency Detention Program (EDP), giving the Justice Department the power to “arrest and detain those persons deemed dangerous in the event of war, invasion, or insurrection in and of a foreign enemy.” (Athan Theoharis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hguHAAAAMAAJ Spying on Americans: political surveillance from Hoover to the Huston plan]'' [Temple University Press, 1978] ISBN 0877221413, p. 40) (The EDP would provide the basis for Roosevelt's wartime internment of Japanese, Germans and Italians in the United States during World War II.) That month, in a reference to the [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/saccov/redscare.html Red Scare] of 1919, Attorney General Cullen Murphy stated, “There will be no repetition of the confusion and laxity and indifference of [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book3/html/ChurchB3_0206a.htm twenty years ago].” The CDI originated the following year in the Justice Department's [http://www.gaic.info/lps/LP%201%20Overview.pdf Special Defense Unit] (previously known as the Neutrality Laws Unit), later renamed the [https://www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/finding-aid/civilian/rg-60.html War Division]. During the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], the list was expanded to include Communists.&lt;/ref&gt; listed as “Nationalistic Tendency: Communist.”&lt;ref&gt;Custodial Detention Memorandum, May 27, 1941, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Communist front activity ===<br /> Upon his father's death in 1937, Oppenheimer inherited more than $300,000&lt;ref&gt;“[http://ohst.berkeley.edu/oppenheimer/exhibit/text/ch2page2.html Oppenheimer: A Life],” Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than $4.5 million today),&lt;ref&gt;[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], United States Bureau of Labor Statistics&lt;/ref&gt; and began contributing approximately $150 a month&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 185 (PDF 195)&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than $2,000 a month today),&lt;ref&gt;[https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], United States Bureau of Labor Statistics&lt;/ref&gt; at first via [[Communist front]]s&lt;ref&gt;Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, pp. 82, 140, and 180; Attorney General Tom Clark, letter to Loyalty Review Board, released April 27, 1949; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 69 (PDF p. 85)&lt;/ref&gt; such as the Spanish Aid Committee&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)&lt;/ref&gt; (aiding the [[Soviet]]-armed forces in the [[Spanish Civil War]]), then directly to [[Isaac Folkoff|Folkoff]] or Communist Party official Thomas Addis.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 123. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 352&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> When he joined the [[Manhattan Project]] in 1942,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer wrote on his personal security questionnaire that he had been &quot;a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Filling in a security questionnaire, Oppie had lately admitted that he had been 'a member of just about every Communist-front organization on the West Coast'...&quot; Peter Wyden, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IlZ6AAAAIAAJ Day One: Before Hiroshima and After]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1984) ISBN 0671461427, p. 49. Cf. &quot;As Oppenheimer was to write on a 1942 security questionnaire... : '...I have been a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast.'&quot; Rachel Teukolsky, &quot;[http://sciencereview.berkeley.edu/articles/issue1/scientistx.pdf Regarding Scientist X],&quot; ''Berkeley Science Review,'' Issue 1 (Spring 2001), p. 17; &quot;When he joined the atomic bomb project he admitted in his security questionnaire that he had been 'a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast.'&quot; [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/peopleevents/pandeAMEX65.html J. Robert Oppenheimer, (1904 - 1967)], &quot;Race for the Superbomb,&quot; ''American Experience'', PBS&lt;/ref&gt; In September 1943, he repeated to Gen. Leslie Groves, head of the Manhattan Project, that he had &quot;probably belonged to every Communist-front organization on the west coast.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 159 (PDF 169). Cf. Philip M. Stern with Harold P. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i_tBAAAAIAAJ The Oppenheimer Case: Security on Trial]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1969) ISBN 0246640359, p. 15&lt;/ref&gt; Later that month, Lt. Col. John Lansdale, Jr., head of Security and Intelligence for the Manhattan Project, interviewed Oppenheimer, stating: &quot;You've probably belonged to every front organization on the coast&quot;; Oppenheimer reiterated: &quot;Just about.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 204 (PDF 214)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> More than a decade later, when the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was considering whether to renew his security clearance, Oppenheimer would change his story, writing that he did not remember saying this, that it was not true, and that if he had said anything along those lines, it was “a half-jocular overstatement.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; Yet less than four months after writing this, when the AEC got Oppenheimer on the witness stand, he would again change his story: Asked, “If you said that to Colonel Lansdale, were you jocular?” Oppenheimer would admit under oath, “I don’t think I could have been jocular during this interview.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 204 (PDF 214)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer confessed, &quot;I was associated with the Communist movement,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 110 (PDF 120)&lt;/ref&gt; and admitted having subscribed to the Communist Party organ ''People's World''&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 8 (PDF 18)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;for several years.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;According to the FBI, he was subscribed as early as 1938. ([[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 [PDF 236]) Asked if his subscription expired after he joined the Manhattan Project, Oppenheimer said: &quot;Since I don't know when it was, I can't answer that question.&quot; He admitted, &quot;I think I paid for it&quot; and &quot;I don't believe I canceled the subscription.&quot; [[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 157 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], when many other formerly stalwart Communists dropped out of the movement in disgust, Oppenheimer was, by his own admission, active in a number of [[Communist front]]s. He admitted having been a member of the western council of the Consumers Union&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; (according to the FBI, he actually became a member of the Board of Counselors of this organization),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)&lt;/ref&gt; which was designated as subversive by the [[HUAC|Dies committee]] in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;Paul Gray, Tom Curry and Jane Van Tessel, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,982525,00.html Evaluating the Buyer's Bible],&quot; ''Time'', February 20, 1995&lt;/ref&gt; during the pact. In addition, from 1939 until at least 1942&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 158 (PDF 168)&lt;/ref&gt; (throughout the duration of the pact), admitted Oppenheimer, he was a member of the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom, which was identified by [[HUAC]] as a Communist front in 1942 and by a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations as subversive and un-American the following year.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 3 (PDF 13)&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer claimed not to remember sponsoring the American Friends of the Chinese People&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; (identified as a Communist front by HUAC in 1944),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 3 (PDF 13)&lt;/ref&gt; but the organization listed him as a sponsor&lt;ref&gt;Senate Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities, California Legislature, [http://ia331325.us.archive.org/3/items/reportofsenatefa00calirich/reportofsenatefa00calirich.pdf Un-American Activities in California, 1948: Communist Front Organizations, Fourth Report] (Sacramento, 1948), p. 144 (PDF p. 154)&lt;/ref&gt; in 1940,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 124&lt;/ref&gt; during the pact.<br /> <br /> In addition, according to the FBI, Oppenheimer reportedly co-founded the Berkeley Conference for Civic Betterment (identified by the FBI as a &quot;[[Communist front|front group]]&quot;); was &quot;a member of the Executive Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union, a Communist Party front group [in 1939, during the pact]&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Under threat of being listed by HUAC in the wake of the Nazi-Soviet pact, the ACLU purged any &quot;member of any political organization which supports totalitarian dictatorship in any country, or who by his public declaration and connections indicates his support of [http://content.cdlib.org/view?query=&amp;docId=kt396n99b3&amp;chunk.id=d0e2699&amp;toc.depth=1&amp;toc.id=0&amp;brand=oac&amp;x=0&amp;y=0 such a principle]&quot; (including future CPUSA Chairman Elizabeth Gurley Flynn) from its Executive Committee in 1940, although its continued front activity caused it to be listed as a Communist front by a joint committee of the California Legislature in 1943: &quot;The American Civil Liberties Union may be definitely classed as a Communist front or 'transmission belt' organization.&quot; [http://ia331324.us.archive.org/3/items/reportofsenatefa00calirich/reportofsenatefa00calirich.pdf Communist Front Organizations], Fourth Report of the Senate Fact-Finding Committee On Un-American Activities, California Legislature, 1948, p. 107 (PDF p. 117)&lt;/ref&gt; a member of the Medical Bureau to Aid Spanish Democracy&lt;ref&gt;Oppenheimer was listed as a donor to this organization in ''People's World'', January 29, 1938, cited in [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF p. 236)&lt;/ref&gt; (identified by [[HUAC]] in 1944 as one in a &quot;series of Communist enterprises&quot;);&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, Annual Report, House Report 2233, June 7, 1946, p. 27; Cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 55 (PDF p. 71)&lt;/ref&gt; a member of the National Emergency Conference for Democratic Rights (identified as subversive and un-American by a special subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations in 1943, and as a Communist front by HUAC the following year);&lt;ref&gt;Special Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations, Report, April 21, 1943, p. 3; Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, VV- 48 and 102; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 62 (PDF p. 78)&lt;/ref&gt; and a donor to the Spanish Aid Committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 227 (PDF 236)&lt;/ref&gt; identified as a Communist front by HUAC in 1944 and as Communist by [[Harry Truman|Truman]] administration [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]] in 1949.&lt;ref&gt;Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House Report 1311 on the CIO Political Action Committee, March 29, 1944, pp. 82, 140, and 180; Attorney General Tom Clark, letter to Loyalty Review Board, released April 27, 1949; both cited in 85th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 226, [http://ia360641.us.archive.org/2/items/guidetosubversiv1957unit/guidetosubversiv1957unit_bw.pdf Guide to Subversive Organizations and Publications] (Washington: US GPO, 1957), p. 69 (PDF p. 85)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Communist Party membership===<br /> But Oppenheimer “was not simply a casual Popular Front liberal who ignorantly bumped up against the [[CPUSA]] in some of the areas in which it operated,&quot; according to John Earl Haynes, a Soviet espionage expert in the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress:&lt;ref&gt;Patricia Villamil, &quot;2009-2010 Kluge Staff Fellow,&quot; [http://www.loc.gov/loc/kluge/newsletters/KlugeNewsletteFall2009.pdf ''Newsletter'', the John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, Vol. 2, No. 2 (November 2009)], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;He was, in fact, a concealed member of the CPUSA in the late 1930s,&quot; write Haynes, Emory University Professor Harvey Klehr and ex-[[KGB]] agent Alexander Vassiliev.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 58&lt;/ref&gt; “Robert Oppenheimer was a member of a so-called closed unit of the Communist Party's professional section in Berkeley, from 1938 to 1942,” agrees Gregg Herken, a former senior Historian at the Smithsonian Institution.&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/documents.html Documents], Brotherhood of the Bomb&lt;/ref&gt; Stanford University historian Barton Bernstein, an expert on Oppenheimer, concurs that &quot;it seems to me far more likely than not from the amalgam of evidence that Oppenheimer was a member, at least covert, for a few years.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Burress, &quot;[http://articles.sfgate.com/2004-04-23/news/17423704_1_communist-party-oppenheimer-uc-berkeley The Oppenheimer Riddle: New evidence of Communist membership debated by scholars of Berkeley scientist],&quot; ''The San Francisco Chronicle'', April 23, 2004&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Berkeley cell====<br /> During 1938-42, throughout the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]], Oppenheimer was a member at Berkeley of what he called a &quot;discussion group,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; which was later identified by fellow members [[Haakon Chevalier|Chevalier]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/document1.html Chevalier to Oppenheimer, July 23, 1964] (Robert Oppenheimer papers, Library of Congress); Barbara Chevalier, &quot;[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_2.html Robert Oppenheimer and Haakon Chevalier: From the Memoirs of Barbara Chevalier],&quot; excerpts (brotherhoodofthebomb.com)&lt;/ref&gt; and Gordon Griffiths&lt;ref&gt;Gordon Griffiths, &quot;[http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor],&quot; excerpts&lt;/ref&gt; as a “closed” (secret)&lt;ref&gt;Jessica Mitford, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8KUEAQAAIAAJ A fine old conflict]'' (Knopf, 1977) ISBN 0394499956, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; unit of the Communist Party for Berkeley faculty. If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he was the only member of this group who was not.&lt;ref&gt;S. S. Schweber, “[http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/a-puzzle-of-a-man A Puzzle of a Man],” ''American Scientist'', Vol. 2, No. 5 (September–October 2004)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In addition, if he was not a Communist, Oppenheimer fooled his close friends in this small, secretive group into thinking he was. According to Chevalier, “O. had been, from 1937 to 1943, a CP member, which I knew directly.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 431&lt;/ref&gt; He added that he and Oppenheimer belonged to “the same unit of the CP from 1938 to 1942.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 341, n. 35&lt;/ref&gt; Griffiths, who served as the Communist Party's “liaison with the Faculty group at the University of California,” confirmed that among the “members of the communist group” at Berkeley were “[[Haakon Chevalier]] of the French Department and Robert Oppenheimer of Physics.”&lt;ref&gt;Gordon Griffiths' ''[http://brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbsource/new_evidence_3.html Venturing Outside the Ivory Tower: The Political Autobiography of a College Professor]'' (excerpts), Brotherhood of the Bomb&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer was the primary author of a report signed “College Faculties Committee, Communist Party of California,” which he also paid to have printed, said Chevalier.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; It defended the Soviet invasion of Finland (during the Nazi-Soviet pact), calling [[President]] [[Roosevelt]] a &quot;counter-revolutionary war-monger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; The report contains unusual wording characteristic of Oppenheimer’s writing, suggesting that Oppenheimer might at least have &quot;had a hand in editing a draft,&quot; according to [http://www.tufts.edu/home/feature/?p=sherwin historian] Martin J. Sherwin.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 144-145&lt;/ref&gt; [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] physics professor emeritus (and former Oppenheimer pupil) Philip Morrison, an ex-Communist,&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82d Cong., 2d sess., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SB65AAAAIAAJ Subversive Influence in the Educational Process'', Parts 7-14] (Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1955), p. 899&lt;/ref&gt; confirmed that in 1939 (during the Pact) he delivered to the printers a pamphlet Oppenheimer wrote (and paid for) taking “the strict Party line in defending the Soviet invasion of Finland.”&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/17008 The Oppenheimer Case: An Exchange],&quot; ''The New York Review of Books'', Vol. 51, No. 5 (March 25, 2004)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Alameda County Communist Party====<br /> If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he also fooled Communist Party officials into thinking he was. Paul Crouch, Communist Party organizer for Alameda County in 1941, testified that Oppenheimer had been a Communist at that time, and even described the interior layout of his home:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 440&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Chairman: Is there any doubt in your mind that Oppenheimer was a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Crouch: No, sir, none whatever. I met him in a closed meeting of the Communist Party in a house which was subsequently found to have been his residence at the time... and following that I met him at quite a number of Communist Party affairs in Alameda County.&lt;ref&gt;Crouch, Paul (1953-09-15). United States Senate, &quot;[https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume3.pdf Executive Sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, Vol. 3], 83d Cong., 1st sess., 1953, pp. 1837 (PDF p. 37)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1945, in an Executive Committee meeting of the Communist Party branch for Alameda County,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 46&lt;/ref&gt; both the Communist Jack Manley and his wife, Communist Party functionary Katrina Sandow (alias “Katherine Sanders”),&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Dickson P. Hill, Committee on Un-American Activities, [http://ia341012.us.archive.org/2/items/investigationofcsf195402unit/investigationofcsf195402unit_bw.pdf Hearings on Communist Activities in the San Francisco Area&amp;mdash;Part 2] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 3193-3196 (PDF pp. 45-48)&lt;/ref&gt; according to FBI surveillance, “stated that Oppenheimer was a Communist Party member.”&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9, p. 318, fn.; [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 46&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Soviet intelligence====<br /> If Oppenheimer was not a Communist, he not only convinced the Communist Party he was, he convinced Soviet intelligence itself. A 1944 report by [[NKVD]] [[San Francisco]] ''[[rezident]]'' (station chief) [[Grigory Kheifetz]]&lt;ref&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'' (Fort George G. Meade, Md.: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, 2001), p. 41&lt;/ref&gt; states: “According to 'Uncle' ([[Isaac Folkoff]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 56&lt;/ref&gt; both brothers [Robert and Frank Oppenheimer] were associated with the fellowcountrymen,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alexandr Vassiliev, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.1_Translated1.pdf White Notebook #1] (tr. Steve Shabad), p. 138&lt;/ref&gt; [[NKVD]] code name for the Communist Party.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 36&lt;/ref&gt; That year, NKVD agents [[Gaik Ovakimian]] and Andrei Graur reported to NKVD chief Boris Merkulov, identifying the code name &quot;Chester&quot; as &quot;Robert Oppenheimer, b. 1906, an Amer. Jew, secret member of the fellowcountryman org., a professor at the U. of California, works on ‘En-s’,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #1 ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No._1_Original.pdf Orig.]), PDF p. 6; ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.1_Translated.pdf Trans].), p. 10. Cf. [[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; i.e., 'Enormoz,' Soviet code name for the Manhattan Project.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 87&lt;/ref&gt; Merkulov, reporting in turn to Soviet Commissar for Internal Affairs [[Lavrenty Beria]], identified “one of the leaders of scientific work on uranium in the USA, Professor R. Oppenheimer,” as “an unlisted [''nglastny'']&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. 50&lt;/ref&gt; member of the apparatus of Comrade [[Earl Browder|Browder]],” General Secretary of the [[CPUSA]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111512 Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer is also mentioned as an unlisted member of the CPUSA in a January 7, 1946, Soviet intelligence document from the Russian Presidential Archives and Ministry of Atomic Energy.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The State of Work in the Utilization of Atomic Energy in Capitalist Countries,&quot; in &quot;Atomic Project in the USSR, Volume II, 1938-54&quot; (Moscow: Ministry of Atomic Energy of Russia, 2000). See Jerrold and Leona Schechter, &quot;[http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0210&amp;week=c&amp;msg=VJUrY5l1Cc7MVWpd5C6O1g&amp;user=&amp;pw= Clarification of Steven Aftergood's posting of August 30, 2002],&quot; H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online, October 14, 2002&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Cover-up====<br /> In April 1942 Oppenheimer's name was formally submitted for security clearance for the Manhattan Project; the following month, observed William L. Borden, executive director of the congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (JCAE), Oppenheimer &quot;either stopped contributing funds to the Communist Party or else made his contributions through a new channel not yet discovered.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 837 (PDF 849)&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer &quot;appears to have dropped out of the party in early 1942,” write Haynes, Klehr and Vassiliev.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 58&lt;/ref&gt; According to Jerrold L. Schecter, spokesman for the National Security Administration in the [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration, &quot;Robert Oppenheimer’s long time membership in the Communist Party of the United States was made secret in 1942.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.publications&amp;doc_id=43900&amp;group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> FBI surveillance in 1942-43 reported that Alameda County Communist Party Secretary Bernadette Doyle told John Murra, a “suspected intelligence agent of the USSR,” that “OPPENHEIMER was a party member but that his name should be removed from any mailing lists in John Murra’s possession and he should not mention it in any way,” and told [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion Comintern agent] &quot;[[Steve Nelson]]&quot; (Stjepan Mesaros), according to a telephone intercept,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 234&lt;/ref&gt; “that she believes the matter should be taken up with the state committee regarding the two OPPIES, inasmuch as they were regularly registered [as members of the Communist Party] and everyone in the county knew they were Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;The FBI report adds: &quot;It is believed that the two OPPIES mentioned above had reference to subject J. ROBERT OPPENHEIMER and his brother FRANK OPPENHEIMER.&quot; FBI report: J. Robert Oppenheimer, December 2, 1943, FBI file: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internal Security - C, Sec. 1 (not paginated). Cf. [[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 229 (PDF 238); M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9, p. 316-318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Grigory Kheifetz|Kheifetz]], &quot;due to their special military work, the connection with them [Robert and Frank Oppenheimer] was suspended.”&lt;ref&gt;Alexandr Vassiliev, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.1_Translated1.pdf White Notebook #1] (tr. Steve Shabad), p. 138&lt;/ref&gt; Ovakimian and Graur reported to Merkulov: “In view of the special significance and importance of the work he does... the fellowcountryman organization received orders from its center to break off relations with ‘Ch.’ [i.e., &quot;Chester,&quot; Oppenheimer's code name] to avoid his exposure.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; Merkulov summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Due to complications of the operational situation in the USA, dissolution of the [[Comintern]]&lt;ref&gt;In 1943, Stalin officially dissolved the [[Comintern]] ([http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm Dissolution of the Communist International], Marxists Internet Archive), forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States. ([http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.publications&amp;doc_id=43900&amp;group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars). The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern ([http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989), which included “control over the CPUSA,” (Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507, p. 48)&amp;mdash;gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct NKVD control. [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface], Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; and explanations of Comrades Zarubin and Kheifets on the Mironov affair&lt;ref&gt;In 1943, Lt. Col. Vasili Mironov, an NKVD officer in the Washington, DC ''rezidentura'', sent an [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2005/august/history_082605 unsigned letter] to [[J. Edgar Hoover]], exposing the intelligence activities of the [[Vasily Zarubin|Zarubin]]s and [[Grigory Kheifets|Kheifets]].&lt;/ref&gt; it is expedient to immediately sever contacts of leaders and activists of the American Communist Party with scientists and specialists engaged in work on uranium.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=va2.document&amp;identifier=5034E2FB-96B6-175C-967BCF8290DD3AD9&amp;sort=Collection&amp;item=Intelligence%20Operations%20in%20the%20Cold%20War Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to Sudoplatov, &quot;My deputy, Leonid Eitingon, and I also instructed Kheifetz and Semyonov to turn over to our old moles all their confidential contacts with friendly sources around Oppenheimer in California.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George J. Church, &quot;[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980756,00.html Did Oppenheimer Really Help Moscow?]&quot; ''Time'', Vol. 143, No. 21 (May 23, 1994), p. 68&lt;/ref&gt; A 1945 Soviet code-message refers to instructions to “send GURON [‘Huron’]&lt;ref&gt;Huron was identified in the [[Gorsky memo]] in 1948 by [[Anatoly Gorsky]] (NKVD ''rezident'' in Washington in 1945) as Byron T. Darling, who would be fired from a post as associate professor of physics at Ohio State University in 1953 when he refused to answer a question about his Communist Party ties before HUAC.&lt;/ref&gt; to CHICAGO to re-establish contact with VEKSEL….” The National Security Agency’s [[Venona project]] analysts identified VEKSEL as “Probably Dr. Julius Robert Oppenheimer.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/venona/releases/21_Mar_1945_R1_p2.gif Venona 256 Moscow to New York], 21 March 1945&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Espionage at Los Alamos ==<br /> In testimony before the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations]] (PSI), Crouch was asked about Oppenheimer:<br /> {{cquote|The CHAIRMAN. ...Is there any doubt in your mind... [that] Oppenheimer was under Communist party discipline at the time you were attending these Communist meetings with him?<br /> <br /> Mr. CROUCH. No, sir, none whatever.<br /> <br /> The CHAIRMAN. And if he were under Communist party discipline, he, of course, would be bound to turn over any atomic secrets to them that he had available?<br /> <br /> Mr. CROUCH. That the party directed.<br /> <br /> The CHAIRMAN. And naturally they would be interested in any atomic information he had?<br /> <br /> Mr. CROUCH. Yes, sir. Just as a matter of fact, the Communist Party might have chosen to direct him to turn over the information; they might have chosen to direct him to appoint other Communists to key positions who would in turn, turn over the information. It is a matter of record that Dr. Oppenheimer has appointed many Communists to key positions to the atomic energy program...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume3.pdf Executive Sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, Vol. 3], 83d Cong., 1st sess., 1953, pp. 1840-41 (PDF pp. 40-41)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to Sudoplatov, &quot;Oppenheimer, together with Fermi and Szilard, helped us place moles in Tennessee, Los Alamos and Chicago as assistants in those three labs.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Nigel West, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=AcUIAQAAMAAJ Venona: the greatest secret of the Cold War]'' (HarperCollins, 1999) ISBN 0006530710, p. 186&lt;/ref&gt; Among those Oppenheimer brought into Los Alamos were his former grad students Bohm, Peters and [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz|Lomanitz]]; his brother Frank; and David Hawkins&amp;mdash;all of whom were well known to him to be “members of the Communist Party or closely associated with activities of the Communist Party.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/opp06.asp Decision and Opinions of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer], Washington, D.C., June 29, 1954 (Avalon Project, Yale Law School)&lt;/ref&gt; Frank testified that he was a member (under the cover name &quot;Frank Fulsome&quot;) from 1937 until 1940 or '41;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 359. Cf. [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 402&lt;/ref&gt; Hawkins testified that he was a member at Berkeley from 1938 to 1943;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 81st Congr., 2d sess., [http://ia341025.us.archive.org/3/items/hearingsregardin194903unit/hearingsregardin194903unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Infiltration of Radiation Laboratory and Atom Bomb Project at the University of California, Berkeley, Calif., Vol. 3] (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 3418 (PDF p. 9)&lt;/ref&gt; Bohm officially joined the Communist Party in 1942&lt;ref&gt;F. David Peat, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pobZMUmZbAEC Infinite Potential: The Life and Times of David Bohm]'' (Basic Books, 1997) ISBN 0201328208, p. 58&lt;/ref&gt; and later testified that he was a member at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory during [[World War II]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 122&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1942, FBI surveillance recorded Lomanitz telling Nelson he was working on a highly secret weapon; Nelson advised Lomanitz to keep his Party activity quiet&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713757446 Soviet Military-Industrial Espionage in the United States and the Emergence of an Espionage Paradigm in US-Soviet Relations, 1941-45],&quot; ''American Communist History'', Vol. 2, Iss. 1 (June 2003), pp. 21-51&lt;/ref&gt; as he was now considered a member of the underground.&lt;ref&gt;San Francisco FBI report 15 March 1947, COMRAP file. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 325; Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer said he knew &quot;for a fact&quot; by August 1943 that Lomanitz was a Communist Party member.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 875 (PDF 887). Cf. [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 245; [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 111&lt;/ref&gt; Yet when, following an espionage investigation,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 128 (PDF 138)&lt;/ref&gt; the Army released Lomanitz from Berkeley, causing him to lose his draft deferment, Oppenheimer sent an &quot;urgent request&quot; by telegram, urging Lomanitz' &quot;continued availability to project,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 123 (PDF 133)&lt;/ref&gt; and subsequently attempted to get the Army to release Lomanitz to return to the Radiation Laboratory.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 124 (PDF 134)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1949, just before Lomanitz was to testify before HUAC, Oppenheimer met him on a sidewalk in Princeton, N.J., (where presumably &quot;the FBI found it difficult to monitor his conversations&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; and discussed what he would say to the committee. Oppenheimer testified that the meeting was by chance, and that he only advised Lomanitz to tell the truth. But when he testified, Lomanitz refused on grounds of potential self-incrimination to answer whether or not he had been a Communist.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 151 (PDF 161)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer also testified that he knew &quot;for a fact&quot; by August 1943 that Weinberg was a Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 875 (PDF 887). Cf. [[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 245; [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 111&lt;/ref&gt; and had heard even at Berkeley that Weinberg had been a member of the Young Communist League.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 194 (PDF 204)&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance recorded Weinberg, who had gotten into the Manhattan project using Oppenheimer as a reference, telling Nelson he had been a Communist Party member since 1938.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 14 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; Nelson warned Weinberg to burn his party membership book.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; In 1943, FBI surveillance recorded Weinberg (&quot;[http://ia341038.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregardin194902unit/hearingsregardin194902unit_bw.pdf Scientist X]&quot;) reading to Nelson &quot;what appeared to be a technical formula used in the Project,&quot; which Nelson copied down.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 6 (PDF 8)&lt;/ref&gt; Weinberg told Nelson he had to return the formula to the University of California Radiation Laboratories in the morning. Several days later Nelson met with Peter Ivanov (a [[GRU]] agent operating out of the Soviet consulate in San Francisco,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]&lt;/ref&gt; where [[Grigory Kheifetz|Kheifetz]] was undercover as vice consul),&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?doc_id=43900&amp;fuseaction=topics.publications&amp;group_id=13349&amp;topic_id=1409 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; and gave him a package.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; A few days later, &quot;Zubilin&quot; ([[Vasily Zarubin]], NKVD station chief in the U.S. from 1941 to 1944) was transferred from the Soviet Embassy in Washington to the San Francisco consulate. Shortly thereafter, Zubilin gave Nelson ten bills of unknown denominations.&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 81st Cong., 1st sess., [http://ia311304.us.archive.org/1/items/hearingsregarding1949unit/hearingsregarding1949unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Steve Nelson] (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949), pp. VIII-IX (PDF pp. 12-13)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At least three of the five scientists under Oppenheimer's direct supervision [[leak]]ed secret information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. These include [[Klaus Fuchs]], [[Theodore Hall]], and [[David Greenglass]].&lt;ref&gt;For '''Karl Fuchs''', see: {{hnb|Andrew &amp; Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=114-115, 127-128, 131-132, 155, 164, 397}} Noting that Klaus Fuchs, a committed Stalinist, began spying while in Great Britain after fleeing Nazi Germany, and continued when he came to the United States to work on the Manhattan Project. For '''Theodore Hall''', see: {{hnb|Andrew &amp; Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=128-129, 131-132, 147-48, 164-65, 205}} (Cf. &quot;[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sanders/214/other/news/obit-hall-ap.html Scientist, Spy for Soviets Dies],&quot; The Associated Press, November 10, 1999). For '''David Greenglass''', see {{hnb|Andrew &amp; Mitrokhin|1999|Ref=CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin1999|p=128, 131}}. For all see also also {{hnb|LANL|2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; KGB archival data smuggled out by Vassiliev reveal that two more spies, Boris Podolsky (code-named Quantum) and Russell McNutt (code-named Fogel, later changed to Pers), were also at Los Alamos during Oppenheimer's tenure.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 73, 339&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Allegations against Oppenheimer===<br /> &quot;The secrets in KGB memoirs, Soviet archival records and translations, and NSA decrpytions of Soviet war time cable traffic, codenamed VENONA, reveal: The cooperation of J. Robert Oppenheimer in atomic espionage from 1942 to 1944....&quot; writes Schecter.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. xxvi&lt;/ref&gt; Herbert Romerstein, former chief of the U.S. Information Agency's Office to Counter Soviet Disinformation and Active Measures,&lt;ref&gt;[http://0-www.gpo.gov.library.colby.edu/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-10-21/html/CREC-1996-10-21-pt1-PgS12411.htm ''Congressional Record'', Vol. 142, Iss. 143 (Monday, October 21, 1996), p. S12415]&lt;/ref&gt; agrees: &quot;Atomic scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer performed work on behalf of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 449&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer supplied the Soviets with classified reports on atom bomb development&amp;mdash;in part via Elizabeth Zarubina (wife of [[Vasily Zarubin]]), who was in direct contact with Oppenheimer's wife, Kitty&amp;mdash;according to Pavel Sudoplatov, Moscow-based overseer of Soviet atom-bomb espionage. In his 1994 memoir, Sudoplatov wrote:<br /> {{cquote|I set up a network of illegals who convinced Robert Oppenheimer, [[Enrico Fermi]], [[Leo Szilard]], [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], Alan Nunn May, [[Klaus Fuchs]] and other scientists in America and Great Britain to share atomic secrets with us..... We received reports on the progress of the Manhattan Project from Oppenheimer and his friends in oral form, through comments and asides, and from documents transferred through clandestine methods with their full knowledge that the information they were sharing would be passed on. One agent cited Oppenheimer's stressing that information should be leaked so as not to be traceable to those who worked in Los Alamos. In all, there were five classified reports made available by Oppenheimer describing the progress of work on the atomic bomb.&lt;ref&gt;Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, pp. 192, 196, 206-207&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Sudoplatov's allegations are corroborated by a 1982 letter he wrote to then-Soviet Premier [[Yuri Andropov]], stating: &quot;Department S [Sudoplatov's department] rendered considerable help to our scientists by giving them the latest materials on atom bomb research, obtained from such sources as the famous nuclear physicists R. Oppenheimer, E. Fermi, [[Klaus Fuchs|K. Fuchs]] and others.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, Appendix.&lt;/ref&gt; Romerstein and Breindel comment: &quot;It would have made no sense for Sudoplatov to lie to Andropov, the former head of KGB and dictator of the Soviet Union, who would have easily found him out.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 275&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to FBI surveillance in 1943, Nelson (who often visited Oppenheimer's wife in Berkeley)&lt;ref&gt;Rachel Teukolsky, &quot;[http://sciencereview.berkeley.edu/articles/issue1/scientistx.pdf Regarding Scientist X: Big Science, the War Effort, and Communist Activity at Berkeley Radiation Lab (1929-1949)],&quot; ''Berkeley Science Review'' Issue 1 (Spring 2001), p. 18&lt;/ref&gt; advised Weinberg &quot;that OPPENHEIMER had indicated to him the basic idea of the project&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refCINRAD|CINRAD]]: 26 (PDF 28)&lt;/ref&gt; in 1945, Jack Manley would state that “Oppenheimer told Steven Nelson several years ago that the Army was working on the atomic bomb.”&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9, p. 318, fn.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Merkulov reported to [[Lavrenty Beria|Beria]], &quot;In 1942 one of the leaders of scientific work on uranium in the USA, Professor R. Oppenheimer... informed us about the beginning of work. On the request of Comrade Kheifitz,&lt;ref&gt;NKVD ''[[rezident]]'' (station chief), San Francisco. Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'' (Fort George G. Meade, Md.: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, 2001), p. 41&lt;/ref&gt; confirmed by [[Earl Browder|Comrade Browder]], he provided cooperation in access to research for several of our tested sources including a relative of Comrade Browder.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111512 Merkulov to Beria, 2 October 1944], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; (Browder's niece, [[Helen Lowry]], was a Soviet agent married to [[Iskhak Akhmerov]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHKV09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 234, 218, 239, 486, 503&lt;/ref&gt; the leading NKVD &quot;illegal&quot; in the United States.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 154&lt;/ref&gt; Schecter concludes that Oppenheimer “was being used as a Soviet intelligence asset by the Communist Underground to help obtain atomic secrets.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.publications&amp;doc_id=43900&amp;group_id=13349 Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake], Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Sergei Leskov, science correspondent for ''Izvestia'', a Moscow newspaper in which the Russian government holds a controlling stake, reported in 1994 that Russian government officials informed him<br /> {{cquote|that as well as Klaus Fuchs, who was imprisoned for espionage in Britain for 14 years, and &quot;Perseus,&quot; an unidentified agent who has been mentioned frequently in recent years, there were 10 agents of similar caliber working in the West. Six worked in the United States, four in Britain. They were significant figures who remain unknown to the FBI to this day.&lt;ref&gt;Sergey Leskov, &quot;An Unreliable Witness,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VAwAAAAAMBAJ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]'', July/August, 1994, p. 36&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====The Chevalier incident====<br /> In 1943, the Soviets tried to establish direct contact with Oppenheimer. Ivanov instructed George Eltenton (a British-born Soviet intelligence source code-named “Dorin”)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; to feel Oppenheimer out about covertly leaking American nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union, according to Eltenton’s statement to the FBI.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 548&lt;/ref&gt; Eltenton said he asked Chevalier to pitch the idea to Oppenheimer.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 200. Cf. [[#refHerken|Herken 2003]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; Chevalier approached Oppenheimer in February or March 1943, but Oppenheimer failed to report the incident for some eight months.&lt;ref&gt;Jennet Conant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DkXvYAzoobYC 109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the secret city of Los Alamos],'' (Simon and Schuster, 2005) ISBN 0743250079, p. 175&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Overruling the objections of security officers, according to Groves, on July 20 he issued written orders that:<br /> {{cquote|In accordance with my verbal directions of July 15, it is desired that clearance be issued to Julius Robert Oppenheimer without delay irrespective of the information which you have concerning Mr Oppenheimer. He is absolutely essential to the project.&lt;ref&gt;Leslie R. Groves, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uBIIAQAAIAAJ Now It Can Be Told: The Story Of The Manhattan Project]'' (Harper &amp; Row, 1962), p. 63&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The following month, after Oppenheimer's security clearance had come through, Lieutenant Lyall Johnson, the security officer at Berkeley, questioned Oppenheimer about [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz|Lomanitz]], whom Oppenheimer had tried to keep on the Manhattan Project, even though he had supplied highly sensitive information to the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;Charles Thorpe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BWek8zJ-U7IC Oppenheimer: The Tragic Intellect]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2006) ISBN 0226798453, p. 75&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer stated that he had heard that Eltenton, too, had offered to supply technical data to the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;Jennet Conant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DkXvYAzoobYC 109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the secret city of Los Alamos],'' (Simon and Schuster, 2005) ISBN 0743250079, p. 175&lt;/ref&gt; Johnson immediately called Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash, Chief of Counter-Intelligence for the Ninth Army Corps on the West Coast.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 190&lt;/ref&gt; The following day, Pash and Johnson interrogated Oppenheimer about Eltenton. Oppenheimer stated:<br /> {{cquote|I think it is true that a man, whose name I never heard, who was attached to the Soviet consul, has indicated indirectly through intermediary people concerned in this project that he was in a position to transmit, without any danger of a leak, or scandal, or anything of that kind, information, which they might supply.}}<br /> Oppenheimer then named Eltenton, stating:<br /> {{cquote|He has probably been asked to do what he can to provide information. Whether he is successful or not, I do not know, but he talked to a friend of his who is also an acquaintance of one of the men on the project, and that was one of the channels by which this thing went.}}<br /> Johnson asked whether &quot;there was a particular person, maybe a person on the project that they were trying to pump information from.&quot;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer answered, &quot;I have known of 2 or 3 cases, and I think two of the men were with me at Los Alamos&amp;mdash;they are men who are very closely associated with me.&quot; Eltenton, he added, &quot;had very good contacts with a man from the embassy attached to the consulate who was a very reliable guy (that's his story) and who had a lot of experience in microfilm work, or whatever the hell.&quot; Eltenton did not contact anyone on the Manhattan Project directly, said Oppenheimer, but through an intermediary, &quot;a member of the [Berkeley] faculty, but not on the project.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcript of Conversation between Dr. J.R. Oppenheimer, Lt. Col. Boris T. Pash, and Lt. Lyall Johnson, August 27, 1943, [[#refAEC|AEC Hearing]]: 845-847 (PDF 857-859)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The following month Colonel Lansdale told Oppenheimer that &quot;we have known since February that several people were transmitting information about this project to the Soviet Government.&quot; Oppenheimer said the intermediary, whom he still refused to name, was &quot;an acquaintance of mine, I've known over many years,&quot; adding, &quot;I know him as a fellow traveler.&quot; Lansdale confronted Oppenheimer, stating: &quot;I have reason to believe that you yourself were felt out, I don't say asked, but felt out to ascertain how you felt about it, passing a little information, to the party.&quot; Then Lansdale struck home:<br /> {{cquote|L. [Lansdale] How about Haakon Chevalier?<br /> <br /> O. [Oppenheimer] Is he a member of the party?<br /> <br /> L. I don't know.<br /> <br /> O. He is a member of the faculty and I know him well. I wouldn't be surprised if he were a member, he is quite a Red.&lt;ref&gt;Transcript of Interview with Dr. Oppenheimer by Lt. Col. Lansdale, September 12, 1943, [[#refAEC|AEC Hearing]]: 871-877 (PDF 883-889)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> [[Image:Veksel7.JPG|thumb|275px|left|In March 1945 Moscow orders agent &quot;Guron&quot; ([[Byron Darling]])&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev, Notes on A. Gorsky’s Report to Savchenko S.R., 23 December 1949. Translation of [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page44.html#_ftnref88 KGB file 43173 vol. 2 (v)] pp. 46-55.&lt;/ref&gt; to reestablish contact with &quot;Veksel&quot; (&quot;probably&quot; Oppenheimer).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHB2000|Romerstein, Breindel 2000]]: 499&lt;/ref&gt;]]Oppenheimer refused to admit Chevalier's involvement for ten months.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html The Atom: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, in December 1943, Groves told Oppenheimer to divulge the name. &quot;I told him if you don't tell me, I am going to have to order you to do it,&quot; Groves would later testify. Oppenheimer promptly answered that it was Chevalier. When Groves asked the names of the three people Chevalier had approached, however, Oppenheimer changed his story: there were not three people, but only one&amp;mdash;Oppenheimer himself. From what Oppenheimer told him, Groves concluded:<br /> {{cquote|that there was an approach made, that Dr. Oppenheimer knew of this approach, that at some point he was involved in that the approach was made to him&amp;mdash;I don't mean involved in the sense that he gave anything&amp;mdash;I mean he just knew about it personally from the fact that he was in the chain, and that he didn't report it in its entirety as he should have done.}}<br /> Groves did not believe Oppenheimer's new story, testifying that he &quot;had the very definite impression that Dr. Oppenheimer<br /> wanted to protect his friends of long standing, possibly his brother.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAEC|AEC Hearing]]: 167 (PDF 177)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But Oppenheimer insisted that what he had told Pash about the three contacts was actually just “a cock-and-bull story.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 137 (PDF 147)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;This whole thing was a pure fabrication except for the one name Eltenton,&quot; testified Oppenheimer, who called his previous story &quot;a piece of idiocy&quot; that was &quot;wholly false.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 149 (PDF 159)&lt;/ref&gt; Asked &quot;You lied to him?&quot; Oppenheimer answered &quot;Yes.&quot; Asked under oath for an explanation of why he had lied, the brilliant physicist testified, “Because I was an idiot.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 137 (PDF 147)&lt;/ref&gt; Despite this incident, Oppenheimer was still meeting with Chevalier a decade later, including once in Paris,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 150 (PDF 140)&lt;/ref&gt; where, again, presumably &quot;the FBI found it difficult to monitor his conversations.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Policy influence===<br /> The successful development of the atomic bomb gave the [[United States]] an enormous advantage over the [[Soviet Union]]. Following the bombing of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]], NKVD Chief [[Lavrenty Beria]] &quot;said we should think how to use Oppenheimer, [[Leo Szilard|Szilard]] and others around them in the peace campaign against nuclear armament,&quot; according to Sudoplatov. &quot;Disarmament and the inability to impose nuclear blackmail would deprive the United States of its advantage.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pavel Sudoplatov and Anatoli Sudoplatov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_uExfHdLb8UC Special Tasks]'' (London: Little Brown and Company, 1994) ISBN 0316821152, pp. 207-208&lt;/ref&gt; On October 3, 1945, [[President]] [[Harry Truman|Truman]] read an address to [[United States Congress|Congress]] stating that &quot;atomic energy constitutes a new force too revolutionary to consider in the framework of old ideas.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Mandelbaum, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VcUS4f736wgC The Nuclear Revolution: International Politics Before and After Hiroshima]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1981) ISBN 052128239X, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; The speech advocated &quot;the renunciation of the use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Paul Vorbeck Lettow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=36pYekyje-kC Ronald Reagan and His Quest to Abolish Nuclear Weapons]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2006) ISBN 0812973267, p. 4&lt;/ref&gt; of the atom bomb, and proposed &quot;international collaboration and exchange of scientific information&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Military Affairs, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XcMLN8sUQCYC Mobilization of Civilian Manpower (Hearings)] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1945), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; about it. On October 19, wrote [[Henry Wallace]],&lt;ref&gt;Three years later, Wallace would run for President as the candidate of the [[Progressive]] Party&amp;mdash;a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of CPUSA General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; (Arthur Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' [New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000] ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456) Wallace once said if he were to become President, he would appoint [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf Soviet agent] [[Laurence Duggan]] as [[Secretary of State]]; had [[FDR]] died a few months earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President. (Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; ''The New York Times'', October 18, 1998) Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]] in 1952. (Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952) Three years later, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would cite the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer &quot;told me that the President’s statement to Congress had been written by [[Dean Acheson]]’s assistant, a Mr. Herbert Marks,&lt;ref&gt;The following year, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, would accuse Marks (along with [[Alger Hiss]] and others) of being part of “an enormous [[espionage]] ring in [[Washington]]” seeking to make information about the use of “atomic energy... as an instrument of war... available to the Soviet Union” (Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: the American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999] ISBN 0300080794, p. 69); at his confirmation hearing to become an AEC commissioner in 1947, a witness would testify that she had attended Communist Party meetings with Marks. Senate Section, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=B32lOQAACAAJ Hearings on Confirmation of Atomic Energy Commission and General Manager] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1947), p. 165&lt;/ref&gt; and that he [Oppenheimer] had had something to do with helping Marks on the message.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace (John Morton Blum, ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua2sAAAAIAAJ The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942-1946]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1973) ISBN 0395171210, p. 494&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Peace offensive====<br /> Two days previously, Wallace and Oppenheimer had attended a meeting at [[Washington, DC|Washington]]'s Statler Hotel&lt;ref&gt;Less than four months before, this very hotel was the scene of FBI surveillance recording [[State Department]] official [[John Stewart Service]] handing off &quot;a document which dealt with matters the Chinese had furnished to the United States government in confidence&quot; (Report of the United States Senate Subcommittee on the Investigation of Loyalty of State Department Employees, 1950, Vol. 2, appendix, p. 2051) to the secret [[Communist]] [[Philip Jaffe]]. Philip Jaffe, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YTUPGQAACAAJ The Amerasia Case from 1945 to the Present]'' (New York: Philip J. Jaffe, 1979), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; with [[Leo Szilard|Szilard]], Fermi, Edward U. Condon,&lt;ref&gt;Condon, a classmate of Oppenheimer's at Göttingen, was among those (along with [[Alger Hiss]]) who would be named by Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, the following year as part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” seeking to make information about the use of “atomic energy... as an instrument of war... available to the Soviet Union” (Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Secrecy: the American Experience [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999] ISBN 0300080794, pp. 68-69). Condon was such a blatant security risk that Gen. [[Leslie Groves]]&amp;mdash;who considered Oppenheimer an acceptable risk&amp;mdash;would kick him out of the Manhattan Project after just six weeks. M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9, pp. 325-326&lt;/ref&gt; Harlow Shapley,&lt;ref&gt;Shapely, a member of at least 20 Communist fronts (Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' [New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977] ISBN 0405099428, p. 239), was the object of praise from no less an authority than CPUSA General Secretary [[William Z. Foster]]. William Z. Foster, &quot;The Communist Party and the Professionals,&quot; ''The Communist'', No. 17 (September 1938), pp. 805-809&lt;/ref&gt; and others. &quot;The scientists presented in very vigorous terms the peril in which the United States now finds herself... chiefly... the threat to peace,&quot; wrote Wallace. &quot;Oppenheimer said he very much wanted to see me and I made arrangements...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace (John Morton Blum, ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua2sAAAAIAAJ The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942-1946]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1973) ISBN 0395171210, pp. 493-494&lt;/ref&gt; At their meeting two days later, wrote Wallace:<br /> {{cquote|I never saw a man in such an extremely nervous state as Oppenheimer. He seemed to feel that the destruction of the entire human race was imminent... He has been in charge of the scientists in New Mexico and says... that all they think about now are the social and economic implications of the bomb... He wanted to know if I thought it would do any good for him to see the President. I said yes, and he is going to try to get either Secretary Patterson&lt;ref&gt;Robert P. Patterson was then Secretary of War.&lt;/ref&gt; or Senator Kilgore&lt;ref&gt;Senator Harley M. Kilgore (D-WV) accused U.S. &quot;military government officials&quot; in occupied Germany of putting &quot;our national security and the security of our allies... in jeopardy&quot; for &quot;private and selfish ends,&quot; due to &quot;their connections with industrial and financial enterprises which had close pre-war ties with the Nazis.&quot; Howard Watson Armbruster, ''[http://ia600404.us.archive.org/10/items/treasonspeaceger00ambrrich/treasonspeaceger00ambrrich.pdf Treason's Peace: German Dyes &amp; American Dupes]'' (New York: Beechhurst Press, 1947), p. 401&lt;/ref&gt; to make an appointment for him.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace (John Morton Blum, ed.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua2sAAAAIAAJ The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942-1946]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1973) ISBN 0395171210, pp. 496-497&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Within a week, Oppenheimer met with Truman at the [[White House]]. Oppenheimer urged the President to surrender the U.S. nuclear monopoly to international control. Truman was outraged, telling [[Secretary of State]] [[Dean Acheson]], &quot;I don't want to see that son-of-a-bitch in this office ever again.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 331-332&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Nevertheless, Truman later appealed to Oppenheimer for help in &quot;giving the army permanent control over atomic energy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBird-Sherwin|Bird, Sherwin 2006]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer did just the opposite, using his influence to turn the army's control of nuclear power over to the civilian AEC in 1946.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/civilian_control.htm Civilian Control of Atomic Energy, 1945-1946], The Manhattan Project, An Interactive History (Department of Energy)&lt;/ref&gt; That year, Oppenheimer was one of the primary architects of the [http://www.learnworld.com/ZNW/LWText.Acheson-Lilienthal.html Acheson-Lillienthal Report], which proposed turning control of the U.S. nuclear arsenal over to the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;Jessica Wang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok_A5UV1mdoC American science in an age of anxiety: scientists, anticommunism, and the cold war]'' (Phoenix: UNC Press Books, 1999) ISBN 0807847496, p. 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During their June 2000 meeting, Russian President Vladimir Putin, an ex-KGB agent, told U.S. President Bill Clinton a story concerning &quot;Joseph Stalin's decision to put his secret police chief, Lavrenti Beria, in charge of ferreting out the secrets of the American crash program to develop the atomic bomb during World War II.&quot;<br /> {{cquote|Putin had words of praise for the American scientists who willingly helped the USSR develop its own A-bomb. They were not traitors to their country, he said. Rather, they were serving the cause of international peace.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold L. Schecter and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFoAAAAMAAJ Sacred secrets: how Soviet intelligence operations changed American history]'' (Brassey's, 2002) ISBN 1574883275, p. xix&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In 2012, according to Russia's government news agency Itar-Tass, Putin amplified these remarks:<br /> {{cquote|You know, when the States already had nuclear weapons and the Soviet Union was only building them, we got a significant amount of information through Soviet foreign intelligence channels ... They were carrying the information away not on microfilm but literally in suitcases. Suitcases! ... It was the cream of the scientific world that was gathered in America, and I personally have gotten the impression that they consciously gave us information on the atom bomb ... They did this consciously because the atom bomb had been used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and scientists from mankind’s intellectual elite at the time understood what unilateral possession of such a weapon might lead to.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/putin-praises-cold-war-spies.aspx?pageID=238&amp;nID=14477&amp;NewsCatID=353 Putin praises Cold War spies], ''Hurriyet Daily News'' (Turkey), February 22, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====The H-bomb====<br /> In 1947, Oppenheimer became Chairman of the AEC's General Advisory Committee (GAC) on Science.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0422.html J. Robert Oppenheimer, Atom Bomb Pioneer, Dies],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 19, 1967&lt;/ref&gt; On September 23, 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had exploded their own atomic bomb.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1234&amp;st=&amp;st1= Statement by the President on Announcing the First Atomic Explosion in the U.S.S.R.], September 23, 1949, Harry S. Truman Library &amp; Museum&lt;/ref&gt; (Within a month of breaking the U.S. nuclear monopoly, Soviet-backed Communist rebels would seize control of [[China]], inaugurating a regime that would eventually murder some 70 million Chinese;&lt;ref&gt;Courtois et al. estimate Communist China's murders at 65 million (Stephane Courtois, Jean-Louis Panne, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartosek, Jean-Louis Margolin [Mark Kramer, ed.; Jonathan Murphy, trans.], ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999] ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4); Jung and Halladay estimate &quot;well over 70 million&quot; (Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' [London: Jonathan Cape, 2005] ISBN 0224071262, pp. 3, 560, 651); Rummel estimates 77 million. R.J. Rummel, &quot;[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php Death by Government: Stalin Beat Hitler but Mao Surpassed Both],&quot; ''Orthodoxy Today'', December 4, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; within a year, Soviet and Communist Chinese-backed [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|North Korea]] would invade its neighbor to the south, launching a war that would claim more than 30,000 American lives.)&lt;ref&gt;John W. Chambers, II, ed. in chief, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=O7hmQgAACAAJ The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-19-507198-0, p. 849&lt;/ref&gt; AEC Commissioner Lewis Strauss, president of the board of trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton (where Oppenheimer was director), responded with a proposal that the U.S. make it &quot;highest priority&quot; to build a hydrogen bomb (then called the &quot;super bomb&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/correspondence/strauss-lewis/corr_strauss_1949-11-25.htm Letter on the development of the Thermonuclear Bomb], From: Lewis L Strauss, To: Harry S Truman, President of the United States of America, Date: November 25, 1949&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On October 14, 1949, one GAC member, Glenn Seaborg, then a future [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1951/seaborg.html Nobel Laureate] (and future AEC Chairman), wrote to Oppenheimer, “I have been unable to come to the conclusion that we should not” proceed with this crash program to develop an H-bomb. “I would have to hear some good arguments before I could take on sufficient courage to recommend not going toward such a program.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 238 (PDF 248)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Yet, ten days later, Oppenheimer told the AEC that among GAC members there was “a surprising unanimity&amp;mdash;to me very surprising&amp;mdash;that the United States ought not to take the initiative... in an all out program for the development of thermonuclear weapons.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 77 (PDF 87)&lt;/ref&gt; He claimed that didn't know how Seaborg felt about it, as he “was in Sweden, and there was no communication with him.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 233 (PDF 243)&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer later confessed that he had received Seaborg's letter before he made these claims, yet he repeated them three months later, before the JCAE.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearings]]: 239 (PDF 249)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> When nuclear physicist [[Edward Teller]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Jewish]] refugee from [[Nazi Germany]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/obituaries/10TELL.html Edward Teller Is Dead at 95; Fierce Architect of H-Bomb,]&quot; ''The New York Times'', September 10, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; known as the &quot;father of the H-bomb,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Francie Grace, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/09/10/tech/main572437.shtml 'Father Of The H-Bomb' Dies At 95],&quot; CBS News, September 10, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; had sought Oppenheimer's support to build an H-bomb at Los Alamos in 1945, Oppenheimer had refused. Now, argued Teller, the need for an H-bomb had become urgent. Oppenheimer disagreed, signing his name to an official statement that &quot;a super bomb should never be produced.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRhodes96|Rhodes 1996]]: 401&lt;/ref&gt; With Fermi and others, he lobbied Henry Wallace to stop H-bomb development; Wallace complied, issuing a statement that “we should prefer defeat in war to victory obtained at the expense of the enormous human disaster that would be caused by its determined use.”&lt;ref&gt;Andrew Jon Rotter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4_KOtRIZEDMC Hiroshima: the world's bomb]'' (Oxford University Press, 2008) ISBN 0192804375, p. 256&lt;/ref&gt; As Teller would later testify:<br /> {{cquote|In a great number of cases I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act... in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more... If it is a question of wisdom and judgment, as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/tellertestimony.html not to grant clearance].&lt;ref&gt;Although he made no accusations, Teller's testimony against Oppenheimer made him [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Although he made no accusations, his testimony regarding Oppenheimer made Teller [http://news.stanford.edu/news/2003/september24/tellerobit-924.html a pariah]. The left accused him of smearing an innocent man and [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tel0bio-1 blamed him] for ending Oppenheimer's career. The hearing transcript contradicts that conclusion, but to some, Teller’s anticommunist views alone [http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/edward-teller-rip were enough] to justify bitter feelings against him. Many [http://whyfiles.org/186ed_teller/4.html never forgave] him.<br /> <br /> ==HUAC hearing==<br /> In 1943, Lansdale had asked Oppenheimer, &quot;Do you know a fellow named Rudy Lambert [chief of security for the California Communist Party, identified in Venona as a Soviet intelligence source on uranium]?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 324&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer answered, &quot;I'm not sure, do you know what he looks like?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 201 (PDF 215)&lt;/ref&gt; Yet in 1949, Oppenheimer testified before HUAC that he had met Lambert half a dozen times before 1943, and not only knew then that he was a Communist official,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 140 (PDF 150)&lt;/ref&gt; but even described him (&quot;A lean, rather handsome man, moderate height, rather an effective speaker in conversation.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 9, 139-140, 155, 183 (PDF 19, 149-150, 165, 193)&lt;/ref&gt; The following colloquy would ensue:<br /> {{cquote|You knew what Rudy Lambert looked like, didn't you?<br /> <br /> A. Sure.<br /> <br /> Q. Why did you ask Lansdale what he looked like?<br /> <br /> A. I don't know that I did.<br /> <br /> Q. If you did, Doctor, would it mean that you were ducking the question?<br /> <br /> A. I would think so.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 201 (PDF 215)&lt;/ref&gt;}}Although Oppenheimer has long been presented as a &quot;martyr to McCarthyism,&quot; it has been suggested that had Oppenheimer not been stripped of his clearance, he might be disrespected (like Elia Kazan)&lt;ref&gt;In 1999, when Kazan received an honorary Academy Award, many Hollywood liberals present, including Warren Beatty, Helen Hunt, Meryl Streep, Nick Nolte, Ed Harris, Ian McKellen and Amy Madigan, petulantly [http://articles.latimes.com/1999/mar/22/news/mn-19738 refused to applaud].&lt;/ref&gt; for &quot;naming names&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kai Bird, quoted in [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43634-2005Apr11.html Transcript: Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, authors, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer], Book World Live, ''Washington Post'', April 12, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; to save his own skin.&lt;ref&gt;Carrie Rossenfeld, [http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/hbomb/page_15.shtml The Red Scare], The Race for the Hydrogen Bomb, atomicarchive.com&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer testified that he thought one of his graduate students, Bernard Peters (husband of Communist Party official Hannah Peters),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 589, 825, 877 (PDF 599, 837, 889)&lt;/ref&gt; told him circa 1938 that he [Peters] had been a member of the Communist Party.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 122 (PDF 132)&lt;/ref&gt; Yet in 1942 or '43 Oppenheimer invited Peters to join him at Los Alamos.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 120 (PDF 130)&lt;/ref&gt; A few months later, during a background interview to obtain his security clearance, Oppenheimer identified Peters &quot;as a Communist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 121&lt;/ref&gt; The following year, Major Peer De Silva, chief of security at Los Alamos, interviewed Oppenheimer. Among his former students, Oppenheimer named Bohm and Peters as &quot;truly dangerous,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 150 (PDF 160)&lt;/ref&gt; according to De Silva's report, singling out Peters in particular as a &quot;crazy person&quot; who was &quot;quite a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 877 (PDF 889). Cf. Louisa Gilder, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5i4isqpu-I8C The Age of Entanglement: When Quantum Physics Was Reborn]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 1400095263, pp. 189-190; F. David Peat, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pobZMUmZbAEC Infinite Potential: The Life and Times of David Bohm]'' (Basic Books, 1997) ISBN 0201328208, p. 90&lt;/ref&gt; Oppenheimer also testified before HUAC that Peters told him that he had been &quot;a member of the German National Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 211 (PDF 221)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After this testimony was leaked to the press,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 210 (PDF 220)&lt;/ref&gt; Condon, then Director of the Commerce Department's National Bureau of Standards (dealing with classified data on nuclear weapons, radar, and guided missiles), wrote a letter to the editor containing “a severe attack on Dr. Oppenheimer”&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3foX8lGuXz4C In the matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: transcript of hearing before Personnel Security Board and texts of principal documents and letters]'' (MIT Press, 1971) ISBN 0262710021, p. 1018&lt;/ref&gt; and tried to start various rumors alleging that Oppenheimer was either losing his mind or converting to the [[Catholic Church]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; He also wrote Oppenheimer a letter accusing him of trying to &quot;buy immunity for yourself by turning informer&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt; and demanding that he &quot;try to make restitution,&quot; threatening that if Oppenheimer's own &quot;file were ever made public, it would be a much bigger flap&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 212 (PDF 222)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;You know very well that once these people decide to go into your own dossier and make it public that it will make the 'revelations' that you have made so far look pretty tame.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Silvan S. Schweber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pBNpeh2BaG4C In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist]'' (Princeton University Press, 2000) ISBN 0691049890, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Under pressure from Condon and others, Oppenheimer wrote a letter to the editor that &quot;retracted some of the testimony,&quot; stating that &quot;Dr. Peters has recently informed me... that I was wrong in believing... that he had ever held a membership in the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 213 (PDF 223)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer &quot;was very much influenced [in 1942]... by the influence of Dr. Condon,&quot; according to Groves. Condon, Groves testified, &quot;did a tremendous amount of damage at Los Alamos in the initial setup.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 166 (PDF 176)&lt;/ref&gt; Groves testified that he believed that Condon was &quot;responsible for the rules&amp;mdash;that tended to break down compartmentalization&quot; at Los Alamos, thus making it difficult to control the diffusion of secrets and prevent espionage. Just before the [[Trinity explosion]], the Soviets scheduled a scientific conference in Moscow. The [[Kremlin]] invited several U.S. scientists to attend&amp;mdash;a fact that a member of the [[State Department]] tried to keep secret from the Army, according to Groves. Among those invited was Condon, but the U.S. government revoked his passport to prevent him from attending. Condon &quot;made a terrific battle to go,&quot; testified Groves:<br /> {{cquote|That battle was so unrealistic and so completely lacking in appreciation of what was the best interest of the United States that you couldn't help but feel that either he was such an utter fool that he could not be trusted, or else that he put his own personal desires above those of the welfare of the country and therefore he was in effect disloyal, even if it was not a case of deliberately going out to aid the enemy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 173 (PDF 183)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == AEC hearing ==<br /> Pursuant to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]]'s Executive Order 10450 of April 27, 1953, new security standards were applied to all federal officials, including Oppenheimer. On May 15, Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] (R-WI), Chairman of the [[Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations|PSI]], asked FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] if the Bureau would object to the PSI holding hearings on Oppenheimer. Hoover told him that the FBI had no objections. Syndicated columnist Joseph Alsop, a blood relative of both Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt (and a friend of Oppenheimer's) delivered a seven-page letter to the White House asking Ike to block the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;Barton J. Bernstein, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1229016 The Oppenheimer Loyalty-Security Case Reconsidered],&quot; ''Stanford Law Review'', Vol. 42, No. 6 (Jul., 1990), pp. 1383-1484&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prospect of a McCarthy hearing spooked the administration into finally taking action: on June 22, Strauss asked Hoover to get McCarthy to hold off until the AEC could conduct its own hearings. In November, Borden wrote to Hoover, stating in his “exhaustively considered opinion, based upon years of study, of the available classified evidence, that more probably than not J. Robert Oppenheimer is an agent of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAECH|AEC Hearing]]: 837 (PDF 849)&lt;/ref&gt; The following month (the same month Oppenheimer met with Chevalier in Paris), after reviewing material brought to his attention by the Department of Justice, Eisenhower, in consultation with the Secretary of Defense, the Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization and the AEC Chairman, ordered that, pending a security review, “a blank wall be placed between Dr. Oppenheimer and any secret data,”&lt;ref&gt;“AEC Statement,” ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hw4AAAAAMBAJ The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' (Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.), May 1954], p. 187&lt;/ref&gt; and the AEC notified Oppenheimer that his clearance was under review, sending him a letter laying out charges against him.<br /> <br /> On March 4, 1954, Oppenheimer sent a written response to AEC General Manager K.D. Nichols. The following month, Oppenheimer released the text of the administration's charges to the press, along with his response.<br /> <br /> ===PSB Hearing===<br /> On April 12, the AEC's Personnel Security Board (PSB) opened hearings on the charges. The PSB was a three-member panel headed by former Secretary of the Army Gordon Gray, President of the University of North Carolina (after whom it is sometimes referred to as the “Gray board”). Also on the PSB were Ward V. Evans, professor emeritus of chemistry at Loyola University of Chicago; and Thomas Morgan, 66, a retired businessman.<br /> <br /> Oppenheimer was represented ''pro bono'' by the white shoe firm&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Greenspan: The Man Behind Money |last=Martin |first=Justin |authorlink= |year=2001 |publisher=Da Capo Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0738205249 |page=191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JKjZujJgwYMC |accessdate=8 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton &amp; Garrison, joined by former AEC general counsel Herbert Marks, the former Special Assistant to Under Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] who, with Oppenheimer's help, had written Truman's 1945 address proposing international sharing of nuclear secrets.<br /> <br /> After eight weeks of testimony and cross-examination, and exhibits including transcripts and FBI reports, the panel voted 2-1 to strip Oppenheimer of his “Q clearance” access to atomic secrets. Gray and Morgan carried the majority, with Evans dissenting. Joseph and Stewart Alsop, &quot;long-standing Oppenheimer partisans,&quot; used their influential syndicated columns to put forward a conspiracy theory: the Gray board's findings, alleged the Alsops, were part of a conspiracy by AEC Chairman Strauss to even an old personal grudge against Oppenheimer. Despite the fact that it &quot;conveniently overlooked the matter of Gray's record and integrity,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,935123,00.html THE ATOM: A Matter of Character],&quot; ''Time'', June 14, 1954&lt;/ref&gt; the left adopted the Alsops' conspiracy theory as the dogmatic explanation of Oppenheimer's security problems.<br /> <br /> ===Appeal===<br /> Oppenheimer appealed the PSB's decision to the full Atomic Energy Commission. Joining his legal team was former Democratic Party presidential candidate John W. Davis,&lt;ref&gt;Alan Simpson, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=2AsAAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA387#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false The Re-Trial of the Oppenheimer Case],&quot; ''The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' (Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.), Vol. 10, No. 10 (December 1954), p. 387&lt;/ref&gt; fresh from his defeated defense of segregation in ''[[Brown vs. Board of Education|Brown v. Board of Education]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Judge Arnette R. Hubbard, &quot;[http://www.illinoisbrownvboard.org/article/bvbarnettehubbardarticle.htm Brown, et al v. Board of Education],&quot; Illinois Commission on the 50th Anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education&lt;/ref&gt; Davis had previously testified as a character witness for Soviet agent [[Alger Hiss]].&lt;ref&gt;Doug Linder (2003), &quot;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary],&quot; The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50, Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Citing “proof of fundamental defects in his ‘character’,” to wit, “his associations with persons known to him to be Communists,” which associations, said the AEC, “have extended far beyond the tolerable limits of prudence and self-restraint which are to be expected of one holding the high positions that the Government has continuously entrusted to him since 1942,” the commission upheld the decision stripping the former chairman of its own GAC&lt;ref&gt;From 1947 to 1952, Oppenheimer had served as chairman of the GAC. [[#refSW95|Smith, Weiner 1995]]: 328&lt;/ref&gt; of his security clearance.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Oppenheimer/OppyAEC2.shtml Decision and Opinions of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer], Washington, D.C., June 29, 1954&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death and Legacy==<br /> Oppenheimer died in Princeton, New Jersey on February 18, 1967 from throat cancer.&lt;ref&gt;[http://history1900s.about.com/cs/robertoppenheimer/p/oppenheimer.htm J. Robert Oppenheimer]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1963, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson]] reinstated Oppenheimer's clearance, and the AEC awarded him the Enrico Fermi Award.&lt;ref&gt;[http://dsd.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/SEABORG-ARCHIVE/index/96B05399.html J. Robert Oppenheimer receiving the AEC Enrico Fermi Award], photograph and description, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In June 1997, the KGB museum in Moscow featured an exhibit of &quot;leading atomic espionage agents and espionage documents.&quot; The exhibit featured Oppenheimer's image, displayed along with a photograph of convicted Soviet atomic spy Klaus Fuchs, and a shot of a Manhattan Project laboratory site. &quot;Oppenheimer and other top scientists cooperated with us,&quot; former KGB official Yuri Kolesnikov told reporter Michael Chapman of ''[http://humanevents.com Human Events]''. They weren't Soviet agents, Kolesnikov said. But they &quot;gave us information about the atom bomb,&quot; first because they were fearful that Hitler might defeat the Soviet Union in World War II and later because &quot;Oppenheimer and the other scientists wanted to create a balance of power between the United States, which had the bomb, and the USSR, which didn't.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Goode, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n37_v13/ai_19836506/ We Told You So: Secret Venona Intercepts],&quot; ''Insight on the News'', Vol. 13, No. 37 (October 6–13, 1997)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Oppenheimer was not a Soviet agent like Fuchs,&quot; the museum's director told Chapman. &quot;But, yes, he did cooperate with Soviet intelligence. That's why his picture is here.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://old.nationalreview.com/14july97/week.html The Week],&quot; ''National Review'', July 14, 1997; &quot;[http://old.nationalreview.com/28july97/week.html The Week],&quot; ''National Review'', July 28, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Haynes and Klehr, &quot;Throughout his life Oppenheimer declined to provide a detailed or accurate accounting of his relationship with the CPUSA in the late 1930s and early 1940s and of his knowledge of Communists who worked on the Manhattan Project.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 330&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Albert Einstein]]<br /> * [[Niels Bohr]]<br /> * [[Richard Feynman]]<br /> * [[Elizabeth Zarubina]]<br /> * [[Lev Vasilevsky]]<br /> * [[Grigory Kheifets]]<br /> * [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz]]<br /> * [[Rudy Lambert]]<br /> * [[Steve Nelson]]<br /> * [[Edward Teller]]<br /> * [[Enrico Fermi]]<br /> * [[Leo Szilard]]<br /> <br /> == Sources ==<br /> *&lt;cite id=refAECH&gt;United States Atomic Energy Commission, [https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesatom007206mbp In the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer] (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1954)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refCINRAD&gt;FBI report: [http://education-research.org/PDFs/CINRAD%20REPORT.pdf Communist Infiltration of Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California] (CINRAD), January 31, 1947&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology] (Washington: Cold War International History Center, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2008)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHKV09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials that Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) ISBN 0521674077&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHerken&gt;Gregg Herken ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lV8ipprn61sC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refBird-Sherwin&gt;Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9uS0wysYoUC American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer]'' (Random House, Inc., 2006) ISBN 0375726268&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refRhodes86&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgFMMNQ6G4C The Making of the Atomic Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1986) ISBN 0684813785&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refRhodes96&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refPK06&gt;Abraham Pais and Robert P. Crease, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KCo2gG5fRaQC J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Life]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195166736&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refSW95&gt;Alice Kimball Smith and Charles Weiner, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jwH4X5htJaYC Robert Oppenheimer, Letters and Recollections]'' (Stanford University Press, 1995) ISBN 0804726205&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *{{Harvard reference<br /> | Surname1 = Andrew <br /> | Given1 = Christopher<br /> | Surname2 = Mitrokhin <br /> | Given2 = Vasili<br /> | Authorlink2 = Vasili Mitrokhin<br /> | Year = 1999<br /> | Title = The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB<br /> | Publisher = Basic Books<br /> | ID = ISBN 0-465-00310-9<br /> | URL = https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C<br /> }}<br /> *{{Harvard reference<br /> | Surname = LANL <br /> | Given = Los Alamos National Laboratory<br /> | Authorlink = Los Alamos<br /> | Year = 2007<br /> | Title = Spies<br /> | Publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory<br /> | URL = http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/spies.shtml<br /> }} Retrieved on 05-18-2007<br /> *{{Harvard reference<br /> | Surname = Laes<br /> | Given = HB<br /> | Year = 2001<br /> | Date = 2001-01-14<br /> | Title = Theory of Fielding - Set O - Oppenheimer<br /> | Publisher = HB Laes (Self published) }} Reproduced [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204173143/http://www.tof.blogspot.com/#SO here]. Retrieved on 05-18-2007<br /> *&lt;cite id=refHB2000&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery, 2000) ISBN 0895262754&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=va2.document&amp;identifier=5034F6F1-96B6-175C-9170648C02EA02F8&amp;sort=Collection&amp;item=Post%20Stalin%20succession%20struggle Merkulov to Beria], 2 October 1944.<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Oppenheimer, J. Robert}}<br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Physicists|Oppenheimer, J. Robert]]<br /> [[Category:American Jews]]<br /> [[Category:World War II]]<br /> [[Category:Manhattan Project]]<br /> [[Category:Communists]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_5&diff=1524226 User:FOIA/Archive 5 2019-05-12T18:21:47Z <p>FOIA: </p> <hr /> <div>{{cquote|And it came to pass, when Samuel was old, that he made his sons judges over Israel... And his sons walked not in his ways, but turned aside after lucre, and took bribes, and perverted judgment.<br /> <br /> Then all the elders of Israel gathered themselves together, and came to Samuel unto Ramah, And said unto him, Behold, thou art old, and thy sons walk not in thy ways: now make us a king to judge us like all the nations. But the thing displeased Samuel, when they said, Give us a king to judge us. And Samuel prayed unto the LORD. And the LORD said unto Samuel, Hearken unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee: for they have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should not reign over them. According to all the works which they have done since the day that I brought them up out of Egypt even unto this day, wherewith they have forsaken me, and served other gods, so do they also unto thee. Now therefore hearken unto their voice: howbeit yet protest solemnly unto them, and shew them the manner of the king that shall reign over them.<br /> <br /> And Samuel told all the words of the LORD unto the people that asked of him a king. And he said, This will be the manner of the king that shall reign over you: He will take your sons, and appoint them for himself, for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run before his chariots. And he will appoint him captains over thousands, and captains over fifties; and will set them to ear his ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be confectionaries, and to be cooks, and to be bakers. And he will take your fields, and your vineyards, and your oliveyards, even the best of them, and give them to his servants. And he will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give to his officers, and to his servants. And he will take your menservants, and your maidservants, and your goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. He will take the tenth of your sheep: and ye shall be his servants. And ye shall cry out in that day because of your king which ye shall have chosen you; and the LORD will not hear you in that day.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they said, Nay; but we will have a king over us; That we also may be like all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us, and fight our battles. And Samuel heard all the words of the people, and he rehearsed them in the ears of the LORD. And the LORD said to Samuel, Hearken unto their voice, and make them a king...}}<br /> ::-1 Samuel 8<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[The Peloponnesians] devote a very small fraction of the time to the consideration of any public object, most of it to the prosecution of their own objects. Meanwhile each fancies that no harm will come of his neglect, that it is the business of somebody else to look after this or that for him; and so, by the same notion being entertained by all separately, the common cause imperceptibly decays.}}<br /> ::-Thucydides, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mo3-jF9-jlUC History of the Peloponnesian War]'' (ca. 460 B.C.-ca. 395 BC; tr. Richard Crawley, London: J. M. Dent &amp; Sons; New York: E. P. Dutton &amp; Co., 1910; reprint: Forgotten Books, 1954), p. 70<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[S]hould the citizens of the perfect state have their possessions in common or not? ... [M]ay there not be an advantage in having and using possessions in common?<br /> ...If [husbandmen] do not share equally enjoyments and toils, those who labor much and get little will necessarily complain of those who labor little and receive or consume much. But indeed there is always a difficulty in men living together and having all human relations in common, but especially in their having common property....<br /> [W]hen everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more progress, because every one will be attending to his own business.... [H]ow immeasurably greater is the pleasure, when a man feels a thing to be his own; for surely the love of self is a feeling implanted by nature and not given in vain.... And further, there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered when a man has private property..... No one, when men have all things in common, will any longer set an example of liberality or do any liberal action; for liberality consists in the use which is made of property.<br /> Such legislation may have a specious appearance of benevolence; men readily listen to it, and are easily induced to believe that in some wonderful manner everybody will become everybody's friend, especially when some one is heard denouncing the evils now existing in states, suits about contracts, convictions for perjury, flatteries of rich men and the like, which are said to arise out of the possession of private property. These evils, however, are due to a very different cause -- the wickedness of human nature. Indeed, we see that there is much more quarrelling among those who have all things in common....}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NqcD2AIQIfYC Politics]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Digireads.com Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1420926020, p. 20<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[E]ven if one prescribed a moderate property for all, it would be of no avail, since it is more needful to level men's desires than their properties.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://ia600204.us.archive.org/8/items/politicsrackh00arisuoft/politicsrackh00arisuoft_bw.pdf Politics]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. H. Rackham; London: William Heinemann LTD.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932; 1959 ed.), p. 113<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]hat which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Every one thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest; and only when he is himself concerned as an individual. For besides other considerations, everybody is more inclined to neglect the duty which he expects another to fulfill; as in families many attendants are often less useful than a few. Each citizen will have a thousand sons who will not be his sons individually but anybody will be equally the son of anybody, and will therefore be neglected by all alike. Further, upon this principle, every one will use the word 'mine' of one who is prospering or the reverse, however small a fraction he may himself be of the whole number.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.2.two.html Politics Book II]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Courier Dover Publications, 2000, ISBN 0486414248), p. 120<br /> <br /> {{cquote|If the poor, for example, because they are more in number, divide among themselves the property of the rich—is not this unjust? No, by heaven (will be the reply), for the supreme authority justly willed it. But if this is not injustice, pray what is? Again, when in the first division all has been taken, and the majority divide anew the property of the minority, is it not evident, if this goes on, that they will ruin the state? Yet surely, virtue is not the ruin of those who possess her, nor is justice destructive of a state; and therefore this law of confiscation clearly cannot be just. If it were, all the acts of a tyrant must of necessity be just; for he only coerces other men by superior power, just as the multitude coerce the rich.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.3.three.html Politics Book III]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Courier Dover Publications, 2000, ISBN 0486414248), p. 120.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|There is in fact a true law - namely, right reason - which is in accordance with nature, applies to all men, and is unchangeable and eternal. By its commands this law summons men to the performance of their duties; by its prohibitions it restrains them from doing wrong. Its commands and prohibitions always influence good men, but are without effect upon the bad. To invalidate this law by human legislation is never morally right, nor is it permissible ever to restrict its operation, and to annul it wholly is impossible. Neither the senate nor the people can absolve us from our obligation to obey this law, and it requires no Sextus Aelius to expound and interpret it. It will not lay down one rule at Rome and another at Athens, nor will it be one rule to-day and another tomorrow. But there will be one law, eternal and unchangeable, binding at all times upon all peoples; and there will be, as it were, one common master and ruler of men, namely God, who is the author of this law, its interpreter, and its sponsor.}}<br /> ::-Cicero on the Universal Nature of True Law (ca. AD 52)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|God made man from the beginning, and left him in the hand of his own counsel.... Before man is life and death, good and evil, that which he shall choose shall be given him.}}<br /> ::-15 Sirach 14, 18<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Each one must do just as he has purposed in his heart, not grudgingly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver.}}<br /> ::-2 Corinthians 9:7<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Then cried they all again, saying: Not this man, but Barabbas. Now Barabbas was a robber.}}<br /> ::-John 18:14<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[M]en cannot live conveniently where all things are common. How can there be any plenty where every man will excuse himself from labour? for as the hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other men’s industry may make him slothful. If people come to be pinched with want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own, what can follow upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed....}}<br /> ::-Thomas Moore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fbNZERDCNkIC Utopia]'' (1516; tr. Gilbert Burnet, 1684; ed. Henry Morely, Cassell &amp; Co Ltd., 1909), pp. 64-65.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|When our people were fed out of the common store, and laboured jointly together, glad was he could slip from his labour, or slumber over his taske he cared not how, nay, the most honest among them would hardly take so much true paines in a weeke, as now for themselves they will doe in a day, neither cared they for the increase, presuming that howsoever the harvest prospered, the generall store must maintaine them, so that wee reaped not so much Corne from the labours of thirtie as now three or foure doe provide for themselves. To prevent which, Sir Thomas Dale hath allotted every man three Acres of cleare ground, in the nature of Farmes....}}<br /> ::-John Smith, ''The generall historie of Virginia, New England &amp; the Summer Isles, together with The true travels, adventures and observations, and A sea grammar - Volume 1'' (1614), [http://memory.loc.gov/gc/lhbcb/0262a/0266.tif p. 222]<br /> <br /> ::...the 2. agents sent from Leyden.... presumed to conclude with the marchants on those termes....<br /> <br /> ::...all profits and benifits that are gott by trade, traffick, trucking, working, fishing, or any other means of any person or persons, remaine still in the commone stock untill the division....<br /> <br /> ::That all such persons as are of this collonie, are to have their meate, drink, apparell, and all provissions out of the common stock and goods of the said collonie....<br /> <br /> ::...that which was most sadd &amp; lamentable was, that in 2. or 3. moneths time halfe of their company dyed....<br /> <br /> ::...famine began now to pinch them sore....<br /> <br /> ::Now ye welcome time of harvest approached, in which all had their hungry bellies filled. But it arose to a little, in comparison of a full years supply.... So as it well appeared that ye famine must still insue ye next year allso....<br /> <br /> ::So they begane to thinke how they might raise as much corne as they could, and obtaine a better crop than they had done, that they might not still thus languish in miserie. At length, after much debate of things, the Govr (with ye advise of ye cheefest amongest them) gave way that they should set corne every man for his owne perticuler, and in that regard trust to them selves....<br /> <br /> ::And so assigned to every family a parcell of land.... This had very good success; for it made all hands very industrious, so as much more corne was planted then other waise would have bene by any means ye Govr or any other could use, and saved him a great deall of trouble, and gave farr better contente. The women now wente willingly into ye feild, and tooke their litle-ons with them to set corne, which before would aledg weaknes, and inabilitie; whom to have compelled would have bene thought great tiranie and oppression.<br /> <br /> ::The experience that was had in this commone course and condition, tried sundrie years, and that amongst godly and sober men, may well evince the vanitie of that conceite of Platos and other ancients, applauded by some of later times; -that ye taking away of propertie, and bringing in communitie into a comone wealth, would make them happy and florishing; as if they were wiser then God. For this comunitie (so farr as it was) was found to breed much confusion and discontent, and retard much imployment that would have been to their benefite and comforte. For ye yong-men that were most able and fitte for labour and servise did repine that they should spend their time and streingth to worke for other mens wives and children, with out any recompence. The strong, or man of parts, had no more in devission of victails and cloaths, then he that was weake and not able to doe a quarter ye other could; this was thought injuestice.... and so, if it did not cut of those relations that God hath set amongest men, yet it did at least much diminish and take of ye mutuall respects that should be preserved amongst them. And would have bene worse if they had been men of another condition. Let none objecte this is mens corruption, and nothing to ye course it selfe. I answer, seeing all men have this corruption in them, God in his wisdome saw another course fiter for them....<br /> <br /> ::By this time harvest was come, and in stead of famine, now God gave them plentie, and ye face of things was changed, to ye rejoysing of ye harts of many, for which they blessed God. And ye effect of their particuler planting was well seene, for all had, one way and other, pretty well to bring ye year aboute, and some of ye abler sorte and more industrious had to spare, and sell to others, so as any generall wante or famine hath not been amongst them since to this day.<br /> <br /> ::-William Bradford (Charles Deane,ed.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tYecOAN1cwwC History of Plymouth plantation]'' (ca. 1620-23; published by Little, Brown &amp; Co., 1856), pp. 45-46, 91, 126, 134-136, 147<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Civilians call a faculty that Right, which every man has to his own.... This right comprehends the power, that we have over ourselves, which is called liberty.... It likewise comprehends property…Now any thing is unjust, which is repugnant to the nature of society, established among rational creatures. Thus for instance, to deprive another of what belongs to him, merely for one’s own advantage, is repugnant to the law of nature.}}<br /> <br /> ::-Hugo Grotius, ''The Rights of War and Peace'' (1625) <br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]o every individual in nature is given an individual propriety by nature, not to be invaded or usurped by any... for every one... hath a self propriety... and on this no second may presume without consent; and by natural birth all men are equal, and alike born to like propriety and freedom.}}<br /> ::-Richard Overton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HzMgPwAACAA An Arrow Against All Tyrants]'' (London 1646), pp. 3-4<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]his Conceit of Levelling of Propriety... is so ridiculous and foolish an opinion, as no man of braines, reason or ingenuitie can be imagined such a sot as to maintaine such a principle, because it would, if practiced destroy not only any industry in the world, but raze the very foundation of generation, and of subsistence or being of one man by another. For as for industry and valour by which the societies of mankind are maintained and preserved, who will take the pains for that which when he hath gotten is not his own, but must be equally shared in, by every lazy, simple, dronish sot? Or who will fight for that, wherein he hath no other interest, but such as must be subject to the will and pleasure of another, yea of every coward and base low spirited fellow, that in his sitting still must share in common with a valiant man in all his brave and noble achievement? The ancient encouragement to men that were to defend their Countrie was this: that they were to hazard their persons for that which was their owne, to wit, their owne wives, their owne children, their owne Estates.}}<br /> ::-John Lilburn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WyNHAAAAcAAJ Apologetical Narration]'' (Amsterdam, 1652), pp. 68-69<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Thir Orators thou then extoll'st, as those&lt;br&gt;<br /> The top of Eloquence, Statists indeed,&lt;br&gt;<br /> And lovers of thir Country, as may seem;&lt;br&gt;<br /> But herein to our Prophets far beneath,&lt;br&gt;<br /> As men divinely taught, and better teaching&lt;br&gt;<br /> The solid rules of Civil Government&lt;br&gt;<br /> In thir majestic unaffected stile&lt;br&gt;<br /> Then all the Oratory of Greece and Rome.}}<br /> ::-John Milton, ''Paradise Regain'd'' (1671 ed.)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[A]ll Mankind ... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his Life, Health, Liberty, or Possessions.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/v1ch2s1.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[E]very Man has a Property in his own Person. This no Body has any Right to but himself. The Labour of his Body, and the Work of his Hands, we may say, are properly his.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[H]e who appropriates land to himself by his labour, does not lessen but increase the common stock of mankind. For the provisions serving to the support of humane life, produced by one acre of inclosed and cultivated land, are (to speak much within compasse) ten times more, than those, which are yeilded by an acre of Land, of an equal richnesse, lyeing wast in common.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]here is a natural law, and it does not consist either in doing harm to others, or in rejoicing thereat.}}<br /> ::-Voltaire, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/18569/18569-h/18569-h.htm Philosophical Dictionary]'' (1764)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[A]s a man is said to have a right to his property, he may be equally said to have a property in his rights.}}<br /> ::-James Madison, [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s23.html Property] (1792)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Away, then, with quacks and organizers! Away with their rings, chains, hooks, and pincers! Away with their artificial systems! Away with the whims of governmental administrators, their socialized projects, their centralization, their tariffs, their government schools, their state religions, their free credit, their bank monopolies, their regulations, their restrictions, their equalization by taxation, and their pious moralizations! <br /> <br /> And now that the legislators and do-gooders have so futilely inflicted so many systems upon society, may they finally end where they should have begun: May they reject all systems, and try liberty; for liberty is an acknowledgment of faith in God and His works.}}<br /> ::-Frederic Bastiat (tr. Dean Russell), ''[http://bastiat.org/en/the_law.html The Law]'' (1853)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|We call capitalism or market economy that form of social cooperation which is based on private ownership of the means of production.<br /> <br /> Socialism, communism, or planned economy, on the other hand, is the form of social cooperation which is based on public ownership of the means of production. The terms state capitalism and authoritarian economy have essentially the same meaning.<br /> <br /> It is frequently asserted that a third form of social cooperation is feasible as a permanent form of economic organization, namely a system of private ownership of the means of production in which the government intervenes, by orders and prohibitions, in the exercise of ownership. This third system is called interventionism. All governments which do not openly profess socialism tend to be interventionist nowadays, and all political parties recommend at least some degree of interventionism.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:80%&quot;&gt;The orthodox Marxists, however, recommend interventionism in full recognition of the fact that it paralyzes and destroys the capitalistic market economy and, thus, in their opinion, leads to socialism. This was the argument advanced as long as a century ago by Friedrich Engels.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; It is claimed that this system of interventionism is as far from socialism as it is from capitalism, that as a third solution to the social problem it stands midway between the two systems, and that while retaining the advantages of both it avoids the disadvantages inherent in both. ...<br /> <br /> Interventionism is not an economic system, that is, it is not a method which enables people to achieve their aims. It is merely a system of procedures which disturb and eventually destroy the market economy. It hampers production and impairs satisfaction of needs. It does not make people richer; it makes people poorer.<br /> <br /> Concededly, the interventionist measures may give certain individuals or certain groups of individuals advantages at the expense of others. Minorities may obtain privileges which enrich them at the expense of their fellow citizens. But the majority, or the whole nation, stands only to lose by interventionism. ...<br /> <br /> Not only do they divert production from the ways which lead to the best and most efficient satisfaction of the consumers’ demand; they cause waste of both capital and labor; they create permanent mass unemployment. They may bring about the artificial boom, but with it they bring in its wake a depression. They change the market economy into chaos.<br /> <br /> Popular opinion ascribes all these evils to the capitalistic system. As a remedy for the undesirable effects of interventionism they ask for still more interventionism. They blame capitalism for the effects of the actions of governments which pursue an anti-capitalistic policy.}}<br /> ::-Ludwig Von Mises (Bettina Bien Greaves, ed.), ''[http://mises.org/etexts/mises/interventionism/interventionismtext.pdf Interventionism: an economic analysis]'' (Foundation for Economic Analysis, 1940), pp. 1, 77-78.<br /> <br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Of all tyrannies, a tyranny sincerely exercised for the good of its victims may be the most oppressive. It would be better to live under robber barons than under omnipotent moral busybodies. The robber baron's cruelty may sometimes sleep, his cupidity may at some point be satiated; but those who torment us for our own good will torment us without end for they do so with the approval of their own conscience. They may be more likely to go to Heaven yet at the same time likelier to make a Hell of earth. This very kindness stings with intolerable insult. To be &quot;cured&quot; against one's will and cured of states which we may not regard as disease is to be put on a level of those who have not yet reached the age of reason or those who never will; to be classed with infants, imbeciles, and domestic animals.}}<br /> ::―C.S. Lewis, &quot;The Humanitarian Theory of Punishment,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=loE7BAAAQBAJ God in the Dock: Essays on Theology]'' (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1948), p. 324.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.}}<br /> ::-Garrett Hardin (1968), &quot;[http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/articles/art_tragedy_of_the_commons.html The Tragedy of the Commons],&quot; ''[http://science.sciencemag.org/content/162/3859/1243.full Science]'' (AAAS), Vol. 162, Issue 3859, pp. 1243-1248. DOI: 10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 <br /> <br /> {{cquote|To do evil a human being must first of all believe that what he's doing is good... Ideology - that is what gives evildoing its long-sought justification and gives the evildoer the necessary steadfastness and determination... That was how the agents of the Inquisition fortified their wills: by invoking Christianity; the conquerors of foreign lands, by extolling the grandeur of their Motherland; the colonizers, by civilization; the Nazis, by race; and the Jacobins (early and late), by equality, brotherhood, and the happiness of future generations. Thanks to ideology, the twentieth century was fated to experience evildoing on a scale calculated in the millions.}}<br /> ::-Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (tr. Thomas P. Whitney), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eh_S9tcL4RsC The Gulag Archipelago]'' (Éditions du Seuil, 1973), p. 173.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|One of the great mistakes is to judge policies and programs by their intentions rather than their results. We all know a famous road that is paved with good intentions. The people who go around talking about their soft heart . . . I admire them for the softness of their heart, but unfortunately it very often extends to their head as well. Because the fact is that the programs that are labeled as being for the poor, for the needy, almost always have effects exactly the opposite of those which their well-intentioned sponsors intend them to have. . . .}}<br /> ::-From an [http://www.thirteen.org/openmind-archive/public-affairs/living-within-our-means/ interview] in December 1975 with economist Milton Friedman on PBS’s “The Open Mind”<br /> <br /> {{cquote|The horrors did not arise from perversions of radical ideology but from the ideology itself. We were led into complicity with mass murder and the desecration of our professed ideals not by Stalinist or other corruptions of high ideals, much less by unfortunate twists in some presumably objective course of historical development, but by a deep flaw in our very understanding of human nature—its frailty and its possibilities—and by our inability to replace the moral and ethical baseline long provided by the religion we have dismissed with indifference, not to say contempt.<br /> <br /> The question of moral responsibility has been raised within the left, if gingerly and indirectly, by a few brave souls like Roberto Mangabeira Unger and Cornel West, who have drawn attention to the price we have paid for scouting Christian ethics while having nothing to substitute and who have, in effect, called for an end to the blind hatreds that confuse the sin with the sinner. Unger and West are justly revered figures on the left and accorded at least formal respect. Yet their efforts toward a reassessment of the religious foundations of political ethics have not sparked the slightest discussion. It is fair to ask: what kind of respect is that? Are we supposed to believe that Unger and West have been kidding?<br /> <br /> Our whole project of &quot;human liberation&quot; has rested on a series of gigantic illusions. The catastrophic consequences of our failure during this century—not merely the body count but the monotonous recurrence of despotism and wanton cruelty—cannot be dismissed as aberrations. Slimmed down to a technologically appropriate scale, they have followed in the wake of victories by radical egalitarian movements throughout history. We have yet to answer our right-wing critics' claims, which are regrettably well documented, that throughout history, from ancient times to the peasant wars of the sixteenth century to the Reign of Terror and beyond, social movements that have espoused radical egalitarianism and participatory democracy have begun with mass murder and ended in despotism.<br /> <br /> Let us grant, arguendo, that the ruling classes have done worse. Whatever solace that thought may give us, our own problem remains: what kind of society could we build on a worldview marred by flagrant irrationalities paraded as self-evident truths, even if reinforced by sandbox cries of &quot;You're another&quot;?<br /> <br /> The allegedly high ideals we placed at the center of our ideology and politics are precisely what need to be reexamined, but they can no longer even be made a subject for discussion in the mass media and our universities, to say nothing of the left itself. They are givens: an unattainable equality of condition; a radical democracy that has always ended in the tyranny it is supposed to overcome; a celebration of human goodness or malleability, accompanied by the daily announcement of newly discovered &quot;inalienable rights&quot; to personal self-expression; destruction of all hierarchy and elites, as if ideological repudiation has ever prevented or ever could prevent the formation and reformation of hierarchies and elites; condemnation of &quot;illegitimate&quot; authority in the absence of any notion of what might constitute legitimate authority; and, at the root of all, a thorough secularization of society, bolstered by the monstrous lie that the constitutional separation of church and state was meant to separate religion from society. And we have yet to reassess the anti-Americanism—the self-hatred implicit in the attitude we have generally affected toward our country—that has led us into countless stupidities and worse.}}<br /> <br /> ::-Eugene D. Genovese, &quot;[https://www.dissentmagazine.org/wp-content/files_mf/1353953160genovesethequestion.pdf The Question],&quot; ''Dissent'' [summer 1994], pp. 371-6, at 375<br /> <br /> {{cquote|When I was editor of ''The Journal of Law and Economics'', we published a whole series of studies of regulation and its effects. Almost all the studies--perhaps all the studies--suggested that the results of regulation had been bad, that the prices were higher, that the product was worse adapted to the needs of consumers, than it otherwise would have been. I was not willing to accept the view that all regulation was bound to produce these results. Therefore, what was my explanation for the results we had? I argued that the most probable explanation was that the government now operates on such a massive scale that it had reached the stage of what economists call negative marginal returns. Anything additional it does, it messes up. But that doesn't mean that if we reduce the size of government considerably, we wouldn't find then that there were some activities it did well. Until we reduce the size of government, we won't know what they are. ... I can't remember one that's good. Regulation of transport, regulation of agriculture-- agriculture is a, zoning is z. You know, you go from a to z, they are all bad. There were so many studies, and the result was quite universal: The effects were bad.}}<br /> ::-Ronald Coase, quoted in Thomas W. Hazlitt, &quot;[http://reason.com/archives/1997/01/01/looking-for-results/singlepage Looking for Results],&quot; ''Reason'', January 1997</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Theodore_Dreiser&diff=1524223 Theodore Dreiser 2019-05-12T17:42:08Z <p>FOIA: added source</p> <hr /> <div>'''Theodore Dreiser''' (August 27, 1871 – December 28, 1945) was an American writer, best known for his debut novel, ''Sister Carrie'' (1900), a harsh depiction of [[American]] society &quot;overtly antagonistic to [[capitalism]]'s degrading force.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Katherine Kearns, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tQp7DDweCKoC Nineteenth-Century Literary Realism: Through the Looking-Glass]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1996) ISBN 0521496063, p. 265, n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; According to Roger W. Smith, former bibliographer of ''[http://www.uncw.edu/dreiser/studies/ Dreiser Studies]'', &quot;he was an atrocious stylist&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|Dreiser’s plots are often soap opera-ish. He never mastered let alone learned even the fundamentals of English prose. Characters like Sondra Finchley seem like crude embodiments of a social class or an ideal, not real. Dreiser was accused (rightly) of plagiarism and he lifted whole chunks of one his best novels, ''An American Tragedy'', out of newspaper accounts and trial transcripts. Some of his nonfiction works (his essays or ''Dreiser Looks at Russia'') border on the inane or are inaccurate. His philosophy was muddle-headed and his opinions often misguided, hateful, and injurious. He wasted years on pseudo-scientific and philosophical speculations which, when finally published posthumously, proved to be unreadable. His prose poetry does not deserve serious critical consideration. Even his so-called classics (e.g., ''Sister Carrie'') have, in my opinion, patches of tepid characterization and weak writing. Besides being an atrocious stylist, Dreiser can be criticized as a writer on architectonic grounds. He seems a blunderer or groper in practically all respects as a writer.&lt;ref&gt;Roger W. Smith, [http://dreiseronline.com/biography.html Biography: Dreiser's Life], Dreiser Online&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Dreiser was an [[atheist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html Religion: Atheist's Oath],&quot; ''Time'', August 20, 1928&lt;/ref&gt; as well as a [[Communist]],&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, &quot;Request to Become a Communist,&quot; ''[[The Daily Worker]]'', July 30, 1945, reprinted in Albert Fried, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLJbT3NMbN4C Communism in America: A History in Documents]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231102356, pp. 348-350&lt;/ref&gt; who wrote that &quot;through its attainment of Socialism,&quot; the Soviet Union &quot;has given the greatest example in history of the heights of achievement that can be reached by a free people with faith in itself and in all the progressive forces of humanity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, &quot;Request to Become a Communist,&quot; ''[[The Daily Worker]]'', July 30, 1945, reprinted in Albert Fried, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLJbT3NMbN4C Communism in America: A History in Documents]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231102356, pp. 348-350&lt;/ref&gt; In 1928, he visited the [[Soviet Union]], returning to give the ''New York Times'' a glowing account, even defending [[Stalin]]'s purge of [[Trotsky]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00A1FFD38551A738DDDAB0A94DA405B888EF1D3&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=dreiser%20home,%20sees%20soviet%20aims%20gaining&amp;st=cse DREISER HOME, SEES SOVIET AIMS GAINING]; Author Thinks Principles of Government Will Spread Even to This Country. BUT IN A DIFFERENT FORM He Declares There Is No Bread-Line or Unemployment in Russia-- Deplores Coal Strike Here,&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 22, 1928, p. 9. Cf. Frederic E. Rusch and Donald Pizer (Eds.), ''Theodore Dreiser: Interviews'' (University of Illinois Press, 2004) ISBN 0252029437, pp. 168-170&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> When prominent [[American]] [[liberals]] like [[John Dewey]] objected to the show trials that followed, Dreiser was among those who signed an open letter in support of Stalin's [[Great Purge|Great Terror]], reaffirming &quot;their faith in the Soviet Union, their confidence in the Soviet government, and their friendship for the Soviet people.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kyrill M. Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), pp. 304-305&lt;/ref&gt; In 1938 he said [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt]] used the ideas of [[Karl Marx]], classifying him with [[Hitler]], [[Mussolini]] and [[Stalin]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F7061FFF355C1B7A93C0AB1783D85F4C8385F9 Says Roosevelt Uses Karl Marx's Ideas; Theodore Dreiser Adds That So Do Hitler and Stalin],&quot; ''The New York Times'', August 22, 1938&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> When the Soviet Union joined [[Nazi]] Germany in the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] for the joint invasion of Poland, partitioning Eastern Europe between them, Dreiser was among the &quot;prominent Americans&quot; named by the Communists &quot;who would write effective brochures explaining and defending the [[Hitler-Stalin pact|peace policy]] of the Soviet Union and answering the arguments of the enemy.&quot; In 1940, he gave a speech (later reprinted as a pamphlet), &quot;U.S. Must Not Be Bled for Imperial Britain,&quot; broadcast on [[CBS]] on behalf of the [[Communist front]] [[American Peace Mobilization]].&lt;ref&gt;Donald Pizer, [http://sceti.library.upenn.edu/dreiser/bibliography.pdf Theodore Dreiser, a primary bibliography and reference guide], p. 55 (Schoenberg Center, University of Pennsylvania). Cf. &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/216861112.html?FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;date=Nov+10%2C+1940&amp;author=&amp;pub=The+Washington+Post++(1877-1954)&amp;edition=&amp;startpage=18&amp;desc=Dreiser+Views+Aid+to+Britain+As+Another+American+Tragedy Dreiser Views Aid to Britain As Another American Tragedy Novelist Believes That 'Americans Are Suckers'],&quot; ''The Washington Post'', November 10, 1940, p. 18; W.H. Schippen, Jr., &quot;Dreiser Says England Seeks to Drag U.S. in European War,&quot; ''Washington Evening Star'', November 10, 1940, p. A3&lt;/ref&gt; In early 1941, he wrote a book arguing that the [[U.S.]] should not aid England in its war against [[Hitler]].&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VArTAAAAMAAJ America Is Worth Saving]'' (New York: Modern Age Books, 1941)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dreiser was also a virulent [[anti-Semite]] and admirer of [[Hitler]].&lt;ref&gt;Robert H. Elias, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TKtEAAAAYAAJ Letters of Theodore Dreiser: A Selection, vol. 2]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959), pp. 405, 650–52; Richard Tuerk, “The American Spectator Symposium Controversy: Was Dreiser Anti-Semitic?” ''Prospects 16'' (1991), pp. 367–89; Louis Harap, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC Creative Awakening: The Jewish Presence in Twentieth-Century American Literature, 1900-1940s],'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987) ISBN 0313253862, pp. 128-132.&lt;/ref&gt; New York, he wrote, is a &quot;kike's dream of a ghetto&quot;; Jews are not &quot;pure Americans&quot; and &quot;lack integrity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> * Hugo S. Cunningham, [http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/dreiser.html Theodore Dreiser (1871-1945): His Friendship to the Soviet People in 1938-1941], CyberUSSR.com, 1999<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Dreiser, Theodore}}<br /> [[Category:Novelists]]<br /> [[Category:Anti-Semitism]]<br /> [[Category:Bigotry]]<br /> [[Category:Atheists]]<br /> [[Category:Communists]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Lyndon_B._Johnson&diff=1524161 Lyndon B. Johnson 2019-05-12T04:08:43Z <p>FOIA: /* Senate years */ archived</p> <hr /> <div>{{Officeholder<br /> |name=Lyndon B. Johnson<br /> |image=LBJ by Shoumatoff.jpg<br /> |party=[[Democratic Party|Democrat]]<br /> |spouse=[[Lady Bird Johnson]]<br /> |religion=[[Disciples of Christ]]<br /> |offices=<br /> {{Officeholder/president<br /> |country=the United States<br /> |number=36th<br /> |terms=November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1969<br /> |vp=[[Hubert Humphrey]]<br /> |preceded=[[John F. Kennedy]]<br /> |former=y<br /> |succeeded=[[Richard Nixon]]<br /> }}<br /> {{Officeholder/vice president<br /> |country=the United States<br /> |number=37th<br /> |terms=January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963<br /> |president=[[John F. Kennedy]]<br /> |preceded=[[Richard Nixon]]<br /> |former=y<br /> |succeeded=[[Hubert Humphrey]]<br /> }}<br /> {{Officeholder/senator<br /> |state=Texas<br /> |terms=January 3, 1949 – January 3, 1961<br /> |preceded=W. Lee O'Daniel<br /> |former=y<br /> |succeeded=[[William Blakley]] (interim)&lt;br&gt;<br /> [[John Tower]] (permanent) <br /> }}<br /> {{Officeholder/representative<br /> |state=Texas<br /> |district=10th<br /> |terms=April 10, 1937 – January 3, 1949<br /> |preceded=[[James P. Buchanan]]<br /> |former=y<br /> |succeeded=[[Homer Thornberry]]<br /> }}<br /> }}<br /> '''Lyndon Baines Johnson''' (1908–1973), often referred to as '''LBJ''', was the 36th [[President of the United States of America]] (1963–1969). After serving in the House and Senate since 1937, Johnson was elected Vice President in 1960, and in November 1963, he succeeded to the presidency following President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s assassination. President Kennedy disliked his Vice President Johnson so much that Kennedy ostracized him from social events, and Johnson was perhaps the most crooked, bullying politician ever to become president.&lt;ref&gt;[https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/NSAEBB132/tapes.htm ''LBJ Tapes on the Gulf of Tonkin Incident Source: John Prados, The White House Tapes'']&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In [[Texas]], Johnson stole his first election to the [[U.S. Senate]], as recounted by historians. As president in 1964, Johnson ordered the [[CIA]] to infiltrate and spy on his [[conservative]] opponent, [[Barry Goldwater]], which enabled Johnson to preempt Goldwater's initiatives with Johnson's own. Johnson also lied about the [[Gulf of Tonkin]] attack in order to boost Jonson's reelection chances in 1964.<br /> <br /> Johnson began his career as a liberal [[New Deal]]er, later when he became a senator he initially aligned himself with the Southern Democrats, although by the time he ascended to Senate Leadership he espoused moderate politics in an attempt to bridge both wings of the fractious [[Democratic Party]]. However, as President, he seized the leadership of liberalism citing [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] as his role model. Johnson moved the [[Democratic Party]] to the left, and pushed through Congress the [[Great Society]], comprising liberal economic policy including Medicare (free health care for the elderly), Medicaid (free health care for the poor), aid to education, and a major &quot;War on Poverty&quot;. As part of his jobs program, he greatly escalated the American troop strength in [[Vietnam]] through [[conscription]], from 16,000 in 1963 to 23,000 by the end of 1964 and finally to 550,000 by early 1968. [[Unemployment]] consequently, remained in check.<br /> <br /> Johnson won re-election in a landslide in 1964 over [[conservative]] leader [[Barry Goldwater]], and proceeded to push through a massive expansion of federal programs known as the &quot;Welfare State.&quot; This included [[Medicare]], food stamps, and federal spending on education. Johnson also supported the [[Voting Rights Act]] of 1965, which passed over a Democratic Filibuster. <br /> <br /> Johnson's popularity steadily declined after 1966 and his reelection bid in 1968 collapsed as a result of turmoil in his Democratic party primarily due to Johnson's mishandling (and micromanagement) of the [[Vietnam War]] (which also ironically involved the [[Liberal bias#Vietnam War|intentionally false reporting]] by [[Walter Cronkite]] on the [[Tet Offensive]]). Johnson was humiliated by a primary challenge to his reelection from fellow [[Democrat]] [[Eugene McCarthy]] in early 1968 in [[New Hampshire]], and then LBJ withdrew as a candidate for reelection. His Vice President [[Hubert Humphrey]] lost in the general election due in part to Johnson's unpopularity.<br /> <br /> ==Early years==<br /> Johnson was maternally descended from a pioneer Baptist clergyman, George Washington Baines, who pastored numerous small rural churches in Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana. Baines was also the president of [[Baylor University]] during the [[American Civil War]]. George Baines was the grandfather of Johnson's mother, Rebekah Baines Johnson. <br /> <br /> Johnson was born in Stonewall, Texas, in a small farmhouse in a poor farming area along the Pedernales River. His parents, Samuel Ealy Johnson, Jr. and the former Rebekah Baines, had three girls and two boys. The nearby village of Johnson City, Texas, was named after a relative who came from Georgia. In school, Johnson was an awkward, talkative youth and was elected president of his eleventh-grade class.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/36_l_johnson/tguide/l_johnson_dk.html&lt;/ref&gt; He graduated from Johnson City High School in 1924.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/biographys.hom/lbj_bio.asp&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1926, Johnson enrolled in Southwest Texas State Teachers' College (now called Texas State University-San Marcos). He worked his way through school, participated in debate and campus politics, edited the school newspaper, and graduated in 1931. Biographer Robert Caro asserts he was known as &quot;the biggest liar on campus.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Caro, Robert A. The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power. New York: Alfred A Knopf, Inc. 1982. p. xx&lt;/ref&gt; The college years refined his remarkable skills of persuasion and political organization. One year Johnson taught mostly Mexican American children at the Welhausen School in Cotulla, Texas. When he returned to San Marcos in 1965, after having signed the [[Higher Education Act]], Johnson looked back:<br /> :&quot;''I shall never forget the faces of the boys and the girls in that little Welhausen Mexican School, and I remember even yet the pain of realizing and knowing then that college was closed to practically every one of those children because they were too poor. And I think it was then that I made up my mind that this Nation could never rest while the door to knowledge remained closed to any American''.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;see [http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/edu_whca370-text.shtm &quot;Remarks at Southwest Texas State College Upon Signing the Higher Education Act of 1965&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early political career==<br /> After graduation, Johnson briefly taught public speaking at Genesee Community College and debate in a Houston high school, then entered politics. Johnson's father had served five terms in the Texas legislature and was a close friend to one of Texas's rising political figures, Congressman [[Sam Rayburn]]. In 1930, Johnson campaigned for Texas state Senator Welly Hopkins in his run for Congress. Hopkins recommended him to Congressman [[Richard M. Kleberg]], who appointed Johnson as Kleberg's legislative secretary. LBJ was elected speaker of the &quot;Little Congress,&quot; a group of Congressional aides, where he cultivated Congressmen, newspapermen and lobbyists. Johnson's friends soon included aides to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], as well as fellow Texans such as Vice President [[John Nance Garner]]. He became a surrogate son to Sam Rayburn.<br /> <br /> Johnson married Claudia Alta Taylor (already nicknamed &quot;Lady Bird&quot;) of Karnack, Texas on November 17, 1934, after she had attended Georgetown University Law School for several months. They had two daughters, Lynda Bird Johnson, born in 1944, and Luci Baines Johnson, born in 1947. Johnson enjoyed giving people and animals his own LBJ initials; his daughters' given names are examples, as was his dog Little Beagle Johnson. <br /> <br /> In 1935, he was appointed head of the Texas [[National Youth Administration]] (NYA), which enabled him to use the government to create educational and job opportunities for young people. He resigned two years later to run for Congress. Johnson was a notoriously tough boss throughout his career, often demanding long workdays and work on weekends; he worked as hard as any of them.&lt;ref&gt;Woods, (2006), p. 131&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==House years==<br /> Johnson resigned from his NYA job in 1937 to run successfully in a special election for a seat in the [[House of Representatives]] representing [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] and the surrounding Hill Country. He ran on a [[New Deal]] platform and was effectively aided by his wife, Lady Bird Johnson.<br /> <br /> President Roosevelt found Johnson to be a welcome ally and conduit for information, particularly with regards to issues concerning internal politics in Texas (informally dubbed &quot;Operation Texas&quot;) and the machinations of Vice President Garner and House Speaker Sam Rayburn. Johnson was immediately appointed to the powerful Naval Affairs Committee. He worked for rural electrification and other improvements for his district. Johnson steered the projects towards contractors which he personally knew, such as the Brown Brothers, Herman and George, who would finance much of Johnson's future career.&lt;ref&gt;Caro, (1982) is full of details.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1941, he ran for the U.S. Senate (while not giving up his House seat) in a special election against the sitting governor, radio personality W. Lee &quot;Pappy&quot; O'Daniel. Johnson was not expected to win against the popular governor, but he ran a strong race and was declared the winner in unofficial returns. He ultimately was defeated by controversial official returns in an election marked by massive fraud on the part of both campaigns.<br /> <br /> ==Senate years==<br /> <br /> In 1948, Johnson won an election for [[U.S. Senate]] by stealing the election, according even to historians sympathetic to him. Johnson ran against former governor Coke Stevenson; neither candidate won a majority of the votes in the election, which under Texas law forced a runoff between Johnson and Stevenson. Johnson then claimed an 87-vote victory over Stevenson in the runoff, which was fraudulent.&lt;ref&gt;See eg Robert A Caro Master of the ''Senate Means of Assent''&lt;/ref&gt; After joining the Senate, Johnson established relationships with several senior senators, including [[Richard Russell]]. Johnson was appointed to the powerful [[Armed Services Committee]] in 1950, and became chairman of the Preparedness Subcommittee which brought him into the public spotlight much like [[Harry Truman]] used the &quot;Truman Committee&quot; during the Second World War. He was named minority whip in 1951 under Democratic leader Bob McFarland, and he became the leader of the [[Democratic Party]] in the Senate in 1953. His first major policy, with the support of Russell, was to bypass the Seniority rule in committee assignments, which meant that Senators became reliant on his favor in order to obtain positions on important committees. This move, in combination with his strong personality gave him power of senators that had not been seen before (or since) in Senate History. He is often referred to as the &quot;Master of the Senate&quot;. Surprisingly, after he became majority leader in 1955 he supported many of Eisenhower's proposals despite the partisan resistance of the liberal wing of the Democratic party. This allowed him to bask in the reflected glow of Eisenhower's immense popularity and gain a reputation for working across the aisle and getting things done.<br /> <br /> Although publicly posing as a Civil Rights hero, in private Johnson was—like most southern Democrats of the 1960s—a racist: When his sometime chauffeur, Robert Parker, told LBJ he'd prefer to be called by his name rather than &quot;boy,&quot; &quot;nigger&quot; or &quot;chief,&quot; Johnson replied, &quot;As long as you are black, and you're gonna be black till the day you die, no one's gonna call you by your goddamn name. So no matter what you are called, nigger, you just let it roll off your back like water, and you’ll make it. Just pretend you’re a goddamn piece of furniture.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Robert Parker and Richard L. Rashke, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JKhpZMj8Z6wC Capitol Hill in Black and White]'' (Penguin Group, 1989), ISBN 0515101893, p. v.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In his capacity as Majority Leader of the Senate, Johnson joined with [[Strom Thurmond]] to kill the Civil Rights Act of 1957. But when Senate Republicans re-introduced the bill, LBJ said, &quot;I'm going to have to bring up the nigger bill again,&quot; according to LBJ's White House Special Counsel Harry McPherson.&lt;ref&gt;Michael L. Gillette, [https://web.archive.org/web/20050304042315/http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/oralhistory.hom/mcpherson/mcpher06.pdf Transcript, Harry McPherson Oral History Interview VI], 5/16/85, LBJ Library, 16 May 1985.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Let's face it. Our ass is in a crack. We're gonna have to let this nigger bill pass,&quot; he told Senator John Stennis (D-MS), according to a Pulitzer Prize winning&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/Biography-or-Autobiography Biography or Autobiography]. Past winners &amp; finalists by category. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved 2012-03-24.&lt;/ref&gt; biography.&lt;ref&gt;Caro, Robert A. (2002). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=U87rzAqVhbwC The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Master of the Senate, Volume 3]''. New York: Knopf. p. 954. ISBN 0394528360.&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bancroft Prize winning&lt;ref&gt;[http://library.columbia.edu/about/awards/bancroft/previous_awards.html The Bancroft Prizes: Previous Awards]. The Columbia University Libraries/Information Services&lt;/ref&gt; biographer Robert Dallek, he asked Senator Sam Rayburn (D-TX), &quot;Sam, why don't you all let this nigger bill pass?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Dallek, Robert (1991). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t_LjEJdaAiYC Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908-1960]''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 519. ISBN 0195054350.&lt;/ref&gt; According to former Harvard historian and Johnson staffer Doris Kearns Goodwin, LBJ explained his position to Senator Richard Russell, Jr. (D-GA) thus:<br /> {{cquote|These Negroes, they’re getting pretty uppity these days and that’s a problem for us since they’ve got something now they never had before, the political pull to back up their uppityness. Now we’ve got to do something about this, we’ve got to give them a little something, just enough to quiet them down, not enough to make a difference.&lt;ref&gt;Goodwin, Doris Kearns (1977). [https://books.google.com/books?id=HS9aAAAAYAAJ Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream]. New York: New American Library. p. 155. ISBN 0451140826&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Johnson saw to it that once the bill reached the Senate judiciary committee it was weakened enough to ensure passage, the first passed since Reconstruction. Johnson then took credit. He was a master at balancing the powerful southern wing of the Democratic party with the liberal northern and eastern wing. He would employ very effective tactics of persuasion with senators; including intimidation, flattery, threats and promises. Johnson sought the Democratic nomination for president prior to the [[United States presidential election, 1960|1960 election]], but accepted the nomination for vice-president following Kennedy's nomination.<br /> <br /> ==Presidency==<br /> [[Image:LBJ-64.jpg|left|thumb|President Lyndon Johnson ran for reelection in the shadow of Kennedy]]<br /> {{see also|Great Society|Johnson administration}}<br /> Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn into the [[President of the United States of America|Office of the President]] just hours after John F. Kennedy was assassinated. The [[Oath of Office]] took place aboard [[Air Force One]] just prior to the flight to [[Washington DC]] from [[Dallas]]. It was administered by [[Sarah T. Hughes]] (one of the first justices to hear and write the decision for [[Roe v. Wade]] in favor of [[abortion]]).&lt;ref&gt;University of North Texas Libraries, Sarah T. Hughes Collection, http://www.library.unt.edu/archives/historical-manuscripts/historical-manuscripts-exhibits/hughes/&lt;/ref&gt; Also, since no Bible could be found aboard Air Force One, Johnson recited the oath with his hand on a [[Roman Catholic]] [[missal]] which had been in Kennedy's desk.&lt;ref&gt;New York Times, &quot;After a Time of Tragedy, a Beginning Toward the 'Great Society,'&quot; January 1973. Online at https://www.nytimes.com/books/98/04/12/specials/johnson-tragedy.html&lt;/ref&gt; Largely because of the KGB's disinformation campaign shortly after the JFK assassination, Johnson was often believed by conspiracy theorists to have been the one who arranged for Kennedy's assassination to get into the presidency. However, declassified CIA documents in 2015 that dated back to the assassination revealed that Johnson learned from the CIA that the assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, had been getting visas for escape from the country via Cuba and the Soviet Union only three days after the assassination occurred, making this motive unlikely.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3237770/Declassified-CIA-memo-reveals-Lee-Harvey-Oswald-visited-embassies-Cuba-Soviet-Union-plot-escape-assassinating-John-F-Kennedy.html&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> As President, Johnson greatly expanded the federal government with his [[Great Society]] programs. He played a key role in helping the [[civil rights movement]] win legislative victories, pushing for the adoption of the [[Civil Rights Act]] (1964), which outlawed segregation, and the [[Voting Rights Act]] (1965), which guaranteed African-Americans' right to vote. President Johnson's support for civil rights was purely partisan. Discussing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 with two southern governors on Air Force One, LBJ stated, “I’ll have them niggers voting Democratic for two hundred years,” according to Air Force One steward Robert M. MacMillan. “That was the reason he was pushing the bill,&quot; added MacMillan, an African American, &quot;not because he wanted equality for everyone. It was strictly a political ploy for the Democratic Party. He was phony from the word go.”&lt;ref&gt;Interview with Robert M. MacMillan, March 23, 1993, cited in Ronald Kessler, ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Inside_the_White_House.html?id=lJz-yIZNE2sC Inside the White House]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), p. 33, ISBN 0671879197.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Johnson also appointed [[NAACP]] lawyer [[Thurgood Marshall]] the first African American Supreme Court Justice. When a young White House attorney recommended Federal Judge William Henry Hastie—who had been Marshall's professor at Harvard Law School—as a more qualified African American candidate, LBJ rejected the light-skinned Hastie, explaining, &quot;Son, when I appoint a nigger to the court, I want everyone to know he's a nigger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Dallek, Robert (1991). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t_LjEJdaAiYC Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908-1960]''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 519. ISBN 0195054350. Hastie had previously been considered for the Court by Eisenhower in 1956, who shelved the idea because Hastie's nomination would have been &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=RAVl_KwcBuAC&amp;pg=PA122#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false filibustered to death] by Southerners on the floor of the Senate&quot; (All 22 southern Senators at the time were [http://historycms.house.gov/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=40930 white Democrats]); and again in 1962 by Kennedy, who rejected him after white liberals -- Chief Justice Earl Warren and Justice William O. Douglas -- objected that Hastie, an African American, was [https://books.google.com/books?id=7UTPwJNHQG4C&amp;pg=PA143#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false too conservative] (As Warren put it, &quot;He's not a liberal, and he'll be opposed to the measures we're interested in.&quot;) During World War II, Hastie had laid the groundwork for the 1947 integration of the US armed forces when he [http://www.theroot.com/articles/history/2014/09/_1st_black_federal_judges_who_were_they.html resigned as aide to Secretary of War Henry Stimson] in protest of segregated training in the US Army Air Force for the Tuskeegee Airmen.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the 1964 Presidential campaign, Johnson ran &quot;[https://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/24/revisiting-the-daisy-ad-revolution/ the most negative political ad in American history],&quot; a campaign ad titled &quot;Daisy,&quot; smearing Republican challenger [[Barry Goldwater]] as a warmonger who threatened nuclear devastation. Thus &quot;[http://www.pophistorydig.com/topics/lbjs-atomic-ad1964-daisy-girl/ the negative political ad was born], initiating the clever use of image and sound to paint an opponent in negative or scary terms.&quot; <br /> <br /> Johnson won the 1964 presidential election in a landslide over Goldwater but, ironically, greatly expanded American involvement in [[Vietnam]] (see [[Vietnam War]]). In November 1965, during a meeting with his Joint Chiefs, after stating how they could mine the North Vietnamese ports as well as do massive aerial strikes on Hanoi to prevent Soviet or other Communist aid from going into the region, although Johnson seemingly acted receptive, he then turned around and started screaming various obscenities, including using the f-word more freely as an adjective than a Marine at boot camp, and told them he was disgusted with their naivety and made clear that he wasn't going to let &quot;military idiots&quot; drag him into World War III before bluntly dismissing them by telling them to &quot;get the hell out of [Johnson's] office!&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Cheers and Tears: A Marine's Story of Combat in Peace and War (2002).&lt;/ref&gt; His popularity plunged as the death toll from the conflict in Vietnam steadily increased. In early 1968, faced with plummeting poll numbers and mounting public opposition to his foreign policy, Johnson announced that he would neither seek nor accept his party's nomination for the presidency in 1968. This decision may have been brought about by his surprisingly narrow victory in the New Hampshire primary over Eugene McCarthy, a liberal anti-war Democrat. It is widely thought that had he run, he would have been trounced in the primaries or in the subsequent general election—eventually won by Republican [[Richard M. Nixon]]. Another reason he decided to not pursue reelection may have also had to do with the then-recent reporting of the 1968 [[Tet Offensive]] by [[Walter Cronkite]] that [[Liberal bias#Vietnam War|falsely implied]] that America was losing the Vietnam War (with Johnson allegedly stating to his aides during the broadcast that &quot;If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America&quot;), coupled by a failed attempt to explain otherwise to the American public.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.iancfriedman.com/?p=383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Bibliography==<br /> ===Biographies===<br /> * Caro, Robert A. ''The Years of Lyndon Johnson'' (3 volumes as of 2006): ''The Path to Power'' (1982); ''Means of Ascent'' (1990); ''Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson'' (2002). The most detailed biography, extends to 1960; generally hostile to LBJ; See Dallek and Woods for balanced biographies; [https://www.amazon.com/Path-Power-Years-Lyndon-Johnson/dp/0679729453/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1189836030&amp;sr=1-2 vol 1 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]; [https://www.amazon.com/Means-Ascent-Years-Lyndon-Johnson/dp/067973371X/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1189836030&amp;sr=1-3 vol 2 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]; [https://www.amazon.com/Master-Senate-Lyndon-Johnson-Vintage/dp/0394720954/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1189836030&amp;sr=1-1 vol 3 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]<br /> * Dallek, Robert. ''Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908–1960'' (1991), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=59394514 online edition vol 1]; ''Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961–1973'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=65196503 online edition vol 2]; also: '' Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President'' (2004). A 400-page abridged version of his 2 volume scholarly biography, [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=103184871 online edition of short version].<br /> * Goodwin, Doris Kearns. ''Lyndon Johnson &amp; the American Dream'' (1977). A character study.<br /> * Schulman, Bruce J. ''Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism: A Brief Biography with Documents'' (1995) <br /> * Woods, Randall. ''LBJ: Architect of American Ambition'' (2006). A highly detailed scholarly biography (1000 pages). [https://www.amazon.com/LBJ-Architect-American-Randall-Woods/dp/0684834588/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1189835998&amp;sr=1-1 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]<br /> <br /> ===Presidential years===<br /> * Altschuler, Bruce E.; ''LBJ and the Polls'' (1990) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=37809550 online edition]<br /> * Andrew, John A. ''Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society'' (1999) 224 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1566631858/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]<br /> * Bernstein, Irving. ''Guns or Butter: The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson'' 1994. <br /> * Bornet, Vaughn Davis. ''The Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson''. 1983<br /> * Branch, Taylor. ''Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-63'' (1989) [https://www.amazon.com/Parting-Waters-America-Years-1954-63/dp/0671687425/ref=sr_1_31?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1208722057&amp;sr=1-31 excerpt and text search]<br /> * Branch, Taylor. ''Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years 1963-65'' (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/Pillar-Fire-America-Years-1963-65/dp/0684848090/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1208722178&amp;sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]<br /> * Branch, Taylor. ''At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965-68'' (2007)<br /> * Divine, Robert A., ed. ''The Johnson Years. Vol. 1: Foreign Policy, the Great Society and the White House.'' 1981; essays by scholars <br /> * Divine, Robert A., ed. ''The Johnson Years. Vol. 2: Vietnam, the Environment, and Science.'' 1987; essays by scholars<br /> * Divine, Robert A., ed. ''The Johnson Years. Vol. 3: LBJ at Home and Abroad''. 1994; essays by scholars [https://www.amazon.com/Johnson-Years-Three-Home-Abroad/dp/0700606556/ref=sr_1_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1189836030&amp;sr=1-5 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]<br /> * Firestone, Bernard J., and Robert C. Vogt, eds. ''Lyndon Baines Johnson and the Uses of Power.'' (1988); essays by scholars [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=23324778 online edition]<br /> * Graham, Hugh Davis. ''The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960-1972'' (1990) <br /> * Gould, Lewis L. ''Lady Bird Johnson and the Environment.'' 1988. <br /> * Lichtenstein, Nelson, ed. ''Political Profiles: The Johnson Years''. 1976. short biographies of 400+ key politicians<br /> * Mann, Robert. ''The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell, and the Struggle for Civil Rights.'' 1996. <br /> * Milkis, Sidney M. and Jerome M. Mileur, eds. ''The Great Society And The High Tide Of Liberalism'' (2005) 490pp of essays by scholars; [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1558494936/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]<br /> * Redford, Emmette S., and Marlan Blissett. ''Organizing the Executive Branch: The Johnson Presidency.'' 1981. <br /> * Shesol, Jeff. ''Mutual Contempt: Lyndon Johnson, Robert Kennedy, and the Feud That Shaped a Decade'' 1997. <br /> * White, Theodore H. ''The Making of the President, 1964'' 1965. [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]<br /> * Zarefsky, David. ''President Johnson's War on Poverty'' 1986.<br /> <br /> ===Vietnam===<br /> * Barrett, David Marshall. ''Advice and Dissent: An Organizational Analysis of the Evolution of Lyndon Johnson's Vietnam Advisory System, 1965–1968.'' (University of Notre Dame, 1990)<br /> * Berman, Larry. ''Lyndon Johnson's War: The Road to Stalemate in Vietnam'' (1991)<br /> * Brands, H. W. ''The Wages of Globalism: Lyndon Johnson and the Limits of American Power '' (1997)<br /> * Casey, Francis Michael. ''The Vietnam Policy of President Lyndon Baines Johnson in Response to the Theory of the Protracted Conflict as Applied in the Politics of Indochina: A Case Study of Threat Perception and Assessment in the Crisis Management Process of a Pluralistic Society.'' (Claremont Graduate School, 1976)<br /> * Cherwitz, Richard Arnold. ''The Rhetoric of the Gulf of Tonkin: A Study of the Crisis Speaking of President Lyndon B. Johnson.'' (University of Iowa, 1978)<br /> * Goodnight, Lisa Jo. ''The Conservative Voice of a Liberal President: An Analysis of Lyndon B. Johnson's Vietnam Rhetoric.'' (Purdue University, 1993)<br /> * Kaiser, David E. ''American tragedy: Kennedy, Johnson, and the origins of the Vietnam War.'' (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000) ISBN 0-674-00225-3<br /> * Karnow, Stanley. ''Vietnam, A History.'' (Penguin, 1991), balanced assessment<br /> * Logevall, Fredrik Bengt Johan. ''Fear to Negotiate: Lyndon Johnson and the Vietnam War, 1963–1965.'' (Yale University, 1993)<br /> * Turner, Kathleen Jane. ''The Effect of Presidential-Press Interaction on Lyndon B. Johnson's Vietnam War Rhetoric.'' (Purdue University, 1978)<br /> * Vandiver, Frank E. ''Shadows of Vietnam: Lyndon Johnson's Wars'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=53311933 online edition]<br /> * Woods, Randall B. &quot;The Politics of Idealism: Lyndon Johnson, Civil Rights, and Vietnam,&quot; ''Diplomatic History'' (2007) 31 (1), 1–18. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/J.1467-7709.2007.00599.X online at Blackwell-Synergy]<br /> <br /> ==Primary sources==<br /> * Barrett David M. ed. &quot;Lyndon B. Johnson's Vietnam Papers: A Documentary Collection&quot; (1997). Documents from LBJ Library and other archives.<br /> * Beschloss Michael R. ed. ''Taking Charge: The Johnson White House Tapes, 1963–1964'' (1997). Transcribed recordings of LBJ's phone calls.<br /> * Beschloss, Michael R. ed. ''Reaching for Glory: Lyndon Johnson's Secret White House Tapes, 1964-1965'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Reaching-Glory-Lyndon-Johnsons-1964-1965/dp/074322714X/ref=sr_1_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&amp;s=books&amp;qid=1189836030&amp;sr=1-7 excerpt and online search from Amazon.com]<br /> * Califano Joseph A., Jr. ''The Triumph &amp; Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson'' (1991). By a cabinet member.<br /> * [http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/publications/ERP/ Council of Economic Advisors, ''Economic Report of the President'' (annual 1947- )], complete series online; important analysis of current trends and policies, plus statistcial tables<br /> * Gallup, George H. ed. ''The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971, volume 3: 1959–1971'' (1972). Summary of poll data.<br /> * Johnson Lyndon B. ''The Vantage Point: Perspectives on the Presidency, 1963–1969'' (1971). LBJ's memoirs.<br /> * ''Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson'' (10 volumes, GPO, 1965–70). All speeches and official statements.<br /> * Reedy, George ''Lyndon B. Johnson: A Memoir'' (1982), ISBN 0-8362-6610-2. A memoir by the press secretary.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> * [https://librivox.org/author/11302 Works by Lyndon B. Johnson - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]<br /> <br /> {{USPresidents}}<br /> {{USVicePresidents}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Johnson, Lyndon B.}}<br /> [[Category:Texas]]<br /> [[Category:Presidents of the United States]]<br /> [[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States]]<br /> [[Category:Former United States Senators]]<br /> [[Category:Democrats]]<br /> [[Category:Liberals]]<br /> [[Category:Racism]]<br /> [[Category:Liberalism]]<br /> [[Category:Welfare State]]<br /> [[Category:Anti Second Amendment]]<br /> [[Category:Affirmative Action]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_2&diff=1497374 User:FOIA/Archive 2 2019-02-27T06:20:26Z <p>FOIA: /* Fascism */ added Mazzaglia</p> <hr /> <div>=Fascism and National Socialism=<br /> [[George Orwell]], a socialist who fought for the Soviet-backed government of Spain in the Spanish Civil War, wrote prophetically in 1936 that &quot;Socialism, in the form in which it is now presented, appeals chiefly to unsatisfactory or even inhuman types,&quot; including, among others, &quot;the astute young social-literary climbers who are Communists now, as they will be Fascists five years hence, because it is [http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/english/all-the-go all the go].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Orwell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=E-ZpkC4RNfIC The Road to Wigan Pier]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1958) ISBN 0156767503, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; Five years later, Hitler and Stalin were partners in the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]], the joint invasion of Poland and the division of Europe; Orwell watched in despair as his former comrades supported the pact, even as Hitler launched his Blitz on London.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[T]he Nazi-Soviet Pact and the Lincolns' willingness to change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot; [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor Before Pearl Harbor], World War II Letters from the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Naziism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world”:&lt;ref&gt;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm ''Sozialistische Mitteilungen'', No. 8] (April 18, 1940)&lt;/ref&gt; “The [Nazi] German government declared itself ready for friendly relations with the Soviet Union, whereas the English-French war bloc desires a war against the socialist Soviet Union,” declared Ulbricht. “The Soviet people and the working people of Germany have an interest in preventing the English war plan.”&lt;ref&gt;''Die Welt'', February 1940. Cited in: Walther Hofer: Die Entfesselung des Zweiten Weltkrieges, 2007, Lit Verlag, ISBN 9783825803834; S. 224–225&lt;/ref&gt; When France fell to the Nazi invaders, French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thorez and Jacques Duclos exulted that &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of [Nazi] German imperialism.&quot; During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in the blitzed areas of London,&quot; writes Orwell prize winning&lt;ref&gt;[http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Peter Hitchens], theorwellprize.co.uk&lt;/ref&gt; journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;ref&gt;[http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html A Final Word], ''The Mail on Sunday'', July 5, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By the time the war was over, it had become impossible even to discuss the issue: “The word 'Fascism' has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies ‘something not desirable’,&quot; wrote Orwell. “Since you don't know what Fascism is, how can you struggle against Fascism?”&lt;ref&gt;George Orwell, &quot;[http://www.orwell.ru/library/essays/politics/english/e_polit Politics and the English Language],&quot; ''Horizon'', vol. 13, issue 76 (April 1946), pp. 252-265, reprinted in Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, Eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zaxG_3ivhVAC The Collected Essays, Journalism, &amp; Letters, George Orwell, Volume 4: In Front of Your Nose, 1945-1950]'' (David R. Godine, 2000) ISBN 1567921361, pp. 132, 139&lt;/ref&gt; Particularly in the United States, the word &quot;fascism&quot; had become confused with the rights of private property and economic freedom, which had previously been called &quot;liberalism&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The program of liberalism, therefore, if condensed into a single word, would have to read: property, that is, private ownership in the means of production.... All the other demands of liberalism result from this fundamental demand.&quot; Ludwig Von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/books/liberalism.pdf Liberalism: In the Classical Tradition]'' (Irvington, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education and San Francisco: Cobden Press, 1985), p. 19. It was in this sense that Mussolini wrote, &quot;Fascism is definitely and absolutely opposed to the doctrines of liberalism, both in the political and economic sphere&quot; (Benito Mussolini, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GOzmAAAACAAJ The Doctrine of Fascism]'' [Firenze: Vallecchi Editore, 1935], p. 15); that cultural historian Wolfgang Schivelbusch wrote, &quot;Italy had several years earlier begun the transition from a liberal free-market system to a state-run or corporatist one&quot; (Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' [Macmillan, 2006] ISBN 080507452X, p. 22); that Nobel Prize winning economist F.A. Hayek wrote, &quot;It was the union of the anticapitalist forces of the Right and of the Left, the fusion of radical and conservative socialism, which drove out from Germany everything that was liberal.&quot; Friedrich August Hayek, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qg61T_I1mwsC The Road to Serfdom]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007) ISBN 0226320553, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the word &quot;liberalism&quot; had been redefined to denote the very &quot;state-capitalist&quot; mixed economy that characterized Fascist Italy and National Socialist Germany. &quot;As a supreme, if unintended compliment,&quot; quipped Harvard economist Joseph Schumpeter,&lt;ref&gt;Schumpeter &quot;believed that capitalism would be destroyed by its successes,&quot; as it made possible the existence of &quot;a large intellectual class that made its living by attacking the very bourgeois system of private property and freedom so necessary for the intellectual class’s existence.&quot; [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Schumpeter.html Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883-1950)], ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics'' (Liberty Fund)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;the enemies of the system of private enterprise have thought it wise to appropriate its label.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Alois Schumpeter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=igM8E4gZ_coC History of economic analysis]'' (Psychology Press, 1994) ISBN 0415108888, p. 372&lt;/ref&gt; This debasing of meaning, making reasoned discourse and clear thinking impossible, was precisely what Orwell was illustrating in his novel ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' by means of &quot;Newspeak.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Newspeak, wrote Orwell, was &quot;devised to meet the ideological needs of Ingsoc, or English Socialism.... The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world-view and mental habits proper to the devotees of IngSoc, but to make all other modes of thought impossible. It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten, a heretical thought&amp;mdash;that is, a thought diverging from the principles of IngSoc&amp;mdash;should be literally unthinkable, at least so far as thought is dependent on words.... All words grouping themselves round the concepts of ''liberty'' and ''equality'', for instance, were contained in the single word ''crimethink.''&quot; The Preamble of the American [[Declaration of Independence]], according to Orwell, could not be expressed (and hence was unthinkable) in Newspeak: &quot;The nearest one could come to doing so would be to swallow the whole passage up in the single word ''crimethink''.&quot; George Orwell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-XNPiuSgL2kC Nineteen Eighty-Four]'' (Reprint: 1st World Publishing, 2004) ISBN 1595404325, pp. 372-373, 379, 386-387&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Those policies that are today called &quot;liberal&quot;&amp;mdash;big government, high taxation, regulation, state intervention in or control of the economy, public-private partnerships, state control over the use of private property, etc.&amp;mdash;were all pioneered by the fascists, who called this economic system ''corporativismo'' (corporativism). Contrary to revisionist socialist propaganda, the name has nothing to do with incorporated firms, but refers to the medieval system of guilds (''corporazioni''), theoretically modernized as syndicalism. Corporativist ideas had been popular with British socialists and Fabians, as well as American progressives such as Herbert Croly, Edward Bellamy and Colonel House, since the late 19th century. Far from being capitalist, corporativism was stridently anti-capitalist. “So substantial are the limitations under which private property and capital are exercised in Italy, that the conception of ‘capitalism’ is avowedly destroyed and replaced by ''corporativismo'',” wrote Herbert Steiner in his classic 1938 study of fascism.&lt;ref&gt;H. Arthur Steiner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1LqtuYl43dwC Government in Fascist Italy]'' (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1938), p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; Under fascism, writes the progressive writer Roger Shaw, &quot;capitalistic ''laissez-faire'' of the old, familiar type practically disappears under state-planning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roger Shaw, &quot;[http://ia600504.us.archive.org/19/items/northamreview238miscrich/northamreview238miscrich.pdf Fascism and the New Deal],&quot; ''The North American Review'', Vol. 238, No. 6 (Dec., 1934), pp. 559-564&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Even Socialist Party leader Norman Thomas admitted, the &quot;fascist revolutions definitely abolished ''laissez-faire'' capitalism in favor of one or another kind and degree of [http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1974/hayek-lecture.html state capitalism].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Norman Thomas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dJBWAAAAMAAJ A Socialist's Faith] (Norton, 1951), pp. 55&lt;/ref&gt; “The programme of the Fascists, as drafted in 1919, was vehemently anti-capitalistic,” wrote Ludwig von Mises. “The most radical New Dealers and even communists could agree with it.”&lt;ref&gt; Ludwig von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/books/socialism.pdf Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis]'' (Yale University Press, 1951), p. 576&lt;/ref&gt; It demanded “Suppression of incorporated joint-stock companies, industrial or financial. Suppression of all speculation by banks and stock exchanges,” and “Control and taxation of private wealth. Confiscation of unproductive income.”&lt;ref&gt; Count Carlo Sforza, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5a0EHPh-X-YC Contemporary Italy - Its Intellectual and Moral Origins]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406760307, pp. 295-296&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;[T]he rise of fascism and Nazism was not a reaction against the socialist trends of the preceding period but a necessary outcome of those tendencies,&quot; wrote [http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1974/hayek-lecture.html Nobel prize winning] economist Friederich Hayek.&lt;ref&gt;Friedrich August Hayek, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTve6XEUbYIC The Road to Serfdom]'' (Psychology Press, 2001), ISBN 0415253896, p. 4&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Fascism==<br /> &quot;Originally, fascism saw itself as profoundly revolutionary&amp;mdash;not conservative (as the left now sees it),&quot; writes Christopher Harmon, professor of International Relations at the US Marine Corps University.&lt;ref&gt;Christopher C. Harmon, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vBL9Zqlth_wC Terrorism today]'' (Psychology Press, 2008) ISBN 0415773008, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt; Mussolini had been a Marxist, who took over the Italian Socialist Party at the Congress of Reggio Emilia in 1912, expelling the syndicalist heretics and espousing doctrinaire Marxism&amp;mdash;prompting Lenin to write, “the party of the Italian socialist proletariat has taken the right path.”&lt;ref&gt;V.I. Lenin, &quot;[http://www.marx.org/archive/lenin/works/1912/jul/15b.htm The Italian Socialist Congress],&quot; ''Pravda'', No. 66 (July 15, 1912), reprinted in ''V.I. Lenin Collected Works'', Volume 18 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), pp. 170-172&lt;/ref&gt; Five years later, Lenin took over Russia, the following year imposing socialism (“War Communism”); it quickly and spectacularly failed, producing mass famine and economic collapse.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/5RFHJY Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921], International Committee of the Red Cross. Cf. Francis Haller, &quot;[http://www.icrc.org/web/fre/sitefre0.nsf/html/5QKJLH Secours en temps de paix – la famine en Russie],&quot; ''Le Temps'', August 12, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; In response to this failure, Marxists and other communists scrambled for a &quot;Third Way&quot; between socialism and capitalism: an alternative to the market, but one that might actually work.&lt;ref&gt; &quot;...fascism was seen as a third way between laissez-faire capitalism and communism...&quot; (Sheldon Richman, [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/Fascism.html Fascism], ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics''); &quot;...Fascism, the 'third way' between liberalism and socialism...&quot; (David Ramsay Steele, &quot;[http://www.la-articles.org.uk/fascism.htm The Mystery of Fascism] ''Liberty'', 2003); &quot;...fascism as a 'third way' distinct from liberalism and Marxism...&quot; (Ruth Ben-Ghiat, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/261168 Italian Fascism and the Aesthetics of the 'Third Way'],&quot; ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol. 31, No. 2 [April 1996], pp. 293-316); &quot;...fascism could pose as the 'third way' alternative between capitalism and Bolshevism... (Philip Morgan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mz8hLnFiz8wC Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945]'' [Psychology Press, 2003] ISBN 0415169437, p. 186). Cf. Philip Hanson, “Is there a third way? Capitalism, socialism and the reform of the Soviet economy,” in B. Dallego, H. Brzezinski and W. Andreff, eds. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=elCNAAAAIAAJ Convergence and System Change: The Convergence Hypothesis in Light of Transition in Eastern Europe]'' (Dartmouth, 1991) ISBN 1855212188, pp. 149-169, 235 ''et seq''; Ulrich van Suntum, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mJ4TfKL4wcAC The Invisible Hand: Economic Thought Yesterday and Today]'' (Springer, 2005) ISBN 3540204970, p. 204&lt;/ref&gt; Lenin thus introduced his New Economic Policy, based on [[Oskar Lange]]'s theoretical &quot;market socialism.&quot; Mussolini, meanwhile, was expelled from the leadership of the Italian Socialist Party, proclaiming, &quot;You think you can turn me out, but you will find I will come back again. [https://www.metrowestdailynews.com/x2117940744/Mazzaglia-Fascism-then-and-now I am and shall remain a socialist and my convictions will never change!] They are bred into my very bones.&quot; Mussolini resurrected the ideas of the syndicalists he had previously ousted.&lt;ref&gt;Ludwig von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/Books/humanaction.pdf Human Action: A Treatise on Economics],'' 4th Ed., (San Francisco: Fox &amp; Wilkes 1996), p. 817&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The most important influence upon Mussolini's development,&quot; writes his biographer Renzo De Felice, &quot;was that exercised by revolutionary syndicalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Quoted in Sheri Berman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BNV5uVCQnq8C The primacy of politics: social democracy and the making of Europe's twentieth century]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006) ISBN 0521817994, p. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Most, but not all, of the of the leading organizers of Italian syndicalism became active fascists.&lt;ref&gt;David D. Roberts, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-gsNAQAAIAAJ The syndicalist tradition and Italian fascism]'' (Manchester University Press ND, 1979) ISBN 0719007615, p. 12&lt;/ref&gt; Syndicalism (''syndicalisme'') was the French name for the British idea of &quot;guild socialism.&quot; Being Italian nationalists, Mussolini and his followers gave it an Italian name, ''corporativismo'' (corporativism or corporatism), from ''corporazione'' (guild). The fascists ordered all labor unions and industries into cartels, (''corporazioni'')&amp;mdash;administrative units of the government, through which it set production levels, wages and prices.<br /> <br /> It is often claimed that corporatism means &quot;the power of business corporations over society.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Luis Suarez-Villa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RjJUmthF7zIC Technocapitalism: a critical perspective on technological innovation and corporatism]'' (Temple University Press, 2009) ISBN 1439900426, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in the wake of his upset defeat by [[Tea Party]] backed challenger Dr. Nan Hayworth, then-Congressman John Hall (D-NY) said, &quot;I learned when I was in social studies class in school that corporate ownership or corporate control of government is called Fascism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;David Freedlander, &quot;[http://www.observer.com/2010/politics/soon-be-ex-congressman-john-hall-warns-against-creeping-fascism Soon To-Be Ex-Congressman John Hall Warns Against Creeping Fascism],&quot; ''New York Observer'', December 28, 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, an article published by the Council for Secular Humanism claims that under fascism, &quot;the ability of large corporations to operate in relative freedom was not compromised.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Laurence W. Britt, &quot;[http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?page=britt_23_2&amp;section=library Fascism Anyone?]&quot; ''Free Inquiry'', Vol. 23, No. 2 (Spring 2003)&lt;/ref&gt; While he didn't mention business, President [[Franklin Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]] [[Democratic Party|Democrat]], said, &quot;in its essence... fascism [is] ownership of government by an individual, by a group, or by any other controlling private power&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,759590,00.html INDUSTRY: Anti-Monopoly], ''Time'', May, 9, 1938&lt;/ref&gt; (a statement approvingly quoted by secret [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Spies: the rise and fall of the KGB in America |last=Haynes |first=John Earl |coauthors=Harvey Klehr, Alexander Vassiliev |year=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300123906 |page=169 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC |accessdate=9 January 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[George Seldes]]).&lt;ref&gt;George Seldes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=roV3AAAAMAAJ One thousand Americans]'' (Boni &amp; Gaer, 1947), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Such claims are often buttressed by an apocryphal quote, attributed to Mussolini, that &quot;Fascism should more properly be called corporatism because it is the merger of state and corporate power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Burrell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=52MHbNZhhT8C The Republican Treason: Republican Fascism Exposed]'' (Algora Publishing, 2008) ISBN 0875866670, p. 137, n. 1&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But there is no evidence that Mussolini ever said this,&lt;ref&gt;[http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=280606 Q: Quotation search: &quot;Benito Mussolini - Fascism should more appropriately be...&quot;], Google Answers&lt;/ref&gt; and as one self-proclaimed &quot;[http://www.chipberlet.net/ progressive activist]&quot; admits, &quot;it contradicts most of the other writing he did on the subject of corporatism and corporations.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Chip Berlet, [http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html Mussolini on the Corporate State], Political Research Associates&lt;/ref&gt; Corporatism has nothing to do with incorporated firms or businesses; all fascist movements have in common the aim of &quot;eliminating the autonomy (or, in some proposals, the existence) of large-scale capitalism and major industry.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Stanley Payne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9wHNrF7nFecC A History of Fascism]'' (Routledge, 1996) ISBN 1-85728-595-6, p. 10&lt;/ref&gt; That is because property rights are a bulwark against the state: by outperforming the state in the satisfaction of social needs, the market offers an alternative to the state's aggression-enforced monopoly on legitimacy. As Mussolini put it, &quot;Our formula is this: everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''La nostra formula e questa: tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, niente contro lo Stato''.&quot; Benito Mussolini, “[http://www.mussolinibenito.it/discorsodel28_10_1925.htm Discorso del 28 ottobre 1925] al Teatro della Scala di Milano” (October 28, 1925), reprinted in ''Opera omnia di Benito Mussolini'' XXI (1956), p. 425&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> While it may preserve the ''appearance'' of ownership, corporatism strips owners of ''control'' of their property, thus stripping &quot;ownership&quot; of meaning. Under fascism, &quot;the state directs and controls&quot; business,&lt;ref&gt;R. E. Pahl and J. T. Winkler, &quot;Corporatism in Britain,&quot; in ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RGpXAAAAMAAJ The Corporate State-Myth or Reality?]'' (London: Centre for Studies in Social Policy, 1976), as cited in Bob Jessop, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HcxBBhXjAUcC State theory: putting the Capitalist state in its place]'' (Penn State Press, 1990) ISBN 0271007354, p. 133&lt;/ref&gt; exercising &quot;absolute authoritarian control of production.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ludwig Von Mises, ''[http://mises.org/books/plannedchaos.pdf Planned chaos]'' (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1947) ISBN 1933550600, pp. 3-4, 62-63&lt;/ref&gt; As Mussolini put it, &quot;the organiser of the enterprise is responsible to the State for the direction given to production.&quot; He demanded &quot;State intervention in economic production&quot; whenever &quot;private initiative is lacking or insufficient, or when the political interests of the State are involved. This intervention may take the form of control, assistance or direct management.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Benito Mussolini, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zp8TAQAAIAAJ Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions]'' (Rome: 'Ardita' Publishers), pp. 135-136&lt;/ref&gt; Under fascism, the &quot;private employer is retained, but he is stringently regulated by the state,&quot; writes progressive writer Roger Shaw. &quot;Communism eliminates the private employer and profit-maker, but Fascism, at least in economic theory, retains him as a slave of the state.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Roger Shaw, &quot;[http://ia600504.us.archive.org/19/items/northamreview238miscrich/northamreview238miscrich.pdf Fascism and the New Deal],&quot; ''The North American Review'', Vol. 238, No. 6 (Dec., 1934), pp. 559-564&lt;/ref&gt; The state thus becomes the ''de facto'' owner, reducing ''de jure'' owners to bureaucrats, carrying out government orders. It is therefore more accurate to say that &quot;corporatism&quot; means government control of corporations than corporate control of government.<br /> <br /> ==National Socialism==<br /> National Socialism, emerging from the shattered remains of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the wake of World War I, promised yet another a “third way” between capitalism and communism.&lt;ref&gt;Artur Moeller van den Bruck's book ''The Third Reich'' (1923) was originally entitled ''The Third Way.'' (George Lachmann Mosse, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6oiD85C9HzUC Masses and Man: Nationalist and Fascist Perceptions of Reality]'' [Wayne State University Press, 1987] ISBN 0814318959, pp. 84, 166) On Fascism as “third way,” see Zeev Sternhell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ccgIu6oYkREC Neither Right nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996) ISBN 0691006296, p. 94, and Roger Eatwell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x3U6AAAAMAAJ Fascism: A History]'', (London: Allen Lane, 1996), ISBN 071399147X, p. 11.&lt;/ref&gt; Whereas Communism sought to unite the working class of all nations to fight for their class, and fascism sought to unite all the classes within a country to fight for the State, National Socialism sought to unite all members of a race, from whatever class or nation, to fight for their race. It was this &quot;Third Way&quot; that attracted [[Adolf Hitler]].<br /> <br /> As early as 1933, Nobel prize winning economist F.A. Hayek warned William Beveridge, director of the London School of Economics, that &quot;National 'Socialism' is a genuine socialist movement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Memorandum: Hayek to Beveridge, Nazi-Socialism, Spring 1933 (F.A. Hayek Papers (Hoover Institution), Box 105, Folder 10, in Friedrich August Hayek, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qg61T_I1mwsC The road to serfdom: text and documents]'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007) ISBN 0226320553, p. 245&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels denounced capitalism in Marxist terms:<br /> {{cquote|The worker in a capitalist state — and that is his deepest misfortune — is no longer a living human being, a creator, a maker. He has become a machine. A number, a cog in the machine without sense or understanding. He is alienated from what he produces.&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Goebbels and Mjölnir, ''[http://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/haken32.htm Die verfluchten Hakenkreuzler. Etwas zum Nachdenken] [“The cursed swastika. Something to think about”]'' (Munich: Verlag Frz. Eher, 1932), trans. Randall Bytwerk, Calvin College&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> As Nazi ideologist Gregor Strasser put it:<br /> {{cquote|''We are Socialists,'' are enemies, mortal enemies of the present capitalist economic system with its exploitation of the economically weak, with its injustice in wages, with its immoral evaluation of individuals according to wealth and money instead of responsibility and achievement, and we are determined under all circumstances to abolish this system! And with my inclination to practical action it seems obvious to me that we have to put a better, more just, more moral system in its place, one which, as it were, has arms and legs and better arms and legs than the present one! [Emphasis in original]&lt;ref&gt;Gregory Strasser, &quot;Thoughts about the Tasks of the Future&quot; (1926), reprinted in Barbara Miller Lane and Leila J. Rupp (eds.), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_JghDQAAQBAJ Nazi Ideology Before 1933: A Documentation]'' (University of Texas Press, 2014) ISBN 1477304452, p. 89&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Hitler himself echoed Strasser a 1927 speech:<br /> {{cquote|We are socialists, we are enemies of today’s capitalistic economic system for the exploitation of the economically weak, with its unfair salaries, with its unseemly evaluation of a human being according to wealth and property instead of responsibility and performance, and we are all determined to destroy this system under all conditions.&lt;ref&gt;John Toland, ''[http://books.google.com/books/about/Adolf_Hitler.html?id=bcyduKEh8hsC Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography'', Volume 1] (Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1976) 0385420536, pp. 224-225&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> &quot;In no way was Hitler the tool of big business,&quot; admitted American Socialist Party leader Norman Thomas.&lt;ref&gt;Norman Thomas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dJBWAAAAMAAJ A Socialist's Faith] (Norton, 1951), pp. 53-35&lt;/ref&gt; Under Nazism, declared Hitler, &quot;the attitude of the State towards capital would be comparatively simple and clear. Its only object would be to make sure that capital remained subservient to the State.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Adolf Hitler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EBUBUEeUwxUC Mein Kampf: zwei Bände in einem Band'', Vol. 1] 40th Ed. (Bottom of the Hill, 1938) ISBN 1935785079, p. 183&lt;/ref&gt; David Schoenbaum notes that the Nazi Party census found the single largest category of Party members was “Workers” (30.3%); the second-largest category was “White collar,” (19.4%), of which 59.1% were in sales; the third-largest category, “Independent”/“Self-Employed” made up 19%, the largest group of whom were in “handicraft” (43.7%). Schoenbaum adds that of the two exhibits most often trotted out in defense of the Naziism-as-capitalist-plot thesis&amp;mdash;Fritz Thyssen and the Krupps&amp;mdash;that Thyssen eventually had to flee Nazi Germany for Switzerland, while even the Krupps “did not finance Hitler before 1933,” when his victory had become a ''fait accompli''.&lt;ref&gt;David Schoenbaum, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1wNCSxrUlyMC Hitler's Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933-1939]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1997) ISBN 0393315541, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, some business people likewise supported FDR's policies (e.g., &quot;Although I'm a capitalist, I happen to believe in [Roosevelt's] program&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;Lorena A. Hickok, et al., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nstfz85S4ccC One Third of a Nation: Lorena Hickok Reports on the Great Depression]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1983) ISBN 0252010965, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Even Ronald Reagan was a New Dealer, back when he was a liberal Democrat and a Roosevelt man (although he later saw the light, saying, &quot;Fascism was really the basis of the New Deal&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;Howell Raines, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60D10FB3A5F12728DDDAE0994D0405B8084F1D3 Reagan Denies Plan to Answer Carter],&quot; ''The New York Times'', August 17, 1980, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In fact, much of Nazism was borrowed&lt;ref&gt;[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/fsa.8d34748 Southington, Connecticut. School children pledging their allegiance to the flag], United States. Office of War Information. Overseas Picture Division. Washington Division; 1944 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt; from American progressives&lt;ref&gt;Even the term &quot;national socialism&quot; was coined by American socialist Edward Bellamy. (Alison Ravetz , ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4thHBdqD2tEC Council Housing and Culture: The History of a Social Experiment]'' (Psychology Press, 2001), ISBN 0415239451, p. 49; c.f. Sylvia Strauss, &quot;Gender, Class and Race in Utopia,&quot; in Daphne Patai, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qV7yKyMeGB4C Looking Backward, 1988-1888: Essays on Edward Bellamy]'' (University of Massachusetts Press, 1988), ISBN 0870236342, p. 71). He was the author of the 1888 utopian novel ''[http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/17/books/looking-back-at-looking-backward-we-have-seen-the-future-and-it-didn-t-work.htm Looking Backward]'', which was [http://www.education.com/study-help/article/progressive-era-18951914/ read by most early progressives] as is said to have [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/guideDesc.asp?catid=93&amp;type=issue kicked off the Progressive Era]. Robert Weir, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y7n2tJVd3YsC Class in America: An Encyclopedia] (ABC-CLIO, 2007), ISBN 0313068356, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; and Democrats&lt;ref&gt;Jim Lindgren, [http://volokh.com/archives/archive_2004_10_17-2004_10_23.shtml#1098345826 1938 Gallup poll data], The Volokh Conspiracy, October 21, 2004, 4:03am&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;eugenics and &quot;racial hygiene,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies'' Vol. 12 No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294&lt;/ref&gt; for example. As [http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/Nisbet.pdf Robert Nisbet] observed:<br /> {{cquote|the West's first real experience with totalitarianism&amp;mdash;political absolutism extended into every possible area of culture and society, education, religion, industry, the arts, local community and family included, with a kind of terror always waiting in the wings&amp;mdash;came with the American war state under [[Woodrow Wilson]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Robert A. Nisbet, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=wMElAAAAMAAJ The Twilight of Authority]'' (Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 183. Wilson's racism &quot;was often of a piece with the reigning [http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2008/0205/p09s01-coop.html progressive obsession with eugenics], the pseudoscience that strove to perfect society through better breeding.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Likewise, Nazi &quot;domestic policies were remarkably friendly toward the German lower classes, soaking the wealthy and redistributing the burdens of wartime to the benefit of the underprivileged,&quot; including &quot;transferring the tax burden to corporations.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, pp. 7, 38&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Along with its well-known anti-Semitic and expansionist planks, the Nazi Party program included a number of less-remembered demands that were (and are still) considered “progressive.” For example: “the State shall above all undertake to ensure that every citizen shall have the possibility of [http://www.livingwagecampaign.org/ living decently and earning a livelihood]”, “a generous increase in [http://www.socsec.org/ old-age pensions]”, “specially talented children of poor parents, whatever their station or occupation, be [http://www.nea.org/home/LegislativeActionCenter.html educated at the expense of the State]”, “help raise the standard of [http://www.healthreform.gov/ national health]” by “providing [http://www.prochoiceamerica.org/choice-action-center/take-action/ maternity welfare centers], banning child labor, [http://www.reversechildhoodobesity.org/sites/default/files/files-wfm/files/09.15.09-HCReformPositionPaper-RWJFCenter.pdf increasing physical fitness] through the introduction of compulsory games and gymnastics, and by the greatest possible encouragement of associations concerned with the physical education of the young,” etc.<br /> <br /> The Nazi platform attacked the concept of economic freedom, asserting that the “first duty of every citizen must be to work mentally or physically”, that “all [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/02/26/obama-wants-higher-capita_n_170237.html unearned income], and all income that does not arise from work, be abolished... breaking of [http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/14/obama-decries-fat-cat-bankers/ the tyranny of interest]”, that “[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/arianna-huffington/obama-calls-for-an-extrem_b_204903.html usurers], profiteers, etc., are to be punished with death, regardless of creed or race”, “total confiscation of all [http://leahy.senate.gov/press/200703/032007.html war profits]”, “[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/02/24/nationalizing-banks-aig-c_n_169388.html nationalization of all trusts] that have gone public [i.e., publicly-traded companies]”, “profit-sharing in large industries”, “ immediate [http://www.yesmagazine.org/issues/cities-of-exuberance/stopping-the-big-boxes communalization of large stores]”, “enactment of a law to [http://www.ij.org/images/castlecoalition/docs/victimizing_the_vulnerable.pdf expropriate the owners without compensation] of any land needed for the common purpose... abolition of ground rents, and the prohibition of all [http://www.boston.com/realestate/news/blogs/renow/2009/02/real_estate_spe.html speculation in land]”, etc. (Nazi newspapers ran frequent polemics against landlords.)&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, p. 63&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> As against individualism and the free market, the Nazis demanded “creation of a [http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/obama/2009/03/19/under-president-obama-big-government-is-back.html strong central authority] in the State”, “[http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0308/9238.html COMMON GOOD BEFORE INDIVIDUAL GOOD]” [Capitalization in original], that “No individual shall do any work that offends against the interest of the community to the benefit of all”, that “ruthless war be waged against those who work to the injury of the common welfare”, etc.<br /> <br /> Finally, the Nazis wiped out free speech and religious freedom, demanding “a legal campaign against those who propagate deliberate political lies and disseminate them through the press”, that “Newspapers transgressing against the common welfare [http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_chicsuntimes-rush.htm shall be suppressed]”, disingenuously promising freedom for all religious faiths “in the state, insofar as they do not endanger its existence” or “[http://www.nas.org/polArticles.cfm?Doc_Id=190 offend the moral and ethical sense]” of the Germanic race.&lt;ref&gt;Louis Leo Snyder, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8hV4AAAAIAAJ Documents of German History]'' (Rutgers University Press, 1958), p. 393 ''et seq.''&lt;/ref&gt; The Party statutes of May 22, 1926, state of these points: &quot;This program is unalterable.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://specialcollections.library.emory.edu/findingaids/content.php?id=gosnell425_10351 Cullen Bryant Gosnell] and [http://iamcr.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=360&amp;Itemid=362 Raymond Blalock Nixon], [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVDNAAAAMAAJ ''Proceedings: Institute of Citizenship'', Vol. 18, Iss. 7, 1932] (Emory University)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> &quot;Architect of the Holocaust&quot; Adolf Eichmann wrote in his memoirs, &quot;My political sympathies inclined towards the left and emphasized socialist aspects every bit as much as nationalist ones.” He and his comrades, said Eichmann, viewed Nazism and Communism as “quasi-siblings.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, pp. 16-17&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, in a 1944 article titled &quot;Our Socialism,&quot; Nazi Propaganda Minister Josef Goebbels boasted that “We alone [the Nazis] have the best social welfare measures.” In contrast, he wrote, &quot;The Jews are the incarnation of capitalism.”&lt;ref&gt;Victor Klemperer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-_E1rr7tLlcC I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years, 1942-1945]'' Vol. 2 (Random House, Inc., 2001) ISBN 0375756973, p. 317&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By confiscating and redistributing the property of Jews, the Nazis sought what they called “a truly socialist division of personal assets.”&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, p. 300&lt;/ref&gt; To this end, the Nazis enacted price controls, rent controls, exorbitant corporate taxes, farm subsidies and harsh taxes on capital gains,&lt;ref&gt;Michael C. Moynihan , &quot;[http://reason.com/archives/2007/08/15/hitlers-handouts Hitler's Handouts: Inside the Nazis' Welfare State],&quot; ''Reason'', August/September 2007&lt;/ref&gt; which Hitler denounced as “effortless income.”&lt;ref&gt;Gotz Aly, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nDcJDKnVS7EC Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State]'', tr. Jefferson Chase (Macmillan, 2008) ISBN 0805087265, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; It was in this atmosphere that the New Deal took shape.<br /> <br /> Even the Kremlin itself would on at least one occasion admit that Nazi Germany was a socialist nation. On October 7, 1939, the 22nd anniversary of the [[Bolshevik Revolution|Bolshevik coup]], the [[Comintern]] issued a statement describing the joint Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland as &quot;an example of cooperation of socialist nations against Anglo-French imperialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[http://www.17september1939.com 1939 September 17]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> &lt;references/&gt;</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=1471856 Alger Hiss 2018-12-03T02:53:47Z <p>FOIA: /* House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) */ updated dead link</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,&lt;ref&gt;Francis P. Sempa, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection],&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a &quot;liberal&quot; rather than a communist, referring to &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself],&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. He also had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party].&quot; Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301&lt;/ref&gt; putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, &quot;Conspiracy Theories,&quot; in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].&lt;/ref&gt; The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot; (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]] [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to ex-Communist (&quot;I belonged for a little while to the Young Communist League, and thereafter to the Socialist party.&quot; [[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 11) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4)<br /> The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) &quot;Growing up, all five children had music and art lessons, as well as German language lessons for Alger. They attended private colleges or universities and vacationed on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During college, the three boys spent summers in Europe.&quot; ([[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 12). Young Alger went [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 141); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After such a series of tragic losses, suggested Hiss's son, Alger might have found himself &quot;susceptible, as some may have been, to the seeming solidarity offered by the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 141&lt;/ref&gt; Among others susceptible to this lure was Hiss's [[#refHUAC8-17-48|future tenant]], [[Whittaker Chambers]], who wrote of the suicide of his own brother at age 21:<br /> {{cquote|[M]y brother's death stunned me ... this is the point at which I became a thorough Communist. I felt that any society which could result in the death of a boy like my brother was wrong and I was at war with it. This was the beginning of my fanaticism.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3HUvm91KDn8C The conservative turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the lessons of anti-communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim to have already been socially and politically progressive and anti-business when he went to college.&lt;ref&gt;Alger Hiss, [http://algerhiss.com/alger-hiss/in-his-own-words/alger-hisss-liberal-manifesto/l Draft of a Chapter Written By Alger Hiss on the Foundations For His Liberalism] ([http://holliscatalog.harvard.edu//?itemid=|library%2fm%2faleph|010072878 Alger Hiss papers], Small Manuscript Collection, [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/index.html Special Collections], [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/index.html Harvard Law School Library]), algerhiss.com. Cf. Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/ivan_chen/1/ Alger Hiss, 1926-1929]; [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 22-24.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor]]s included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as &quot;[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion.&quot; (Herbert Romerstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). &quot;[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[Atheism|atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt; (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no &quot;Hopkins Babbit [sic],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A misspelled reference to the [http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-babbi/char.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]&lt;/ref&gt; according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics &quot;from Soviets to styles&quot; with &quot;irresistible logic and rhetoric.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a &quot;militant communist,&quot; Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Paul Avrich, a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, &quot;[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)],&quot; ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&amp;psid=3381 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [http://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]&lt;ref&gt;Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan &amp; Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss became &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]]&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;On July 4, 1914, three IWW members were killed in New York when a bomb they were constructing exploded. The bomb also killed a woman in the next apartment, maimed many others, and destroyed the building. (&quot;Anarchist bomb believed for Rockefeller kills three I.W.W. makers and a woman--injures many--wrecks tenement house,&quot; New York Sun, 5 July 1914, p. 1.) Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including IWW boss [[&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]]) for a series of such acts, at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist]]ic (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist]]ic') cheek?&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; serving (along with various &quot;Communists, Socialists, and nonaffiliated radicals&quot;) on the Advisory Board of American Labor Associates;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87&lt;/ref&gt; Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join FDR's administration.<br /> <br /> [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). <br /> That [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline &quot;[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote &quot;I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help.&quot; Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185&lt;/ref&gt; agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot;). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot; who &quot;was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy...&quot; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already &quot;[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot;<br /> &quot;In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families].&quot; &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt; son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; Ware recruited Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; known as the [[Ware group]].&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed &quot;Marxist&quot;] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hope Hale Davis, &quot;Looking Back at my Years in the Party,&quot; ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., &quot;Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87&lt;/ref&gt; This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was &quot;the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA&lt;ref&gt;Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. &quot;Leonora Fuller&quot; in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&amp;id=70 Gardner Jackson]:&lt;ref&gt;Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): &quot;When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss's laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-HOAC&amp;month=0704&amp;week=d&amp;msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&amp;user=&amp;pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> [[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;merchants of death,&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to &quot;drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle&quot; with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]&lt;ref&gt;John Whiteclay Chambers II, &quot;[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.],&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515&lt;/ref&gt; maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was &quot;as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant,&quot; particularly toward the &quot;business leaders he cross-examined caustically.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]&lt;/ref&gt; One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement--who wrote that Christianity should &quot;aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism.&quot; (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; would report to Moscow that &quot;‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51&lt;/ref&gt; (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, &quot;neighbors&quot; was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; three years after that, Gorsky would identify &quot;Karl&quot; as &quot;Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss's 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&amp;user=&amp;pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [http://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as &quot;[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is &quot;Yes&quot;.... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)&lt;/ref&gt; notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. &quot;[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&amp;dat=19510317&amp;id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round,&quot; ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (to whom she refers by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222&lt;/ref&gt; Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a 25% pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://archives.williams.edu/williamshistory/biographies/sayre-francis.php son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639&lt;/ref&gt; had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;[https://solidarity-us.org/atc/62/p2424/ Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996],&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May–June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (the victims of which would number [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt; That June, [http://americanthinker.com/2014/07/diana_and_ron_what_was_going_on_.html at Stalin's behest], FDR abolished the State Department's Eastern European Division, headed by the anti-Communist Robert F. Kelley,&lt;ref&gt;Cathal J. Nolan, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZMeeXLSQhsC Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997) ISBN 0313291950, p. 207&lt;/ref&gt; reassigning its staff and dispersing its excellent library.<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' defection===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Trying to explain how a such a reversal happened, Chambers related how a certain German diplomat who &quot;had been extremely pro-Communist, had become an implacable anti-Communist.&quot; According to the diplomat's daughter, &quot;[O]ne night – in Moscow – he heard screams. That’s all. Simply one night he heard screams.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;What Communist has not heard those screams?&quot; wrote Chambers. &quot;...What man can call himself a Communist who has not accepted the fact that Terror is an instrument of policy ...? Those screams have reached every Communist’s mind. Usually they stop there ....&quot;<br /> {{cquote|But one day the Communist really hears those screams. He is going about his routine party tasks.... Suddenly, there closes around that Communist a separating silence, and in that silence he hears screams. He hears them for the first time. For they do not merely reach his mind. They pierce beyond. They pierce to his soul.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is &quot;man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God.&quot; This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:<br /> {{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: &quot;No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design.&quot; The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Far Eastern Division===<br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt; Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had &quot;dubious, Left Wing characters in his office.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, &quot;[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow],&quot; ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627224903/http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/levine700/?keywords=levine Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned friends (including HUAC investigator Joseph Brown Matthews), &quot;If they ever try to prove that I took my own life, [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html don't believe it],&quot; his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. (&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11F93959167B93C3A81789D85F458485F9 Gen. Krivitsky Found Dead; Suicide Finding Questioned; Notes Convince Washington Police He Shot Himself, but Friends Charge Former Ogpu Officer Was Slain by Reds KRIVITSKY'S DEATH IS INVESTIGATED],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1941, p. 1) Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [https://www.hoover.org/research/dark-memories corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30&lt;/ref&gt; where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, &quot;most of them Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Louis Rapoport, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, &quot;[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&amp;b=395031 Writers in Extremis],&quot; ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the Foreign Agents Registration Act [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91&lt;/ref&gt; According to Levine:<br /> {{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to &quot;go jump in a lake&quot; upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive&lt;ref&gt;&quot;an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&amp;t=1314204947 obscene or profane]&quot;; &quot;an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&amp;reversed=False&amp;action=define&amp;homonym=0&amp;text=expletive swearword].&quot; Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of &quot;expletive&quot; as a euphemism for &quot;[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; remark on this order: &quot;Oh, forget it, Adolf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/books/review/Mallon-t.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/1993_dubinsky.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/walter_winchell.htm Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; After he informed FDR that Hiss was spying for Moscow, according to Winchell, &quot;Leaning closer and pointing a finger in my face, he [Roosevelt] angrily said, 'I don't want to hear another thing about it! It isn't true.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schechter 2002]]: 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; According to Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians], Roosevelt was uninterested when confronted with reports of Soviet spying in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokhin 2000]]: 107&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot; ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: &quot;Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody...&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr:<br /> {{cquote|Many young leftists in the early 1930’s had entered the government in the early throes of the New Deal and embraced a Communist siren under whose call significant numbers of them were willing to pass along valuable information to the Soviet Union during the war. A general leftist tilt in the government meant that these ideologues blended well into the Washington bureaucracy while keeping their strong Soviet sympathies largely hidden. The tradecraft of Soviet intelligence personnel, the well honed Communist Party tradition of conspiracy, and a [https://www.fbi.gov/history/history-publications-reports/in-the-enemys-house-venona-and-the-maturation-of-american-counterintelligence lack of concern in the Roosevelt administration towards Soviet spying] meant that little of this growing Soviet intelligence web was found except by accident in the opening years of the war.}}<br /> Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131008202927/https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Initially, Dies supported the New Deal.&quot; (William D. Pederson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) &quot;He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants.&quot; Dies also had a record of &quot;support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity.&quot; George N. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70&lt;/ref&gt; [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was &quot;furious&quot;&amp;mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&amp;mdash;&quot;you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed,&quot; he railed, adding &quot;there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20030707171840/http://boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook.&quot;]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite2|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99&lt;/ref&gt; Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710063742/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/article/268394/pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies,&lt;ref&gt;Although one American public school teacher's guide claims that the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] &quot;was not an alliance. At the start of World War II, Joseph Stalin (...strongly anti-fascist) was aligned with Great Britain and France against the Axis Powers of Germany,&quot; etc., (''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1KtAAFE2nAwC World War II]'' [Social Studies School Service, 2007] ISBN 156004313X, p. S11), this is false. As French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thoruz and Jacques Duclos put it upon the Nazi conquest of France, &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of German imperialism. It is a fact that in this sense there is a temporary alliance.&quot; ([[#refTolstoy82|Tolstoy 1982]]: 113) As late as January 1941, the Soviets were appealing to the Nazis for permission to join as full members of the Axis. (Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlsrAxuWekQC A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521618266, p. 202) Six months later, when the pact collapsed, the USSR rushed into the arms of the Allies, which the Communists viewed as yet another &quot;temporary alliance.&quot; David Gress, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NKyzGG92uMUC From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2004) ISBN 0743264886, p. 408&lt;/ref&gt; including Communists.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [http://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt;As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106&lt;/ref&gt; the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Haslam, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel P. Mikhailov&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [https://web.archive.org/web/20100210161901/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs-and-george-dasch Nazi and fascist agents].&lt;ref&gt;According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr., &quot;From the entry of the US into the war in 1941, the FBI, with cooperation of its fellow agencies and significant foreign allies, effectively negated Axis intelligence operations in the US and the western hemisphere. The Bureau was distinctly [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona less successful in identifying the Soviet threat] during the same period.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed the U.S. Lend-Lease program for Britain&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87. The Communist front [[American Peace Mobilization]] picketed the White House, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790078,00.html protesting Lend-Lease] aid to the U.K. When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Nazism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world” (&quot;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm reaktionärste Kraft in der Welt]&quot;). “The German government declared itself ready to establish peaceful relations with the Soviet Union, whilst the Anglo-French war bloc want war against the Soviet Union,” [http://www.marxists.org/archive/ulbricht/1940/die-welt.htm declared Ulbricht]. During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html the blitzed areas of London],&quot; writes [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Orwell prize winning] journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;/ref&gt; (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm officially dissolving] the [[Comintern]], forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern&lt;ref&gt;“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989&lt;/ref&gt; (which included “control over the CPUSA”),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center&lt;/ref&gt; whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, &quot;the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease,&quot; was [[Harry Dexter White]],&lt;ref&gt;Albert Loren Weeks, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> one of &quot;the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [http://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents],&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named &quot;Map.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; Strong boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt; These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124&lt;/ref&gt; from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.&lt;ref&gt;Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208&lt;/ref&gt; Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and a Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; (code-named ''Lyre''),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; but also the mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [http://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity,&quot; but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt &quot;Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)&lt;/ref&gt; noted that &quot;Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/https://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, &quot;[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind,&quot; according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].&lt;ref&gt;Felix Wittmer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently,&quot; agreed former Soviet propagandist&lt;ref&gt;David C. Engerman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201&lt;/ref&gt; W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; His face was &quot;gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function,&quot; wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Burt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35&lt;/ref&gt; John Gunther. &quot;I felt certain that he was going to die.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Gunther, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:<br /> {{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell Cordell Hull] and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...&lt;ref&gt;James A. Farley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which<br /> {{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States. He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&amp;mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.&lt;ref&gt;Steven Lomazow , &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta'],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In [https://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister<br /> {{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. &quot;Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?&quot; he [Churchill] asked. &quot;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta].&quot;}}<br /> The deterioration in Roosevelt's judgement became evident in some of his more controversial statements at Yalta, including the following, recorded in the formerly [http://archive.today/p3GKt Top Secret minutes] two weeks after the liberation of Aushwitz:<br /> {{cquote|MARSHAL STALIN asked whether the President intended to make any concessions to Ibn Saud [King of Saudi Arabia].<br /> THE PRESIDENT replied that there was only one concession he thought he might offer and that was to give him the six million Jews in the United States.}}<br /> ====United Nations planning====<br /> As what Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/serhii-plokhii Serhii Plokhii] calls &quot;the State Department's expert on the United Nations&quot; at Yalta, Hiss was involved in discussions preceeding the secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; to give the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Although Hiss officially opposed this decision, there is some mystery as to how it came about: Hiss would later claim that the British informed him that US agreement to this Soviet demand had come from Stettinius himself, but Stettinus denied that he had ever made such an agreement.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plohky 2010]]: 192&lt;/ref&gt; Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kort, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===='Traitors'====<br /> The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; But Venona is not the only source: According to Plokhii, the [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2012/September%202012/0912yalta.aspx foremost modern analyst of Yalta], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]]: xxv&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was, according to Sudoplatov, &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein, who had been one of Hiss’s control officers in 1935-38, when he served as vice-consul at the Soviet consulate New York, and was now deputy director of the GRU. Hiss's briefings revealed not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====Poland====<br /> Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [http://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]]&amp;mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta &quot;went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures].&quot; It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes,&quot; he wrote. &quot;To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====China====<br /> Hiss had input even on China. During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to the formerly [https://archive.is/HTiIW Top Secret minutes], &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record resorts to the passive voice, obscuring Hiss's role in this incident: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press reports relying on this [https://books.google.com/books?id=kotPYEqx7kMC&amp;q=memory+hole#v=snippet&amp;q=memory%20hole&amp;f=false bowdlerized] official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot; FDR apologists such as liberal &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/weekinreview/04tanenhaus.html court historian]&quot; Arthur Schlesinger parroted this official version as dogma: &quot;As for Yalta, Alger Hiss had nothing to do with the Far Eastern discussions, and knew nothing of their existence,&quot; etc. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MegmQB1MxqkC The Politics of Hope: And, The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691134758, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Too much stress cannot be laid on the hope that our economic assistance be carried out in China through the medium of a government fully and fairly representative of all important Chinese political elements, including the Chinese Communists,&quot; said Acheson. (Freda Utley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JmAcAAAAMAAJ The China story]'' [H. Regnery Co., 1951], p. 15) This was the pretext for the U.S. embargo on arms to China in July 1946. Even after the embargo ended in May 1947, Acheson was able to delay shipments another six months. In 1949, he would explicitly instruct his subordinates that &quot;it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action.&quot; (David S. McLellan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: &quot;Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China.&quot; John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the &quot;memoranda for the President&quot; Stettinius directed be placed &quot;in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss,&quot; according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944 [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Other secret agreements====<br /> According to [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon [http://education-research.org/images/FDR-Stalin-Jews.jpg Stalin requested] the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, in Washington, sent [https://archive.is/TDxrP a Top Secret telegram] to Stettinius at Yalta, objecting to the repatriation as a violation of the Geneva Convention and of the traditional American policy of granting political asylum. The U.S. nevertheless agreed to the repatriation (which would become known as [[Operation Keelhaul]]), but that agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/01/03/reviews/990103.03persict.html Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; continuously since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told.&quot; ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. According to Stettinius, Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Powell, [http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were &quot;loaned&quot; to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: &quot;I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions.&quot; (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hoping to obtain &quot;control of the entire [[Mediterranean]],&quot; the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding &quot;an immediate boycott&quot; of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking &quot;[[Communist]] expansion world-wide,&quot; the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:&lt;ref&gt;United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.&lt;ref&gt;William B. Dunham, &quot;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career],&quot; Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which were [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that &quot;Ales&quot; and his group were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify &quot;the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow,&quot; Gouzenko would repeat that &quot;there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius.&quot; Bruce Craig, &quot;Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed,&quot; David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, &quot;We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss.&quot; [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 29, the Canadian Prime Minister met with Truman and Acheson in the White House, telling them that, according to Gouzenko, &quot;an assistant secretary of the Secretary of State's department was supposed to be implicated&quot; in GRU espionage. According to King, Truman &quot;turned to Acheson and said something to the effect that it would not be surprising.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who stated that Hiss's assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]], p. 1181 (PDF p. 121)&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John T. Donovan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; reported, &quot;In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Cronin, S.S., &quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945],&quot; p. 49 (PDF p. 58)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23&lt;/ref&gt; She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://archive.mrc.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/02/09.htm a speech] regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;In 1946, Stalin declared that the world would never be safe from war so long as capitalism survived. This inaugurated the cold war period.&quot; [http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/CIA%20Murphy%20Collection%20Pt1-1.pdf Fact sheet], Records of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Raymond E. Murphy Collection on International Communism, 1917–1958. Part 1: Eastern Europe. Cf. Walter LaFeber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38. &quot;The West never chose to have a Cold War, and never would,&quot; write Soviet dissident/exiles Vladimir Bukovsky and Pavel Stroilov. &quot;[I]t was always imposed on us [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=32645 by the Kremlin aggressors].&quot; “The Cold War was [http://www.raleighspyconference.com/wrapup/2003.aspx caused by the Soviet Union], was sustained by the Soviet Union, and was ended by the Soviet Union when it collapsed,” according to Christopher Andrew (so-called “[http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians]”). “It was and is as simple as that.”&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']]An extensive [[FBI]] investigation helped develop a great deal of evidence verifying Chambers’ statements and [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/january/a-byte-out-of-history-the-alger-hiss-story revealing Hiss’ cover-ups]. [[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the Bureau that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69&lt;/ref&gt; On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;Panuch would testify that &quot;...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'&quot; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, &quot;it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department.&quot; [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]&quot; (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&amp;hp&amp;oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, an investigation concluded that Hiss had taken home top-secret reports he was not cleared to see.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hQjvrgC_zAgC A Covert Life - Jay Lovestone: Communist, Anti-Communist and Spymaster]'' (House, 1999) ISBN 0307805662, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; That month the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 1 20)]&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; During the campaign, House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged, &quot;first we will give our efforts to cleaning out the Communists, their fellow travelers and parlor pinks from [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19460921&amp;id=nNtXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=g_UDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1774,4765653 high positions in our Government].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify &quot;any disloyal or subversive person&quot; from federal service. Truman's actions &quot;left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress,&quot; according to the journal of the National Archives. &quot;Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program],&quot; but no action was taken for three months. Finally, on June 10, members of the newly Republican-controlled Senate sent a secret report to Truman's new Secretary of State, [[George Marshall]], warning him about Undersecretary Dean Acheson, who had fired Panuch:<br /> {{cquote|It becomes necessary due to the gravity of the situation to call your attention to a condition that developed and still flourishes in the State Department under the administration of Dean Acheson. It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect communist personnel in high places but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity … On file in the department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States which involves a large number of State Department employees, some in high official positions. This report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department with the apparent tacit approval of Mr. Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;David Lawrence, &quot;Stevenson Held Unfamiliar with Red Issue,&quot; [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19520917&amp;id=gflXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=Z_YDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3180,2556457 ''Spokane Daily Chronicle,'' September 17, 1952, p. 4]&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marshall didn't respond to this report and, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 security cases] in the State Department the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that &quot;an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999&lt;/ref&gt; conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/No+Bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a [https://archive.is/5BcPM single federal official] for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/subpena subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html reported] to the chairman of Soviet intelligence about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers ('''A. Hiss''', [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”&lt;ref&gt;Truman &quot;wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow.&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named &quot;PAZh/Page.&quot; [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117&lt;/ref&gt; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.<br /> <br /> The Hiss forces launched a &quot;frightful campaign of vilification&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hilton Kramer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss's &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period].&quot; On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif/image.gif confinement in mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Just two days after their public testimony,&lt;ref&gt;Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; The New York ''Daily News'' asked, &quot;Well Alger, where's that suit?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281. Cf. Lloyd Chiasson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBC1QaeWyDAC The press on trial: crimes and trials as media events]'' (ABC-CLIO, 1997) ISBN 0275959368, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post''&amp;mdash;&quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers,&quot; according to Chambers&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 710. &quot;The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding.&quot; Marvin N. Olasky, &quot;[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950],&quot; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1–4, 1987), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to put up or shut up ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.&lt;ref&gt;Chalmers McGeagh Roberts, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SRhlAAAAMAAJ The Washington post: the first 100 years]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1977) ISBN 0395258545, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss's suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers.&quot; David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted &quot;an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Grand jury==<br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;John J. Danahy, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss's machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> [[Image:Alger Hiss testifies.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss testifies in 1950]]<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis], fresh from his [http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/defenders.html defeated defense of segregation] in ''Brown v. Board of Education''.. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked &quot;strictly confidential&quot; or &quot;strictly confidential, for the Secretary,&quot; would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&amp;st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says],&quot; ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].&lt;ref&gt;Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense reverted to Hiss's original &quot;insanity defense&quot; (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. &quot;I never liked him. I knew him...&quot; said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. &quot;There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy.&quot; Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Naftali, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; (Italics in original) later concluded that &quot;[http://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/newby-sacvan.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,&lt;ref&gt;James Bell, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty],&quot; ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted &quot;it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life.&quot; Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988&lt;/ref&gt; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot; So fearful of the implications was the President that [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ Truman ordered the Venona documents destroyed]—an order that, fortunately for historians, was disobeyed.<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; orchestrated by&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;The Faithful Traitor,&quot; ''National Review'', February 10, 1997&lt;/ref&gt; long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed &quot;communist&quot; (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.” Among Hiss's fellow prisoners was avowed Communist Maurice Braverman. According to [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo196.html leftist] historian Garry Wills:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hen it came time for Hiss to be released, Braverman's lawyer said that the Party hoped he would have an eloquent statement to read when he came out the gate. Television cameras were bound to be there. Braverman asked Hiss what he meant to say; Hiss said he had not thought of making a statement. Braverman said he thought it would be a good idea. &quot;What should I say?&quot; Hiss asked, and Braverman composed his first draft for him. He behaved like one still serving the Party.&lt;ref&gt;Garry Wills, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByGIJIhocj0C Lead time: a journalist's education]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004) ISBN 0618446907, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == Later life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In 1956, surrounded by quite a bit of controversy, the [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] at [[Princeton University]] invited Hiss as a guest speaker.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBBbAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA8-PA31 Princeton Alumni Weekly, Volume 56], Princeton Alumni Weekly, 1955&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication.&quot; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of [[radical left-wing]] politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&amp;off=0&amp;f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss's conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as &quot;our agent.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Summers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.&lt;/ref&gt; Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]<br /> <br /> * &lt;cite id=reflegacy&gt;[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refShelton2012&gt;Christina Shelton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_XyzyNEy1McC Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treason]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2012) ISBN 1451655452&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlokhy2010&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorgan04&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerken03&gt; Gregg Herken, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPickersgill70&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTolstoy82&gt; Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yOoNAQAAMAAJ Stalin's secret war]'' (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982) ISBN 0030472660&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss2000&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss,&quot; ''[http://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refYalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112860 Black Notebook]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 White Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112566 White Notebook #3]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 Yellow Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refSilv6.106&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120310004029/http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&amp;page=1 Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48.2&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part Two], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48-2R&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTrohan1970&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refRJG06&gt;Robert Justin Goldstein, &quot;[http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist],&quot; ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120034728/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021232049/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May–June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes5-10-05&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss Case], May 10, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September–October 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; ''National Review'', February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-80900413/hiss-defenders-covering-for-the-old-man-the-last Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]<br /> [[Category:United States Political Scandals]]<br /> [[Category:Featured articles]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=1471855 Alger Hiss 2018-12-03T02:38:30Z <p>FOIA: /* House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) */ updated dead link</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,&lt;ref&gt;Francis P. Sempa, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection],&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a &quot;liberal&quot; rather than a communist, referring to &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself],&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. He also had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party].&quot; Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301&lt;/ref&gt; putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, &quot;Conspiracy Theories,&quot; in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].&lt;/ref&gt; The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot; (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]] [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to ex-Communist (&quot;I belonged for a little while to the Young Communist League, and thereafter to the Socialist party.&quot; [[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 11) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4)<br /> The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) &quot;Growing up, all five children had music and art lessons, as well as German language lessons for Alger. They attended private colleges or universities and vacationed on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During college, the three boys spent summers in Europe.&quot; ([[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 12). Young Alger went [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 141); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After such a series of tragic losses, suggested Hiss's son, Alger might have found himself &quot;susceptible, as some may have been, to the seeming solidarity offered by the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 141&lt;/ref&gt; Among others susceptible to this lure was Hiss's [[#refHUAC8-17-48|future tenant]], [[Whittaker Chambers]], who wrote of the suicide of his own brother at age 21:<br /> {{cquote|[M]y brother's death stunned me ... this is the point at which I became a thorough Communist. I felt that any society which could result in the death of a boy like my brother was wrong and I was at war with it. This was the beginning of my fanaticism.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3HUvm91KDn8C The conservative turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the lessons of anti-communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim to have already been socially and politically progressive and anti-business when he went to college.&lt;ref&gt;Alger Hiss, [http://algerhiss.com/alger-hiss/in-his-own-words/alger-hisss-liberal-manifesto/l Draft of a Chapter Written By Alger Hiss on the Foundations For His Liberalism] ([http://holliscatalog.harvard.edu//?itemid=|library%2fm%2faleph|010072878 Alger Hiss papers], Small Manuscript Collection, [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/index.html Special Collections], [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/index.html Harvard Law School Library]), algerhiss.com. Cf. Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/ivan_chen/1/ Alger Hiss, 1926-1929]; [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 22-24.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor]]s included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as &quot;[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion.&quot; (Herbert Romerstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). &quot;[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[Atheism|atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt; (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no &quot;Hopkins Babbit [sic],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A misspelled reference to the [http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-babbi/char.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]&lt;/ref&gt; according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics &quot;from Soviets to styles&quot; with &quot;irresistible logic and rhetoric.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a &quot;militant communist,&quot; Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Paul Avrich, a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, &quot;[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)],&quot; ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&amp;psid=3381 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [http://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]&lt;ref&gt;Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan &amp; Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss became &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]]&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;On July 4, 1914, three IWW members were killed in New York when a bomb they were constructing exploded. The bomb also killed a woman in the next apartment, maimed many others, and destroyed the building. (&quot;Anarchist bomb believed for Rockefeller kills three I.W.W. makers and a woman--injures many--wrecks tenement house,&quot; New York Sun, 5 July 1914, p. 1.) Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including IWW boss [[&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]]) for a series of such acts, at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist]]ic (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist]]ic') cheek?&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; serving (along with various &quot;Communists, Socialists, and nonaffiliated radicals&quot;) on the Advisory Board of American Labor Associates;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87&lt;/ref&gt; Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join FDR's administration.<br /> <br /> [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). <br /> That [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline &quot;[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote &quot;I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help.&quot; Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185&lt;/ref&gt; agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot;). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot; who &quot;was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy...&quot; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already &quot;[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot;<br /> &quot;In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families].&quot; &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt; son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; Ware recruited Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; known as the [[Ware group]].&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed &quot;Marxist&quot;] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hope Hale Davis, &quot;Looking Back at my Years in the Party,&quot; ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., &quot;Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87&lt;/ref&gt; This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was &quot;the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA&lt;ref&gt;Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. &quot;Leonora Fuller&quot; in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&amp;id=70 Gardner Jackson]:&lt;ref&gt;Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): &quot;When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss's laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-HOAC&amp;month=0704&amp;week=d&amp;msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&amp;user=&amp;pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> [[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;merchants of death,&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to &quot;drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle&quot; with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]&lt;ref&gt;John Whiteclay Chambers II, &quot;[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.],&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515&lt;/ref&gt; maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was &quot;as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant,&quot; particularly toward the &quot;business leaders he cross-examined caustically.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]&lt;/ref&gt; One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement--who wrote that Christianity should &quot;aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism.&quot; (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; would report to Moscow that &quot;‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51&lt;/ref&gt; (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, &quot;neighbors&quot; was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; three years after that, Gorsky would identify &quot;Karl&quot; as &quot;Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss's 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&amp;user=&amp;pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [http://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as &quot;[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is &quot;Yes&quot;.... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)&lt;/ref&gt; notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. &quot;[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&amp;dat=19510317&amp;id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round,&quot; ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (to whom she refers by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222&lt;/ref&gt; Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a 25% pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://archives.williams.edu/williamshistory/biographies/sayre-francis.php son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639&lt;/ref&gt; had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;[https://solidarity-us.org/atc/62/p2424/ Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996],&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May–June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (the victims of which would number [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt; That June, [http://americanthinker.com/2014/07/diana_and_ron_what_was_going_on_.html at Stalin's behest], FDR abolished the State Department's Eastern European Division, headed by the anti-Communist Robert F. Kelley,&lt;ref&gt;Cathal J. Nolan, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZMeeXLSQhsC Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997) ISBN 0313291950, p. 207&lt;/ref&gt; reassigning its staff and dispersing its excellent library.<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' defection===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Trying to explain how a such a reversal happened, Chambers related how a certain German diplomat who &quot;had been extremely pro-Communist, had become an implacable anti-Communist.&quot; According to the diplomat's daughter, &quot;[O]ne night – in Moscow – he heard screams. That’s all. Simply one night he heard screams.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;What Communist has not heard those screams?&quot; wrote Chambers. &quot;...What man can call himself a Communist who has not accepted the fact that Terror is an instrument of policy ...? Those screams have reached every Communist’s mind. Usually they stop there ....&quot;<br /> {{cquote|But one day the Communist really hears those screams. He is going about his routine party tasks.... Suddenly, there closes around that Communist a separating silence, and in that silence he hears screams. He hears them for the first time. For they do not merely reach his mind. They pierce beyond. They pierce to his soul.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is &quot;man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God.&quot; This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:<br /> {{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: &quot;No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design.&quot; The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Far Eastern Division===<br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt; Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had &quot;dubious, Left Wing characters in his office.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, &quot;[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow],&quot; ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627224903/http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/levine700/?keywords=levine Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned friends (including HUAC investigator Joseph Brown Matthews), &quot;If they ever try to prove that I took my own life, [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html don't believe it],&quot; his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. (&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11F93959167B93C3A81789D85F458485F9 Gen. Krivitsky Found Dead; Suicide Finding Questioned; Notes Convince Washington Police He Shot Himself, but Friends Charge Former Ogpu Officer Was Slain by Reds KRIVITSKY'S DEATH IS INVESTIGATED],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1941, p. 1) Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [https://www.hoover.org/research/dark-memories corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30&lt;/ref&gt; where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, &quot;most of them Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Louis Rapoport, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, &quot;[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&amp;b=395031 Writers in Extremis],&quot; ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the Foreign Agents Registration Act [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91&lt;/ref&gt; According to Levine:<br /> {{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to &quot;go jump in a lake&quot; upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive&lt;ref&gt;&quot;an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&amp;t=1314204947 obscene or profane]&quot;; &quot;an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&amp;reversed=False&amp;action=define&amp;homonym=0&amp;text=expletive swearword].&quot; Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of &quot;expletive&quot; as a euphemism for &quot;[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; remark on this order: &quot;Oh, forget it, Adolf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/books/review/Mallon-t.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/1993_dubinsky.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/walter_winchell.htm Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; After he informed FDR that Hiss was spying for Moscow, according to Winchell, &quot;Leaning closer and pointing a finger in my face, he [Roosevelt] angrily said, 'I don't want to hear another thing about it! It isn't true.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schechter 2002]]: 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; According to Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians], Roosevelt was uninterested when confronted with reports of Soviet spying in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokhin 2000]]: 107&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot; ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: &quot;Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody...&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr:<br /> {{cquote|Many young leftists in the early 1930’s had entered the government in the early throes of the New Deal and embraced a Communist siren under whose call significant numbers of them were willing to pass along valuable information to the Soviet Union during the war. A general leftist tilt in the government meant that these ideologues blended well into the Washington bureaucracy while keeping their strong Soviet sympathies largely hidden. The tradecraft of Soviet intelligence personnel, the well honed Communist Party tradition of conspiracy, and a [https://www.fbi.gov/history/history-publications-reports/in-the-enemys-house-venona-and-the-maturation-of-american-counterintelligence lack of concern in the Roosevelt administration towards Soviet spying] meant that little of this growing Soviet intelligence web was found except by accident in the opening years of the war.}}<br /> Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131008202927/https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Initially, Dies supported the New Deal.&quot; (William D. Pederson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) &quot;He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants.&quot; Dies also had a record of &quot;support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity.&quot; George N. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70&lt;/ref&gt; [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was &quot;furious&quot;&amp;mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&amp;mdash;&quot;you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed,&quot; he railed, adding &quot;there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20030707171840/http://boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook.&quot;]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite2|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99&lt;/ref&gt; Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710063742/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/article/268394/pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies,&lt;ref&gt;Although one American public school teacher's guide claims that the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] &quot;was not an alliance. At the start of World War II, Joseph Stalin (...strongly anti-fascist) was aligned with Great Britain and France against the Axis Powers of Germany,&quot; etc., (''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1KtAAFE2nAwC World War II]'' [Social Studies School Service, 2007] ISBN 156004313X, p. S11), this is false. As French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thoruz and Jacques Duclos put it upon the Nazi conquest of France, &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of German imperialism. It is a fact that in this sense there is a temporary alliance.&quot; ([[#refTolstoy82|Tolstoy 1982]]: 113) As late as January 1941, the Soviets were appealing to the Nazis for permission to join as full members of the Axis. (Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlsrAxuWekQC A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521618266, p. 202) Six months later, when the pact collapsed, the USSR rushed into the arms of the Allies, which the Communists viewed as yet another &quot;temporary alliance.&quot; David Gress, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NKyzGG92uMUC From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2004) ISBN 0743264886, p. 408&lt;/ref&gt; including Communists.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [http://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt;As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106&lt;/ref&gt; the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Haslam, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel P. Mikhailov&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [https://web.archive.org/web/20100210161901/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs-and-george-dasch Nazi and fascist agents].&lt;ref&gt;According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr., &quot;From the entry of the US into the war in 1941, the FBI, with cooperation of its fellow agencies and significant foreign allies, effectively negated Axis intelligence operations in the US and the western hemisphere. The Bureau was distinctly [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona less successful in identifying the Soviet threat] during the same period.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed the U.S. Lend-Lease program for Britain&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87. The Communist front [[American Peace Mobilization]] picketed the White House, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790078,00.html protesting Lend-Lease] aid to the U.K. When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Nazism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world” (&quot;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm reaktionärste Kraft in der Welt]&quot;). “The German government declared itself ready to establish peaceful relations with the Soviet Union, whilst the Anglo-French war bloc want war against the Soviet Union,” [http://www.marxists.org/archive/ulbricht/1940/die-welt.htm declared Ulbricht]. During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html the blitzed areas of London],&quot; writes [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Orwell prize winning] journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;/ref&gt; (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm officially dissolving] the [[Comintern]], forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern&lt;ref&gt;“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989&lt;/ref&gt; (which included “control over the CPUSA”),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center&lt;/ref&gt; whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, &quot;the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease,&quot; was [[Harry Dexter White]],&lt;ref&gt;Albert Loren Weeks, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> one of &quot;the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [http://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents],&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named &quot;Map.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; Strong boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt; These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124&lt;/ref&gt; from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.&lt;ref&gt;Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208&lt;/ref&gt; Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and a Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; (code-named ''Lyre''),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; but also the mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [http://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity,&quot; but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt &quot;Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)&lt;/ref&gt; noted that &quot;Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/https://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, &quot;[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind,&quot; according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].&lt;ref&gt;Felix Wittmer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently,&quot; agreed former Soviet propagandist&lt;ref&gt;David C. Engerman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201&lt;/ref&gt; W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; His face was &quot;gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function,&quot; wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Burt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35&lt;/ref&gt; John Gunther. &quot;I felt certain that he was going to die.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Gunther, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:<br /> {{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell Cordell Hull] and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...&lt;ref&gt;James A. Farley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which<br /> {{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States. He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&amp;mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.&lt;ref&gt;Steven Lomazow , &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta'],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In [https://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister<br /> {{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. &quot;Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?&quot; he [Churchill] asked. &quot;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta].&quot;}}<br /> The deterioration in Roosevelt's judgement became evident in some of his more controversial statements at Yalta, including the following, recorded in the formerly [http://archive.today/p3GKt Top Secret minutes] two weeks after the liberation of Aushwitz:<br /> {{cquote|MARSHAL STALIN asked whether the President intended to make any concessions to Ibn Saud [King of Saudi Arabia].<br /> THE PRESIDENT replied that there was only one concession he thought he might offer and that was to give him the six million Jews in the United States.}}<br /> ====United Nations planning====<br /> As what Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/serhii-plokhii Serhii Plokhii] calls &quot;the State Department's expert on the United Nations&quot; at Yalta, Hiss was involved in discussions preceeding the secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; to give the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Although Hiss officially opposed this decision, there is some mystery as to how it came about: Hiss would later claim that the British informed him that US agreement to this Soviet demand had come from Stettinius himself, but Stettinus denied that he had ever made such an agreement.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plohky 2010]]: 192&lt;/ref&gt; Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kort, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===='Traitors'====<br /> The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; But Venona is not the only source: According to Plokhii, the [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2012/September%202012/0912yalta.aspx foremost modern analyst of Yalta], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]]: xxv&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was, according to Sudoplatov, &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein, who had been one of Hiss’s control officers in 1935-38, when he served as vice-consul at the Soviet consulate New York, and was now deputy director of the GRU. Hiss's briefings revealed not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====Poland====<br /> Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [http://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]]&amp;mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta &quot;went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures].&quot; It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes,&quot; he wrote. &quot;To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====China====<br /> Hiss had input even on China. During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to the formerly [https://archive.is/HTiIW Top Secret minutes], &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record resorts to the passive voice, obscuring Hiss's role in this incident: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press reports relying on this [https://books.google.com/books?id=kotPYEqx7kMC&amp;q=memory+hole#v=snippet&amp;q=memory%20hole&amp;f=false bowdlerized] official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot; FDR apologists such as liberal &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/weekinreview/04tanenhaus.html court historian]&quot; Arthur Schlesinger parroted this official version as dogma: &quot;As for Yalta, Alger Hiss had nothing to do with the Far Eastern discussions, and knew nothing of their existence,&quot; etc. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MegmQB1MxqkC The Politics of Hope: And, The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691134758, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Too much stress cannot be laid on the hope that our economic assistance be carried out in China through the medium of a government fully and fairly representative of all important Chinese political elements, including the Chinese Communists,&quot; said Acheson. (Freda Utley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JmAcAAAAMAAJ The China story]'' [H. Regnery Co., 1951], p. 15) This was the pretext for the U.S. embargo on arms to China in July 1946. Even after the embargo ended in May 1947, Acheson was able to delay shipments another six months. In 1949, he would explicitly instruct his subordinates that &quot;it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action.&quot; (David S. McLellan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: &quot;Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China.&quot; John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the &quot;memoranda for the President&quot; Stettinius directed be placed &quot;in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss,&quot; according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944 [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Other secret agreements====<br /> According to [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon [http://education-research.org/images/FDR-Stalin-Jews.jpg Stalin requested] the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, in Washington, sent [https://archive.is/TDxrP a Top Secret telegram] to Stettinius at Yalta, objecting to the repatriation as a violation of the Geneva Convention and of the traditional American policy of granting political asylum. The U.S. nevertheless agreed to the repatriation (which would become known as [[Operation Keelhaul]]), but that agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/01/03/reviews/990103.03persict.html Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; continuously since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told.&quot; ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. According to Stettinius, Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Powell, [http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were &quot;loaned&quot; to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: &quot;I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions.&quot; (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hoping to obtain &quot;control of the entire [[Mediterranean]],&quot; the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding &quot;an immediate boycott&quot; of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking &quot;[[Communist]] expansion world-wide,&quot; the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:&lt;ref&gt;United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.&lt;ref&gt;William B. Dunham, &quot;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career],&quot; Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which were [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that &quot;Ales&quot; and his group were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify &quot;the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow,&quot; Gouzenko would repeat that &quot;there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius.&quot; Bruce Craig, &quot;Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed,&quot; David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, &quot;We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss.&quot; [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 29, the Canadian Prime Minister met with Truman and Acheson in the White House, telling them that, according to Gouzenko, &quot;an assistant secretary of the Secretary of State's department was supposed to be implicated&quot; in GRU espionage. According to King, Truman &quot;turned to Acheson and said something to the effect that it would not be surprising.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who stated that Hiss's assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]], p. 1181 (PDF p. 121)&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John T. Donovan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; reported, &quot;In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Cronin, S.S., &quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945],&quot; p. 49 (PDF p. 58)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23&lt;/ref&gt; She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://archive.mrc.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/02/09.htm a speech] regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;In 1946, Stalin declared that the world would never be safe from war so long as capitalism survived. This inaugurated the cold war period.&quot; [http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/CIA%20Murphy%20Collection%20Pt1-1.pdf Fact sheet], Records of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Raymond E. Murphy Collection on International Communism, 1917–1958. Part 1: Eastern Europe. Cf. Walter LaFeber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38. &quot;The West never chose to have a Cold War, and never would,&quot; write Soviet dissident/exiles Vladimir Bukovsky and Pavel Stroilov. &quot;[I]t was always imposed on us [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=32645 by the Kremlin aggressors].&quot; “The Cold War was [http://www.raleighspyconference.com/wrapup/2003.aspx caused by the Soviet Union], was sustained by the Soviet Union, and was ended by the Soviet Union when it collapsed,” according to Christopher Andrew (so-called “[http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians]”). “It was and is as simple as that.”&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']]An extensive [[FBI]] investigation helped develop a great deal of evidence verifying Chambers’ statements and [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/january/a-byte-out-of-history-the-alger-hiss-story revealing Hiss’ cover-ups]. [[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the Bureau that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69&lt;/ref&gt; On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;Panuch would testify that &quot;...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'&quot; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, &quot;it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department.&quot; [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]&quot; (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&amp;hp&amp;oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, an investigation concluded that Hiss had taken home top-secret reports he was not cleared to see.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hQjvrgC_zAgC A Covert Life - Jay Lovestone: Communist, Anti-Communist and Spymaster]'' (House, 1999) ISBN 0307805662, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; That month the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 1 20)]&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; During the campaign, House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged, &quot;first we will give our efforts to cleaning out the Communists, their fellow travelers and parlor pinks from [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19460921&amp;id=nNtXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=g_UDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1774,4765653 high positions in our Government].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify &quot;any disloyal or subversive person&quot; from federal service. Truman's actions &quot;left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress,&quot; according to the journal of the National Archives. &quot;Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program],&quot; but no action was taken for three months. Finally, on June 10, members of the newly Republican-controlled Senate sent a secret report to Truman's new Secretary of State, [[George Marshall]], warning him about Undersecretary Dean Acheson, who had fired Panuch:<br /> {{cquote|It becomes necessary due to the gravity of the situation to call your attention to a condition that developed and still flourishes in the State Department under the administration of Dean Acheson. It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect communist personnel in high places but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity … On file in the department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States which involves a large number of State Department employees, some in high official positions. This report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department with the apparent tacit approval of Mr. Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;David Lawrence, &quot;Stevenson Held Unfamiliar with Red Issue,&quot; [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19520917&amp;id=gflXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=Z_YDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3180,2556457 ''Spokane Daily Chronicle,'' September 17, 1952, p. 4]&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marshall didn't respond to this report and, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 security cases] in the State Department the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that &quot;an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999&lt;/ref&gt; conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/No+Bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a [https://archive.is/5BcPM single federal official] for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [http://www.nolo.com/definition.cfm/Term/BE45BC5C-A852-41E6-A9C1C267589E6C61/alpha/S/ subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html reported] to the chairman of Soviet intelligence about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers ('''A. Hiss''', [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”&lt;ref&gt;Truman &quot;wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow.&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named &quot;PAZh/Page.&quot; [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117&lt;/ref&gt; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.<br /> <br /> The Hiss forces launched a &quot;frightful campaign of vilification&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hilton Kramer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss's &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period].&quot; On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif/image.gif confinement in mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Just two days after their public testimony,&lt;ref&gt;Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; The New York ''Daily News'' asked, &quot;Well Alger, where's that suit?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281. Cf. Lloyd Chiasson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBC1QaeWyDAC The press on trial: crimes and trials as media events]'' (ABC-CLIO, 1997) ISBN 0275959368, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post''&amp;mdash;&quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers,&quot; according to Chambers&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 710. &quot;The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding.&quot; Marvin N. Olasky, &quot;[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950],&quot; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1–4, 1987), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to put up or shut up ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.&lt;ref&gt;Chalmers McGeagh Roberts, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SRhlAAAAMAAJ The Washington post: the first 100 years]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1977) ISBN 0395258545, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss's suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers.&quot; David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted &quot;an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Grand jury==<br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;John J. Danahy, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss's machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> [[Image:Alger Hiss testifies.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss testifies in 1950]]<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis], fresh from his [http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/defenders.html defeated defense of segregation] in ''Brown v. Board of Education''.. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked &quot;strictly confidential&quot; or &quot;strictly confidential, for the Secretary,&quot; would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&amp;st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says],&quot; ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].&lt;ref&gt;Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense reverted to Hiss's original &quot;insanity defense&quot; (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. &quot;I never liked him. I knew him...&quot; said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. &quot;There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy.&quot; Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Naftali, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; (Italics in original) later concluded that &quot;[http://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/newby-sacvan.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,&lt;ref&gt;James Bell, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty],&quot; ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted &quot;it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life.&quot; Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988&lt;/ref&gt; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot; So fearful of the implications was the President that [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ Truman ordered the Venona documents destroyed]—an order that, fortunately for historians, was disobeyed.<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; orchestrated by&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;The Faithful Traitor,&quot; ''National Review'', February 10, 1997&lt;/ref&gt; long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed &quot;communist&quot; (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.” Among Hiss's fellow prisoners was avowed Communist Maurice Braverman. According to [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo196.html leftist] historian Garry Wills:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hen it came time for Hiss to be released, Braverman's lawyer said that the Party hoped he would have an eloquent statement to read when he came out the gate. Television cameras were bound to be there. Braverman asked Hiss what he meant to say; Hiss said he had not thought of making a statement. Braverman said he thought it would be a good idea. &quot;What should I say?&quot; Hiss asked, and Braverman composed his first draft for him. He behaved like one still serving the Party.&lt;ref&gt;Garry Wills, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByGIJIhocj0C Lead time: a journalist's education]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004) ISBN 0618446907, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == Later life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In 1956, surrounded by quite a bit of controversy, the [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] at [[Princeton University]] invited Hiss as a guest speaker.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBBbAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA8-PA31 Princeton Alumni Weekly, Volume 56], Princeton Alumni Weekly, 1955&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication.&quot; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of [[radical left-wing]] politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&amp;off=0&amp;f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss's conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as &quot;our agent.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Summers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.&lt;/ref&gt; Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]<br /> <br /> * &lt;cite id=reflegacy&gt;[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refShelton2012&gt;Christina Shelton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_XyzyNEy1McC Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treason]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2012) ISBN 1451655452&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlokhy2010&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorgan04&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerken03&gt; Gregg Herken, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPickersgill70&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTolstoy82&gt; Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yOoNAQAAMAAJ Stalin's secret war]'' (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982) ISBN 0030472660&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss2000&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss,&quot; ''[http://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refYalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112860 Black Notebook]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 White Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112566 White Notebook #3]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 Yellow Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refSilv6.106&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120310004029/http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&amp;page=1 Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48.2&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part Two], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48-2R&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTrohan1970&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refRJG06&gt;Robert Justin Goldstein, &quot;[http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist],&quot; ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120034728/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021232049/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May–June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes5-10-05&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss Case], May 10, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September–October 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; ''National Review'', February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-80900413/hiss-defenders-covering-for-the-old-man-the-last Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]<br /> [[Category:United States Political Scandals]]<br /> [[Category:Featured articles]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA&diff=1470175 User:FOIA 2018-11-25T01:27:57Z <p>FOIA: /* Karl Marx */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Useful links}}<br /> {{cquote|I don't think that the way to correct a spin from the left is to try to impart a spin from the right.... [A]n information flow distorted from the right would be just as much a disservice as distortion from the left. What we really should be after... is accurate information. And I don't see what any conservative or anybody else for that matter has to fear from accurate information.}}<br /> ::::::::-M. Stanton Evans, “[https://www.policyarchive.org/bitstream/handle/10207/13275/92440_1.pdf?sequence=1 Can Conservatives Change the Media?]” Heritage Foundation Resource Bank lecture, August 7, 1990<br /> <br /> <br /> ===ARCHIVES===<br /> &lt;small&gt;[[User:FOIA/Archive_1|Left-Wing Anti-Semitism]]<br /> |<br /> [[User:FOIA/Archive_2|Fascism and National Socialism]]<br /> |<br /> [[User:FOIA/Archive_3|Fascism and the New Deal]]<br /> |<br /> [[User:FOIA/Archive_4|Joe McCarthy]]<br /> |<br /> [[User:FOIA/Archive_5|Miscellany]]&lt;/small&gt;<br /> <br /> =Karl Marx=<br /> '''Karl Heinrich Marx''' (May 5, 1818&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/misc/1818-bc.htm Birth Certificate of Karl Marx], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''Collected Works'', Vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 635&lt;/ref&gt; – March 14, 1883) was a bourgeois&lt;ref&gt;Francis Wheen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C Karl Marx: A Life]'' (W.W. Norton &amp; Company, 2001) ISBN 0393321576, pp. 8, 278&lt;/ref&gt; political pamphleteer,&lt;ref&gt;George Bernard Shaw, “Trotsky, Prince of Pamphleteers,” ''The Nation'' (ISSN 0027-8378) Vol. 1922 No. 30 (June 7, 1922), pp. 560-561, reprinted in Brian Tyson, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Ui6sNgX5vfQC Bernard Shaw's Book Reviews: Volume Two,1884-1950]'' (University Park, PA.: Penn State Press, 1996) ISBN 0271015489, pp. 440-450. Cf. Terrell Carver, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HgbPEM0A4ksC The Postmodern Marx]'' (University Park, PA.: Penn State Press, 1998), p. 160&lt;/ref&gt; polemicist&lt;ref&gt;Chris Matthew Sciaberra, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D7z2ACODvLkC Marx, Hayek and Utopia]'' (SUNY Press, 1995) ISBN 0791426165, p.6. Cf. Michael Grenfell and Cheryl Hardy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ao6emzDlvIAC Art Rules: Pierre Bourdieu and the Visual Arts]'' (Berg Publishers, 2007) ISBN 1845202341, p.17&lt;/ref&gt; and propagandist,&lt;ref&gt;Baron John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ItJmAAAAMAAJ The Cambridge Modern History]'' (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1910), p. 758. Cf. Milorad M. Drachkovitch and Sidney Hook, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MJkLqIlu-q4C Marxist Ideology in the Contemporary World: Its Appeals and Paradoxes]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1973) ISBN 0836981545, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt; credited as co-founder (with Friedrich Engels) of communism&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=am7G9xBmlXAC The Communist Manifesto and Other Writings]'' (Barnes &amp; Noble, 2005) ISBN 1593081006, p. vi&lt;/ref&gt; and specifically of Marxism, a theory identified by Karl Popper as [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/popper_falsification.html pseudoscience]. Although Marx always considered himself an economist,&lt;ref&gt;Charles H. Powers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cw8nRx08ix0C Making Sense of Social Theory: A Practical Introduction]'' (Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2010) ISBN 1442201193, p. 115&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;the Marxist system as a whole is not regarded as economics by the mainstream,&quot; according to Don Ross, co-editor of ''[http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/oso/public/content/oho_philosophy/9780195189254/toc.html The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Economics]''.&lt;ref&gt;Don Ross, &quot;[http://uct.academia.edu/documents/0095/6341/Economics__anti-economics_and_ideology.pdf Economic theory, anti-economics, and political ideology],&quot; p. 10&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Marxist&lt;ref&gt;&quot;'I was a Marxist when I went to the University of Chicago, and I was still a Marxist after I took Milton Friedman’s course. ... But just one summer as an economics intern in Washington got rid of all of that.' Sowell worked in the Labor Department, in the Wage and Hour Division. He was interested in whether minimum wages helped the poor by raising their pay or hurt them by denying them jobs. He found that the personnel around him were interested in other things: namely, the preservation of their own jobs, and the perpetuation of government programs.&quot; Jay Nordlinger, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/nrd/article/?q=NTQ5ZjNhNzE5MjhmOGY5MjYwNGFjNmEwYWNmZjNmNTk= A Lion in High Summer],&quot; ''National Review'', Vol. LXIII, No. 3 (February 21, 2011)&lt;/ref&gt; economist Thomas Sowell agrees:<br /> {{cquote|[T]he Marxian contribution to economics can be readily summarized as virtually zero. Professional economics as it exists today reflects no indication that Karl Marx ever existed... [T]he development of modern economics has simply ignored Marx. Even economists who are Marxists typically utilize a set of analytical tools to which Marx contributed nothing... In professional economics, ''Capital'' was a detour into a blind alley...&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Sowell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TVkVAAAAIAAJ Marxism: Philosophy and Economics]'' (Taylor &amp; Francis, 1985) ISBN 0043201717, p. 217.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> William Coleman of the Australian National University actually goes so far as to identify Marx as an &quot;anti-economist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Coleman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jMipPwAACAAJ Economics and its Enemies: Two Centuries of Anti-Economics]'' (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 1403941483, p. 234. As economics concerns human prosperity and thriving, &quot;anti-economics&quot; may be understood as an anti-human project of death and destruction.&lt;/ref&gt; Ross concurs, labeling Marx &quot;the most influential anti-economist of all.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Ross, &quot;[http://uct.academia.edu/documents/0095/6341/Economics__anti-economics_and_ideology.pdf Economic theory, anti-economics, and political ideology],&quot; p. 10&lt;/ref&gt; Even Michael Harrington, a well-known Marxist,&lt;ref&gt;Wayne Price, &quot;[http://www.utopianmag.com/files/in/1000000043/wayne_utopia.pdf Anarchism: Utopian or Scientific?]&quot; ''The Utopian'' Vol. 5, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; in his book, ''The Twilight of Capitalism'', devoted an entire chapter to Marx &quot;The anti-economist.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Harrington, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=__ROAAAAMAAJ The Twilight of Capitalism]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1976) ISBN 0671227599, chapter 5&lt;/ref&gt; Nevertheless, men and women of zeal, often well-meaning but without understanding&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The greatest dangers to liberty lurk in insidious encroachment by men of zeal, well meaning but without understanding.&quot; [http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0277_0438_ZD.html Brandeis, J., Dissenting], ''Olmstead v. United States'' 277 US 438 (1928)&lt;/ref&gt; of economics, ravaged the 20th century reifying Marx's anti-economics&amp;mdash;in the process killing more people than all the century's wars combined.&lt;ref&gt;R.J. Rummel, [http://democraticpeace.wordpress.com/2008/11/30/what-only-35000000-killed-in-20th-century-war/ What? Only 35,000,000 Killed in 20th Century War?], Democratic Peace Blog, November 30, 2008. In 1918, Grigory Zinoviev, first head of the Comintern, announced: &quot;To overcome our enemies we must have our own socialist militarism. We must carry along with us 90 million out of the 100 million of Soviet Russia's population. As for the rest, we have nothing to say to them. They must be annihilated.&quot; (George Leggett, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NRUFAQAAIAAJ The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police]'' [Oxford University Press, 1986] ISBN 0-19-822862-7, p. 114) Zinoviev's estimate that Communists would murder 10 million people was about an order of magnitude too low: Mid-range academic estimates of the number of civilians murdered by Marxists range from 94 million (Stéphane Courtois, ed. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' [Harvard University Press, 1999] ISBN 0-674-07608-7, p. 4) to 148 million. Margaret Cox, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMvOoPN58CoC The Scientific Investigation of Mass Graves: Towards Protocols and Standard Operating Procedures]'' [Cambridge University Press, 2008] ISBN 0521865875, p. 8; Cf. Rudy Rummel, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Genocide&amp;month=0511&amp;week=d&amp;msg=kbHvcYM/g2BcFyVBXdoRew&amp;user=&amp;pw= Reevaluated democide totals for 20thC. and China], H-Genocide Discussion Logs, H-Net (Humanities and Social Sciences Online), Center for Humane Arts, Letters, and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University), November 28, 2005, cited in T. Matthew Ciolek, [http://www.ciolek.com/SPEC/rummel-on-democide-2005.html R.J. Rummel: Reevaluated democide totals for 20th C. and China], Asia Pacific Research Online, Internet Publications Bureau, Research School of Asian and Pacific Studies, National Institute for Asia and the Pacific (Australian National University), November 29, 2005&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Marx was born &quot;Carl Marx&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/misc/1818-bc.htm Birth Certificate of Karl Marx], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''Collected Works'', Vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 635&lt;/ref&gt; in the Rhineland city of Trier, then in the Kingdom of Prussia (now in the Federal Republic of Germany),&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.london.diplo.de/Vertretung/london/en/05/Art/Roman__Culture/Roman__Culture__Seite.html Roman Culture in Germany], Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, London&lt;/ref&gt; the son of Heinrich Marx and Henriette Pressborck.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/misc/1818-bc.htm Birth Certificate of Karl Marx], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''Collected Works'', Vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 635&lt;/ref&gt; Marx's father was a successful lawyer&lt;ref&gt;Hyam Maccoby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=h6Wo5CIgk84C Antisemitism and Modernity: Innovation and Continuity]'' (Abingdon: Routledge, 2006) ISBN 041531173X, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; and owner of several Moselle vineyards.&lt;ref&gt;Francis Wheen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C Karl Marx: A Life]'' (W.W. Norton &amp; Company, 2001) ISBN 0393321576, p. 10&lt;/ref&gt; Philosophically, he was a liberal&lt;ref&gt;John Spargo, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oM0WAAAAYAAJ Karl Marx: His Life and Work]'' (B. W. Huebsch, 1912), p. 18&lt;/ref&gt; who “knew his Voltaire and Rousseau by heart.”&lt;ref&gt;Wilhelm Liebknecht (Trans. Ernest Untermann), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kEYv3uqzDvsC Karl Marx: Biographical Memoirs]'' (Chicago: C. H. Kerr &amp; company, 1901), p. 163&lt;/ref&gt; After the Prussian Edict of 1812 effectively banned Jews from public office and the professions,&lt;ref&gt;Michael A. Meyer, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cm7wbAEGr2AC German-Jewish History in Modern Times: Vol. 2, Emancipation and acculturation, 1780-1871]'' (Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231074743, pp. 24-27&lt;/ref&gt; he converted from [[Judaism]] to the Evangelical Church&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/misc/1818-bc.htm Birth Certificate of Karl Marx], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''Collected Works'', Vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 635. Cf. Allan Megill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yLF7hxDPWNoC Karl Marx: The Burden of Reason (Why Marx Rejected Politics and the Market)]'' (Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2002) ISBN 0742511669, p. 72&lt;/ref&gt; (established in 1817 as the state church of Prussia),&lt;ref&gt;John Henry Kurtz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=m26sAI63HSkC History of the Christian Church from the Reformation to the Present, Volume 3]'' (Edinburgh: Clark, 1863) ISBN 1417991631, pp. 302-303. Cf. &quot;Prussia&quot; in Hugh Chisholm, ed., [http://books.google.com/books?id=Du4tAAAAIAAJ ''The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information'', 11th Ed., Vol. 22] (New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, 1911), p. 522; &quot;[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05642a.htm Evangelical Church],&quot; ''Catholic Encyclopedia''&lt;/ref&gt; changing his name from Hershel Mordechai to Heinrich Marx.&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZZuDP8hGg5IC The Communist Manifesto]'' (New York: International Publishers, 1950), p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; In 1824, he had his seven children, including six-year-old Karl, baptized.&lt;ref&gt;Werner Blumenberg, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eMkjlNv4neUC Karl Marx: An Illustrated Biography]'' (Verso, 2000) ISBN 1859842542, p. 10&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Marx the Christian===<br /> Marx was confirmed at age 15. As a student at the Royal Frederick William III gymnasium, he was to all appearances a Christian. When Marx graduated in 1835, his diploma read, under the category “Religious knowledge”: “His knowledge of the Christian faith and morals is fairly clear and well grounded; he knows also to some extent the history of the Christian Church.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/misc/1835-mat.htm Certificate of Maturity for Pupil of the Gymnasium in Trier], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), p. 643&lt;/ref&gt; Yet even then Marx betrayed a tendency to substitute man for God as the primary and ultimate object of Christian love and sacrifice. In an 1835 senior thesis, the 17-year-old Marx wrote that in union with Christ, &quot;we turn our hearts to our brothers whom He has closely bound to us, and for whom also He sacrificed Himself... Therefore union with Christ bestows... a heart which is open to love of mankind...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, “[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1837-pre/marx/1835chris.htm The Union of Believers With Christ According to John 15: 1-14, Showing its Basis and Essence, its Absolute Necessity, and its Effects],” in Robert Payne, ed.,''The Unknown Karl Marx'' (New York University Press, 1971), ISBN 0340093935, pp. 39-43, reprinted in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 636–639&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, in another senior thesis written at the same time, Marx wrote that &quot;religion itself teaches us that the ideal being whom all strive to copy sacrificed himself for the sake of mankind, and who would dare to set at nought such judgments?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, “[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1837-pre/marx/1835-ref.htm Reflections of a Young Man on The Choice of a Profession],” ''Archiv für die Geschichte des Sozialismus und der Arbeiterbewegung'' (1925), reprinted in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 3-9&lt;/ref&gt; Marx, a descendant of famous Talmudic scholars and sages on both sides of his family,&lt;ref&gt;Paul Johnson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MAuzkb28pKQC Intellectuals]''(HarperCollins, 1990) ISBN 0060916575, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt; apparently studied Greek and French, but not Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/misc/1835-mat.htm Certificate of Maturity for Pupil of the Gymnasium in Trier], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), p. 643&lt;/ref&gt; He would put this education to strange uses: &quot;Many of Marx’s dogmas were not original,&quot; writes economist Mark Skousen. &quot;They came from the Bible, which he twisted and changed to suit his purposes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Mark Skousen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=18w8JtsMRIcC The big three in economics: Adam Smith, Karl Marx and John Maynard Keynes]'' (M.E. Sharpe, 2007) ISBN 0765616947, p. 70&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Bonn University===<br /> As a Christian, Marx appears to have been one of those whom Jesus described as seeds &quot;sown on stony ground; who, when they have heard the word, immediately receive it with gladness,&quot; but who &quot;have no root in themselves, and so endure but for a time...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://kingjbible.com/mark/4.htm Mark 4]:16-17, King James Bible&lt;/ref&gt; Barely a month after starting the study of law at Bonn University in October 1835, Marx seems to have embraced atheism. Heinrich disapproved, warning his son:<br /> {{cquote|[A] great support for morality is pure faith in God. You know that I am anything but a fanatic. But this faith is a real [require]ment of man sooner or later, and there are moments in life when even the atheist is [involun]tarily drawn to worship the Almighty... for what Newton, Locke and Leibniz believed, everyone can [...] submit to.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1835-fl2.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], November 18, 1835, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 645-648&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marx was not academically successful, and proved to be a disappointment to his parents,&lt;ref&gt;John Spargo , ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oM0WAAAAYAAJ Karl Marx: His Life and Work]'' (B. W. Huebsch, 1912) , p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; confirming his father's opinion “that in your heart egoism is predominant.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1835-fl1.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], November 8, 1835, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), p. 645&lt;/ref&gt; As a leader of the Trier Tavern Club, a group of students “whose main ambition was to get drunk as frequently and riotously as possible,” Marx began playing cards, getting into drunken brawls, and was even wounded in a duel.&lt;ref&gt;Francis Wheen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C Karl Marx: A Life]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 2001) ISBN 0393321576, pp. 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; He spent 24 hours in jail “for disturbing the peace by rowdiness and drunkenness at night.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/misc/1841-cb.htm Leaving Certificate from Berlin University], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''Collected Works'', Vol. 1, pp. 703-704&lt;/ref&gt; His father tried to dissuade the young Marx from such vices, warning his son that “youthful sins in any enjoyment that is immoderate or even harmful in itself meet with frightful punishment.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1836-fl1.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], 1836, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 648-652&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> His father's warning had no discernible effect. Years later, in London, Marx went on “many a pub crawl.”&lt;ref&gt;Francis Wheen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C Karl Marx: A Life]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 2001) ISBN 0393321576, pp. 6, 74. Cf. Jack Newcombe, &quot;[http://books.google.com/books?id=8VMEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA105&amp;lpg=PA105#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false The Karl Marx Memorial Pub Crawl],&quot; ''Life'', October 25, 1968, pp. 105-106; &quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/86431.stm Cheers to Karl Marx], BBC, 1 May, 1998; Richard Newberry, &quot;[http://www.lastampa.it/_web/CMSTP/tmplrubriche/giornalisti/grubrica.asp?ID_blog=145&amp;ID_articolo=74&amp;ID_sezione=308&amp;sezione=A London Pub Crawl with Karl Marx],&quot; ''La Stampa'', November 26, 2007&lt;/ref&gt; On one of these, accompanied by Wilhelm Liebknecht and Edgar Bauer, Marx drank in no less than 18 different pubs. In one of these, Marx's “inebriated comments”&lt;ref&gt;N. Ann Davis, Richard Keshen and Jeff McMahan, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DEQNjMMF4tkC Ethics and Humanity: Themes from the Philosophy of Jonathan Glover]'' (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0195325192, p. 278&lt;/ref&gt; that Germany “would yet outclass all other nations” nearly got them, once again, into a fight. They fled into the street where, according to Liebknecht, “we broke four or five street lamps.”&lt;ref&gt;Wilhelm Liebknecht (Trans. Ernest Untermann), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kEYv3uqzDvsC Karl Marx: Biographical Memoirs]'' (Chicago: C. H. Kerr &amp; company, 1901), p. 150&lt;/ref&gt; When he participated in this crime, Marx was a husband and father himself, nearly 40 years old.&lt;ref&gt;Boris Nicolaievsky and Otto Maenchen-Helfen, (Trans. Gwenda David and Eric Mosbacher), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC Karl Marx: Man and Fighter]'' (London: Methuen, 1936) ISBN 1406727032, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Marx's personal economy====<br /> Marx's youthful bacchanalia seem to have been ruinously expensive; while he was still a student, there emerged what was to become a dominant theme of his life: his &quot;grotesque incompetence&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Paul Johnson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GTqHpZech0YC Intellectuals: From Marx and Tolstoy to Sartre and Chomsky]'' (HarperCollins, 2007) ISBN 0061253170), p. 73&lt;/ref&gt; in real-world economics.&lt;ref&gt;The word &quot;economics&quot; is used here in the original sense of household management, administration or stewardship. M. M. Austin and Pierre Vidal-Naquet, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ekqCOGr1_NAC Economic and social history of ancient Greece: an introduction]'' (University of California Press, 1980) ISBN 0520042670, p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; On this score, the letters of Marx's long-suffering father tell a sorry tale:<br /> * “Your accounts, dear Karl, are... disconnected and inconclusive. If only they had been shorter and more precise, and the figures properly set out in columns, the operation would have been very simple. One expects order even from a scholar, and especially from a practical lawyer.... I enclose a money order for 50 talers [equivalent to approximately $900 today]...”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1836-fl1.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], 1836, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 648-652. A Prussian taler or thaler (whence we get the word &quot;dollar&quot;) was ~16.7 grams (about 0.6 ounces) of silver. At the current price of ~$30 per ounce, each taler would therefore be worth ~$18 today, so 50 talers would be worth ~$900.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * “I sent... 50 talers. With what you took with you, that makes 160 talers [~$2,880].... I am convinced that it is possible to manage with less... But no more under any condition... I enclose a draft on... the lottery office in the university building; you will get money there, as m[uch as] you need.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1836-fl2.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], March 18, 1836, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 652-653&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * “You are receiving 100 talers [~$1,800] herewith and, if you ask for it, you will receive the rest... You have not kept your word to me&amp;mdash;you remember your promise... At the moment I could not send you any more. In the next few days you will probably receive 20 talers [~$360] through Rabe.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1836-fl3.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], ca. May-June 1836, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 652-653&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * “Please, dear Karl, write at once, but write frankly, without reserve and truthfully. Calm me and your dear, kind mother, and we will soon forget the little monetary sacrifice.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1836-fl4.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], July 1, 1836, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 655-656&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * “For the time being I am sending you herewith 50 talers. You must at present be able to estimate approximately the amount you absolutely need each year, and that is what I should like to know.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1836-flb1.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], November 9, 1836, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 661-663&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * “Enclosed a money order for 50 talers. If you prefer me to look for a firm there to make an arrangement with you, you must tell me approximately the monthly sum I should fix for you. By now you must be able to say what it amounts to with one thing and another.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1836-flb2.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], December 28, 1836, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 663-666&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * &quot;As if we were men of wealth, my Herr Son disposed in one year of almost 700 talers [~$12,600] contrary to all agreement, contrary to all usage, whereas the richest spend less than 500 [~$9,000].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1837-fl7.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], December 9, 1837, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 685-691&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * &quot;...we are now in the fourth month of the law year and you have already drawn 280 talers [~$5,040]. I have not yet earned that much this winter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/papa/1838-fl1.htm Letter from Heinrich Marx to son Karl], February 10, 1838, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume01/index.htm Vol. I] (Trans. Robert Dixon), pp. 691-694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> If the young Marx's money woes were due to immaturity, in this regard he he never grew up. &quot;Marx was perpetually in debt, thanks largely to a disastrous combination of traits in his own character,&quot; writes Hugh Griffith: &quot;an incorrigible hopelessness with money, together with a refusal to stop spending when it ran out.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hugh Griffith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IyD9s6VVc-wC Karl Marx &amp; Friedrich Engels]'' (Collector's Library, 2009) ISBN 1905716737, p. 10&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Marx, the economist of the proletarian class,&quot; writes former Soviet economist Yuri Maltsev, &quot;was hardly what we would call a sound financial administrator.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Yuri N. Maltsev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC Requiem for Marx]'' (Auburn, AL: Ludwig Von Mises Institute, 1993) ISBN 1610161165, p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; As Sowell observes:<br /> {{cquote|Running left-wing movements has always been the prerogative of spoiled rich kids. This pattern goes all the way back to the days when an over-indulged and affluent young man named Karl Marx combined with another over-indulged youth from a wealthy family named Friedrich Engels to create the Communist ideology.&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Sowell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jJ22AAAAIAAJ Is reality optional?: and other essays]'' (Hoover Institution Press, 1993) ISBN 0817992626, p. 81&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> As a young man, Marx's financial irresponsibility &quot;drove him into the hands of moneylenders at high rates of interest.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Paul Johnson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GTqHpZech0YC Intellectuals: From Marx and Tolstoy to Sartre and Chomsky]'' (HarperCollins, 2007) ISBN 0061253170), p. 73&lt;/ref&gt; This pattern continued into his middle age: &quot;Marx was constantly borrowing money against his future income,&quot; writes Jerrold Seigal, professor of history at New York University, &quot;and until 1863 against his family inheritance too....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold Seigal, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hCh6hSMDrigC Marx's Fate: The Shape of a Life]'' (Penn State Press, 2004) ISBN 0271025816, p. 257&lt;/ref&gt; Marx's relations with his mother were &quot;icy and distant,&quot; according to biographer Francis Wheen, at least in part because &quot;she had been inconsiderate enough to stay alive,&quot; delaying Marx's eagerly-anticipated inheritance.&lt;ref&gt;Francis Wheen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C Karl Marx: A Life]'' (W.W. Norton &amp; Company, 2001) ISBN 0393321576, p. 8&lt;/ref&gt; Upon the death of Engels' mistress, Mary Burns, Marx wrote, &quot;Instead of Mary, ought it not to have been my mother,&quot; whom Marx judged &quot;has had her fair share of life.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1863/letters/63_01_08.htm Marx To Engels, January 8, 1863], in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works]'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume41/index.htm Vol. 41] (Trans. Robert Dixon), p. 442&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By Marx's own admission he was paying interest rates as high as 50% in 1866, when he was 48 years of age.&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1866/letters/66_10_13.htm Marx To Ludwig Kugelmann, 13 October 1866], ''Collected Works'' (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), Volume 42, p. 327&lt;/ref&gt; Perhaps not coincidentally, a &quot;passionate hatred of usury was the real emotional dynamic of [Marx's] whole moral philosophy,&quot; argues historian Paul Johnson. &quot;It explains why he devoted so much time and space to the subject&quot; and, suggests Johnson, might be found &quot;lying perhaps at the very roots of his hatred for the capitalist system.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Paul Johnson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GTqHpZech0YC Intellectuals: From Marx and Tolstoy to Sartre and Chomsky]'' (HarperCollins, 2007) ISBN 0061253170), p. 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1869, Marx told Engels he was £210 in debt (the equivalent of nearly $24,000 today),&lt;ref&gt;£210 in 1869 is equivalent to [http://www.measuringworth.com/ppoweruk/ £15,100], using retail price index ([http://www.x-rates.com/calculator.html $23,904]) today.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;of which about 75 are for pawnshop and interest.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Quoted by Otto Ruhle, ''Karl Marx: His Life and Work'' (New York: Now Home Library, 1942; reprint: Lightning Source Inc, 2007) ISBN 1406727024, p. 360&lt;/ref&gt; That year, Engels sold his interest in the family firm and paid off all Marx's debts; in addition, Engels gave Marx a pension of £350 per year,&lt;ref&gt;F.Engels to Karl Marx, March 28, 1869: “Enclosed draft on the Union Bank of London £87–10s for March to June” (ie £350 per annum) in ''Gesamtausgabe'' [Collected Works], Part III, Vol. 3, p. 173, as cited in William Otto Henderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=a9BvGA43rAQC Marx and Engels and the English workers: and other essays]'' (Psychology Press, 1989) ISBN 0714633348, p. 26, n. 41. The Marxists Internet Archive has apparently [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1869/letters/index.htm not yet found the time] to post this letter.&lt;/ref&gt; equivalent to an income of more than $280,000 today.&lt;ref&gt;Using [http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ average income].&lt;/ref&gt; According to Maltsev (using figures from an 1867 study presented to the Statistical Society of London),&lt;ref&gt;R. Dudley Baxter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gnI8AAAAcAAJ National income: the United Kingdom] (London: Macmillan and co, 1868)&lt;/ref&gt; that put Marx's income in the top 2% of the British population&amp;mdash;at the time the wealthiest in the world.&lt;ref&gt;Yuri N. Maltsev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC Requiem for Marx]'' (Auburn, AL: Ludwig Von Mises Institute, 1993) ISBN 1610161165, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; Yet even this sum was not enough for Marx, who by his own admission was spending from £400 to £500 per year,&lt;ref&gt;Marx to Kugelmann, 17 March 1868, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sgwQAQAAIAAJ Letters to Kugelmann]'' (Greenwood Press, 1973) ISBN 0837170451, p. 65. This is yet another letter the text of which is [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/letters/kug/index.htm missing] [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1868/letters/index.htm from] the Marxists Internet Archive.&lt;/ref&gt; the income-equivalent of $300,0000-$400,000 per year today.<br /> <br /> ==Marx's anti-Semitism and racism==<br /> Among the money-lenders in London, Marx &quot;made use of the Jews&quot;&amp;mdash;particularly &quot;the Bambergers, Steifer and Spielmann,&quot; writes economic historian W.O. Henderson, &quot;to raise small loans and to discount bills of exchange&quot; from his editor&amp;mdash;although he became &quot;furious when they pressed him to honour debts due for repayment,&quot; showing &quot;his contempt by always referring to them as 'Jew (or little Jew) Bamberger' and 'Jew Spielmann.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Otto Henderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=a9BvGA43rAQC Marx and Engels and the English workers: and other essays]'' (Psychology Press, 1989) ISBN 0714633348, p. 70&lt;/ref&gt; (Elsewhere, he called Bamberger a member of &quot;the stock-exchange synagogue.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;Léon Poliakov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w39m4aohL9gC The History of Anti-semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003) ISBN 0812218655, p. 424-425&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Marx's anti-Semitism was intertwined with racism. One one occasion when fellow socialist Ferdinand Lassalle (who regularly loaned Marx money) refused him a loan, Marx complained to Engels:<br /> {{cquote|The Jewish nigger Lassalle... would sooner throw money down the drain than lend it to a ‘friend’, even though his interest and capital were guaranteed.... It is now quite plain to me&amp;mdash;as the shape of his head and the way his hair grows also testify&amp;mdash;that he is descended from the negroes who accompanied Moses’ flight from Egypt (unless his mother or paternal grandmother interbred with a nigger).... The fellow’s importunity is also nigger-like.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1862/letters/62_07_30a.htm Marx To Engels], July 30, 1862, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/ Collected Works],'' Volume 41 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 388&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Marx called Lassalle a &quot;kinky-haired Nigger-Jew&quot; (''kraushaariger Nigger-Jude'')&lt;ref&gt;Reinhold Aman, &quot;Karl Marx, Maledictor,&quot; ''Maledicta: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression'' Vol. 6, No. 1 (1982), p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; with &quot;cynical, oily-obtrusive, phony Baronial Jew-manners.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Marx to Jenny Longuet, April 11, 1881, reprinted in Saul Kussiel Padover, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=E10EAQAAIAAJ The letters of Karl Marx]'' (Prentice-Hall, 1979) ISBN 0135315336, p. 338&lt;/ref&gt; He continually referred to him as &quot;Jew-boy Braun,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Andrew Valls, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RokMSK8iOg4C Race and racism in modern philosophy]'' (Cornell University Press, 2005) ISBN 0801472741, p. 243 (The Marxists Internet Archive bowdlerizes &quot;Jew-boy&quot; [''Jüdel''] into &quot;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/letters/59_02_25b.htm little Jew].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Isaac,&quot; &quot;Baron Isaac,&quot; a &quot;little Jew,&quot; &quot;Ephraim the clever,&quot; &quot;Braun Yid&quot; and &quot;Itzig,&quot; names commonly used by anti-Semites of the day. &quot;[T]he exodus of the Jews from Egypt was nothing but... the expulsion of the 'leprous people' from Egypt. At the head of these lepers was an Egyptian priest, Moses,&quot; asserted Marx. &quot;Lazarus, the leper, is therefore the prototype of the Jew, and so also of Lazare-Lassalle.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pierre Birnbaum, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vSSrAAAAIAAJ Geography of hope: exile, the Enlightenment, disassimilation] (Stanford University Press, 2008) ISBN 0804752931, p. 68&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Marx's style was shared by his companions: his wife referred to Lassalle &quot;the little Berlin Jew,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Otto Henderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=a9BvGA43rAQC Marx and Engels and the English workers: and other essays]'' (Psychology Press, 1989) ISBN 0714633348, p. 71&lt;/ref&gt; while Engels called him a &quot;greasy Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Paul Johnson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VIKGCHT1sbwC A history of the Jews]'' (HarperCollins, 1998) ISBN 0060915331, p. 350&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Marx's self-loathing===<br /> &quot;That Karl Marx was an inveterate antisemite is today considered a commonplace which is hardly ever questioned,&quot; wrote Shlomo Avineri, professor of political science at Hebrew University of Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;Shlomo Avineri, “[http://www.jstor.org/pss/2707911 Marx and Jewish Emancipation],” ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 25, No. 3 (July–September, 1964) pp. 445-450&lt;/ref&gt; Marx “was at best negative towards Jews in theory,” according to University of London historian David Cesarani;&lt;ref&gt;David Cesarani, ''[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/ressources/left_jews/Left_Jews_final.pdf The Jews and the Left] (Labour Friends of Israel 2004) ISBN 0 9500536-5-1, p. 1 (PDF p. 7)&lt;/ref&gt; he was &quot;a particularly caustic antisemite,&quot; wrote Edward H. Flannery, a professor at the Institute of Judeo-Christian Studies at Seton Hall University.&lt;ref&gt;Edward H. Flannery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J40gNC7cxfYC The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism]'' (Paulist Press, 2004) ISBN 0809143240, p. 168&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Marx's &quot;entire theory of class was rooted in anti-Semitism,&quot; charges Johnson.&lt;ref&gt;Paul Johnson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MAuzkb28pKQC Intellectuals]'' (HarperCollins, 1990) ISBN 0060916575), p. 73&lt;/ref&gt; Thus Shlomo Sharan of Tel Aviv University calls Marx an “anti-Semitic Jew,”&lt;ref&gt;Shlomo Sharan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5U-Dk-5p0mIC Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk]'' (Sussex Academic Press, 2003) ISBN 1903900522 , p. 125&lt;/ref&gt; while [http://www.js.emory.edu/faculty/gilman.htm Sander Gilman] of Emory University's Tam Institute for Jewish Studies ranks him among the most influential “Jewish anti-Semites” of his generation of Germans.&lt;ref&gt;S.L. Gilman (1984), “[http://mj.oxfordjournals.org/content/4/3/275.full.pdf+html Karl Marx and the Secret Language of Jews],” ''[http://mj.oxfordjournals.org/ Modern Judaism]'', [http://mj.oxfordjournals.org/content/by/year/1984 Vol. 4] [http://mj.oxfordjournals.org/content/4/3.toc No. 3], p. 275. Reprinted in Charlie Malcolm-Brown and Russell Wheatley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vz-4LDWCnlAC Karl Marx's Social and Political Thought: Critical Assessments]'' (Taylor &amp; Francis, 1990) ISBN 0415193273, p. 22&lt;/ref&gt; Albert S. Lindemann, Professor Emeritus in the Department of History, University of California–Santa Barbara, dubs Marx “a self-hating Jew”;&lt;ref&gt;Albert S. Lindemann , ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NagdhSUgB9oC Esau's Tears: Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2000) ISBN 0521795389, p. 166&lt;/ref&gt; Sir Isaiah Berlin diagnosed Marx's condition as &quot;self-hate,&quot; and Marx's biographer Werner Blumenberg &quot;self-hatred&quot;; Raphael Patai pronounced Marx the &quot;most influential of Jewish self-haters.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Raphael Patai, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6jNniq7Ji7YC The Jewish mind]'' (Wayne State University Press, 1977) ISBN 081432651X, p. 470&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====&quot;On the Jewish Question&quot;====<br /> In his essay, &quot;On the Jewish question,&quot; Marx makes it clear that he considered Jews &quot;worshippers of mammon,&quot; writes Flannery. &lt;ref&gt;Edward H. Flannery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J40gNC7cxfYC The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism]'' (Paulist Press, 2004) ISBN 0809143240, p. 168&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jew of Marx's essay,&quot; agrees Lindeman, &quot;worships money....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Albert S. Lindemann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NagdhSUgB9oC Esau's tears: modern anti-semitism and the rise of the Jews]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2000) ISBN 0521795389, p. 163&lt;/ref&gt; As Marx put it in that essay:<br /> {{cquote|What is the secular basis of Judaism? ''Practical'' need, ''self-interest''. What is the secular cult of the Jew? ''Haggling''.&lt;ref&gt;The Marxists Internet Archive softens &quot;secular cult&quot; (''weltliche Kultus'') to &quot;worldly religion&quot; and &quot;Haggling&quot; (''schacher'') to &quot;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/jewish-question/ Huckstering].&quot; Cf. Allan Megill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yLF7hxDPWNoC Karl Marx: the burden of reason (why Marx rejected politics and the market)]'' (Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2002) ISBN 0742511669, p. 164. “When Marx used this particular term he borrowed from the vocabulary of anti-Semitism,” writes Werner Cohn, professor of sociology at the University of British Columbia. “Ultimately derived from the Hebrew ''sakhar'', commerce, ''schacher'' became in the nineteenth century a very specific term of abuse.” Cohn cites the famous German dictionary written by the brothers Grimm: “''[http://urts55.uni-trier.de:8080/Projekte/WBB2009/DWB//call_wbgui_py_from_form?textpattern=schacher&amp;lemmapattern= Schacher] .... Kleinhandel, besonders gewinnsüchtiger Hausirhandel, gewöhnlich von den Juden, in verächtichem Sinne gebraucht''” [“Haggling, particularly greedy haggling, usually by Jews, with the connotation despised”], Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm, ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'' (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1893), vol. 8, p. 1959, as cited in Werner Cohn, “[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a784656037~frm=abslink From Victim to Shylock and Oppressor: The New Image of the Jew in the Trotskyist Movement],” ''Journal of Communist Studies'', vol. 7, no. 1 (March 1991), pp. 46-68&lt;/ref&gt; What is his worldly God? ''Money''.}}<br /> Marx hammers the point:<br /> {{cquote|Money is the jealous god of Israel, before which no other god may exist. The bill of exchange is the real god of the Jew. His god is only an illusory bill of exchange.}}<br /> Judaism has only contempt, according to Marx, for non-monetary values:<br /> {{cquote|Contempt for theory, art, history, and for man as an end in himself... is contained in an abstract form in the Jewish religion.}}<br /> Despite political disenfranchisement in Prussia, claims Marx, Jews have come to dominate politics through &quot;the power of money&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|The contradiction that exists between the practical political power of the Jew and his political rights is the contradiction between politics and the power of money in general. Although theoretically the former is superior to the latter, in actual fact politics has become the serf of financial power.}}<br /> Marx claimed that the Jews had elevated &quot;their greedy, exploitive spirit&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Matthew Lange, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jMQpHAMEF1EC Antisemitic Elements in the Critique of Capitalism in German Culture, 1850-1933]'' (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2007)ISBN 3039110403, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; into the reigning spirit of the age, writes Matthew Lange, director of the German program at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. As Marx put it, &quot;The god of the Jews has become secularized and has become the god of the world&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|The Jew has emancipated himself in a Jewish manner, not only because he has acquired financial power, but also because, through him and also apart from him, money has become a world power and the practical Jewish spirit has become the practical spirit of the Christian nations. The Jews have emancipated themselves insofar as the Christians have become Jews.}}<br /> It is &quot;in North America,&quot; according to Marx, that the &quot;practical domination of Judaism over the Christian world&quot; has achieved what he calls &quot;its unambiguous and normal expression.&quot;<br /> As evidence, Marx approvingly quotes one observer who writes of the &quot;devout and politically free inhabitant of New England&quot; that {{cquote|''Mammon'' is his idol.... In his view the world is no more than a Stock Exchange, and he is convinced that he has no other destiny here below than to become richer than his neighbor. Trade has seized upon all his thoughts, and he has no other recreation than to exchange objects.... [He] talks only of interest and profit.}}<br /> <br /> This theme, the &quot;practical domination&quot; of ''Judentum'' over America, would later be exploited by the Nazis, who would label the United States a &quot;Jewish Dictatorship,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jeffrey Herf, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=T3EZ50uDlSoC The Jewish enemy: Nazi propaganda during World War II and the Holocaust]'' (Harvard University Press, 2006) ISBN 0674021754, p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; claiming that Jews had &quot;economic life in New York... entirely under their control,&quot; and through newspapers &quot;controlled by the Jews&quot; influenced American public opinion: &quot;The question is whether the American people want to make the Jews happy by engaging in fruitless conflict with the German Reich and the German people.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Goebbels, &quot;[http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/goeb28.htm What Does America Really Want?]&quot; ''Völkischer Beobachter'', January 21, 1939 [“Was will eigentlich Amerika,” Die Zeit ohne Beispiel (Munich: Zentralverlag der NSDAP., 1941), pp. 24-30]) This association of Jews with America would be reprised in 2006, when German Neo-Nazis burned a copy of ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y50yo2rnJHcC Anne Frank: Diary of a Young Girl]'' along [http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/germany/9582 with an American flag].&lt;/ref&gt; This argument has since been reclaimed by the left, with charges of Jewish influence once again leading America into war.&lt;ref&gt;It has recently been charged that &quot;large and extremely influential Jewish donor groups are... agitating for a U.S. war against Iran&quot; (Glenn Greenwald, as quoted in Adam Levick, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=3211&amp;TTL=Anti-Israelism_and_Anti-Semitism_in_Progressive_U.S._Blogs/News_Websites:_Influential_and_Poorly_Monitored Anti-Israelism and Anti-Semitism in Progressive U.S. Blogs/News Websites: Influential and Poorly Monitored],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'' (Institute for Global Jewish Affairs), No. 92, [December 2010]); that a &quot;secret Jewish coalition [is] raising funds in excess of $200 million to wage a propaganda war in America in an attempt to gain American support for another war against Iran&quot; (PoliSci 000, &quot;[http://www.dailykos.com/story/2008/6/21/12160/0406/272/539749 Apartheid Israel Trying to Start World War 3],&quot; dailykos.com, June 21, 2008); that &quot;Israel's powerful lobbies&quot; in the U.S. have &quot;embraced Israel's approach to Iran&quot; creating a &quot;serious stumbling block&quot; to peace, that Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's demand that Israel be &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/26/world/africa/26iht-iran.html wiped off the map]&quot; was misinterpreted, whereas &quot;the threat is the other way around&quot; (Phyllis Bennis, &quot;[http://www.ips-dc.org/reports/iran_in_the_crosshairs Iran in the Crosshairs],&quot; Institute for Policy Studies, February 28, 2008); that &quot;a great power like the US [is] being dictated to in the conduct of its own foreign policy&quot; by Israel (Andrew Sullivan, &quot;[http://andrewsullivan.theatlantic.com/the_daily_dish/2010/01/sick-of-the-israelis-and-the-palestinians.html 'Sick' Of The Israelis And The Palestinians],&quot; theatlantic.com, January 6, 2010), etc.&lt;/ref&gt; This idea linking America and the Jews has powerful roots.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Several chroniclers of early New England have enumerated the founders' remarkable and quite widespread attempts to create, as well as to evoke through rhetorical means and typologies, a New Israel.&quot; (Michael Hoberman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tKvzmDezJkkC New Israel/New England: Jews and Puritans in Early America]'' [University of Massachusetts Press, 2011] ISBN 1558499202, p. 25) &quot;No Christian community in history identified more with the People of the Book than did the early settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, who believed their own lives to be a literal reenactment of the Biblical drama of the Hebrew nation... these émigré Puritans dramatized their own situation as the righteous remnant of the Church corrupted by the 'Babylonian woe,' and saw themselves as instruments of Divine Providence, a people chosen to build their new commonwealth on the Covenant entered into at Mount Sinai.&quot; (Gabriel Sivan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gcoOAAAAIAAJ The Bible and Civilization]'' [Keter Pub. House Jerusalem, 1973], p. 236) &quot;The Puritans saw themselves as the Israelites, fleeing Pharaoh (the king) across the Red Sea (the Atlantic).&quot; (Karin J. Goldstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5jLfqWJTJgCA History of Jewish Plymouth]'' [The History Press, 2013] ISBN 160949511X, p. 14) &quot;Indeed, [https://fee.org/articles/capitalism-and-the-jews/ the elite Puritan element was, if anything, pro-Semitic],&quot; according to the late Milton Friedman. For more on the Puritan identification of America with Israel, see George McKenna, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X.<br /> <br /> Today, the affinity of America for the Jews has given rise to the anti-Israel movement, which twins anti-Americanism with anti-Semitism, with both America and the Jews serving as symbols of capitalism. “The anti-American left... is at least as anti-Jewish as the clerical conservative right, especially among those who have embraced a pronounced 'antifascist' and 'antiracist' credo.” (Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42D75369-D582-4380-8395-D25925B85EAF%7D/wistrich.pdf European Anti-Semitism Reinvents Itself],'' [The American Jewish Committee, 2002], p. 11) &quot;Anti-Americanism in the Islamic world and Anti-Americanism in Europe are in fact linked, and both bear an uncanny resemblance to anti-Semitism.&quot; (Natan Sharansky, &quot;[http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122729626907148599 On Hating Jews: The inextricable link between anti-Semitism and anti-Americanism],&quot; ''The Wall Street Journal'', November 17, 2003) &quot;America and Jews are seen by many Europeans as paragons of a modernity they dislike and distrust: money-driven, profit-hungry, urban, universalistic, individualistic, mobile, rootless, inauthentic, and thus hostile to established traditions and values.&quot; (&quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=658&amp;TTL=European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Semitism:_Similarities_and_Differences European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Semitism: Similarities and Differences],&quot; An Interview with Andrei S. Markovits, ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'' [Institute for Global Jewish Affairs], No. 16 [January 1, 2004]) &quot;Jews were blamed for the evils of capitalism in earlier centuries. Americans are blamed for globalization, that is, technological and economic change to the max, in our days.&quot; (Josef Joffe, quoted in Mark O'Keefe, &quot;[http://pewforum.org/Politics-and-Elections/Anti-Semitism-and-Anti-Americanism.aspx Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; Pew Forum on Religion &amp; Public Life, May 5, 2006) &quot;America today has become the world's market-dominant minority,&quot; while &quot;Jews are a market-dominant mionority in the Middle East.&quot; (Amy Chua, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KSp1okOggpkC World on fire: how exporting free market democracy breeds ethnic hatred and global instability]'' [Random House, Inc., 2004] ISBN 0385721862, pp. 218, 229) Thus post-unification Germany, observed a journalist in 2005, is marked by &quot;a poisonous cocktail of the three big As: anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism and anti-capitalism.&quot; (Wolfgang Munchau, &quot;[http://www.spectator.co.uk/essays/13684/part_2/antiamericanism-antisemitism-anticapitalism.thtml Anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism, anti-capitalism],&quot; ''The Spectator'', May 21, 2005) This association of Jews with America was demonstrated in 2006, when German Neo-Nazis burned a copy of ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y50yo2rnJHcC Anne Frank: Diary of a Young Girl]'' along [http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/germany/9582 with an American flag].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Marx ends with a call for &quot;the ''emancipation of society from Judaism''&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|Once society has succeeded in abolishing the ''empirical'' essence of Judaism&amp;mdash;huckstering and its preconditions&amp;mdash;the Jew will have become ''impossible''.... In the final analysis, the ''emancipation of the Jews'' is the emancipation of mankind from ''Judaism''. [All italics Marx's]&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, &quot;On The Jewish Question,&quot; ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'', February 1844, reprinted in Karl Marx, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKdLO2jvbqsC Early writings]'' (Penguin, 1992) ISBN 0140445749, p. 232&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Analysis===<br /> Although Marx was &quot;more than a little tainted with that most ignoble of pastimes, Jew-baiting,&quot; observes British writer Alexander Baron, apologists for Marx &quot;are extremely coy about it nowadays, for obvious reasons.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Baron, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Khe9AAAACAAJ Anti-capitalism from anti-semitism to 'anti-racism']'' (Anglo-Hebrew Publishing, 1995) ISBN 1898318239, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; Henderson and Manchester University historian W.H. Chaloner comment:<br /> {{cquote|...Marx's anti-Semitism has been played down, or even ignored, in some popular socialist accounts of Marx's career and doctrines published in the West and intended for radical and socialist consumption.... There may not be exactly a conspiracy of silence but attention may be drawn to the fact that there is a difference between telling the truth and telling the whole truth. Deception by omission is still deception. Western commentators, too, with a few honourable exceptions, have tended to dodge the issue or to gloss over unwelcome facts. Scholars unfamiliar with the German language, who rely only upon English translations of the writings of Marx and Engels, may be led astray if they use selections compiled by Marxists who are prepared to suppress evidence which might display their hero in a somewhat unfavourable light.&lt;ref&gt;W.H. Chaloner &amp; W.O. Henderson, &quot;[http://www.paulbogdanor.com/antisemitism/marxracism.pdf Marx/Engels and Racism],&quot; ''Encounter'', July 1975, pp. 18-23&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> A case in point is the Marxists Internet Archive, which bowdlerizes some of Marx's writings (including ''On the Jewish Question'')&lt;ref&gt;The Marxists Internet Archive softens &quot;secular cult&quot; (''weltliche Kultus'') to &quot;worldly religion&quot; and &quot;Haggling&quot; (''schacher'') to &quot;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/jewish-question/ Huckstering].&quot; Cf. Allan Megill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yLF7hxDPWNoC Karl Marx: the burden of reason (why Marx rejected politics and the market)]'' (Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2002) ISBN 0742511669, p. 164. “When Marx used this particular term he borrowed from the vocabulary of anti-Semitism,” writes Werner Cohn, professor of sociology at the University of British Columbia. “Ultimately derived from the Hebrew ''sakhar'', commerce, ''schacher'' became in the nineteenth century a very specific term of abuse.” Cohn cites the famous German dictionary written by the brothers Grimm: “''[http://urts55.uni-trier.de:8080/Projekte/WBB2009/DWB//call_wbgui_py_from_form?textpattern=schacher&amp;lemmapattern= Schacher] .... Kleinhandel, besonders gewinnsüchtiger Hausirhandel, gewöhnlich von den Juden, in verächtichem Sinne gebraucht''” [“Haggling, particularly greedy haggling, usually by Jews, with the connotation despised”], Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm, ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'' (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1893), vol. 8, p. 1959, as cited in Werner Cohn, “[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a784656037~frm=abslink From Victim to Shylock and Oppressor: The New Image of the Jew in the Trotskyist Movement],” ''Journal of Communist Studies'', vol. 7, no. 1 (March 1991), pp. 46-68&lt;/ref&gt; and deletes others, such as “The Russian Loan” (See below)&lt;ref&gt;So embarrassing is this article to apologists for Marx that the Marxists Internet Archive has dropped it down the [http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Memory%20Hole memory hole]. The Web site's collection of [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/subject/newspapers/new-york-tribune.htm Marx's articles from the ''New York Daily Tribune'', August 21, 1852-February 1861], skips from November 16, 1855 to January 12, 1856&amp;mdash;erasing this article (of January 4, 1856) as effectively as [http://www.newseum.org/berlinwall/commissar_vanishes/vanishes.htm Stalin erased Nikolai Yezhov]. (Without mentioning this article by name, the archive does mention that the 1897 publication of the book in which this article was reprinted [http://marxists.org/archive/hyndman/1910/07/marx-and-engels.htm “was not 'helpful'.”]) The site claims that &quot;In the past, some writers who have contributed to Marxism have expressed racist... views. The MIA generally [http://www.marxists.org/admin/intro/index.htm does not “filter out” such views]; if we are archiving the work of a writer, any and all of that writer’s work may be included....&quot; The site's censorship of Marx himself is an exception.&lt;/ref&gt; altogether. Others engage in 'denialism': “To designate Marx as an anti-Semite is nothing but cold war propaganda,” wrote the Marxist&lt;ref&gt;Lawrence Jacob Friedman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tFJvyOpFJtUC Identity's architect: a biography of Erik H. Erikson]'' (Harvard University Press, 2000) ISBN 067400437X, p. 422&lt;/ref&gt; Erich Fromm.&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZprWAAAAMAAJ Early writings]'', T. B. Bottomore, tr. (McGraw-Hill, 1964), p. v&lt;/ref&gt; The idea that Marx was an anti-Semite, agrees David Hirsh of the University of London, is &quot;a standard misreading&quot; of ''On the Jewish Question''.&lt;ref&gt;David Hirsh, Book Review: &quot;[http://engageonline.wordpress.com/2009/05/07/book/ Perry and Schweitzer, ''Antisemitic myths: a historical and contemporary anthology''],&quot; ''[http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/01419870.asp Ethnic and Racial Studies]'', Vol. 32, No. 4 (May 2009), pp. 749-750&lt;/ref&gt; The idea that Marx was in any sense anti-Semitic is a “myth,” concurs Warwick University Sociology Professor Robert Fine (a [http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/emeritus/robertfine/home/mycv/ member] of the [http://www.cseweb.org.uk/ Conference of Socialist Economists]), arising in part out of what he calls a “deafness” to Marx's “ironic style.” Marx's claim that “Money is the jealous god of Israel,” contends Fine, is actually a “witty and deeply ironic” critique of that claim.&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, &quot;[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism], ''Engage'', Issue 2 (May 2006)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 Eco-socialist]&quot; Joel Kovel disagrees: &quot;No attempt to read these pages as a play on words can conceal the hostility which infuses them, and is precisely directed against the identity of the Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joel Kovel, “[http://www.springerlink.com/content/p2q3w7416w7h1516/ Marx on the Jewish Question],” ''Dialectical Anthropology'', Vol. 8, No. 1-2, (1983) pp.31-46&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, Marx expressed his contempt for Jews, not only in ''On the Jewish Question'', but in other writings as well. In ''The German Ideology'', Marx likens the bourgeoisie to Jews, whom he describes as criminals and hypocrites: “The attitude of the bourgeois to the institutions of his regime is like that of the Jew to the law; he evades them whenever it is possible to do so in each individual case, but he wants everyone else to observe them.”&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DdMLAAAAYAAJ The German Ideology: including Theses on Feuerbach and introduction to The critique of political economy]'' (Prometheus Books, 1998) ISBN 1573922587), p. 194&lt;/ref&gt; In ''The Holy Family'' Marx expands on the theme of &quot;the material, mass-type Jews,&quot; arguing that &quot;real ''secular'' Jewry, and hence ''religious'' Jewry ''too''... finds its final development in the ''money system'',&quot; concluding that &quot;the task of abolishing the essence of Jewry is actually the task of abolishing the ''Jewish character of civil society''... the most extreme expression of which is the ''money system''.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KKPaAAAAMAAJ Collected Works'', Vol. 4] (Lawrence &amp; Wishart, 1975) ISBN 0853152942, pp. 94, 109-110&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Extreme as these German works were, Marx surpassed them in vituperation with an article he wrote for publication in America, where according to Marx the &quot;practical domination of Judaism over the Christian world&quot; had achieved what he called &quot;its unambiguous and normal expression.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, &quot;On The Jewish Question,&quot; ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'', February 1844, reprinted in Karl Marx, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKdLO2jvbqsC Early writings]'' (Penguin, 1992) ISBN 0140445749, p. 232&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Russian Loan,&quot; published in the ''New York Daily Tribune'', did not just savage the Jews as capitalists, but specifically exploited the anti-Semitic stereotype of Jews as usurers:<br /> {{cquote|Thus we find every tyrant backed by a Jew... [T]he cravings of oppressors would be hopeless, and the practicability of war out of the question, if there were not... a handful of Jews to ransack pockets....<br /> <br /> [T]he real work is done by the Jews, and can only be done by them, as they monopolize the machinery of the loan-mongering mysteries.... The language spoken smells strongly of Babel, and the perfume which otherwise pervades the place is by no means of a choice kind....<br /> <br /> Thus do these loans, which are a curse to the people, a ruin to the holders, and a danger to the governments, become a blessing to the houses of the children of Judah. This Jew organization of loan-mongers is... dangerous to the people.... The fortunes amassed by these loan-mongers are immense, but the wrongs and sufferings thus entailed on the people and the encouragement thus afforded to their oppressors still remain to be told....<br /> <br /> The fact that 1855 years ago Christ drove the Jewish moneychangers out of the temple, and that the moneychangers of our age enlisted on the side of tyranny happen again chiefly to be Jews, is perhaps no more than a historical coincidence. The loan-mongering Jews of Europe do only on a larger and more obnoxious scale what many others do on one smaller and less significant. But it is only because the Jews are so strong that it is timely and expedient to expose and stigmatize their organization.&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, &quot;The Russian Loan,&quot; ''New-York Daily Tribune'', January 4, 1856, reprinted in Richard Aveling and Eleanor Marx Aveling, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D75MAAAAYAAJ The Eastern question: a reprint of letters written 1853-1856 dealing with the events of the Crimean War]'' (S. Sonnenschein &amp; co., lim., 1897), pp. 600-606. So embarrassing is this article to apologists for Marx that the Marxists Internet Archive has dropped it down the [http://www.newspeakdictionary.com/ns-dict.html Memory Hole]. The Web site's collection of [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/subject/newspapers/new-york-tribune.htm Marx's articles from the ''New York Daily Tribune'', August 21, 1852-February 1861], skips from November 16, 1855 to January 12, 1856&amp;mdash;erasing this article as effectively as [http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/farid/research/digitaltampering/stalin1+2.jpg Stalin erased Nikolai Yezhov]. (Without mentioning this article by name, the archive does mention that the 1897 publication of the book in which this article was reprinted [http://marxists.org/archive/hyndman/1910/07/marx-and-engels.htm “was not 'helpful'.”]) The site claims that &quot;In the past, some writers who have contributed to Marxism have expressed racist... views. The MIA generally [http://www.marxists.org/admin/intro/index.htm does not “filter out” such views]; if we are archiving the work of a writer, any and all of that writer’s work may be included....&quot; The site's censorship of Marx himself is an exception.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> More important, Marx did not limit his disparagement of Jews to his public writing and his creditors, but extended it to Jews in general. &quot;His private letters are replete with anti-Semitic remarks, caricatures, and crude epithets,&quot; writes Marx's biographer, Saul K. Padover: &quot;'Levy's Jewish nose,' 'usurers,' 'Jew-boy,' 'nigger-Jew,' etc.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Saul Kussiel Padover, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Aw8YAAAAIAAJ Karl Marx, an intimate biography] (McGraw-Hill, 1978) ISBN 0070480729, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; Marx &quot;sprayed anti-Semitic insults at his enemies with savage glee,&quot; writes Francis Wheen:&lt;ref&gt;Francis Wheen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3KOyuSakn80C Karl Marx: A Life]'' (W.W. Norton &amp; Company, 2001) ISBN 0393321576, p. 55&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jew [Heymann] Steinthal, with the bland smile&quot;; &quot;that pig... is a Jew by the name of Meier&quot;; he called the journalist Max Friedländer &quot;the cursed Jew of Vienna,&quot; French Minister of Finance Achille Fould a &quot;stock-exchange Jew,&quot; and Joseph Süß Oppenheimer &quot;the Jew Süß of Egypt.&quot; He once referred to a woman who, he wrote, &quot;swamped me with her benevolence&quot; as &quot;the most ugly creature I ever saw in my life, a nastily Jewish physiognomy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Marx to Nanette Philips, March 24, 1861, reprinted in [http://books.google.com/books?id=UQgiaY9f6Q4C Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels Gesamtausgabe, Volume 11] (Akademie Verlag, 2005) ISBN 3050041803, p. 404. (The text of this letter to his cousin is [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1861/letters/index.htm missing] from the Marxists Internet Archive.)&lt;/ref&gt; On another occasion he refers to a Jewish man as &quot;a cunning-looking Jew-boy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Marx to Engels, August 21, 1875, reprinted in Saul Kussiel Padover, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=E10EAQAAIAAJ The letters of Karl Marx]'' (Prentice-Hall, 1979) ISBN 0135315336, p. 306. (The text of this letter is [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/letters/index.htm missing] from the Marxists Internet Archive.)&lt;/ref&gt; He even called his doctor a Jew for pressing him for payment.&lt;ref&gt;Léon Poliakov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w39m4aohL9gC The History of Anti-semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003) ISBN 0812218655, p. 424-425&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nor did Marx merely disdain Jews, but Judaism itself: &quot;the Israelite faith is repugnant to me,&quot; he wrote.&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uqbaAAAAMAAJ Revolutionary Jews from Marx to Trotsky]'' (Harrap, 1976) ISBN 0245527850, p. 30. The Marxists Internet Archive bowdlerizes this to &quot;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/letters/43_03_13.htm I dislike the Jewish faith],&quot; but the word Marx used&amp;mdash;''widerlich''&amp;mdash;is generally translated as [http://translate.google.com/#de|en|widerlich disgusting], [http://www.dict.cc/deutsch-englisch/widerlich.html foul], [http://en.bab.la/dictionary/german-english/widerlich abominable], etc.&lt;/ref&gt; He wrote to Engels from Ramsgate: &quot;Many Jews and bedbugs hereabouts.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sigmund Krancberg, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cmspK8ine2QC A Soviet postmortem: philosophical roots of the &quot;Grand Failure&quot;]'' (Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 1994) ISBN 0847679284, p. 59, n. 13. (The text of this August 25, 1879 letter to Engels is [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1879/letters/index.htm missing] from the Marxists Internet Archive.)&lt;/ref&gt; In thus lumping Jews together with parasites, Marx prefigured a trope that would later figure prominently in the writing of the [[Nazi]]s.&lt;ref&gt; E.g., &quot;...that parasitic nation which, particularly at the present time preys upon the honest portion of mankind; I mean the Jews.&quot; Adolph Hitler (tr. James Murphy), [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200601.txt Mein Kampf: zwei Bände in einem Band] (Bottom of the Hill, 1938), p. 138; &quot;Antisemitism is exactly the same as delousing. Getting rid of lice is not a question of ideology. It is a matter of cleanliness. In just the same way, antisemitism, for us, has not been a question of ideology, but a matter of cleanliness, which now will soon have been dealt with. We shall soon be deloused. We have only 20,000 lice left, and then the matter is finished within the whole of Germany.&quot; Heinrich Himmler, quoted in Hugh Raffles, &quot;[http://publicculture.org/articles/view/19/3/jews-lice-and-history/ Jews, Lice, and History],&quot; ''Public Culture'', Vol. 19, No. 3 (Fall 2007), pp. 521-566&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In ''On the Jewish Question'' itself, writes Dennis K. Fischman, assistant professor of social science at Boston University, &quot;Marx seems fairly to bristle with anti-Jewish sentiments.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Dennis K. Fischman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6iqVtOAr8jgC Political discourse in exile: Karl Marx and the Jewish question]'' (Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1991) ISBN 0870237462, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; The views Marx expressed in that essay &quot;were part of the classic repertoire of anti-Semitism,&quot; according to Gertrude Himmelfarb, professor of history at the Graduate School of the City University of New York.&lt;ref&gt;Gertrude Himmelfarb, “[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the--ldquo-real-rdquo--marx-6980 The 'Real' Marx],” ''Commentary'', April 1985&lt;/ref&gt; It is “almost a classic anti-Semitic tract,” agrees Johnson.&lt;ref&gt;Paul Johnson, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/marxism-vs--the-jews-6827 Marxism vs. the Jews],&quot; ''Commentary'', April 1984&lt;/ref&gt; It is &quot;without any question an anti-Semitic tract,&quot; admits even Kovel, former [http://www.joelkovel.com/joelkovel.html Alger Hiss Professor] of Social Studies at Bard College.&lt;ref&gt;Joel Kovel, “[http://www.springerlink.com/content/p2q3w7416w7h1516/ Marx on the Jewish Question],” ''Dialectical Anthropology'', Vol. 8, No. 1-2, (1983) pp.31-46&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, concurs Lewis, it has become “one of the classics of anti-Semitic propaganda.” &lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; This essay was &quot;reprinted, widely quoted, and praised,&quot; adds Himmelfarb, &quot;and became the exemplar of a classic genre of socialist anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/marx-14979 Reader Letters: Marx], ''Commentary'', August 1985&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;Much of the essay seems simply to borrow from standard anti-Semitic fare,&quot; writes Lindemann.&lt;ref&gt;Albert S. Lindemann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NagdhSUgB9oC Esau's tears: modern anti-semitism and the rise of the Jews]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2000) ISBN 0521795389, p. 163&lt;/ref&gt; Coleman identifies this work as &quot;perhaps, the most condensed identification of Jews with self-interest.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Coleman, &quot;[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/history_of_political_economy/v035/35.4coleman.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'', Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), pp. 759-777&lt;/ref&gt; Marx exploits the stereotype of Jews “linked in the popular imagination with usury, sharp dealing, and ruthless cunning,” writes Stephen J. Greenblatt of Harvard.&lt;ref&gt;Stephen J. Greenblatt, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LIFaAAAAMAAJ Learning to curse: essays in early modern culture]'' (Routledge, 1990) ISBN 0415901731, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt; He uses the “widespread antisemitic caricature of Jews as inveterate moneylenders and hucksters along with the use of the term ''Judentum'' [Judaism] as a metaphor for commerce,” writes Larry Ray, Professor of Sociology at the University of Kent.&lt;ref&gt;Larry Ray, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=12&amp;article_id=49 Marx and the Radical Critique of Difference],” ''Engage'', Issue 3 (September 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; Not only are Judaism and capitalism &quot;described as basically the same,&quot; according to Lindeman,&lt;ref&gt;Albert S. Lindemann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NagdhSUgB9oC Esau's tears: modern anti-semitism and the rise of the Jews]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2000) ISBN 0521795389, p. 163&lt;/ref&gt; but in Marx's view, Jews are &quot;responsible for capitalism,&quot; writes Lewis.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; Marx considered Jews &quot;the very soul of the corrupt capitalism he fought,&quot; wrote Flannery.&lt;ref&gt;Edward H. Flannery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J40gNC7cxfYC The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism]'' (Paulist Press, 2004) ISBN 0809143240, p. 168&lt;/ref&gt; The essay, writes Johnson, is “based upon a fantasied Jewish archetype and a conspiracy to corrupt the world.”&lt;ref&gt;Paul Johnson, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/marxism-vs--the-jews-6827 Marxism vs. the Jews],&quot; ''Commentary'', April 1984&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Marx expresses “a sharp, even hysterical, denial of his religious background,” writes Greenblatt, as well as “extreme [rhetorical] violence” and “utter separation of himself from the people he excoriates....”<br /> {{cquote|[T]he tone of the attack on the Jews rises to an almost ecstatic disgust at the moment when Marx seems to be locating the Jews most clearly as a product of bourgeois culture; it is as if Marx were eager to prove that he is in no way excusing or forgiving the Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Stephen J. Greenblatt, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1343013 Marlowe, Marx, and Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''Critical Inquiry'', Vol. 5, No. 2 (Winter 1978), pp. 291-307&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> &quot;[T]he net result of Marx's essay is to reinforce a traditional anti-Jewish stereotype,&quot; concludes Robert S. Wistrich of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, &quot;the identification of the Jews with money-making&amp;mdash;in the sharpest possible manner.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Hl8MAQAAMAAJ Soviet Jewish Affairs'', Vol. 4, No. 1], (Institute of Jewish Affairs, World Jewish Congress, 1974), p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Marx argues that the Jew will have to cast off his 'Jewishness'&amp;mdash;that is, his mean and grasping ways,&quot; writes Lindemann, &quot;in order to become fully human.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Albert S. Lindemann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NagdhSUgB9oC Esau's tears: modern anti-semitism and the rise of the Jews]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2000) ISBN 0521795389, p. 163&lt;/ref&gt; “Marx’s position is essentially an assimilationist one,&quot; according to Ray, &quot;in which there is no room within emancipated humanity for Jews as a separate ethnic or cultural identity.”&lt;ref&gt;Larry Ray, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=12&amp;article_id=49 Marx and the radical critique of difference],” ''Engage'', Issue 3 (September 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jews, Marx seems to be saying, can only become free when, as Jews, they no longer exist,&quot; observes Fischman.&lt;ref&gt;Dennis K. Fischman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6iqVtOAr8jgC Political discourse in exile: Karl Marx and the Jewish question]'' (Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1991) ISBN 0870237462, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Marx expresses a &quot;bitter grudge against Judaism which borders on the desire to see it destroyed,&quot; wrote long-time ''Haaretz'' editor Moshe Glickson.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Glickson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=G5fiAAAAMAAJ The Jewish complex of Karl Marx]'', J. S. Abba, tr. (Herzl Press, 1961), p. 20&lt;/ref&gt; Marx &quot;did not hesitate to besmirch the traditions of the Jewish people and to place a sword in the hands of its enemies,&quot; writes Glickson.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Glickson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=G5fiAAAAMAAJ The Jewish complex of Karl Marx]'', J. S. Abba, tr. (Herzl Press, 1961), p. 15&lt;/ref&gt; Marx's &quot;solution of the Jewish question was not very different from Adolf Hitler's,&quot; comments Marx's biographer Robert Payne, &quot;for it involved the liquidation of Judaism....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Robert Payne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cA4YAAAAIAAJ Marx]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1968) as cited in William Otto Henderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=a9BvGA43rAQC Marx and Engels and the English workers: and other essays]'' (Psychology Press, 1989) ISBN 0714633348, p. 70&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Marx's anti-Semitic rhetoric “may have contributed mightily to the bloodshed and the fire to come,” writes Max Geltman.&lt;ref&gt;Max Geltman, “[http://www.paulbogdanor.com/antisemitism/geltman.pdf On Socialist Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''Midstream'', vol. 23, no. 3 (March 1977), p. 25&lt;/ref&gt; Of this essay, Gérard Lyon-Caen, professor of labor law at the University of Paris, concludes:<br /> {{cquote|To say that it was at the origin of modern anti-Semitism would very certainly be excessive. But to put forward the theory that it encouraged certain anti-Semitic currents in capitalistic countries or even in countries which were freed from capitalism seems hard to dispute.&lt;ref&gt;Gérard Lyon-Caen, &quot;Marx et le droit moderne&quot;, ''Archives de philosophie du droit'', No. XII, Paris, Sirey, 1967, p. 1-11 (as cited in Léon Poliakov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w39m4aohL9gC The History of Anti-semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003) ISBN 0812218655, p. 557, n. 150&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> From the writings of Karl Marx it is but a short distance to Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels' justification for the Holocaust: &quot;The Jews are the incarnation of capitalism.”&lt;ref&gt;Victor Klemperer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-_E1rr7tLlcC I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years, 1942-1945]'' Vol. 2 (Random House, Inc., 2001) ISBN 0375756973, p. 317&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> {{reflist|3}}</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=1470173 Alger Hiss 2018-11-25T01:00:35Z <p>FOIA: /* State Department */ linked</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,&lt;ref&gt;Francis P. Sempa, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection],&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a &quot;liberal&quot; rather than a communist, referring to &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself],&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. He also had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party].&quot; Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301&lt;/ref&gt; putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, &quot;Conspiracy Theories,&quot; in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].&lt;/ref&gt; The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot; (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]] [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to ex-Communist (&quot;I belonged for a little while to the Young Communist League, and thereafter to the Socialist party.&quot; [[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 11) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4)<br /> The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) &quot;Growing up, all five children had music and art lessons, as well as German language lessons for Alger. They attended private colleges or universities and vacationed on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During college, the three boys spent summers in Europe.&quot; ([[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 12). Young Alger went [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 141); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After such a series of tragic losses, suggested Hiss's son, Alger might have found himself &quot;susceptible, as some may have been, to the seeming solidarity offered by the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 141&lt;/ref&gt; Among others susceptible to this lure was Hiss's [[#refHUAC8-17-48|future tenant]], [[Whittaker Chambers]], who wrote of the suicide of his own brother at age 21:<br /> {{cquote|[M]y brother's death stunned me ... this is the point at which I became a thorough Communist. I felt that any society which could result in the death of a boy like my brother was wrong and I was at war with it. This was the beginning of my fanaticism.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3HUvm91KDn8C The conservative turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the lessons of anti-communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim to have already been socially and politically progressive and anti-business when he went to college.&lt;ref&gt;Alger Hiss, [http://algerhiss.com/alger-hiss/in-his-own-words/alger-hisss-liberal-manifesto/l Draft of a Chapter Written By Alger Hiss on the Foundations For His Liberalism] ([http://holliscatalog.harvard.edu//?itemid=|library%2fm%2faleph|010072878 Alger Hiss papers], Small Manuscript Collection, [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/index.html Special Collections], [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/index.html Harvard Law School Library]), algerhiss.com. Cf. Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/ivan_chen/1/ Alger Hiss, 1926-1929]; [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 22-24.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor]]s included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as &quot;[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion.&quot; (Herbert Romerstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). &quot;[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[Atheism|atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt; (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no &quot;Hopkins Babbit [sic],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A misspelled reference to the [http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-babbi/char.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]&lt;/ref&gt; according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics &quot;from Soviets to styles&quot; with &quot;irresistible logic and rhetoric.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a &quot;militant communist,&quot; Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Paul Avrich, a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, &quot;[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)],&quot; ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&amp;psid=3381 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [http://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]&lt;ref&gt;Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan &amp; Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss became &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]]&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;On July 4, 1914, three IWW members were killed in New York when a bomb they were constructing exploded. The bomb also killed a woman in the next apartment, maimed many others, and destroyed the building. (&quot;Anarchist bomb believed for Rockefeller kills three I.W.W. makers and a woman--injures many--wrecks tenement house,&quot; New York Sun, 5 July 1914, p. 1.) Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including IWW boss [[&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]]) for a series of such acts, at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist]]ic (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist]]ic') cheek?&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; serving (along with various &quot;Communists, Socialists, and nonaffiliated radicals&quot;) on the Advisory Board of American Labor Associates;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87&lt;/ref&gt; Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join FDR's administration.<br /> <br /> [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). <br /> That [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline &quot;[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote &quot;I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help.&quot; Jonathan Alter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185&lt;/ref&gt; agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot;). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Eugene Dennis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [https://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot; who &quot;was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy...&quot; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already &quot;[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot;<br /> &quot;In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families].&quot; &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt; son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;James C. Scott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; Ware recruited Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; known as the [[Ware group]].&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed &quot;Marxist&quot;] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hope Hale Davis, &quot;Looking Back at my Years in the Party,&quot; ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., &quot;Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87&lt;/ref&gt; This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was &quot;the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA&lt;ref&gt;Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. &quot;Leonora Fuller&quot; in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&amp;id=70 Gardner Jackson]:&lt;ref&gt;Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): &quot;When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss's laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-HOAC&amp;month=0704&amp;week=d&amp;msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&amp;user=&amp;pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> [[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;merchants of death,&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to &quot;drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle&quot; with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]&lt;ref&gt;John Whiteclay Chambers II, &quot;[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.],&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515&lt;/ref&gt; maintained was [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was &quot;as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant,&quot; particularly toward the &quot;business leaders he cross-examined caustically.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]&lt;/ref&gt; One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement--who wrote that Christianity should &quot;aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism.&quot; (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; would report to Moscow that &quot;‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51&lt;/ref&gt; (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, &quot;neighbors&quot; was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; three years after that, Gorsky would identify &quot;Karl&quot; as &quot;Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss's 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&amp;user=&amp;pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [http://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as &quot;[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is &quot;Yes&quot;.... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)&lt;/ref&gt; notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. &quot;[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&amp;dat=19510317&amp;id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round,&quot; ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (to whom she refers by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222&lt;/ref&gt; Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a 25% pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://archives.williams.edu/williamshistory/biographies/sayre-francis.php son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639&lt;/ref&gt; had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;[https://solidarity-us.org/atc/62/p2424/ Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996],&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May–June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (the victims of which would number [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt; That June, [http://americanthinker.com/2014/07/diana_and_ron_what_was_going_on_.html at Stalin's behest], FDR abolished the State Department's Eastern European Division, headed by the anti-Communist Robert F. Kelley,&lt;ref&gt;Cathal J. Nolan, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kZMeeXLSQhsC Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997) ISBN 0313291950, p. 207&lt;/ref&gt; reassigning its staff and dispersing its excellent library.<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' defection===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Trying to explain how a such a reversal happened, Chambers related how a certain German diplomat who &quot;had been extremely pro-Communist, had become an implacable anti-Communist.&quot; According to the diplomat's daughter, &quot;[O]ne night – in Moscow – he heard screams. That’s all. Simply one night he heard screams.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;What Communist has not heard those screams?&quot; wrote Chambers. &quot;...What man can call himself a Communist who has not accepted the fact that Terror is an instrument of policy ...? Those screams have reached every Communist’s mind. Usually they stop there ....&quot;<br /> {{cquote|But one day the Communist really hears those screams. He is going about his routine party tasks.... Suddenly, there closes around that Communist a separating silence, and in that silence he hears screams. He hears them for the first time. For they do not merely reach his mind. They pierce beyond. They pierce to his soul.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is &quot;man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God.&quot; This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:<br /> {{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: &quot;No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design.&quot; The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Far Eastern Division===<br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt; Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had &quot;dubious, Left Wing characters in his office.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, &quot;[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow],&quot; ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627224903/http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/levine700/?keywords=levine Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned friends (including HUAC investigator Joseph Brown Matthews), &quot;If they ever try to prove that I took my own life, [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html don't believe it],&quot; his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. (&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11F93959167B93C3A81789D85F458485F9 Gen. Krivitsky Found Dead; Suicide Finding Questioned; Notes Convince Washington Police He Shot Himself, but Friends Charge Former Ogpu Officer Was Slain by Reds KRIVITSKY'S DEATH IS INVESTIGATED],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1941, p. 1) Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [https://www.hoover.org/research/dark-memories corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30&lt;/ref&gt; where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, &quot;most of them Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Louis Rapoport, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, &quot;[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&amp;b=395031 Writers in Extremis],&quot; ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the Foreign Agents Registration Act [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91&lt;/ref&gt; According to Levine:<br /> {{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to &quot;go jump in a lake&quot; upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive&lt;ref&gt;&quot;an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&amp;t=1314204947 obscene or profane]&quot;; &quot;an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&amp;reversed=False&amp;action=define&amp;homonym=0&amp;text=expletive swearword].&quot; Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of &quot;expletive&quot; as a euphemism for &quot;[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; remark on this order: &quot;Oh, forget it, Adolf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/books/review/Mallon-t.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/1993_dubinsky.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/walter_winchell.htm Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; After he informed FDR that Hiss was spying for Moscow, according to Winchell, &quot;Leaning closer and pointing a finger in my face, he [Roosevelt] angrily said, 'I don't want to hear another thing about it! It isn't true.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schechter 2002]]: 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; According to Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians], Roosevelt was uninterested when confronted with reports of Soviet spying in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokhin 2000]]: 107&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot; ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: &quot;Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody...&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr:<br /> {{cquote|Many young leftists in the early 1930’s had entered the government in the early throes of the New Deal and embraced a Communist siren under whose call significant numbers of them were willing to pass along valuable information to the Soviet Union during the war. A general leftist tilt in the government meant that these ideologues blended well into the Washington bureaucracy while keeping their strong Soviet sympathies largely hidden. The tradecraft of Soviet intelligence personnel, the well honed Communist Party tradition of conspiracy, and a [https://www.fbi.gov/history/history-publications-reports/in-the-enemys-house-venona-and-the-maturation-of-american-counterintelligence lack of concern in the Roosevelt administration towards Soviet spying] meant that little of this growing Soviet intelligence web was found except by accident in the opening years of the war.}}<br /> Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131008202927/https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Initially, Dies supported the New Deal.&quot; (William D. Pederson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) &quot;He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants.&quot; Dies also had a record of &quot;support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity.&quot; George N. Green, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70&lt;/ref&gt; [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was &quot;furious&quot;&amp;mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&amp;mdash;&quot;you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed,&quot; he railed, adding &quot;there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20030707171840/http://boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook.&quot;]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite2|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99&lt;/ref&gt; Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710063742/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/article/268394/pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies,&lt;ref&gt;Although one American public school teacher's guide claims that the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] &quot;was not an alliance. At the start of World War II, Joseph Stalin (...strongly anti-fascist) was aligned with Great Britain and France against the Axis Powers of Germany,&quot; etc., (''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1KtAAFE2nAwC World War II]'' [Social Studies School Service, 2007] ISBN 156004313X, p. S11), this is false. As French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thoruz and Jacques Duclos put it upon the Nazi conquest of France, &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of German imperialism. It is a fact that in this sense there is a temporary alliance.&quot; ([[#refTolstoy82|Tolstoy 1982]]: 113) As late as January 1941, the Soviets were appealing to the Nazis for permission to join as full members of the Axis. (Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xlsrAxuWekQC A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521618266, p. 202) Six months later, when the pact collapsed, the USSR rushed into the arms of the Allies, which the Communists viewed as yet another &quot;temporary alliance.&quot; David Gress, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NKyzGG92uMUC From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2004) ISBN 0743264886, p. 408&lt;/ref&gt; including Communists.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [http://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt;As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106&lt;/ref&gt; the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Haslam, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel P. Mikhailov&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [https://web.archive.org/web/20100210161901/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs-and-george-dasch Nazi and fascist agents].&lt;ref&gt;According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr., &quot;From the entry of the US into the war in 1941, the FBI, with cooperation of its fellow agencies and significant foreign allies, effectively negated Axis intelligence operations in the US and the western hemisphere. The Bureau was distinctly [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona less successful in identifying the Soviet threat] during the same period.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed the U.S. Lend-Lease program for Britain&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87. The Communist front [[American Peace Mobilization]] picketed the White House, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790078,00.html protesting Lend-Lease] aid to the U.K. When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Nazism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world” (&quot;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm reaktionärste Kraft in der Welt]&quot;). “The German government declared itself ready to establish peaceful relations with the Soviet Union, whilst the Anglo-French war bloc want war against the Soviet Union,” [http://www.marxists.org/archive/ulbricht/1940/die-welt.htm declared Ulbricht]. During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html the blitzed areas of London],&quot; writes [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Orwell prize winning] journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;/ref&gt; (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm officially dissolving] the [[Comintern]], forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern&lt;ref&gt;“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989&lt;/ref&gt; (which included “control over the CPUSA”),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center&lt;/ref&gt; whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, &quot;the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease,&quot; was [[Harry Dexter White]],&lt;ref&gt;Albert Loren Weeks, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> one of &quot;the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [http://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents],&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named &quot;Map.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; Strong boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt; These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124&lt;/ref&gt; from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.&lt;ref&gt;Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208&lt;/ref&gt; Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and a Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; (code-named ''Lyre''),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; but also the mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [http://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity,&quot; but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt &quot;Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)&lt;/ref&gt; noted that &quot;Hiss exercises [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/https://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, &quot;[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind,&quot; according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].&lt;ref&gt;Felix Wittmer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently,&quot; agreed former Soviet propagandist&lt;ref&gt;David C. Engerman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201&lt;/ref&gt; W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; His face was &quot;gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function,&quot; wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Burt, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35&lt;/ref&gt; John Gunther. &quot;I felt certain that he was going to die.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Gunther, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:<br /> {{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell Cordell Hull] and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...&lt;ref&gt;James A. Farley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which<br /> {{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States. He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&amp;mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.&lt;ref&gt;Steven Lomazow , &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta'],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In [https://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister<br /> {{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. &quot;Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?&quot; he [Churchill] asked. &quot;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta].&quot;}}<br /> The deterioration in Roosevelt's judgement became evident in some of his more controversial statements at Yalta, including the following, recorded in the formerly [http://archive.today/p3GKt Top Secret minutes] two weeks after the liberation of Aushwitz:<br /> {{cquote|MARSHAL STALIN asked whether the President intended to make any concessions to Ibn Saud [King of Saudi Arabia].<br /> THE PRESIDENT replied that there was only one concession he thought he might offer and that was to give him the six million Jews in the United States.}}<br /> ====United Nations planning====<br /> As what Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/serhii-plokhii Serhii Plokhii] calls &quot;the State Department's expert on the United Nations&quot; at Yalta, Hiss was involved in discussions preceeding the secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; to give the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Although Hiss officially opposed this decision, there is some mystery as to how it came about: Hiss would later claim that the British informed him that US agreement to this Soviet demand had come from Stettinius himself, but Stettinus denied that he had ever made such an agreement.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plohky 2010]]: 192&lt;/ref&gt; Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kort, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===='Traitors'====<br /> The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; But Venona is not the only source: According to Plokhii, the [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2012/September%202012/0912yalta.aspx foremost modern analyst of Yalta], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]]: xxv&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was, according to Sudoplatov, &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein, who had been one of Hiss’s control officers in 1935-38, when he served as vice-consul at the Soviet consulate New York, and was now deputy director of the GRU. Hiss's briefings revealed not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====Poland====<br /> Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [http://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]]&amp;mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta &quot;went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures].&quot; It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes,&quot; he wrote. &quot;To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====China====<br /> Hiss had input even on China. During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to the formerly [https://archive.is/HTiIW Top Secret minutes], &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record resorts to the passive voice, obscuring Hiss's role in this incident: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press reports relying on this [https://books.google.com/books?id=kotPYEqx7kMC&amp;q=memory+hole#v=snippet&amp;q=memory%20hole&amp;f=false bowdlerized] official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot; FDR apologists such as liberal &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/weekinreview/04tanenhaus.html court historian]&quot; Arthur Schlesinger parroted this official version as dogma: &quot;As for Yalta, Alger Hiss had nothing to do with the Far Eastern discussions, and knew nothing of their existence,&quot; etc. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MegmQB1MxqkC The Politics of Hope: And, The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691134758, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Too much stress cannot be laid on the hope that our economic assistance be carried out in China through the medium of a government fully and fairly representative of all important Chinese political elements, including the Chinese Communists,&quot; said Acheson. (Freda Utley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JmAcAAAAMAAJ The China story]'' [H. Regnery Co., 1951], p. 15) This was the pretext for the U.S. embargo on arms to China in July 1946. Even after the embargo ended in May 1947, Acheson was able to delay shipments another six months. In 1949, he would explicitly instruct his subordinates that &quot;it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action.&quot; (David S. McLellan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: &quot;Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China.&quot; John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the &quot;memoranda for the President&quot; Stettinius directed be placed &quot;in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss,&quot; according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944 [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Other secret agreements====<br /> According to [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon [http://education-research.org/images/FDR-Stalin-Jews.jpg Stalin requested] the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, in Washington, sent [https://archive.is/TDxrP a Top Secret telegram] to Stettinius at Yalta, objecting to the repatriation as a violation of the Geneva Convention and of the traditional American policy of granting political asylum. The U.S. nevertheless agreed to the repatriation (which would become known as [[Operation Keelhaul]]), but that agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/01/03/reviews/990103.03persict.html Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; continuously since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told.&quot; ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. According to Stettinius, Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Powell, [http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were &quot;loaned&quot; to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: &quot;I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions.&quot; (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hoping to obtain &quot;control of the entire [[Mediterranean]],&quot; the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding &quot;an immediate boycott&quot; of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking &quot;[[Communist]] expansion world-wide,&quot; the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:&lt;ref&gt;United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.&lt;ref&gt;William B. Dunham, &quot;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career],&quot; Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which were [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that &quot;Ales&quot; and his group were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify &quot;the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow,&quot; Gouzenko would repeat that &quot;there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius.&quot; Bruce Craig, &quot;Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed,&quot; David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, &quot;We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss.&quot; [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 29, the Canadian Prime Minister met with Truman and Acheson in the White House, telling them that, according to Gouzenko, &quot;an assistant secretary of the Secretary of State's department was supposed to be implicated&quot; in GRU espionage. According to King, Truman &quot;turned to Acheson and said something to the effect that it would not be surprising.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who stated that Hiss's assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]], p. 1181 (PDF p. 121)&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John T. Donovan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; reported, &quot;In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Cronin, S.S., &quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945],&quot; p. 49 (PDF p. 58)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23&lt;/ref&gt; She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://archive.mrc.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/02/09.htm a speech] regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;In 1946, Stalin declared that the world would never be safe from war so long as capitalism survived. This inaugurated the cold war period.&quot; [http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/CIA%20Murphy%20Collection%20Pt1-1.pdf Fact sheet], Records of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Raymond E. Murphy Collection on International Communism, 1917–1958. Part 1: Eastern Europe. Cf. Walter LaFeber, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38. &quot;The West never chose to have a Cold War, and never would,&quot; write Soviet dissident/exiles Vladimir Bukovsky and Pavel Stroilov. &quot;[I]t was always imposed on us [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=32645 by the Kremlin aggressors].&quot; “The Cold War was [http://www.raleighspyconference.com/wrapup/2003.aspx caused by the Soviet Union], was sustained by the Soviet Union, and was ended by the Soviet Union when it collapsed,” according to Christopher Andrew (so-called “[http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians]”). “It was and is as simple as that.”&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']]An extensive [[FBI]] investigation helped develop a great deal of evidence verifying Chambers’ statements and [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/january/a-byte-out-of-history-the-alger-hiss-story revealing Hiss’ cover-ups]. [[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the Bureau that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69&lt;/ref&gt; On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;Panuch would testify that &quot;...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'&quot; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, &quot;it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department.&quot; [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]&quot; (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&amp;hp&amp;oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, an investigation concluded that Hiss had taken home top-secret reports he was not cleared to see.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hQjvrgC_zAgC A Covert Life - Jay Lovestone: Communist, Anti-Communist and Spymaster]'' (House, 1999) ISBN 0307805662, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; That month the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 1 20)]&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; During the campaign, House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged, &quot;first we will give our efforts to cleaning out the Communists, their fellow travelers and parlor pinks from [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19460921&amp;id=nNtXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=g_UDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1774,4765653 high positions in our Government].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify &quot;any disloyal or subversive person&quot; from federal service. Truman's actions &quot;left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress,&quot; according to the journal of the National Archives. &quot;Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program],&quot; but no action was taken for three months. Finally, on June 10, members of the newly Republican-controlled Senate sent a secret report to Truman's new Secretary of State, [[George Marshall]], warning him about Undersecretary Dean Acheson, who had fired Panuch:<br /> {{cquote|It becomes necessary due to the gravity of the situation to call your attention to a condition that developed and still flourishes in the State Department under the administration of Dean Acheson. It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect communist personnel in high places but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity … On file in the department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States which involves a large number of State Department employees, some in high official positions. This report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department with the apparent tacit approval of Mr. Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;David Lawrence, &quot;Stevenson Held Unfamiliar with Red Issue,&quot; [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19520917&amp;id=gflXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=Z_YDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3180,2556457 ''Spokane Daily Chronicle,'' September 17, 1952, p. 4]&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marshall didn't respond to this report and, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 security cases] in the State Department the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that &quot;an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999&lt;/ref&gt; conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [http://www.answers.com/topic/no-bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a [https://archive.is/5BcPM single federal official] for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [http://www.nolo.com/definition.cfm/Term/BE45BC5C-A852-41E6-A9C1C267589E6C61/alpha/S/ subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html reported] to the chairman of Soviet intelligence about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers ('''A. Hiss''', [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”&lt;ref&gt;Truman &quot;wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow.&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named &quot;PAZh/Page.&quot; [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117&lt;/ref&gt; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.<br /> <br /> The Hiss forces launched a &quot;frightful campaign of vilification&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hilton Kramer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss's &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period].&quot; On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif/image.gif confinement in mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Just two days after their public testimony,&lt;ref&gt;Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; The New York ''Daily News'' asked, &quot;Well Alger, where's that suit?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281. Cf. Lloyd Chiasson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBC1QaeWyDAC The press on trial: crimes and trials as media events]'' (ABC-CLIO, 1997) ISBN 0275959368, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post''&amp;mdash;&quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers,&quot; according to Chambers&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 710. &quot;The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding.&quot; Marvin N. Olasky, &quot;[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950],&quot; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1–4, 1987), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to put up or shut up ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.&lt;ref&gt;Chalmers McGeagh Roberts, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SRhlAAAAMAAJ The Washington post: the first 100 years]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1977) ISBN 0395258545, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss's suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers.&quot; David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted &quot;an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Grand jury==<br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;John J. Danahy, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss's machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> [[Image:Alger Hiss testifies.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss testifies in 1950]]<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis], fresh from his [http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/defenders.html defeated defense of segregation] in ''Brown v. Board of Education''.. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked &quot;strictly confidential&quot; or &quot;strictly confidential, for the Secretary,&quot; would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&amp;st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says],&quot; ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].&lt;ref&gt;Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense reverted to Hiss's original &quot;insanity defense&quot; (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. &quot;I never liked him. I knew him...&quot; said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. &quot;There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy.&quot; Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Naftali, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; (Italics in original) later concluded that &quot;[http://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/newby-sacvan.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,&lt;ref&gt;James Bell, &quot;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty],&quot; ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted &quot;it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life.&quot; Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988&lt;/ref&gt; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot; So fearful of the implications was the President that [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ Truman ordered the Venona documents destroyed]—an order that, fortunately for historians, was disobeyed.<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; orchestrated by&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;The Faithful Traitor,&quot; ''National Review'', February 10, 1997&lt;/ref&gt; long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed &quot;communist&quot; (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.” Among Hiss's fellow prisoners was avowed Communist Maurice Braverman. According to [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo196.html leftist] historian Garry Wills:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hen it came time for Hiss to be released, Braverman's lawyer said that the Party hoped he would have an eloquent statement to read when he came out the gate. Television cameras were bound to be there. Braverman asked Hiss what he meant to say; Hiss said he had not thought of making a statement. Braverman said he thought it would be a good idea. &quot;What should I say?&quot; Hiss asked, and Braverman composed his first draft for him. He behaved like one still serving the Party.&lt;ref&gt;Garry Wills, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByGIJIhocj0C Lead time: a journalist's education]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004) ISBN 0618446907, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == Later life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In 1956, surrounded by quite a bit of controversy, the [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] at [[Princeton University]] invited Hiss as a guest speaker.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBBbAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA8-PA31 Princeton Alumni Weekly, Volume 56], Princeton Alumni Weekly, 1955&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication.&quot; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [https://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of [[radical left-wing]] politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&amp;off=0&amp;f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss's conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as &quot;our agent.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Summers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.&lt;/ref&gt; Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]<br /> <br /> * &lt;cite id=reflegacy&gt;[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refShelton2012&gt;Christina Shelton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_XyzyNEy1McC Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treason]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2012) ISBN 1451655452&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlokhy2010&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorgan04&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerken03&gt; Gregg Herken, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPickersgill70&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTolstoy82&gt; Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yOoNAQAAMAAJ Stalin's secret war]'' (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982) ISBN 0030472660&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss2000&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; [https://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss,&quot; ''[http://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refYalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112860 Black Notebook]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 White Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112566 White Notebook #3]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 Yellow Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refSilv6.106&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120310004029/http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&amp;page=1 Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48.2&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part Two], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48-2R&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTrohan1970&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refRJG06&gt;Robert Justin Goldstein, &quot;[http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist],&quot; ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120034728/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021232049/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May–June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes5-10-05&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss Case], May 10, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September–October 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; ''National Review'', February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-80900413/hiss-defenders-covering-for-the-old-man-the-last Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]<br /> [[Category:United States Political Scandals]]<br /> [[Category:Featured articles]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Alger_Hiss&diff=1443731 Alger Hiss 2018-09-02T03:52:07Z <p>FOIA: /* Nye Committee */ removed dead link, simplified</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.&lt;br&gt;''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]<br /> '''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &amp;ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]&quot;; and &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]...&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss&quot; [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,&lt;ref&gt;Francis P. Sempa, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection],&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a &quot;liberal&quot; rather than a communist, referring to &quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself],&quot; writing that he had acquired a &quot;liberal outlook&quot; as a student, which was &quot;strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School&quot;; his work for Justice Holmes &quot;increased my liberal convictions&quot;; etc. He also had &quot;[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party].&quot; Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&amp;ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301&lt;/ref&gt; putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, &quot;Conspiracy Theories,&quot; in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].&lt;/ref&gt; The '''[[Legacy of Alger Hiss#Scholarly consensus|overwhelming consensus]]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty, as confirmed by the unanimous report of the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy in 1997.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department [in Soviet espionage] seems settled.&quot; (Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''Secrecy'' [Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997], [http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A - Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience], p. A-37 [PDF p. 39]) The commission's chairman, Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]], a [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E5DC103EF930A15751C0A961958260&amp;sec=&amp;spon=&amp;pagewanted=all liberal Democrat], wrote, &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important.&quot;(Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998] ISBN 0300077564, p. 146)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early life==<br /> Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)&lt;/ref&gt; to a [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]] [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]&lt;ref&gt;Contrary to ex-Communist (&quot;I belonged for a little while to the Young Communist League, and thereafter to the Socialist party.&quot; [[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 11) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a &quot;child of shabby gentility,&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were &quot;not particularly shabby.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4)<br /> The Hisses were &quot;prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went.&quot; ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) &quot;Growing up, all five children had music and art lessons, as well as German language lessons for Alger. They attended private colleges or universities and vacationed on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During college, the three boys spent summers in Europe.&quot; ([[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 12). Young Alger went [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated &quot;in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)&lt;/ref&gt; [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: &quot;I have been an Episcopalian all my life&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); &quot;Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys.&quot; ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, &quot;[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism],&quot; ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.&lt;/ref&gt; family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was &quot;a wholesale grocer.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)&lt;/ref&gt; committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&amp;mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father &quot;committed suicide when Alger was nine.&quot; ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is &quot;not quite accurate.&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of &quot;the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)&quot; ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].&lt;/ref&gt; When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6&lt;/ref&gt; had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bos.... drank a lot.&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); &quot;He was undisciplined in habits of...drink.&quot; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; &quot;Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment....&quot; ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 141); &quot;Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]].&quot; Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After such a series of tragic losses, suggested Hiss's son, Alger might have found himself &quot;susceptible, as some may have been, to the seeming solidarity offered by the Communist Party.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 141&lt;/ref&gt; Among others susceptible to this lure was Hiss's [[#refHUAC8-17-48|future tenant]], [[Whittaker Chambers]], who wrote of the suicide of his own brother at age 21:<br /> {{cquote|[M]y brother's death stunned me ... this is the point at which I became a thorough Communist. I felt that any society which could result in the death of a boy like my brother was wrong and I was at war with it. This was the beginning of my fanaticism.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kimmage, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3HUvm91KDn8C The conservative turn: Lionel Trilling, Whittaker Chambers, and the lessons of anti-communism]'' (Harvard University Press, 2009) ISBN 0674032586, p. 41&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Johns Hopkins University===<br /> As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children...&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art.&quot; ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically.&quot; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9&lt;/ref&gt; [[Johns Hopkins University]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; where he was voted &quot;[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]&quot; in his class.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&amp;startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, &quot;[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama],&quot; ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim to have already been socially and politically progressive and anti-business when he went to college.&lt;ref&gt;Alger Hiss, [http://algerhiss.com/alger-hiss/in-his-own-words/alger-hisss-liberal-manifesto/l Draft of a Chapter Written By Alger Hiss on the Foundations For His Liberalism] ([http://holliscatalog.harvard.edu//?itemid=|library%2fm%2faleph|010072878 Alger Hiss papers], Small Manuscript Collection, [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/special/index.html Special Collections], [http://www.law.harvard.edu/library/index.html Harvard Law School Library]), algerhiss.com. Cf. Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/ivan_chen/1/ Alger Hiss, 1926-1929]; [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 22-24.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor]]s included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as &quot;[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion.&quot; (Herbert Romerstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). &quot;[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[Atheism|atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52&lt;/ref&gt; (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no &quot;Hopkins Babbit [sic],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A misspelled reference to the [http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-babbi/char.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]&lt;/ref&gt; according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics &quot;from Soviets to styles&quot; with &quot;irresistible logic and rhetoric.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss],&quot; ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Harvard Law School===<br /> After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the &quot;[[Ware group]],&quot; an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder]]ers [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],&lt;ref&gt;Felix Frankfurter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X&lt;/ref&gt; [[revolution]]ary [[terrorist]]s who had become a Communist&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Koch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23&lt;/ref&gt; ''cause célèbre'',&lt;ref&gt;John F. Neville, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101&lt;/ref&gt; and whom Alger Hiss would reportedly [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate] (and to whom he would later [https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180857/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html compare himself]). Explaining how he had become a &quot;militant communist,&quot; Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, &quot;The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 174. N.B. New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early career==<br /> [[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]&lt;ref&gt;According to Paul Avrich, a [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, &quot;[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)],&quot; ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60&lt;/ref&gt; which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&amp;psid=3381 public figures],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146&lt;/ref&gt; including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as &quot;a [[skeptic]] of the first order&quot; who &quot;denied the [[existence]] of [[God]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/crb/article/to-be-as-gods/ an atheist].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In violation of a condition of this employment&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 14, [[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss got [[marriage|married]], to the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt; though she'd since had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31&lt;/ref&gt; a pregnancy by a married man, and an [[abortion]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/ Choate, Hall &amp; Stewart].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [http://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]&lt;ref&gt;Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan &amp; Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234&lt;/ref&gt; Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During this period, Hiss became &quot;[[#refChronology|radicalized]]&quot;:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt; In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]&lt;ref&gt;On July 4, 1914, three IWW members were killed in New York when a bomb they were constructing exploded. The bomb also killed a woman in the next apartment, maimed many others, and destroyed the building. (&quot;Anarchist bomb believed for Rockefeller kills three I.W.W. makers and a woman--injures many--wrecks tenement house,&quot; New York Sun, 5 July 1914, p. 1.) Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including IWW boss [[&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]]) for a series of such acts, at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31&lt;/ref&gt; [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, &quot;[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist]]ic (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist]]ic') cheek?&quot; Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”&lt;ref&gt;Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932&lt;/ref&gt; did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]: 140-141&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; serving (along with various &quot;Communists, Socialists, and nonaffiliated radicals&quot;) on the Advisory Board of American Labor Associates;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87&lt;/ref&gt; Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party],&quot; Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==New Deal==<br /> ===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===<br /> [[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, &quot;[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence],&quot; ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] &quot;entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]].&quot; Paul Roazen, &quot;Introduction,&quot; Louis Hartz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; [[Democratic Party|Democrat]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]].&quot; Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; was inaugurated as [[President]] and granted [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2013/07/08/interview-diana-west/?singlepage=true official US government recognition] to the government of the [[Soviet Union]]. Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52&lt;/ref&gt; strongly urging him&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)&lt;/ref&gt; to join FDR's administration.<br /> <br /> [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). <br /> That [[New Deal]]&lt;ref&gt;Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms.&quot; [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, &quot;The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]&quot;; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of &quot;'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&amp;mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'&quot; The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline &quot;[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY].&quot; In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote &quot;I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help.&quot; Jonathan Alter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185&lt;/ref&gt; agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]) [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly &quot;most impressed&quot; with [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming] (and urged FDR to become a &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]&quot;). After running for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired&lt;ref&gt;The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order &quot;to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party.&quot; Eugene Dennis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, Wallace would finally recant [http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.&lt;/ref&gt; in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Propaganda photograph taken [http://pjmedia.com/eddriscoll/2014/06/01/interview-forgotten-man-graphic-novel/?singlepage=true to justify federal spending] by the Resettlement Administration, brainchild of Rexford Tugwell,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;...the most left-wing member of Roosevelt's brain trust,&quot; who &quot;was frank about his admiration for the Soviet planned economy...&quot; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z3GV5_n1h04C Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933-1939]'' (Macmillan, 2006) ISBN 080507452X, p. 31-32&lt;/ref&gt; 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (which killed some 14 million&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306&lt;/ref&gt; people through [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an drive up food prices]—at a time when (according to FDR) one in three Americans was already &quot;[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5105/ ill-nourished].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': &quot;Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices.&quot;<br /> &quot;In two separate studies of the plight of southern tenant farmers in the 1930s, the historians David Eugene Conrad and Donald H. Grubbs have blamed not the banks but the agricultural policies of the New Deal itself. In the early 1930s, some sixty percent of farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas were operated by tenants. However, during the Depression they found themselves victims of Franklin Roosevelt’s 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act, which required landlords to reduce their cotton acreage. Fortified by AAA subsidies, the landlords evicted their tenants and consolidated their holdings. It was [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112222619/http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/steinbeck.htm government handouts, not bank demands, that led these landlords to buy tractors and decrease their reliance on tenant families].&quot; &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20080227033237/http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, &quot;I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92&lt;/ref&gt; [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering&quot; taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harold Ware]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)&lt;/ref&gt; son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|&quot;Mother&quot; Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].&lt;ref&gt;James C. Scott, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly &quot;tricked&quot; [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). &quot;As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion].&quot; (C.f. Sean McMeekin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uvDBIpHZAE8C The Red Millionaire: A Political Biography of Willi Münzenberg, Moscow's Secret Propaganda Tsar in the West]'' [Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300130090, pp. 130-141) For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'', a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93&lt;/ref&gt; Ware recruited Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; known as the [[Ware group]].&lt;ref&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16)&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612&lt;/ref&gt; [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],&lt;ref&gt;John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed &quot;Marxist&quot;] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606&lt;/ref&gt; as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis (wife of [[Comintern]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47, 61.&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn), who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to &quot;achieve promotion&amp;mdash;a primary goal,&quot; or whether to &quot;try to influence policy,&quot; as well as &quot;secret directives&amp;mdash;for purloining official documents,&quot; etc.&lt;ref&gt;Hope Hale Davis, &quot;Looking Back at my Years in the Party,&quot; ''New Leader'', February 11, 1980, pp. 11, 13. Cf. [[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., &quot;Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case,&quot; [http://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87&lt;/ref&gt; This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:<br /> {{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank&lt;ref&gt;According to radical lawyer Arthur Kinoy, [http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/childs-play_591433.html?nopager=1. leader of a group of secret Communists], Frank was &quot;the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty....&quot; Arthur Kinoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.&lt;ref&gt;George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA&lt;ref&gt;Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. &quot;Leonora Fuller&quot; in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; In February 1935, the &quot;[[#refChronology|radicals]]&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were &quot;purged&quot;] from AAA. According to [[New Deal]]er [http://archon.brandeis.edu/?p=collections/controlcard&amp;id=70 Gardner Jackson]:&lt;ref&gt;Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as &quot;the best fighters in a good cause&quot; he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}<br /> <br /> As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&amp;mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. &quot;Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming,&quot; said Jackson. &quot;He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt; According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): &quot;When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&amp;mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had &quot;a great gentleness and sweetness of character,&quot; ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a &quot;strange savagery&quot; in Hiss's laughter at &quot;the horrible old women of Baltimore&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and &quot;the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown.&quot; (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized &quot;feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so.&quot; Alan Fraser Davis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: &quot;Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?&quot; ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, &quot;Howe? I don't consider him on the left.&quot; [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?<br /> Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.<br /> ...<br /> Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...<br /> Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)&lt;/ref&gt; but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]&lt;ref&gt;Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?<br /> Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.<br /> Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?<br /> Mr. WEYL. That is correct.<br /> …<br /> Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.<br /> [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953&lt;/ref&gt; testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360&lt;/ref&gt; A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-HOAC&amp;month=0704&amp;week=d&amp;msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&amp;user=&amp;pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nye Committee===<br /> [[Image:00811h.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Senate Munitions Committee: Arthur H. Vandenberg, Bennett Champ Clark, Gerald Nye, counsel Alger Hiss, and Homer T. Bone]]In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss, &quot;[[#refChronology|on loan]]&quot; from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s &quot;merchants of death,&quot; whom he accused of conspiracy to &quot;drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle&quot; with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]&lt;ref&gt;John Whiteclay Chambers II, &quot;[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.],&quot; ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515&lt;/ref&gt; maintained was [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a &quot;witch-hunt&quot; for &quot;subversive [[capitalist]]s,&quot; in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)&lt;ref&gt;Peter Viereck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157&lt;/ref&gt; On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that &quot;capitalism was a cause of aggression,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Grant, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss employed what would later come to be known as &quot;McCarthyite&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220&lt;/ref&gt; methods, badgering witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was &quot;as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant,&quot; particularly toward the &quot;business leaders he cross-examined caustically.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]&lt;/ref&gt; One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].&lt;ref&gt;Bruce Craig, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch &quot;a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116&lt;/ref&gt; as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 28-29&lt;/ref&gt; the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named &quot;Ales&quot; (pronounced &quot;Alles&quot;) began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the &quot;Social Gospel&quot; movement--who wrote that Christianity should &quot;aid the evolution of society from the present temporary stage of individualism to a higher form of communism.&quot; (Walter Rauschenbusch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mug-AAAAYAAJ Christianity and the Social Crisis]'' [Macmillan, 1913], p. 414) He also investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England &quot;under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb&quot; (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom &quot;communism became... a substitute for religion.&quot; Richard Ingrams, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44&lt;/ref&gt; and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].&lt;ref&gt;John E. Wiltz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Barely a month after joining the committee staff,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 40&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; would report to Moscow that &quot;‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51&lt;/ref&gt; (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, &quot;neighbors&quot; was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; three years after that, Gorsky would identify &quot;Karl&quot; as &quot;Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146&lt;/ref&gt; [[J. Peters]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 339&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]&lt;ref&gt;Philip A. Greasley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264&lt;/ref&gt; and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85&lt;/ref&gt; subordinate to Chambers.&lt;ref&gt;Elinor Langer, &quot;The Secret Drawer,&quot; ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [http://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&amp;pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64&lt;/ref&gt; Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony &quot;to the detriment of Hiss&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;David D. Anderson, &quot;John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection,&quot; ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&amp;mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a &quot;lie,&quot;] according to Herbst's biographer.<br /> <br /> ===Justice Department===<br /> In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)&lt;/ref&gt; ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).<br /> <br /> ====Hiss's 1929 Ford====<br /> In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold&lt;ref&gt;&quot;I sold him an automobile.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; or given&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any<br /> compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&amp;mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)&lt;/ref&gt; or loaned&lt;ref&gt;Hiss: &quot;my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know.&quot; [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)&lt;/ref&gt; the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)&lt;/ref&gt; But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].<br /> <br /> Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60&lt;/ref&gt; William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialek], a [[#refHaynes5-10-05|leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47&lt;/ref&gt; The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&amp;user=&amp;pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [[#refHaynes5-10-05|a used car supplied via William Rosen]]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [http://www.leagle.com/decision/1949361174F2d187_1293.xml/UNITED%20STATES%20v.%20ROSEN questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,&lt;ref&gt;This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53. [[Alan Dershowitz]], Felix Frankfurter Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, characterized him as &quot;[http://highered.nbclearn.com/portal/site/HigherEd/flatview?cuecard=1746 a communist ideologue].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; told him:<br /> {{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions you state, the answer is &quot;Yes&quot;.... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)&lt;/ref&gt; notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,&lt;ref&gt;Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... &quot;Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)&quot;; then, written in is &quot;Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest&quot;... It says, &quot;Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss.&quot; Then it says, &quot;On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public.&quot; Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)&lt;/ref&gt; but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall,&quot; ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. &quot;[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&amp;dat=19510317&amp;id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round,&quot; ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Hede Massing and Noel Field====<br /> [[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.&lt;ref&gt;Hede Massing, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].&lt;ref&gt;Karel Kaplan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&amp;pg=PA19&amp;dq=%22noel+field%22&amp;sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus &amp; Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25&lt;/ref&gt; A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, &quot;Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133&lt;/ref&gt; Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss &quot;mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&amp;mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, &quot;The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report,&quot; ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly before his [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0506&amp;week=d&amp;msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss was a spy].<br /> <br /> [[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name &quot;Yurist&quot; (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&amp;mdash;&quot;Юрист&quot;) from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (to whom she refers by his code name &quot;Ernst&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;R.C.S. Trahair, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;was approached by Alger Hiss&quot; (Massing uses his real name), who &quot;informed him that he is a Communist&quot; with &quot;ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union&quot; &amp;mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies &quot;A. Hiss&quot; as the GRU agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist.&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] &quot;illegal&quot; station chief for the [[United States]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222&lt;/ref&gt; Field &quot;and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]&quot; as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==State Department==<br /> Hiss took a 25% pay cut&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name &quot;Jurist&quot; began working there.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://archives.williams.edu/williamshistory/biographies/sayre-francis.php son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].<br /> <br /> In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|&quot;Storm&quot;]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; told him that &quot;Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 5&lt;/ref&gt; and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt;....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639&lt;/ref&gt; had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.<br /> <br /> Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]&lt;ref&gt;Alan Wallach, &quot;Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996,&quot; ''Against the Current'' 62 (May–June 1996), p. 52&lt;/ref&gt; [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118&lt;/ref&gt; and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].<br /> <br /> By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]&lt;/ref&gt; (the victims of which would number [http://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.&lt;ref&gt;[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.&lt;/ref&gt; That June, [http://americanthinker.com/2014/07/diana_and_ron_what_was_going_on_.html at Stalin's behest], FDR abolished the State Department's Eastern European Division, headed by the anti-Communist Robert F. Kelley,&lt;ref&gt;Cathal J. Nolan, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kZMeeXLSQhsC Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997) ISBN 0313291950, p. 207&lt;/ref&gt; reassigning its staff and dispersing its excellent library.<br /> <br /> That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named &quot;Nigel&quot;])&amp;mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&amp;mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with &quot;[[progressive]]&quot; views &quot;who occupied a responsible position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184&lt;/ref&gt; Akhmerov worried that Straight &quot;might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family&quot; or &quot;find out Hiss's nature&quot; as a [[GRU]] agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt; At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202&lt;/ref&gt; and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' defection===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25&lt;/ref&gt; Trying to explain how a such a reversal happened, Chambers related how a certain German diplomat who &quot;had been extremely pro-Communist, had become an implacable anti-Communist.&quot; According to the diplomat's daughter, &quot;[O]ne night – in Moscow – he heard screams. That’s all. Simply one night he heard screams.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;What Communist has not heard those screams?&quot; wrote Chambers. &quot;...What man can call himself a Communist who has not accepted the fact that Terror is an instrument of policy ...? Those screams have reached every Communist’s mind. Usually they stop there ....&quot;<br /> {{cquote|But one day the Communist really hears those screams. He is going about his routine party tasks.... Suddenly, there closes around that Communist a separating silence, and in that silence he hears screams. He hears them for the first time. For they do not merely reach his mind. They pierce beyond. They pierce to his soul.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that communism is &quot;man's second oldest faith. Its promise was whispered in the first days of the Creation under the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil: 'Ye shall be as Gods.' It is the great alternative faith of mankind.... The communist vision is the vision of Man without God.&quot; This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:<br /> {{cquote|She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: &quot;No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design.&quot; The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 16&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]&lt;ref&gt;Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's &quot;liquidation&quot; notes, &quot;For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished.&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.&lt;/ref&gt; and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers asked his wife's nephew&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. &quot;Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'&quot; [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)&lt;/ref&gt; to hide what he called his &quot;life preserver&quot;&amp;mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41&lt;/ref&gt; On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,&lt;ref&gt;Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Draper, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357&lt;/ref&gt; (and former Soviet agent)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had &quot;photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them,&quot; which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Far Eastern Division===<br /> In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was &quot;a red.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]&lt;/ref&gt; Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had &quot;dubious, Left Wing characters in his office.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&amp;mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.&lt;ref&gt;Ethan Klingsberg, &quot;Case Closed on Alger Hiss?&quot; ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nazi-Soviet Pact===<br /> [[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).&lt;ref&gt;See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. Yuri Dyakov and Tatiana Bushuyeva, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WddoAAAAMAAJ The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: how the Soviets militarized Germany, 1922-33, and paved the way for Fascism]'' (Prometheus Books, 1995), ISBN 0879759372; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, &quot;[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic],&quot; ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, &quot;[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow],&quot; ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: &quot;The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933.&quot; Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy was Alger Hiss].<br /> <br /> When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, &quot;The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor,&quot; U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, French Premier [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&amp;FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627224903/http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].&lt;ref&gt;Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952&lt;/ref&gt; Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky&lt;ref&gt;Roman Brackman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299&lt;/ref&gt; had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949&lt;/ref&gt; When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)&lt;ref&gt;Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5&lt;/ref&gt; broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/levine700/?keywords=levine Isaac Don Levine], &quot;Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time &quot;in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations.&quot; Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&amp;mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned friends (including HUAC investigator Joseph Brown Matthews), &quot;If they ever try to prove that I took my own life, [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html don't believe it],&quot; his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. (&quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A11F93959167B93C3A81789D85F458485F9 Gen. Krivitsky Found Dead; Suicide Finding Questioned; Notes Convince Washington Police He Shot Himself, but Friends Charge Former Ogpu Officer Was Slain by Reds KRIVITSKY'S DEATH IS INVESTIGATED],&quot; ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1941, p. 1) Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:AI&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Feb+13%2C+1966&amp;author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&amp;desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]&quot; ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [https://www.hoover.org/research/dark-memories corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. &quot;Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge.&quot; [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], &quot;[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern,&quot; ''Library Journal'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Chambers' meeting with Berle===<br /> In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]&lt;ref&gt;William Fortescue, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632&lt;/ref&gt; was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105&lt;/ref&gt; On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”&lt;ref&gt;''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:<br /> {{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],&lt;ref&gt;Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30&lt;/ref&gt; where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, &quot;most of them Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Louis Rapoport, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, &quot;[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&amp;b=395031 Writers in Extremis],&quot; ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the Foreign Agents Registration Act [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598&lt;/ref&gt; (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&amp;mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91&lt;/ref&gt; According to Levine:<br /> {{cquote|When I called on Berle a couple of weeks later, he indicated to me that the President had given him the cold shoulder after hearing his account of the Chambers disclosures. Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to &quot;go jump in a lake&quot; upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive&lt;ref&gt;&quot;an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&amp;t=1314204947 obscene or profane]&quot;; &quot;an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&amp;reversed=False&amp;action=define&amp;homonym=0&amp;text=expletive swearword].&quot; Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of &quot;expletive&quot; as a euphemism for &quot;[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; remark on this order: &quot;Oh, forget it, Adolf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/18/books/review/Mallon-t.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/dol/aboutdol/hallofhonor/1993_dubinsky.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, &quot;took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back.&quot; Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/walter_winchell.htm Walter Winchell] of &quot;a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199&lt;/ref&gt; Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story:&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331&lt;/ref&gt; After he informed FDR that Hiss was spying for Moscow, according to Winchell, &quot;Leaning closer and pointing a finger in my face, he [Roosevelt] angrily said, 'I don't want to hear another thing about it! It isn't true.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schechter 2002]]: 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Each time they were completely ignored.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65&lt;/ref&gt; According to Christopher Andrew, the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians], Roosevelt was uninterested when confronted with reports of Soviet spying in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokhin 2000]]: 107&lt;/ref&gt; For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;&lt;ref&gt;While Hiss would claim only to have worked &quot;under... or in association with&quot; [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] &quot;in the Government&quot; ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).&lt;/ref&gt; FDR therefore &quot;merely 'scoffed at the charge,'&quot; according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: &quot;As a result, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, &quot;If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened.&quot; According to de Toledano, &quot;the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]].&quot; ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: &quot;Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody...&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr:<br /> {{cquote|Many young leftists in the early 1930’s had entered the government in the early throes of the New Deal and embraced a Communist siren under whose call significant numbers of them were willing to pass along valuable information to the Soviet Union during the war. A general leftist tilt in the government meant that these ideologues blended well into the Washington bureaucracy while keeping their strong Soviet sympathies largely hidden. The tradecraft of Soviet intelligence personnel, the well honed Communist Party tradition of conspiracy, and a [https://www.fbi.gov/history/history-publications-reports/in-the-enemys-house-venona-and-the-maturation-of-american-counterintelligence lack of concern in the Roosevelt administration towards Soviet spying] meant that little of this growing Soviet intelligence web was found except by accident in the opening years of the war.}}<br /> Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412&lt;/ref&gt; In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131008202927/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],&lt;ref&gt;Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67&lt;/ref&gt; where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over&lt;ref&gt;[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)&lt;/ref&gt; the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.<br /> <br /> Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:<br /> {{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].&lt;ref&gt;Ralph de Toledano, &quot;Foreward,&quot; in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)&lt;/ref&gt; I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.&lt;ref&gt;M. Stanton Evans, &quot;[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America],&quot; ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===House Committee on Un-American Activities===<br /> Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Initially, Dies supported the New Deal.&quot; (William D. Pederson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) &quot;He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants.&quot; Dies also had a record of &quot;support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity.&quot; George N. Green, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70&lt;/ref&gt; [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was &quot;furious&quot;&amp;mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&amp;mdash;&quot;you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed,&quot; he railed, adding &quot;there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Dies, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into &quot;un-American activities&quot;) [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&amp;mdash;a [http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [https://web.archive.org/web/20030707171840/http://boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named &quot;Crook.&quot;]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite2|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99&lt;/ref&gt; Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 140-150&lt;/ref&gt; (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710063742/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/article/268394/pdf Trotskyites].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies,&lt;ref&gt;Although one American public school teacher's guide claims that the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] &quot;was not an alliance. At the start of World War II, Joseph Stalin (...strongly anti-fascist) was aligned with Great Britain and France against the Axis Powers of Germany,&quot; etc., (''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1KtAAFE2nAwC World War II]'' [Social Studies School Service, 2007] ISBN 156004313X, p. S11), this is false. As French Communist Party leaders Maurice Thoruz and Jacques Duclos put it upon the Nazi conquest of France, &quot;the struggle of the French people has the same aim as the struggle of German imperialism. It is a fact that in this sense there is a temporary alliance.&quot; ([[#refTolstoy82|Tolstoy 1982]]: 113) As late as January 1941, the Soviets were appealing to the Nazis for permission to join as full members of the Axis. (Gerhard L. Weinberg, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xlsrAxuWekQC A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521618266, p. 202) Six months later, when the pact collapsed, the USSR rushed into the arms of the Allies, which the Communists viewed as yet another &quot;temporary alliance.&quot; David Gress, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NKyzGG92uMUC From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2004) ISBN 0743264886, p. 408&lt;/ref&gt; including Communists.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155&lt;/ref&gt; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610&lt;/ref&gt; Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; with the notation appended, &quot;[[Husband]] with [[State Department]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Federal Bureau of Investigation===<br /> [[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official &amp; Confidential File #34, [http://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)&lt;/ref&gt; in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group&lt;ref&gt;Michael Denning, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410&lt;/ref&gt; identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].&lt;ref&gt;Meg Jacobs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171&lt;/ref&gt; In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.&lt;ref&gt;As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: &quot;There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information.&quot; ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After ex-[[OGPU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,” ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,&lt;ref&gt;Edith Tiger, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158&lt;/ref&gt; the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340&lt;/ref&gt; After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106&lt;/ref&gt; the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92&lt;/ref&gt; That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named &quot;Moliere&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Haslam, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224&lt;/ref&gt; (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] &quot;Pavel P. Mikhailov&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)&lt;/ref&gt; to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named &quot;Viktor&quot;]) in Moscow,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)&lt;/ref&gt; identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named &quot;Neighbors&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)&lt;/ref&gt; reported someone &quot;from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Lend-Lease===<br /> Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [https://web.archive.org/web/20100210161901/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/nazi-saboteurs-and-george-dasch Nazi and fascist agents].&lt;ref&gt;According to FBI Historian John F. Fox, Jr., &quot;From the entry of the US into the war in 1941, the FBI, with cooperation of its fellow agencies and significant foreign allies, effectively negated Axis intelligence operations in the US and the western hemisphere. The Bureau was distinctly [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona less successful in identifying the Soviet threat] during the same period.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed the U.S. Lend-Lease program for Britain&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87. The Communist front [[American Peace Mobilization]] picketed the White House, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,790078,00.html protesting Lend-Lease] aid to the U.K. When Britain declared war on the Nazis, German Communist Party leader Walter Ulbricht denounced not Nazism but &quot;English Imperialism&quot; as “the most reactionary force in the world” (&quot;[http://library.fes.de/fulltext/sozmit/1940-008.htm reaktionärste Kraft in der Welt]&quot;). “The German government declared itself ready to establish peaceful relations with the Soviet Union, whilst the Anglo-French war bloc want war against the Soviet Union,” [http://www.marxists.org/archive/ulbricht/1940/die-welt.htm declared Ulbricht]. During the battle of Britain, &quot;Communists in the factories actually fomented strikes, and spread defeatist propaganda in [http://hitchensblog.mailonsunday.co.uk/2010/07/a-final-word.html the blitzed areas of London],&quot; writes [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/shortlists/peter-hitchens/ Orwell prize winning] journalist Peter Hitchens.&lt;/ref&gt; (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by [http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm officially dissolving] the [[Comintern]], forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars&lt;/ref&gt; The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern&lt;ref&gt;“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989&lt;/ref&gt; (which included “control over the CPUSA”),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48&lt;/ref&gt; gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.&lt;ref&gt;“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943).&quot; [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]];&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 325&lt;/ref&gt; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center&lt;/ref&gt; whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called &quot;the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, &quot;[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&amp;rt=0&amp;format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, &quot;the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease,&quot; was [[Harry Dexter White]],&lt;ref&gt;Albert Loren Weeks, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> one of &quot;the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army &quot;fights for FREEDOM.&quot; ''Courtesy [http://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found &quot;hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and [http://web.archive.org/web/20050204193218/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/salute/Salute3-espionage.html top-secret U.S. government documents],&quot; including &quot;five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab.&quot; From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, &quot;I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191&lt;/ref&gt; [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named &quot;Map.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21&lt;/ref&gt; Strong boasted that&amp;mdash;with the help of American millionaire&lt;ref&gt;Gregg Herken, &quot;[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90&lt;/ref&gt; Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&amp;mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field in Great Falls, Montana&lt;ref&gt;Anna Louise Strong, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.&lt;ref&gt;Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94&lt;/ref&gt; These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124&lt;/ref&gt; from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.&lt;ref&gt;Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208&lt;/ref&gt; Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88&lt;/ref&gt; and a Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263&lt;/ref&gt; (code-named ''Lyre''),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944&lt;/ref&gt; but also the mistress&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257&lt;/ref&gt; of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=0208&amp;week=d&amp;msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&amp;user=&amp;pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].<br /> <br /> Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt &amp; Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219&lt;/ref&gt; He described preparing a shipment of &quot;black suitcases&quot; carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Rhodes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468&lt;/ref&gt; and released a statement warning:<br /> {{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.<br /> The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].&lt;ref&gt;In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [http://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [http://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Yalta===<br /> On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring &quot;people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences&quot; at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] &quot;did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity,&quot; but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt &quot;Messrs. Bowman&lt;ref&gt;Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]&lt;/ref&gt; and Alger Hiss ought to go.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be &quot;not very bright,&quot; according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Briggs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt; State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius &quot;was not brilliant.&quot; But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) &quot;other people's brains&quot;]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html brilliant] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)&lt;/ref&gt; noted that &quot;Hiss exercises [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that &quot;all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=42&amp;isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;page=441&amp;isize=XL p. 441]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [https://web.archive.org/web/20041017194141/http://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, &quot;[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind,&quot; according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].&lt;ref&gt;Felix Wittmer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently,&quot; agreed former Soviet propagandist&lt;ref&gt;David C. Engerman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201&lt;/ref&gt; W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered &quot;occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207&lt;/ref&gt; His face was &quot;gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function,&quot; wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]&lt;ref&gt;Nathaniel Burt, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35&lt;/ref&gt; John Gunther. &quot;I felt certain that he was going to die.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John Gunther, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:<br /> {{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/hull-cordell Cordell Hull] and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...&lt;ref&gt;James A. Farley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”&lt;ref&gt;Edward Shorter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100&lt;/ref&gt; Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276&lt;/ref&gt; ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which<br /> {{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States. He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&amp;mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.&lt;ref&gt;Steven Lomazow , &quot;[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta'],&quot; History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> “The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”&lt;ref&gt;Sir Winston Churchill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Winston is puzzled and distressed,&quot; noted Churchill's physician. &quot;The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;This may have been due to FDR's &quot;inability to follow the text,&quot; perhaps due to &quot;a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain.&quot; Claude R. Marx, &quot;[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition],&quot; ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442&lt;/ref&gt; He commented:<br /> {{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.&lt;ref&gt;Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In [http://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister<br /> {{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. &quot;Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?&quot; he [Churchill] asked. &quot;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta].&quot;}}<br /> The deterioration in Roosevelt's judgement became evident in some of his more controversial statements at Yalta, including the following, recorded in the formerly [http://archive.today/p3GKt Top Secret minutes] two weeks after the liberation of Aushwitz:<br /> {{cquote|MARSHAL STALIN asked whether the President intended to make any concessions to Ibn Saud [King of Saudi Arabia].<br /> THE PRESIDENT replied that there was only one concession he thought he might offer and that was to give him the six million Jews in the United States.}}<br /> ====United Nations planning====<br /> As what Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/serhii-plokhii Serhii Plokhii] calls &quot;the State Department's expert on the United Nations&quot; at Yalta, Hiss was involved in discussions preceeding the secret agreement&lt;ref&gt;According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]&quot; containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an &quot;oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&amp;mdash;actually three delegations&amp;mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)&lt;/ref&gt; to give the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Although Hiss officially opposed this decision, there is some mystery as to how it came about: Hiss would later claim that the British informed him that US agreement to this Soviet demand had come from Stettinius himself, but Stettinus denied that he had ever made such an agreement.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plohky 2010]]: 192&lt;/ref&gt; Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference &quot;the whole truth&quot; about this agreement (which he called &quot;this X-matter&quot;), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306&lt;/ref&gt; The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Kort, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===='Traitors'====<br /> The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].&lt;ref&gt;At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].&lt;/ref&gt; On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3&lt;/ref&gt; (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], &quot;The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13&lt;/ref&gt; But Venona is not the only source: According to Plokhii, the [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2012/September%202012/0912yalta.aspx foremost modern analyst of Yalta], &quot;New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]]: xxv&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss,&quot; who was, according to Sudoplatov, &quot;highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt; According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein, who had been one of Hiss’s control officers in 1935-38, when he served as vice-consul at the Soviet consulate New York, and was now deputy director of the GRU. Hiss's briefings revealed not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130&lt;/ref&gt; Sudoplatov added:<br /> {{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,&lt;ref&gt;Hugh D. Phillips, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385&lt;/ref&gt; official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ====Poland====<br /> Although it had nothing to do with Hiss's area of responsibility—the UN—when [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] &quot;to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement,&quot; wrote Stettinius, &quot;I called Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557&lt;/ref&gt; [http://web.archive.org/web/20120216060530/http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html effectively ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the &quot;Ribbentrop-Molotov&quot; line]]&amp;mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2316 secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta &quot;went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures].&quot; It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: &quot;As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes,&quot; he wrote. &quot;To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was &quot;amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'.&quot; Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====China====<br /> Hiss had input even on China. During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, &quot;Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China,&quot; according to the formerly [http://archive.is/HTiIW Top Secret minutes], &quot;and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record resorts to the passive voice, obscuring Hiss's role in this incident: &quot;The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity.&quot; Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. &quot;Sirius&quot; in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945&amp;isize=XL&amp;submit=Go+to+page&amp;page=502 502] Press reports relying on this [http://books.google.com/books?id=kotPYEqx7kMC&amp;q=memory+hole#v=snippet&amp;q=memory%20hole&amp;f=false bowdlerized] official account thus reported, e.g.: &quot;Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations].&quot; FDR apologists such as liberal &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/04/weekinreview/04tanenhaus.html court historian]&quot; Arthur Schlesinger parroted this official version as dogma: &quot;As for Yalta, Alger Hiss had nothing to do with the Far Eastern discussions, and knew nothing of their existence,&quot; etc. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MegmQB1MxqkC The Politics of Hope: And, The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s]'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) ISBN 0691134758, p. 237&lt;/ref&gt; The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&amp;mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Too much stress cannot be laid on the hope that our economic assistance be carried out in China through the medium of a government fully and fairly representative of all important Chinese political elements, including the Chinese Communists,&quot; said Acheson. (Freda Utley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JmAcAAAAMAAJ The China story]'' [H. Regnery Co., 1951], p. 15) This was the pretext for the U.S. embargo on arms to China in July 1946. Even after the embargo ended in May 1947, Acheson was able to delay shipments another six months. In 1949, he would explicitly instruct his subordinates that &quot;it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action.&quot; (David S. McLellan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: &quot;Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China.&quot; John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].&lt;ref&gt;After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong &quot;was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader,&quot; according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the &quot;memoranda for the President&quot; Stettinius directed be placed &quot;in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss,&quot; according to retired U.S. intelligence analyst Christina Shelton, was a position paper registering the State Department's strong opposition to turning over to the USSR the southern Kurile and Sakhalin islands. This State Department memo never made it into the Yalta briefing books, but did make it to Moscow, where it would be [http://frontpagemag.com/2012/05/03/alger-hiss-why-he-chose-treason/ found in the Russian archives] after the fall of the Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPlokhy2010|Plokhy 2010]], cited in [[#refShelton2012|Shelton 2012]]: 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Apparently unaware of this memo, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] ultimately made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113064720/http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), conceding these territorial demands, as well as giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.&lt;ref&gt;Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt; U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,&lt;ref&gt;Laura Tyson Li, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267&lt;/ref&gt; alleging the existence of a &quot;Communist conspiracy within the State Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Don Lohbeck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for &quot;peace and unity with the Communists in China,&quot; saying &quot;It was not in my area of activity at all.&quot; Hiss admitted that he &quot;had been connected with far eastern affairs before,&quot; but protested that after &quot;about February 1944 [a year before he &quot;stressed the importance&quot; of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====Other secret agreements====<br /> According to [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&amp;mdash;including Hiss:<br /> {{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon [http://education-research.org/images/FDR-Stalin-Jews.jpg Stalin requested] the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.<br /> When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}<br /> Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&amp;mdash;due to &quot;a news story from Moscow,&quot; he wrote&amp;mdash;of &quot;the full agreement.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James Francis Byrnes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] &quot;secret codicil&quot; was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the &quot;[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&amp;month=12 repatriation]&quot; of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182&lt;/ref&gt; or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]].&quot; &quot;Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps....&quot; William D. Leahy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia&lt;/ref&gt; Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, in Washington, sent [http://archive.is/TDxrP a Top Secret telegram] to Stettinius at Yalta, objecting to the repatriation as a violation of the Geneva Convention and of the traditional American policy of granting political asylum. The U.S. nevertheless agreed to the repatriation (which would become known as [[Operation Keelhaul]]), but that agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:<br /> {{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.&lt;ref&gt;William Henry Chamberlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Asked if he had &quot;drafted or participated in the drafting&quot; of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, &quot;I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='ALES'===<br /> After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/ref&gt; where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet &quot;files show that after the Yalta conference [http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/01/03/reviews/990103.03persict.html Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131&lt;/ref&gt; In 2006, the [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].<br /> <br /> On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named &quot;Ruble,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44&lt;/ref&gt; learned of this award from his friend, &quot;Ales,&quot; a GRU agent:<br /> [[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|&quot;military&quot; neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 269&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,&lt;ref&gt;The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric<br /> Breindel, &quot;Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt,&quot; ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)&lt;/ref&gt; following up on a conversation with &quot;Ales,&quot; that &quot;Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]&lt;ref&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0501&amp;week=a&amp;msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&amp;user=&amp;pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; continuously since 1935&quot;; that for &quot;a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)&lt;/ref&gt; of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; that recently, &quot;Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals&quot;; and that after &quot;the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc.&quot; Regarding &quot;Ales,&quot; one FBI memo reports:<br /> {{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, &quot;This could only be Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded &quot;Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told.&quot; ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)&lt;/ref&gt; Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions &quot;eminently reasonable,&quot; writing that the evidence showed that &quot;ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).&lt;/ref&gt; John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification &quot;[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]&quot; and the evidence &quot;compelling.&quot; [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, &quot;it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]].&quot; Christopher Andrew, writing with [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of &quot;Ales&quot; as Hiss is &quot;beyond reasonable doubt.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599&lt;/ref&gt; The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/about-us/people/mark-kramer director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], &quot;seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name &quot;Alger Hiss&quot; in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named &quot;Raid&quot;]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his &quot;[[Perlo group]]&quot; whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name &quot;Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78&lt;/ref&gt; Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy &quot;in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party,&quot; as well as an [[espionage]] agent who &quot;disclosed much confidential matter.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359&lt;/ref&gt; FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)&lt;/ref&gt; On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending &quot;that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===United Nations===<br /> [[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&amp;scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating &quot;Ales&quot;], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General&lt;ref&gt;[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)&lt;/ref&gt; of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. &quot;As Secretary-General, managing the agenda,&quot; reported ''Time'', Hiss &quot;will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks].&quot;<br /> <br /> On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies &quot;on all personnel concerned&quot; in the conference. According to Stettinius, Hiss &quot;strongly opposed&quot; this proposal, and &quot;vigorously endorsed&quot; the view that OSS &quot;doing espionage work&quot; at the conference would &quot;seriously embarrass us.&quot; As a result, &quot;American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, &quot;Vadim&quot; ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; wanted to meet with &quot;Ales&quot; at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that &quot;Ales&quot; had worked with &quot;Ruble&quot; ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by &quot;Karl&quot; (Whittaker Chambers).&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The cable adds that &quot;'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences,&quot; and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by &quot;Sergei&quot; (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)&lt;/ref&gt; then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; &quot;Pravdin&quot; was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].&lt;/ref&gt; or Gorsky, &quot;alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]].&quot;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was &quot;Ales.&quot; Stettinius told &quot;Ales&quot;: &quot;I hope it is not you.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: &quot;Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow.&quot; Eugene Dennis, &quot;Yalta and America's National Unity,&quot; [http://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately &quot;faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Powell, [http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)&lt;/ref&gt; Byrnes had been &quot;pushed out&quot; of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled &quot;that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, &quot;Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&amp;scp=130&amp;sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&amp;st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments.&quot; [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee investigation found that Hiss recommended a total of 494 persons for positions as UN officials. Of these, 58 had passed through Hiss's Office of Special Political Affairs; 219 persons who had worked in Hiss's office were &quot;loaned&quot; to the UN, of whom 49 became permanent UN officials. Senator James Eastland (D-MO) commented: &quot;I am appalled at the extensive evidence indicating that there is today in the UN among the American employees there, the greatest concentration of Communists that this Committee has ever encountered.... These people occupy high positions. They have very high salaries and almost all of these people have, in the past, been employees in the U.S. government in high and sensitive positions.&quot; (United States Senate. Committee on Internal Security. Activities of U.S. Citizens Employed by the UN. Hearings (1952), pp. 407-408; Report (1954), p. 12. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt; Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;To Elsie McKeough,&quot; Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the &quot;Hollywood Ten&quot;) [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&amp;dat=19500703&amp;id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hoping to obtain &quot;control of the entire [[Mediterranean]],&quot; the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding &quot;an immediate boycott&quot; of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking &quot;[[Communist]] expansion world-wide,&quot; the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:&lt;ref&gt;United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.&lt;ref&gt;William B. Dunham, &quot;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career],&quot; Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),&lt;ref&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;New Reasons to Doubt Hiss,&quot; ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993&lt;/ref&gt; in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362&lt;/ref&gt; FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed &quot;a keen interest in atomic energy&quot; and other matters relating to military intelligence&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;all of which were [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363&lt;/ref&gt; This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that &quot;Ales&quot; and his group were &quot;working on obtaining only military information,&quot; since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] &quot;allegedly are not very interested&quot; in &quot;materials about the Bank [United States Department of State].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]&lt;/ref&gt; Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;H. W. Brands, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel&lt;ref&gt;[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45&lt;/ref&gt; that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&amp;mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Defections and Investigations==<br /> ===Igor Gouzenko===<br /> [[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.&lt;ref&gt;Amy W. Knight, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify &quot;the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow,&quot; Gouzenko would repeat that &quot;there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius.&quot; Bruce Craig, &quot;Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed,&quot; David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218&lt;/ref&gt; Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, &quot;We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss.&quot; [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&amp;lang=eng&amp;rec_nbr=104027&amp;rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&amp;back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&amp;Language=eng&amp;FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&amp;SourceQuery=&amp;ResultCount=5&amp;PageNum=1&amp;MaxDocs=-1&amp;SortSpec=score+desc&amp;Language=eng&amp;SearchIn_1=&amp;Operator_1=AND&amp;SearchIn_2=&amp;SearchInText_2=&amp;Operator_2=AND&amp;SearchIn_3=&amp;SearchInText_3=&amp;Sources_1=amicus&amp;Sources_2=mikan&amp;Sources_3=genapp&amp;Sources_4=web&amp;soundex=on&amp;cainInd=&amp;SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 11&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he &quot;would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general&quot;&amp;mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&amp;mdash;of the [[United Nations]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, &quot;The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time.&quot; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361&lt;/ref&gt; Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, &quot;It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post.&quot; Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of &quot;special assistant for military affairs,&quot; linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.&lt;/ref&gt; thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire &quot;working control&quot; over the flow of papers within the department. &quot;If this ambitious project should be approved,&quot; warned Panuch, &quot;the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of&quot; what he identified as &quot;critically strategic points&quot; within State.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss &quot;[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department],&quot; which would thus, note two commentators, &quot;have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office.&quot; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On September 29, the Canadian Prime Minister met with Truman and Acheson in the White House, telling them that, according to Gouzenko, &quot;an assistant secretary of the Secretary of State's department was supposed to be implicated&quot; in GRU espionage. According to King, Truman &quot;turned to Acheson and said something to the effect that it would not be surprising.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refPickersgill70|Pickersgill 1970]]: 41&lt;/ref&gt; Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who stated that Hiss's assignment was &quot;to mess up policy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]], p. 1181 (PDF p. 121)&lt;/ref&gt; On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, &quot;It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this &quot;a clear reference to Hiss,&quot; adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s &quot;most intimate journalistic confidante.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Elizabeth Bentley===<br /> In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,&lt;ref&gt;John T. Donovan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33&lt;/ref&gt; reported, &quot;In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John F. Cronin, S.S., &quot;[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945],&quot; p. 49 (PDF p. 58)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.&lt;ref&gt;FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> [[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]<br /> Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:<br /> {{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military &quot;neighbors&quot;]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev 1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23&lt;/ref&gt; She said after &quot;Jack&quot; (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296&lt;/ref&gt; asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]&lt;ref&gt;Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence &amp; Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, &quot;In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://archive.mrc.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; who [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an &quot;agent of influence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Myra MacPherson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents &quot;could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion,&quot; and that Stone &quot;was willing to perform tasks.&quot; Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name &quot;Blin&quot; (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with &quot;Pancake&quot; had entered &quot;the channel of normal operational work,&quot; meaning that Stone had become a &quot;[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]].&quot; ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with &quot;Sergei&quot;]], who, under cover as &quot;[[Vladimir Pravdin]],&quot; ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)&lt;/ref&gt; Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001&lt;/ref&gt; FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]&lt;/ref&gt; This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]&lt;/ref&gt; in which Gorsky reports: &quot;‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)&lt;/ref&gt; used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)&lt;/ref&gt; Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:<br /> {{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===Investigations===<br /> On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/02/09.htm a speech] regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;In 1946, Stalin declared that the world would never be safe from war so long as capitalism survived. This inaugurated the cold war period.&quot; [http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/CIA%20Murphy%20Collection%20Pt1-1.pdf Fact sheet], Records of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Raymond E. Murphy Collection on International Communism, 1917–1958. Part 1: Eastern Europe. Cf. Walter LaFeber, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38. &quot;The West never chose to have a Cold War, and never would,&quot; write Soviet dissident/exiles Vladimir Bukovsky and Pavel Stroilov. &quot;[I]t was always imposed on us [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=32645 by the Kremlin aggressors].&quot; “The Cold War was [http://www.raleighspyconference.com/wrapup/2003.aspx caused by the Soviet Union], was sustained by the Soviet Union, and was ended by the Soviet Union when it collapsed,” according to Christopher Andrew (so-called “[http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British intelligence historians]”). “It was and is as simple as that.”&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',&lt;ref&gt;Conrad Black, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as &quot;a [[Communist Party]] member,&quot; and one of a &quot;high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)&lt;/ref&gt; The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']]An extensive [[FBI]] investigation helped develop a great deal of evidence verifying Chambers’ statements and [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/january/a-byte-out-of-history-the-alger-hiss-story revealing Hiss’ cover-ups]. [[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the Bureau that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99&lt;/ref&gt; By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes &quot;stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department,&quot; and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be &quot;dismissed summarily,&quot; adding, &quot;Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 &quot;suspects,&quot; another 13 &quot;[[Communist]]s,&quot; an additional 14 &quot;sympathizers,&quot; and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as &quot;agents&quot;&amp;mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69&lt;/ref&gt; On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson&lt;ref&gt;Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)&lt;/ref&gt; (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a &quot;competent KGB source&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Yevgenia Albats, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, &quot;Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend,&quot; ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr &quot;submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries.&quot; Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17–18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, &quot;Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter,&quot; King Features Syndicate and [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&amp;dat=19510721&amp;id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]&lt;/ref&gt; forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the [[leak]]. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;Panuch would testify that &quot;...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'&quot; As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, &quot;it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department.&quot; [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with &quot;McLean [sic], British Emb.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364&lt;/ref&gt; Donald Maclean&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent&lt;ref&gt;Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28],&quot; Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)&lt;/ref&gt; and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean],&quot; ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008&lt;/ref&gt; where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.],&quot; The Spy Museum&lt;/ref&gt; Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, &quot;it was also the era of '''Hiss''', [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],&lt;ref&gt;Hayden B. Peake, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]&lt;/ref&gt; [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], &quot;Race for the Bomb&quot; ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944];&lt;/ref&gt; [[Harry Gold|Gold]],&lt;ref&gt;Greg Barker, Director, &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]&quot; (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]&lt;/ref&gt; [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],&lt;ref&gt;Rebecca Leung, &quot;[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister],&quot; CBS News, July 16, 2003&lt;/ref&gt; and [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]&lt;ref&gt;Even the Rosenbergs' sons now accept that their father was [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&amp;hp&amp;oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kim Philby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is &quot;suggestive,&quot; writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] &quot;evidently either knew or believed&quot; that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as &quot;occupied territory,&quot; a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:<br /> {{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words &quot;occupied territory&quot; by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In November 1946, an investigation concluded that Hiss had taken home top-secret reports he was not cleared to see.&lt;ref&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hQjvrgC_zAgC A Covert Life - Jay Lovestone: Communist, Anti-Communist and Spymaster]'' (House, 1999) ISBN 0307805662, p. 146&lt;/ref&gt; That month the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding &quot;Eugene Hiss,&quot; suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 1 20)]&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)&lt;ref&gt;[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press&lt;/ref&gt; remained &quot;stubbornly antagonistic&quot; to the allegations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism].&quot; During the campaign, House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged, &quot;first we will give our efforts to cleaning out the Communists, their fellow travelers and parlor pinks from [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19460921&amp;id=nNtXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=g_UDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=1774,4765653 high positions in our Government].&quot; &quot;More than one Congressman,&quot; reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', &quot;whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341&lt;/ref&gt; This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273&lt;/ref&gt; while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]]. <br /> <br /> Two weeks after the election, Truman established the President's Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty, to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures to remove or disqualify &quot;any disloyal or subversive person&quot; from federal service. Truman's actions &quot;left both contemporary observers and historians with the conviction that he acted primarily to preempt further moves on the loyalty issue from the incoming Republican Congress,&quot; according to the journal of the National Archives. &quot;Truman's concern about 'subversive' infiltration of the government was likely [[#refRJG06|more political than substantive]].&quot;<br /> <br /> In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss became president&amp;mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&amp;mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related&lt;ref&gt;Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. &amp; Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, &quot;The Quigley Cult,&quot; ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)&lt;/ref&gt; [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)&lt;/ref&gt; which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as &quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==<br /> That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt; Truman enacted a &quot;[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program],&quot; but no action was taken for three months. Finally, on June 10, members of the newly Republican-controlled Senate sent a secret report to Truman's new Secretary of State, [[George Marshall]], warning him about Undersecretary Dean Acheson, who had fired Panuch:<br /> {{cquote|It becomes necessary due to the gravity of the situation to call your attention to a condition that developed and still flourishes in the State Department under the administration of Dean Acheson. It is evident that there is a deliberate calculated program being carried out not only to protect communist personnel in high places but to reduce security and intelligence protection to a nullity … On file in the department is a copy of a preliminary report of the FBI on Soviet espionage activities in the United States which involves a large number of State Department employees, some in high official positions. This report has been challenged and ignored by those charged with the responsibility of administering the department with the apparent tacit approval of Mr. Acheson.&lt;ref&gt;David Lawrence, &quot;Stevenson Held Unfamiliar with Red Issue,&quot; [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&amp;dat=19520917&amp;id=gflXAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=Z_YDAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3180,2556457 ''Spokane Daily Chronicle,'' September 17, 1952, p. 4]&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Marshall didn't respond to this report and, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 security cases] in the State Department the following autumn. <br /> <br /> Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that &quot;an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999&lt;/ref&gt; conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.&lt;ref&gt;One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [http://www.answers.com/topic/no-bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&amp;intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)&lt;/ref&gt; The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a [http://archive.is/5BcPM single federal official] for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&amp;mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:<br /> ::&quot;Any [http://www.nolo.com/definition.cfm/Term/BE45BC5C-A852-41E6-A9C1C267589E6C61/alpha/S/ subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&amp;st=&amp;st1=%2050. respectfully declined]...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:<br /> :&quot;No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&amp;mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:<br /> {{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> [[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, &quot;we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228&lt;/ref&gt; Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled &quot;[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]],&quot; listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, &quot;'Karl’s' group,&quot; was &quot;Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page73.html reported] to the chairman of Soviet intelligence about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers ('''A. Hiss''', [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss &quot;asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions&quot;:<br /> {{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)&lt;/ref&gt; (Emphases Bagley's)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”&lt;ref&gt;Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, &quot;Attorney General&amp;mdash;White House/President, 1948,&quot; box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119&lt;/ref&gt; a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”&lt;ref&gt;Truman &quot;wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow.&quot; [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14&lt;/ref&gt; (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were &quot;[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]&quot; in the partially decoded Venona messages,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148&lt;/ref&gt; saying, &quot;Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].&lt;/ref&gt; In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, &quot;Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named &quot;PAZh/Page.&quot; [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)&lt;/ref&gt; But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, &quot;Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117&lt;/ref&gt; No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.<br /> <br /> The Hiss forces launched a &quot;frightful campaign of vilification&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hilton Kramer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.&lt;ref&gt;James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. &quot;Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge,&quot; reported ''Time'', but &quot;it was clear to everyone&quot; that he and Chambers &quot;had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s.&quot; The magazine added that Hiss's &quot;favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times].&quot; Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&amp;mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.<br /> <br /> Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, &quot;is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)&lt;/ref&gt; He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period].&quot; On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: &quot;Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif/image.gif confinement in mental institution].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.&lt;/ref&gt; (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], &quot;With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was &quot;taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, &quot;and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]].&quot; Just two days after their public testimony,&lt;ref&gt;Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533&lt;/ref&gt; Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, &quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now.&quot;<br /> <br /> Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103&lt;/ref&gt; The New York ''Daily News'' asked, &quot;Well Alger, where's that suit?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281. Cf. Lloyd Chiasson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LBC1QaeWyDAC The press on trial: crimes and trials as media events]'' (ABC-CLIO, 1997) ISBN 0275959368, p. 137&lt;/ref&gt; Even the ''Washington Post''&amp;mdash;&quot;the most implacable of the pro-Hiss newspapers,&quot; according to Chambers&lt;ref&gt;[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 710. &quot;The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding.&quot; Marvin N. Olasky, &quot;[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950],&quot; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1–4, 1987), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;mdash;began to have doubts,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162&lt;/ref&gt; writing:<br /> {{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to put up or shut up ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.&lt;ref&gt;Chalmers McGeagh Roberts, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SRhlAAAAMAAJ The Washington post: the first 100 years]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1977) ISBN 0395258545, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.<br /> <br /> ==Hiss's suit against Chambers==<br /> ===The Baltimore Documents===<br /> In a pre-trial &quot;discovery&quot; deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had &quot;any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting&quot; from Hiss&amp;mdash;&quot;one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98&lt;/ref&gt; Marbury &quot;never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received.&quot; Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&amp;source=hp&amp;q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&amp;um=1&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:<br /> {{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.&lt;ref&gt;FBI &quot;By Special Messenger&quot;: SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&amp;dat=19491129&amp;id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&amp;sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].&lt;/ref&gt; Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]&lt;ref&gt;This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site &quot;underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE,&quot; which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].&lt;/ref&gt; that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.<br /> <br /> Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:<br /> {{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ===The Pumpkin Papers===<br /> [[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/telegram-from-ambassador-william-c-bullitt-regarding-the-sinojapanese-war National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers.&quot; David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, &quot;the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [http://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216&lt;/ref&gt; The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted &quot;an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322&lt;/ref&gt; Hoover penned, &quot;I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called &quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence (&quot;Pumpkin Papers&quot;) used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the &quot;Pumpkin Papers,&quot; and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)&lt;/ref&gt; The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as &quot;Felix,&quot; who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.<br /> <br /> Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the &quot;[[Gorsky memo]]&quot; (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, &quot;David Carpenter&quot; (David Zimmerman),&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28&lt;/ref&gt; code-named 103rd.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77&lt;/ref&gt; Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]&lt;/ref&gt; ex-[[GRU]] agent&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166&lt;/ref&gt; William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Grand jury==<br /> The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&amp;mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters &quot;was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents.&quot; McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: &quot;Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett....&quot; Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;John J. Danahy, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.<br /> <br /> Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.<br /> <br /> On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].<br /> <br /> Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: &quot;I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers].&quot; A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: &quot;The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC.&quot; Fearon added that all but one of the documents were &quot;[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]&quot;&amp;mdash;the Hiss's machine.<br /> <br /> On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270&lt;/ref&gt; had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397&lt;/ref&gt; then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300&lt;/ref&gt; typed some of the documents on it&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298&lt;/ref&gt; and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254&lt;/ref&gt; all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; a decade later.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281&lt;/ref&gt; Even Hiss admitted that his theory was &quot;fantastic,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299&lt;/ref&gt; stating, &quot;Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter,&quot; a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.<br /> <br /> Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential&lt;ref&gt;Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56&lt;/ref&gt; columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City.&quot; In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], &quot;WJL&quot; (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to &quot;ECC&quot; (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] &quot;[[American Russian Institute]]&quot; and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&amp;mdash;&quot;a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives,&quot; according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging &quot;cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country.&quot; Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11], pp. 96-101.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],&lt;ref&gt;According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann &quot;offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99&lt;/ref&gt; suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==The Trials==<br /> [[Image:Alger Hiss testifies.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss testifies in 1950]]<br /> On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis], fresh from his [http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/defenders.html defeated defense of segregation] in ''Brown v. Board of Education''.. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.&lt;ref&gt;Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked &quot;strictly confidential&quot; or &quot;strictly confidential, for the Secretary,&quot; would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&amp;scp=1&amp;sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&amp;st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says],&quot; ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235&lt;/ref&gt; At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259&lt;/ref&gt; [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].&lt;ref&gt;Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].<br /> <br /> Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”&lt;ref&gt;Steven M. Chermak, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The defense reverted to Hiss's original &quot;insanity defense&quot; (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”&lt;ref&gt;Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&amp;mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. &quot;I never liked him. I knew him...&quot; said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. &quot;There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy.&quot; Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986&lt;/ref&gt; So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model&lt;ref&gt;[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83&lt;/ref&gt; to teach generations of law students.&lt;ref&gt;Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’ sexual orientation in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: Hiss himself dictated for the record a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”&lt;ref&gt;Timothy Naftali, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604144844/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets],” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6&lt;/ref&gt; Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed &quot;liberal&quot; Daniel Hemel sums up:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&amp;mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}<br /> <br /> Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who &quot;''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent,&quot; (Italics in original) later concluded that &quot;[http://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/newby-sacvan.html Hiss was guilty],&quot; as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.<br /> <br /> == Conviction ==<br /> [[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,&lt;ref&gt;James Bell, &quot;[http://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA37#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty],&quot; ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt; resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, &quot;I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed.&quot; (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30&lt;/ref&gt; The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as &quot;Leonard&quot;]] in 1948.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, &quot;Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted &quot;it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life.&quot; Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988&lt;/ref&gt; Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, &quot;It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt.&quot; ''Time'' magazine commented that she &quot;obviously had not been paying much attention,&quot; being &quot;unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government.&quot;<br /> <br /> By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had &quot;positively identified&quot; Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149&lt;/ref&gt; According to Bradley, Truman said, &quot;That G&amp;mdash;D&amp;mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]].&quot; So fearful of the implications was the President that [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ Truman ordered the Venona documents destroyed]—an order that, fortunately for historians, was disobeyed.<br /> <br /> Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',&lt;ref&gt;Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)&lt;/ref&gt; and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',&lt;ref&gt;The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].&lt;/ref&gt; orchestrated by&lt;ref&gt;Eric Breindel, &quot;The Faithful Traitor,&quot; ''National Review'', February 10, 1997&lt;/ref&gt; long-time Communist Party member&lt;ref&gt;Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding &quot;There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter.&quot; (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed &quot;communist&quot; (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Rabinowitz.<br /> <br /> ==Prison==<br /> Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&amp;src=pm Frank Costello].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”&lt;ref&gt;Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88&lt;/ref&gt; Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.” Among Hiss's fellow prisoners was avowed Communist Maurice Braverman. According to [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo196.html leftist] historian Garry Wills:<br /> {{cquote|[W]hen it came time for Hiss to be released, Braverman's lawyer said that the Party hoped he would have an eloquent statement to read when he came out the gate. Television cameras were bound to be there. Braverman asked Hiss what he meant to say; Hiss said he had not thought of making a statement. Braverman said he thought it would be a good idea. &quot;What should I say?&quot; Hiss asked, and Braverman composed his first draft for him. He behaved like one still serving the Party.&lt;ref&gt;Garry Wills, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ByGIJIhocj0C Lead time: a journalist's education]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004) ISBN 0618446907, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> == Later life ==<br /> Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.&lt;ref&gt;[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)&lt;/ref&gt; In 1956, surrounded by quite a bit of controversy, the [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] at [[Princeton University]] invited Hiss as a guest speaker.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=QBBbAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA8-PA31 Princeton Alumni Weekly, Volume 56], Princeton Alumni Weekly, 1955&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]&lt;ref&gt;Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', &quot;remained a hardcore Communist&quot; until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267&lt;/ref&gt; screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the &quot;Hollywood Ten.&quot; Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that &quot;Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication.&quot; Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [http://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].<br /> <br /> As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,&lt;ref&gt;Klaus P. Fischer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt; the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:<br /> {{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}<br /> Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]&lt;ref&gt;''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, &quot;I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him].&quot; This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [http://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], &quot;[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]&quot; while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&amp;site=wnews&amp;client=wnews&amp;proxystylesheet=wnews&amp;output=xml_no_dtd&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;filter=p&amp;getfields=wnnis&amp;sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&amp;submit.x=0&amp;submit.y=0&amp;submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, &quot;Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; in 1972. But the left &quot;loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case&quot; (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).&lt;ref&gt;George McKenna, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310&lt;/ref&gt; By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal&lt;ref&gt;Victor Lasky, ''[https://archive.org/details/LaskyVictorItDidntStartWithWatergate It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000&lt;/ref&gt; forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,&lt;ref&gt;Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630&lt;/ref&gt; giving &quot;some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575&lt;/ref&gt; involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB.&quot; In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated &quot;nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged].&quot;<br /> <br /> With the rise of radical left-wing politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a [http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/1996/11/24/an-american-melodrama.html darling] of the Establishment's lecture and [https://files.nyu.edu/th15/public/brower.html New York cocktail-party circuit], and a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&amp;style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&amp;part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by &quot;[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&amp;mdash;the &quot;realization&quot; of what he calls &quot;'first-epoch' socialism&quot; (that is, &quot;neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']&quot;)&amp;mdash;not in pursuit of &quot;unfettered productivity&quot; ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.&lt;/ref&gt; Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&amp;off=0&amp;f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), &quot;The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing,&quot; labeling Hiss's conviction &quot;dubious,&quot; and suggesting that Nixon's &quot;prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level&quot; as &quot;political demagoguery of the worst sort&amp;mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as &quot;an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-diplo&amp;month=9704&amp;week=c&amp;msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&amp;user=&amp;pw= able public servant].&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Death==<br /> The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty.&quot; Edward A. Goedeken, &quot;Social Science&quot; (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; This consensus was strengthened after the fall of Soviet Communism, when Russia's first post-Communist president, Boris Yeltsin, permitted some western scholars brief access to Soviet-era intelligence archives. According to one of them, Ronald Radosh, [http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-radosh17-2008sep17,0,864776.story emeritus professor of history at City University of New York] (and a former leader of the Communist Party youth group in the U.S.),&lt;ref&gt;Radosh was leader of the Madison, Wisconsin, chapter of the Labor Youth League, as the Young Communist League was then known. Ronald Radosh, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NgGsGwB74WkC Commies: a journey through the old left, the new left and the leftover left]'' (Encounter Books, 2001) ISBN 1893554058, pp. 68-82&lt;/ref&gt; he and Mary R. Habeck [http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/mary-r-habeck-phd of Johns Hopkins] saw in the files of [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet Defense Minister in 1934-46, two GRU files identifying Hiss as &quot;our agent.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/alexander-vassilievs-notebooks-and-the-documentation-soviet-intelligence-operations-the-united Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930-1950]. Video at 1:43:10. Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 21, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> The consensus was further strengthened by the October 1996&lt;ref&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10&lt;/ref&gt; release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the &quot;Ales&quot; transmission of March 30, 1945.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground.&quot; R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]&lt;/ref&gt; The following month, on November 15, 1996, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], &quot;Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day.&quot; By then, &quot;just about everyone conceded that he was guilty,&quot; reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, &quot;that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s.&quot; Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'&quot; Alex Kingsbury, &quot;[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.],&quot; ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> HUAC's files on the Hiss-Chambers case were to have been opened in 1998, fifty years after the hearings—but in 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives (then [http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electioninfo/1974election.pdf dominated by Democrats]) voted to seal these particular files for an additional fifty years, ensuring that they cannot be seen until 2048.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Summers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8SvufU3WsisC The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon]'' (New York, London: Penguin-Putnam Inc, 2000) ISBN 1101199482, pp. 76-77.&lt;/ref&gt; Even these files, however, might not have satisfied the Hiss partisans: &quot;Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists,&quot; observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/home/people/klehr.html Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], &quot;it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]].&quot; Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&amp;chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&amp;brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, &quot;Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Sidney Hook, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, &quot;The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers,&quot; ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&amp;mdash;who, &quot;dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&amp;mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it.&quot; ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]<br /> <br /> * &lt;cite id=reflegacy&gt;[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Notes==<br /> {{reflist|3}}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Further reading ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChambers52&gt;Whittaker Chambers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWeinstein78&gt;Allen Weinstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus97&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWhite04&gt;G. Edward White, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *&lt;cite id=refShelton2012&gt;Christina Shelton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_XyzyNEy1McC Alger Hiss: Why He Chose Treason]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2012) ISBN 1451655452&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refJacoby09&gt;Susan Jacoby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSpies09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMoynihan98&gt;Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK99&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRomerstein01&gt;Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHaunted&gt;Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&amp;mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSword&gt;Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00310-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSchecter02&gt;Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAG90&gt;Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSudoplatov95&gt;Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlokhy2010&gt;Serhii Plokhy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK06&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowers04&gt;Thomas Powers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHK03&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism &amp; Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKHA98&gt;Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorgan04&gt;Ted Morgan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBagley07&gt;Tennent H. Bagley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refDallas05&gt;Gregor Dallas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOlmstead02&gt;Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerken03&gt; Gregg Herken, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKempton04&gt;Murray Kempton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMorrow05&gt;Lance Morrow, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refStettinius75&gt;Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPickersgill70&gt;John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerle52&gt;Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWilson2002&gt;Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRovere96&gt;Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman99&gt;Arthur M. Herman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEvans07&gt;M. Stanton Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTolstoy82&gt; Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yOoNAQAAMAAJ Stalin's secret war]'' (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982) ISBN 0030472660&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs67&gt;Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSmith76&gt;John Chabot Smith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTHiss77&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss2000&gt;Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLevine73&gt;Isaac Don Levine, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&amp;pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refConquest91&gt;Robert Conquest, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGall99&gt;Gilbert J. Gall, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich05&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refAvrich96&gt;Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNekrich97&gt;Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refChang05&gt;Jung Chang, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMark03&gt;Eduard Mark, &quot;[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHiss89&gt;Alger Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBerresford92&gt;John W. Berresford, &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20041207142832/http://johnwberresford.com/Articles_Other/Whittaker_Chambers_and_Alger_Hiss.doc Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide],&quot; [http://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108; 27 [http://www.isob.com/mb/journal.php International Society of Barristers Journal] 355 (1992)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCohen93&gt;Jacob Cohen, &quot;Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss,&quot; ''[http://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRemnick86&gt;David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[http://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> &lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;<br /> * National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive<br /> :* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1289&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1506&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1613&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVenona1822&gt;[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refBenson95&gt;Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA95&gt;Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refVStory&gt;Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refNSA05&gt;Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBP95&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBW96&gt;Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response, 1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refPrefaceBW96&gt;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko2-4&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refRafalko3-1&gt;[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMoyComA&gt;[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refYalta45&gt;[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] &lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refVas&gt;[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes08&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* Alexander Vassiliev<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasBlack&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112860 Black Notebook]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 White Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasWhite3&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112566 White Notebook #3]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :::* &lt;cite id=refVasYellow2&gt;[http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112565 Yellow Notebook #2]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFRUS45&gt;United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&amp;id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refSilv&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv6&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::*&lt;cite id=refSilv6.106&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNKVD&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv82.120&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSilv149&gt;[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSilv149.40&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120310004029/http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refUN46&gt;''[http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&amp;page=1 Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48&gt;[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48.2&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part Two], 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Executive Sessions<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-7-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHUAC8-17-48&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC48-2R&gt;[http://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHUAC50.2&gt;[https://archive.org/stream/hearingsregardin195002unit#page/2850/mode/2up Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&amp;mdash;Part 2], 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]<br /> :*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruChron&gt;Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTruman8.5.48&gt; [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&amp;st=&amp;st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBentleyGJ&gt;Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refTrohan1970&gt;Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refRJG06&gt;Robert Justin Goldstein, &quot;[http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist],&quot; ''Prologue'', Vol. 38, No. 3 (Fall 2006)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNARAcities&gt;125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, &quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHissAppellate&gt;''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate<br /> :* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS53&gt;[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS13&gt;[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refSISS16&gt;[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR52&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refIPR9&gt;[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refFieldUK&gt;[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&amp;CATLN=6&amp;accessmethod=5&amp;j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refBerle&gt;[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refSchindler05&gt;John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refFoote&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHK07&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)<br /> :*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refChronology&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLindPump&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinder03&gt;Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refLinderLinks&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refHaywood&gt;[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Denise Noe, &quot;The Alger Hiss Case,&quot; TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe1&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20081120034728/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNoe9&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021232049/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refAboutTony&gt;&quot;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]&quot; (States that this &quot;Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute,&quot; which &quot;is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to&quot; ''The Nation'', &quot;a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s&quot; ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now &quot;pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence&quot; (aka &quot;America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&amp;mdash;the ''Nation'' &quot;embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet.&quot; It &quot;[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute,&quot; which is &quot;the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]].&quot; Also states &quot;this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]].&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTonyTimeline&gt;[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], &quot;The Alger Hiss Story&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNoah01&gt;Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)<br /> * [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:TNI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refDTN:OSI&gt;[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&amp;category=79 Open Society Institute]&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTL50&gt;Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&amp;photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&amp;id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKriv39&gt;Walter Krivitsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1939)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refOSullivan07&gt;Christopher D. O'Sullivan, &quot;[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation],&quot; ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refYUNHiss&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMHSL&gt;[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refZeligs80&gt;[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBogdanor08&gt;Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * James Thomas Gay, &quot;[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]&quot; ''American History,'' May–June 1998<br /> * &lt;cite id=refWard88&gt;Geoffrey C. Ward, &quot;[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss],&quot; ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPlatt99&gt;Rorin M. Platt, &quot;[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]&quot; ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBC07&gt;Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, &quot;[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales],&quot; ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4&gt;John Ehrman, &quot;[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case],&quot; ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refPowell06&gt;Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refKobyakov04&gt;Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=H-Diplo&amp;month=0403&amp;week=d&amp;msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&amp;user=&amp;pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refBLH05&gt;Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0503&amp;week=b&amp;msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], March 14, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> ::* &lt;cite id=refHaynes5-10-05&gt;John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&amp;list=h-hoac&amp;month=0505&amp;week=b&amp;msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&amp;user=&amp;pw= Hiss Case], May 10, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refLowCher&gt;David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refTLS09&gt;John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB],&quot; TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&amp;more=date_all ''The New York Times'']<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refWhalen48&gt;Robert G. Whalen, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men],&quot; December 12, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refSchwartz88&gt;Stephen Schwartz, [http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati],&quot; January 24, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refLH88&gt;Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials],&quot; May 12, 1988&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refCook91&gt;Joan Cook, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87],&quot; August 13, 1991&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refTanenhaus93&gt;Sam Tanenhaus, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]&quot; October 15, 1993&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refScott96&gt;Janny Scott, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy],&quot; November 16, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBronner98&gt;Ethan Bronner, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy],&quot; October 18, 1998&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refBarron01&gt;James Barron, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest],&quot; August 16, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *: &lt;cite id=refNYT9.5.1918&gt;&quot;[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago],&quot; September 5, 1918&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;sid=123AA95F951F&amp;Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&amp;Ntk=WithBody2009&amp;Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&amp;Ns=p_date_range|0&amp;N=0&amp;Nty=1&amp;srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime11.5.45&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull],&quot; November 5, 1945&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime12.20.48&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings],&quot; December 20, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTimeDuggan49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window],&quot; January 3, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime7.4.49&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy],&quot; July 4, 1949&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime2.13.50&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss],&quot; February 13, 1950&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime3.3.52&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness],&quot; March 3, 1952&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refTime75&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers],&quot; August 11, 1975&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refMorrow96&gt;Lance Morrow, &quot;[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge],&quot; November 25, 1996&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> *''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange],&quot; Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refNYRB2&gt;Reply by Allen Weinstein, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]&quot; Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refPowers2000&gt;Thomas Powers, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens],&quot; Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refER48&gt;Eleanor Roosevelt, &quot;[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&amp;_f=md001046 My Day],&quot; ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refQA&gt;[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q &amp; A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBlack06&gt;Conrad Black, &quot;[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth],&quot; ''The National Interest,'' September–October 2006&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRicher04&gt;Matthew Richer, &quot;[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father],&quot; ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHKV5.09&gt;John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, &quot;[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&amp;mdash;Case Closed],&quot; ''Commentary'', May 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGuttenplan09&gt;D.D. Guttenplan, &quot;[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America],&quot; ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refKlehr04&gt;Harvey Klehr, &quot;[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHerman95&gt;Arthur Herman, &quot;[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow],&quot; ''National Review'', February 11, 2005&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refNovak03&gt;Robert D. Novak, &quot;[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?],&quot; ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refGarvin04&gt;Glenn Garvin, &quot;[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism],&quot; ''Reason'', April 2004&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refRusher04&gt;William A. Rusher, &quot;[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed],&quot; ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano97&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-19048238/embarrassment-aided-and-abetted-the-top-soviet-spy Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy],&quot; January 27, 1997&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> :* &lt;cite id=refToledano01&gt;&quot;[http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-80900413/hiss-defenders-covering-for-the-old-man-the-last Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man'],&quot; December 17, 2001&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refCapshaw07&gt;Ron Capshaw, &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refHornberger95&gt;Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refMICA&gt;[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art&lt;/cite&gt;<br /> * &lt;cite id=refBLS&gt;[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;div&gt;<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Espionage]]<br /> [[Category:Criminals]]<br /> [[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]<br /> [[Category:United States History]]<br /> [[Category:United States Political Scandals]]<br /> [[Category:Featured articles]]</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_5&diff=1432214 User:FOIA/Archive 5 2018-07-08T00:10:40Z <p>FOIA: </p> <hr /> <div>{{cquote|And it came to pass, when Samuel was old, that he made his sons judges over Israel... And his sons walked not in his ways, but turned aside after lucre, and took bribes, and perverted judgment.<br /> <br /> Then all the elders of Israel gathered themselves together, and came to Samuel unto Ramah, And said unto him, Behold, thou art old, and thy sons walk not in thy ways: now make us a king to judge us like all the nations. But the thing displeased Samuel, when they said, Give us a king to judge us. And Samuel prayed unto the LORD. And the LORD said unto Samuel, Hearken unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee: for they have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should not reign over them. According to all the works which they have done since the day that I brought them up out of Egypt even unto this day, wherewith they have forsaken me, and served other gods, so do they also unto thee. Now therefore hearken unto their voice: howbeit yet protest solemnly unto them, and shew them the manner of the king that shall reign over them.<br /> <br /> And Samuel told all the words of the LORD unto the people that asked of him a king. And he said, This will be the manner of the king that shall reign over you: He will take your sons, and appoint them for himself, for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run before his chariots. And he will appoint him captains over thousands, and captains over fifties; and will set them to ear his ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be confectionaries, and to be cooks, and to be bakers. And he will take your fields, and your vineyards, and your oliveyards, even the best of them, and give them to his servants. And he will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give to his officers, and to his servants. And he will take your menservants, and your maidservants, and your goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. He will take the tenth of your sheep: and ye shall be his servants. And ye shall cry out in that day because of your king which ye shall have chosen you; and the LORD will not hear you in that day.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they said, Nay; but we will have a king over us; That we also may be like all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us, and fight our battles. And Samuel heard all the words of the people, and he rehearsed them in the ears of the LORD. And the LORD said to Samuel, Hearken unto their voice, and make them a king...}}<br /> ::-1 Samuel 8<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[The Peloponnesians] devote a very small fraction of the time to the consideration of any public object, most of it to the prosecution of their own objects. Meanwhile each fancies that no harm will come of his neglect, that it is the business of somebody else to look after this or that for him; and so, by the same notion being entertained by all separately, the common cause imperceptibly decays.}}<br /> ::-Thucydides, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mo3-jF9-jlUC History of the Peloponnesian War]'' (ca. 460 B.C.-ca. 395 BC; tr. Richard Crawley, London: J. M. Dent &amp; Sons; New York: E. P. Dutton &amp; Co., 1910; reprint: Forgotten Books, 1954), p. 70<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[S]hould the citizens of the perfect state have their possessions in common or not? ... [M]ay there not be an advantage in having and using possessions in common?<br /> ...If [husbandmen] do not share equally enjoyments and toils, those who labor much and get little will necessarily complain of those who labor little and receive or consume much. But indeed there is always a difficulty in men living together and having all human relations in common, but especially in their having common property....<br /> [W]hen everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more progress, because every one will be attending to his own business.... [H]ow immeasurably greater is the pleasure, when a man feels a thing to be his own; for surely the love of self is a feeling implanted by nature and not given in vain.... And further, there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered when a man has private property..... No one, when men have all things in common, will any longer set an example of liberality or do any liberal action; for liberality consists in the use which is made of property.<br /> Such legislation may have a specious appearance of benevolence; men readily listen to it, and are easily induced to believe that in some wonderful manner everybody will become everybody's friend, especially when some one is heard denouncing the evils now existing in states, suits about contracts, convictions for perjury, flatteries of rich men and the like, which are said to arise out of the possession of private property. These evils, however, are due to a very different cause -- the wickedness of human nature. Indeed, we see that there is much more quarrelling among those who have all things in common....}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NqcD2AIQIfYC Politics]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Digireads.com Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1420926020, p. 20<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[E]ven if one prescribed a moderate property for all, it would be of no avail, since it is more needful to level men's desires than their properties.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://ia600204.us.archive.org/8/items/politicsrackh00arisuoft/politicsrackh00arisuoft_bw.pdf Politics]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. H. Rackham; London: William Heinemann LTD.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932; 1959 ed.), p. 113<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]hat which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Every one thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest; and only when he is himself concerned as an individual. For besides other considerations, everybody is more inclined to neglect the duty which he expects another to fulfill; as in families many attendants are often less useful than a few. Each citizen will have a thousand sons who will not be his sons individually but anybody will be equally the son of anybody, and will therefore be neglected by all alike. Further, upon this principle, every one will use the word 'mine' of one who is prospering or the reverse, however small a fraction he may himself be of the whole number.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.2.two.html Politics Book II]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Courier Dover Publications, 2000, ISBN 0486414248), p. 120<br /> <br /> {{cquote|If the poor, for example, because they are more in number, divide among themselves the property of the rich—is not this unjust? No, by heaven (will be the reply), for the supreme authority justly willed it. But if this is not injustice, pray what is? Again, when in the first division all has been taken, and the majority divide anew the property of the minority, is it not evident, if this goes on, that they will ruin the state? Yet surely, virtue is not the ruin of those who possess her, nor is justice destructive of a state; and therefore this law of confiscation clearly cannot be just. If it were, all the acts of a tyrant must of necessity be just; for he only coerces other men by superior power, just as the multitude coerce the rich.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.3.three.html Politics Book III]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Courier Dover Publications, 2000, ISBN 0486414248), p. 120.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|There is in fact a true law - namely, right reason - which is in accordance with nature, applies to all men, and is unchangeable and eternal. By its commands this law summons men to the performance of their duties; by its prohibitions it restrains them from doing wrong. Its commands and prohibitions always influence good men, but are without effect upon the bad. To invalidate this law by human legislation is never morally right, nor is it permissible ever to restrict its operation, and to annul it wholly is impossible. Neither the senate nor the people can absolve us from our obligation to obey this law, and it requires no Sextus Aelius to expound and interpret it. It will not lay down one rule at Rome and another at Athens, nor will it be one rule to-day and another tomorrow. But there will be one law, eternal and unchangeable, binding at all times upon all peoples; and there will be, as it were, one common master and ruler of men, namely God, who is the author of this law, its interpreter, and its sponsor.}}<br /> ::-Cicero on the Universal Nature of True Law (ca. AD 52)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Each one must do just as he has purposed in his heart, not grudgingly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver.}}<br /> ::-2 Corinthians 9:7<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Then cried they all again, saying: Not this man, but Barabbas. Now Barabbas was a robber.}}<br /> ::-John 18:14<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[M]en cannot live conveniently where all things are common. How can there be any plenty where every man will excuse himself from labour? for as the hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other men’s industry may make him slothful. If people come to be pinched with want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own, what can follow upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed....}}<br /> ::-Thomas Moore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fbNZERDCNkIC Utopia]'' (1516; tr. Gilbert Burnet, 1684; ed. Henry Morely, Cassell &amp; Co Ltd., 1909), pp. 64-65.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|When our people were fed out of the common store, and laboured jointly together, glad was he could slip from his labour, or slumber over his taske he cared not how, nay, the most honest among them would hardly take so much true paines in a weeke, as now for themselves they will doe in a day, neither cared they for the increase, presuming that howsoever the harvest prospered, the generall store must maintaine them, so that wee reaped not so much Corne from the labours of thirtie as now three or foure doe provide for themselves. To prevent which, Sir Thomas Dale hath allotted every man three Acres of cleare ground, in the nature of Farmes....}}<br /> ::-John Smith, ''The generall historie of Virginia, New England &amp; the Summer Isles, together with The true travels, adventures and observations, and A sea grammar - Volume 1'' (1614), [http://memory.loc.gov/gc/lhbcb/0262a/0266.tif p. 222]<br /> <br /> ::...the 2. agents sent from Leyden.... presumed to conclude with the marchants on those termes....<br /> <br /> ::...all profits and benifits that are gott by trade, traffick, trucking, working, fishing, or any other means of any person or persons, remaine still in the commone stock untill the division....<br /> <br /> ::That all such persons as are of this collonie, are to have their meate, drink, apparell, and all provissions out of the common stock and goods of the said collonie....<br /> <br /> ::...that which was most sadd &amp; lamentable was, that in 2. or 3. moneths time halfe of their company dyed....<br /> <br /> ::...famine began now to pinch them sore....<br /> <br /> ::Now ye welcome time of harvest approached, in which all had their hungry bellies filled. But it arose to a little, in comparison of a full years supply.... So as it well appeared that ye famine must still insue ye next year allso....<br /> <br /> ::So they begane to thinke how they might raise as much corne as they could, and obtaine a better crop than they had done, that they might not still thus languish in miserie. At length, after much debate of things, the Govr (with ye advise of ye cheefest amongest them) gave way that they should set corne every man for his owne perticuler, and in that regard trust to them selves....<br /> <br /> ::And so assigned to every family a parcell of land.... This had very good success; for it made all hands very industrious, so as much more corne was planted then other waise would have bene by any means ye Govr or any other could use, and saved him a great deall of trouble, and gave farr better contente. The women now wente willingly into ye feild, and tooke their litle-ons with them to set corne, which before would aledg weaknes, and inabilitie; whom to have compelled would have bene thought great tiranie and oppression.<br /> <br /> ::The experience that was had in this commone course and condition, tried sundrie years, and that amongst godly and sober men, may well evince the vanitie of that conceite of Platos and other ancients, applauded by some of later times; -that ye taking away of propertie, and bringing in communitie into a comone wealth, would make them happy and florishing; as if they were wiser then God. For this comunitie (so farr as it was) was found to breed much confusion and discontent, and retard much imployment that would have been to their benefite and comforte. For ye yong-men that were most able and fitte for labour and servise did repine that they should spend their time and streingth to worke for other mens wives and children, with out any recompence. The strong, or man of parts, had no more in devission of victails and cloaths, then he that was weake and not able to doe a quarter ye other could; this was thought injuestice.... and so, if it did not cut of those relations that God hath set amongest men, yet it did at least much diminish and take of ye mutuall respects that should be preserved amongst them. And would have bene worse if they had been men of another condition. Let none objecte this is mens corruption, and nothing to ye course it selfe. I answer, seeing all men have this corruption in them, God in his wisdome saw another course fiter for them....<br /> <br /> ::By this time harvest was come, and in stead of famine, now God gave them plentie, and ye face of things was changed, to ye rejoysing of ye harts of many, for which they blessed God. And ye effect of their particuler planting was well seene, for all had, one way and other, pretty well to bring ye year aboute, and some of ye abler sorte and more industrious had to spare, and sell to others, so as any generall wante or famine hath not been amongst them since to this day.<br /> <br /> ::-William Bradford (Charles Deane,ed.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tYecOAN1cwwC History of Plymouth plantation]'' (ca. 1620-23; published by Little, Brown &amp; Co., 1856), pp. 45-46, 91, 126, 134-136, 147<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Civilians call a faculty that Right, which every man has to his own.... This right comprehends the power, that we have over ourselves, which is called liberty.... It likewise comprehends property…Now any thing is unjust, which is repugnant to the nature of society, established among rational creatures. Thus for instance, to deprive another of what belongs to him, merely for one’s own advantage, is repugnant to the law of nature.}}<br /> <br /> ::-Hugo Grotius, ''The Rights of War and Peace'' (1625) <br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]o every individual in nature is given an individual propriety by nature, not to be invaded or usurped by any... for every one... hath a self propriety... and on this no second may presume without consent; and by natural birth all men are equal, and alike born to like propriety and freedom.}}<br /> ::-Richard Overton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HzMgPwAACAA An Arrow Against All Tyrants]'' (London 1646), pp. 3-4<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]his Conceit of Levelling of Propriety... is so ridiculous and foolish an opinion, as no man of braines, reason or ingenuitie can be imagined such a sot as to maintaine such a principle, because it would, if practiced destroy not only any industry in the world, but raze the very foundation of generation, and of subsistence or being of one man by another. For as for industry and valour by which the societies of mankind are maintained and preserved, who will take the pains for that which when he hath gotten is not his own, but must be equally shared in, by every lazy, simple, dronish sot? Or who will fight for that, wherein he hath no other interest, but such as must be subject to the will and pleasure of another, yea of every coward and base low spirited fellow, that in his sitting still must share in common with a valiant man in all his brave and noble achievement? The ancient encouragement to men that were to defend their Countrie was this: that they were to hazard their persons for that which was their owne, to wit, their owne wives, their owne children, their owne Estates.}}<br /> ::-John Lilburn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WyNHAAAAcAAJ Apologetical Narration]'' (Amsterdam, 1652), pp. 68-69<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Thir Orators thou then extoll'st, as those&lt;br&gt;<br /> The top of Eloquence, Statists indeed,&lt;br&gt;<br /> And lovers of thir Country, as may seem;&lt;br&gt;<br /> But herein to our Prophets far beneath,&lt;br&gt;<br /> As men divinely taught, and better teaching&lt;br&gt;<br /> The solid rules of Civil Government&lt;br&gt;<br /> In thir majestic unaffected stile&lt;br&gt;<br /> Then all the Oratory of Greece and Rome.}}<br /> ::-John Milton, ''Paradise Regain'd'' (1671 ed.)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[A]ll Mankind ... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his Life, Health, Liberty, or Possessions.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/v1ch2s1.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[E]very Man has a Property in his own Person. This no Body has any Right to but himself. The Labour of his Body, and the Work of his Hands, we may say, are properly his.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[H]e who appropriates land to himself by his labour, does not lessen but increase the common stock of mankind. For the provisions serving to the support of humane life, produced by one acre of inclosed and cultivated land, are (to speak much within compasse) ten times more, than those, which are yeilded by an acre of Land, of an equal richnesse, lyeing wast in common.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]here is a natural law, and it does not consist either in doing harm to others, or in rejoicing thereat.}}<br /> ::-Voltaire, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/18569/18569-h/18569-h.htm Philosophical Dictionary]'' (1764)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[A]s a man is said to have a right to his property, he may be equally said to have a property in his rights.}}<br /> ::-James Madison, [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s23.html Property] (1792)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Away, then, with quacks and organizers! Away with their rings, chains, hooks, and pincers! Away with their artificial systems! Away with the whims of governmental administrators, their socialized projects, their centralization, their tariffs, their government schools, their state religions, their free credit, their bank monopolies, their regulations, their restrictions, their equalization by taxation, and their pious moralizations! <br /> <br /> And now that the legislators and do-gooders have so futilely inflicted so many systems upon society, may they finally end where they should have begun: May they reject all systems, and try liberty; for liberty is an acknowledgment of faith in God and His works.}}<br /> ::-Frederic Bastiat (tr. Dean Russell), ''[http://bastiat.org/en/the_law.html The Law]'' (1853)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|We call capitalism or market economy that form of social cooperation which is based on private ownership of the means of production.<br /> <br /> Socialism, communism, or planned economy, on the other hand, is the form of social cooperation which is based on public ownership of the means of production. The terms state capitalism and authoritarian economy have essentially the same meaning.<br /> <br /> It is frequently asserted that a third form of social cooperation is feasible as a permanent form of economic organization, namely a system of private ownership of the means of production in which the government intervenes, by orders and prohibitions, in the exercise of ownership. This third system is called interventionism. All governments which do not openly profess socialism tend to be interventionist nowadays, and all political parties recommend at least some degree of interventionism.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:80%&quot;&gt;The orthodox Marxists, however, recommend interventionism in full recognition of the fact that it paralyzes and destroys the capitalistic market economy and, thus, in their opinion, leads to socialism. This was the argument advanced as long as a century ago by Friedrich Engels.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; It is claimed that this system of interventionism is as far from socialism as it is from capitalism, that as a third solution to the social problem it stands midway between the two systems, and that while retaining the advantages of both it avoids the disadvantages inherent in both. ...<br /> <br /> Interventionism is not an economic system, that is, it is not a method which enables people to achieve their aims. It is merely a system of procedures which disturb and eventually destroy the market economy. It hampers production and impairs satisfaction of needs. It does not make people richer; it makes people poorer.<br /> <br /> Concededly, the interventionist measures may give certain individuals or certain groups of individuals advantages at the expense of others. Minorities may obtain privileges which enrich them at the expense of their fellow citizens. But the majority, or the whole nation, stands only to lose by interventionism. ...<br /> <br /> Not only do they divert production from the ways which lead to the best and most efficient satisfaction of the consumers’ demand; they cause waste of both capital and labor; they create permanent mass unemployment. They may bring about the artificial boom, but with it they bring in its wake a depression. They change the market economy into chaos.<br /> <br /> Popular opinion ascribes all these evils to the capitalistic system. As a remedy for the undesirable effects of interventionism they ask for still more interventionism. They blame capitalism for the effects of the actions of governments which pursue an anti-capitalistic policy.}}<br /> ::-Ludwig Von Mises (Bettina Bien Greaves, ed.), ''[http://mises.org/etexts/mises/interventionism/interventionismtext.pdf Interventionism: an economic analysis]'' (Foundation for Economic Analysis, 1940), pp. 1, 77-78.<br /> <br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Of all tyrannies, a tyranny sincerely exercised for the good of its victims may be the most oppressive. It would be better to live under robber barons than under omnipotent moral busybodies. The robber baron's cruelty may sometimes sleep, his cupidity may at some point be satiated; but those who torment us for our own good will torment us without end for they do so with the approval of their own conscience. They may be more likely to go to Heaven yet at the same time likelier to make a Hell of earth. This very kindness stings with intolerable insult. To be &quot;cured&quot; against one's will and cured of states which we may not regard as disease is to be put on a level of those who have not yet reached the age of reason or those who never will; to be classed with infants, imbeciles, and domestic animals.}}<br /> ::―C.S. Lewis, &quot;The Humanitarian Theory of Punishment,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=loE7BAAAQBAJ God in the Dock: Essays on Theology]'' (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1948), p. 324.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.}}<br /> ::-Garrett Hardin (1968), &quot;[http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/articles/art_tragedy_of_the_commons.html The Tragedy of the Commons],&quot; ''[http://science.sciencemag.org/content/162/3859/1243.full Science]'' (AAAS), Vol. 162, Issue 3859, pp. 1243-1248. DOI: 10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 <br /> <br /> {{cquote|To do evil a human being must first of all believe that what he's doing is good... Ideology - that is what gives evildoing its long-sought justification and gives the evildoer the necessary steadfastness and determination... That was how the agents of the Inquisition fortified their wills: by invoking Christianity; the conquerors of foreign lands, by extolling the grandeur of their Motherland; the colonizers, by civilization; the Nazis, by race; and the Jacobins (early and late), by equality, brotherhood, and the happiness of future generations. Thanks to ideology, the twentieth century was fated to experience evildoing on a scale calculated in the millions.}}<br /> ::-Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (tr. Thomas P. Whitney), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eh_S9tcL4RsC The Gulag Archipelago]'' (Éditions du Seuil, 1973), p. 173.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|One of the great mistakes is to judge policies and programs by their intentions rather than their results. We all know a famous road that is paved with good intentions. The people who go around talking about their soft heart . . . I admire them for the softness of their heart, but unfortunately it very often extends to their head as well. Because the fact is that the programs that are labeled as being for the poor, for the needy, almost always have effects exactly the opposite of those which their well-intentioned sponsors intend them to have. . . .}}<br /> ::-From an [http://www.thirteen.org/openmind-archive/public-affairs/living-within-our-means/ interview] in December 1975 with economist Milton Friedman on PBS’s “The Open Mind”<br /> <br /> {{cquote|The horrors did not arise from perversions of radical ideology but from the ideology itself. We were led into complicity with mass murder and the desecration of our professed ideals not by Stalinist or other corruptions of high ideals, much less by unfortunate twists in some presumably objective course of historical development, but by a deep flaw in our very understanding of human nature—its frailty and its possibilities—and by our inability to replace the moral and ethical baseline long provided by the religion we have dismissed with indifference, not to say contempt.<br /> <br /> The question of moral responsibility has been raised within the left, if gingerly and indirectly, by a few brave souls like Roberto Mangabeira Unger and Cornel West, who have drawn attention to the price we have paid for scouting Christian ethics while having nothing to substitute and who have, in effect, called for an end to the blind hatreds that confuse the sin with the sinner. Unger and West are justly revered figures on the left and accorded at least formal respect. Yet their efforts toward a reassessment of the religious foundations of political ethics have not sparked the slightest discussion. It is fair to ask: what kind of respect is that? Are we supposed to believe that Unger and West have been kidding?<br /> <br /> Our whole project of &quot;human liberation&quot; has rested on a series of gigantic illusions. The catastrophic consequences of our failure during this century—not merely the body count but the monotonous recurrence of despotism and wanton cruelty—cannot be dismissed as aberrations. Slimmed down to a technologically appropriate scale, they have followed in the wake of victories by radical egalitarian movements throughout history. We have yet to answer our right-wing critics' claims, which are regrettably well documented, that throughout history, from ancient times to the peasant wars of the sixteenth century to the Reign of Terror and beyond, social movements that have espoused radical egalitarianism and participatory democracy have begun with mass murder and ended in despotism.<br /> <br /> Let us grant, arguendo, that the ruling classes have done worse. Whatever solace that thought may give us, our own problem remains: what kind of society could we build on a worldview marred by flagrant irrationalities paraded as self-evident truths, even if reinforced by sandbox cries of &quot;You're another&quot;?<br /> <br /> The allegedly high ideals we placed at the center of our ideology and politics are precisely what need to be reexamined, but they can no longer even be made a subject for discussion in the mass media and our universities, to say nothing of the left itself. They are givens: an unattainable equality of condition; a radical democracy that has always ended in the tyranny it is supposed to overcome; a celebration of human goodness or malleability, accompanied by the daily announcement of newly discovered &quot;inalienable rights&quot; to personal self-expression; destruction of all hierarchy and elites, as if ideological repudiation has ever prevented or ever could prevent the formation and reformation of hierarchies and elites; condemnation of &quot;illegitimate&quot; authority in the absence of any notion of what might constitute legitimate authority; and, at the root of all, a thorough secularization of society, bolstered by the monstrous lie that the constitutional separation of church and state was meant to separate religion from society. And we have yet to reassess the anti-Americanism—the self-hatred implicit in the attitude we have generally affected toward our country—that has led us into countless stupidities and worse.}}<br /> <br /> ::-Eugene D. Genovese, &quot;[https://www.dissentmagazine.org/wp-content/files_mf/1353953160genovesethequestion.pdf The Question],&quot; ''Dissent'' [summer 1994], pp. 371-6, at 375<br /> <br /> {{cquote|When I was editor of ''The Journal of Law and Economics'', we published a whole series of studies of regulation and its effects. Almost all the studies--perhaps all the studies--suggested that the results of regulation had been bad, that the prices were higher, that the product was worse adapted to the needs of consumers, than it otherwise would have been. I was not willing to accept the view that all regulation was bound to produce these results. Therefore, what was my explanation for the results we had? I argued that the most probable explanation was that the government now operates on such a massive scale that it had reached the stage of what economists call negative marginal returns. Anything additional it does, it messes up. But that doesn't mean that if we reduce the size of government considerably, we wouldn't find then that there were some activities it did well. Until we reduce the size of government, we won't know what they are. ... I can't remember one that's good. Regulation of transport, regulation of agriculture-- agriculture is a, zoning is z. You know, you go from a to z, they are all bad. There were so many studies, and the result was quite universal: The effects were bad.}}<br /> ::-Ronald Coase, quoted in Thomas W. Hazlitt, &quot;[http://reason.com/archives/1997/01/01/looking-for-results/singlepage Looking for Results],&quot; ''Reason'', January 1997</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_5&diff=1432212 User:FOIA/Archive 5 2018-07-08T00:00:15Z <p>FOIA: </p> <hr /> <div>{{cquote|And it came to pass, when Samuel was old, that he made his sons judges over Israel... And his sons walked not in his ways, but turned aside after lucre, and took bribes, and perverted judgment.<br /> <br /> Then all the elders of Israel gathered themselves together, and came to Samuel unto Ramah, And said unto him, Behold, thou art old, and thy sons walk not in thy ways: now make us a king to judge us like all the nations. But the thing displeased Samuel, when they said, Give us a king to judge us. And Samuel prayed unto the LORD. And the LORD said unto Samuel, Hearken unto the voice of the people in all that they say unto thee: for they have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should not reign over them. According to all the works which they have done since the day that I brought them up out of Egypt even unto this day, wherewith they have forsaken me, and served other gods, so do they also unto thee. Now therefore hearken unto their voice: howbeit yet protest solemnly unto them, and shew them the manner of the king that shall reign over them.<br /> <br /> And Samuel told all the words of the LORD unto the people that asked of him a king. And he said, This will be the manner of the king that shall reign over you: He will take your sons, and appoint them for himself, for his chariots, and to be his horsemen; and some shall run before his chariots. And he will appoint him captains over thousands, and captains over fifties; and will set them to ear his ground, and to reap his harvest, and to make his instruments of war, and instruments of his chariots. And he will take your daughters to be confectionaries, and to be cooks, and to be bakers. And he will take your fields, and your vineyards, and your oliveyards, even the best of them, and give them to his servants. And he will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give to his officers, and to his servants. And he will take your menservants, and your maidservants, and your goodliest young men, and your asses, and put them to his work. He will take the tenth of your sheep: and ye shall be his servants. And ye shall cry out in that day because of your king which ye shall have chosen you; and the LORD will not hear you in that day.<br /> <br /> Nevertheless the people refused to obey the voice of Samuel; and they said, Nay; but we will have a king over us; That we also may be like all the nations; and that our king may judge us, and go out before us, and fight our battles. And Samuel heard all the words of the people, and he rehearsed them in the ears of the LORD. And the LORD said to Samuel, Hearken unto their voice, and make them a king...}}<br /> ::-1 Samuel 8<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[The Peloponnesians] devote a very small fraction of the time to the consideration of any public object, most of it to the prosecution of their own objects. Meanwhile each fancies that no harm will come of his neglect, that it is the business of somebody else to look after this or that for him; and so, by the same notion being entertained by all separately, the common cause imperceptibly decays.}}<br /> ::-Thucydides, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mo3-jF9-jlUC History of the Peloponnesian War]'' (ca. 460 B.C.-ca. 395 BC; tr. Richard Crawley, London: J. M. Dent &amp; Sons; New York: E. P. Dutton &amp; Co., 1910; reprint: Forgotten Books, 1954), p. 70<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[S]hould the citizens of the perfect state have their possessions in common or not? ... [M]ay there not be an advantage in having and using possessions in common?<br /> ...If [husbandmen] do not share equally enjoyments and toils, those who labor much and get little will necessarily complain of those who labor little and receive or consume much. But indeed there is always a difficulty in men living together and having all human relations in common, but especially in their having common property....<br /> [W]hen everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more progress, because every one will be attending to his own business.... [H]ow immeasurably greater is the pleasure, when a man feels a thing to be his own; for surely the love of self is a feeling implanted by nature and not given in vain.... And further, there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered when a man has private property..... No one, when men have all things in common, will any longer set an example of liberality or do any liberal action; for liberality consists in the use which is made of property.<br /> Such legislation may have a specious appearance of benevolence; men readily listen to it, and are easily induced to believe that in some wonderful manner everybody will become everybody's friend, especially when some one is heard denouncing the evils now existing in states, suits about contracts, convictions for perjury, flatteries of rich men and the like, which are said to arise out of the possession of private property. These evils, however, are due to a very different cause -- the wickedness of human nature. Indeed, we see that there is much more quarrelling among those who have all things in common....}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NqcD2AIQIfYC Politics]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Digireads.com Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1420926020, p. 20<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[E]ven if one prescribed a moderate property for all, it would be of no avail, since it is more needful to level men's desires than their properties.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://ia600204.us.archive.org/8/items/politicsrackh00arisuoft/politicsrackh00arisuoft_bw.pdf Politics]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. H. Rackham; London: William Heinemann LTD.; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932; 1959 ed.), p. 113<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]hat which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Every one thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest; and only when he is himself concerned as an individual. For besides other considerations, everybody is more inclined to neglect the duty which he expects another to fulfill; as in families many attendants are often less useful than a few. Each citizen will have a thousand sons who will not be his sons individually but anybody will be equally the son of anybody, and will therefore be neglected by all alike. Further, upon this principle, every one will use the word 'mine' of one who is prospering or the reverse, however small a fraction he may himself be of the whole number.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.2.two.html Politics Book II]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Courier Dover Publications, 2000, ISBN 0486414248), p. 120<br /> <br /> {{cquote|If the poor, for example, because they are more in number, divide among themselves the property of the rich—is not this unjust? No, by heaven (will be the reply), for the supreme authority justly willed it. But if this is not injustice, pray what is? Again, when in the first division all has been taken, and the majority divide anew the property of the minority, is it not evident, if this goes on, that they will ruin the state? Yet surely, virtue is not the ruin of those who possess her, nor is justice destructive of a state; and therefore this law of confiscation clearly cannot be just. If it were, all the acts of a tyrant must of necessity be just; for he only coerces other men by superior power, just as the multitude coerce the rich.}}<br /> ::-Aristotle, ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.3.three.html Politics Book III]'' (ca. 335-323 BC; tr. Benjamin Jowett, Oxford University Press, 1895; reprint: Courier Dover Publications, 2000, ISBN 0486414248), p. 120.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|There is in fact a true law - namely, right reason - which is in accordance with nature, applies to all men, and is unchangeable and eternal. By its commands this law summons men to the performance of their duties; by its prohibitions it restrains them from doing wrong. Its commands and prohibitions always influence good men, but are without effect upon the bad. To invalidate this law by human legislation is never morally right, nor is it permissible ever to restrict its operation, and to annul it wholly is impossible. Neither the senate nor the people can absolve us from our obligation to obey this law, and it requires no Sextus Aelius to expound and interpret it. It will not lay down one rule at Rome and another at Athens, nor will it be one rule to-day and another tomorrow. But there will be one law, eternal and unchangeable, binding at all times upon all peoples; and there will be, as it were, one common master and ruler of men, namely God, who is the author of this law, its interpreter, and its sponsor.}}<br /> ::-Cicero on the Universal Nature of True Law (ca. AD 52)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Each one must do just as he has purposed in his heart, not grudgingly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver.}}<br /> ::-2 Corinthians 9:7<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Then cried they all again, saying: Not this man, but Barabbas. Now Barabbas was a robber.}}<br /> ::-John 18:14<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[M]en cannot live conveniently where all things are common. How can there be any plenty where every man will excuse himself from labour? for as the hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other men’s industry may make him slothful. If people come to be pinched with want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own, what can follow upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed....}}<br /> ::-Thomas Moore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fbNZERDCNkIC Utopia]'' (1516; tr. Gilbert Burnet, 1684; ed. Henry Morely, Cassell &amp; Co Ltd., 1909), pp. 64-65.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|When our people were fed out of the common store, and laboured jointly together, glad was he could slip from his labour, or slumber over his taske he cared not how, nay, the most honest among them would hardly take so much true paines in a weeke, as now for themselves they will doe in a day, neither cared they for the increase, presuming that howsoever the harvest prospered, the generall store must maintaine them, so that wee reaped not so much Corne from the labours of thirtie as now three or foure doe provide for themselves. To prevent which, Sir Thomas Dale hath allotted every man three Acres of cleare ground, in the nature of Farmes....}}<br /> ::-John Smith, ''The generall historie of Virginia, New England &amp; the Summer Isles, together with The true travels, adventures and observations, and A sea grammar - Volume 1'' (1614), [http://memory.loc.gov/gc/lhbcb/0262a/0266.tif p. 222]<br /> <br /> ::...the 2. agents sent from Leyden.... presumed to conclude with the marchants on those termes....<br /> <br /> ::...all profits and benifits that are gott by trade, traffick, trucking, working, fishing, or any other means of any person or persons, remaine still in the commone stock untill the division....<br /> <br /> ::That all such persons as are of this collonie, are to have their meate, drink, apparell, and all provissions out of the common stock and goods of the said collonie....<br /> <br /> ::...that which was most sadd &amp; lamentable was, that in 2. or 3. moneths time halfe of their company dyed....<br /> <br /> ::...famine began now to pinch them sore....<br /> <br /> ::Now ye welcome time of harvest approached, in which all had their hungry bellies filled. But it arose to a little, in comparison of a full years supply.... So as it well appeared that ye famine must still insue ye next year allso....<br /> <br /> ::So they begane to thinke how they might raise as much corne as they could, and obtaine a better crop than they had done, that they might not still thus languish in miserie. At length, after much debate of things, the Govr (with ye advise of ye cheefest amongest them) gave way that they should set corne every man for his owne perticuler, and in that regard trust to them selves....<br /> <br /> ::And so assigned to every family a parcell of land.... This had very good success; for it made all hands very industrious, so as much more corne was planted then other waise would have bene by any means ye Govr or any other could use, and saved him a great deall of trouble, and gave farr better contente. The women now wente willingly into ye feild, and tooke their litle-ons with them to set corne, which before would aledg weaknes, and inabilitie; whom to have compelled would have bene thought great tiranie and oppression.<br /> <br /> ::The experience that was had in this commone course and condition, tried sundrie years, and that amongst godly and sober men, may well evince the vanitie of that conceite of Platos and other ancients, applauded by some of later times; -that ye taking away of propertie, and bringing in communitie into a comone wealth, would make them happy and florishing; as if they were wiser then God. For this comunitie (so farr as it was) was found to breed much confusion and discontent, and retard much imployment that would have been to their benefite and comforte. For ye yong-men that were most able and fitte for labour and servise did repine that they should spend their time and streingth to worke for other mens wives and children, with out any recompence. The strong, or man of parts, had no more in devission of victails and cloaths, then he that was weake and not able to doe a quarter ye other could; this was thought injuestice.... and so, if it did not cut of those relations that God hath set amongest men, yet it did at least much diminish and take of ye mutuall respects that should be preserved amongst them. And would have bene worse if they had been men of another condition. Let none objecte this is mens corruption, and nothing to ye course it selfe. I answer, seeing all men have this corruption in them, God in his wisdome saw another course fiter for them....<br /> <br /> ::By this time harvest was come, and in stead of famine, now God gave them plentie, and ye face of things was changed, to ye rejoysing of ye harts of many, for which they blessed God. And ye effect of their particuler planting was well seene, for all had, one way and other, pretty well to bring ye year aboute, and some of ye abler sorte and more industrious had to spare, and sell to others, so as any generall wante or famine hath not been amongst them since to this day.<br /> <br /> ::-William Bradford (Charles Deane,ed.), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tYecOAN1cwwC History of Plymouth plantation]'' (ca. 1620-23; published by Little, Brown &amp; Co., 1856), pp. 45-46, 91, 126, 134-136, 147<br /> <br /> {{Civilians call a faculty that Right, which every man has to his own.... This right comprehends the power, that we have over ourselves, which is called liberty…It likewise comprehends property…Now any thing is unjust, which is repugnant to the nature of society, established among rational creatures. Thus for instance, to deprive another of what belongs to him, merely for one’s own advantage, is repugnant to the law of nature.}}<br /> ::-Hugo Grotius, ''The Rights of War and Peace'' (1625) <br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]o every individual in nature is given an individual propriety by nature, not to be invaded or usurped by any... for every one... hath a self propriety... and on this no second may presume without consent; and by natural birth all men are equal, and alike born to like propriety and freedom.}}<br /> ::-Richard Overton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HzMgPwAACAA An Arrow Against All Tyrants]'' (London 1646), pp. 3-4<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]his Conceit of Levelling of Propriety... is so ridiculous and foolish an opinion, as no man of braines, reason or ingenuitie can be imagined such a sot as to maintaine such a principle, because it would, if practiced destroy not only any industry in the world, but raze the very foundation of generation, and of subsistence or being of one man by another. For as for industry and valour by which the societies of mankind are maintained and preserved, who will take the pains for that which when he hath gotten is not his own, but must be equally shared in, by every lazy, simple, dronish sot? Or who will fight for that, wherein he hath no other interest, but such as must be subject to the will and pleasure of another, yea of every coward and base low spirited fellow, that in his sitting still must share in common with a valiant man in all his brave and noble achievement? The ancient encouragement to men that were to defend their Countrie was this: that they were to hazard their persons for that which was their owne, to wit, their owne wives, their owne children, their owne Estates.}}<br /> ::-John Lilburn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WyNHAAAAcAAJ Apologetical Narration]'' (Amsterdam, 1652), pp. 68-69<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Thir Orators thou then extoll'st, as those&lt;br&gt;<br /> The top of Eloquence, Statists indeed,&lt;br&gt;<br /> And lovers of thir Country, as may seem;&lt;br&gt;<br /> But herein to our Prophets far beneath,&lt;br&gt;<br /> As men divinely taught, and better teaching&lt;br&gt;<br /> The solid rules of Civil Government&lt;br&gt;<br /> In thir majestic unaffected stile&lt;br&gt;<br /> Then all the Oratory of Greece and Rome.}}<br /> ::-John Milton, ''Paradise Regain'd'' (1671 ed.)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[A]ll Mankind ... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his Life, Health, Liberty, or Possessions.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/v1ch2s1.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[E]very Man has a Property in his own Person. This no Body has any Right to but himself. The Labour of his Body, and the Work of his Hands, we may say, are properly his.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[H]e who appropriates land to himself by his labour, does not lessen but increase the common stock of mankind. For the provisions serving to the support of humane life, produced by one acre of inclosed and cultivated land, are (to speak much within compasse) ten times more, than those, which are yeilded by an acre of Land, of an equal richnesse, lyeing wast in common.<br /> -John Locke, ''[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html Second Treatise on Government]'' (1689)}}<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[T]here is a natural law, and it does not consist either in doing harm to others, or in rejoicing thereat.}}<br /> ::-Voltaire, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/18569/18569-h/18569-h.htm Philosophical Dictionary]'' (1764)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|[A]s a man is said to have a right to his property, he may be equally said to have a property in his rights.}}<br /> ::-James Madison, [http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s23.html Property] (1792)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Away, then, with quacks and organizers! Away with their rings, chains, hooks, and pincers! Away with their artificial systems! Away with the whims of governmental administrators, their socialized projects, their centralization, their tariffs, their government schools, their state religions, their free credit, their bank monopolies, their regulations, their restrictions, their equalization by taxation, and their pious moralizations! <br /> <br /> And now that the legislators and do-gooders have so futilely inflicted so many systems upon society, may they finally end where they should have begun: May they reject all systems, and try liberty; for liberty is an acknowledgment of faith in God and His works.}}<br /> ::-Frederic Bastiat (tr. Dean Russell), ''[http://bastiat.org/en/the_law.html The Law]'' (1853)<br /> <br /> {{cquote|We call capitalism or market economy that form of social cooperation which is based on private ownership of the means of production.<br /> <br /> Socialism, communism, or planned economy, on the other hand, is the form of social cooperation which is based on public ownership of the means of production. The terms state capitalism and authoritarian economy have essentially the same meaning.<br /> <br /> It is frequently asserted that a third form of social cooperation is feasible as a permanent form of economic organization, namely a system of private ownership of the means of production in which the government intervenes, by orders and prohibitions, in the exercise of ownership. This third system is called interventionism. All governments which do not openly profess socialism tend to be interventionist nowadays, and all political parties recommend at least some degree of interventionism.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:80%&quot;&gt;The orthodox Marxists, however, recommend interventionism in full recognition of the fact that it paralyzes and destroys the capitalistic market economy and, thus, in their opinion, leads to socialism. This was the argument advanced as long as a century ago by Friedrich Engels.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; It is claimed that this system of interventionism is as far from socialism as it is from capitalism, that as a third solution to the social problem it stands midway between the two systems, and that while retaining the advantages of both it avoids the disadvantages inherent in both. ...<br /> <br /> Interventionism is not an economic system, that is, it is not a method which enables people to achieve their aims. It is merely a system of procedures which disturb and eventually destroy the market economy. It hampers production and impairs satisfaction of needs. It does not make people richer; it makes people poorer.<br /> <br /> Concededly, the interventionist measures may give certain individuals or certain groups of individuals advantages at the expense of others. Minorities may obtain privileges which enrich them at the expense of their fellow citizens. But the majority, or the whole nation, stands only to lose by interventionism. ...<br /> <br /> Not only do they divert production from the ways which lead to the best and most efficient satisfaction of the consumers’ demand; they cause waste of both capital and labor; they create permanent mass unemployment. They may bring about the artificial boom, but with it they bring in its wake a depression. They change the market economy into chaos.<br /> <br /> Popular opinion ascribes all these evils to the capitalistic system. As a remedy for the undesirable effects of interventionism they ask for still more interventionism. They blame capitalism for the effects of the actions of governments which pursue an anti-capitalistic policy.}}<br /> ::-Ludwig Von Mises (Bettina Bien Greaves, ed.), ''[http://mises.org/etexts/mises/interventionism/interventionismtext.pdf Interventionism: an economic analysis]'' (Foundation for Economic Analysis, 1940), pp. 1, 77-78.<br /> <br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Of all tyrannies, a tyranny sincerely exercised for the good of its victims may be the most oppressive. It would be better to live under robber barons than under omnipotent moral busybodies. The robber baron's cruelty may sometimes sleep, his cupidity may at some point be satiated; but those who torment us for our own good will torment us without end for they do so with the approval of their own conscience. They may be more likely to go to Heaven yet at the same time likelier to make a Hell of earth. This very kindness stings with intolerable insult. To be &quot;cured&quot; against one's will and cured of states which we may not regard as disease is to be put on a level of those who have not yet reached the age of reason or those who never will; to be classed with infants, imbeciles, and domestic animals.}}<br /> ::―C.S. Lewis, &quot;The Humanitarian Theory of Punishment,&quot; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=loE7BAAAQBAJ God in the Dock: Essays on Theology]'' (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1948), p. 324.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.}}<br /> ::-Garrett Hardin (1968), &quot;[http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/articles/art_tragedy_of_the_commons.html The Tragedy of the Commons],&quot; ''[http://science.sciencemag.org/content/162/3859/1243.full Science]'' (AAAS), Vol. 162, Issue 3859, pp. 1243-1248. DOI: 10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 <br /> <br /> {{cquote|To do evil a human being must first of all believe that what he's doing is good... Ideology - that is what gives evildoing its long-sought justification and gives the evildoer the necessary steadfastness and determination... That was how the agents of the Inquisition fortified their wills: by invoking Christianity; the conquerors of foreign lands, by extolling the grandeur of their Motherland; the colonizers, by civilization; the Nazis, by race; and the Jacobins (early and late), by equality, brotherhood, and the happiness of future generations. Thanks to ideology, the twentieth century was fated to experience evildoing on a scale calculated in the millions.}}<br /> ::-Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (tr. Thomas P. Whitney), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eh_S9tcL4RsC The Gulag Archipelago]'' (Éditions du Seuil, 1973), p. 173.<br /> <br /> {{cquote|One of the great mistakes is to judge policies and programs by their intentions rather than their results. We all know a famous road that is paved with good intentions. The people who go around talking about their soft heart . . . I admire them for the softness of their heart, but unfortunately it very often extends to their head as well. Because the fact is that the programs that are labeled as being for the poor, for the needy, almost always have effects exactly the opposite of those which their well-intentioned sponsors intend them to have. . . .}}<br /> ::-From an [http://www.thirteen.org/openmind-archive/public-affairs/living-within-our-means/ interview] in December 1975 with economist Milton Friedman on PBS’s “The Open Mind”<br /> <br /> {{cquote|The horrors did not arise from perversions of radical ideology but from the ideology itself. We were led into complicity with mass murder and the desecration of our professed ideals not by Stalinist or other corruptions of high ideals, much less by unfortunate twists in some presumably objective course of historical development, but by a deep flaw in our very understanding of human nature—its frailty and its possibilities—and by our inability to replace the moral and ethical baseline long provided by the religion we have dismissed with indifference, not to say contempt.<br /> <br /> The question of moral responsibility has been raised within the left, if gingerly and indirectly, by a few brave souls like Roberto Mangabeira Unger and Cornel West, who have drawn attention to the price we have paid for scouting Christian ethics while having nothing to substitute and who have, in effect, called for an end to the blind hatreds that confuse the sin with the sinner. Unger and West are justly revered figures on the left and accorded at least formal respect. Yet their efforts toward a reassessment of the religious foundations of political ethics have not sparked the slightest discussion. It is fair to ask: what kind of respect is that? Are we supposed to believe that Unger and West have been kidding?<br /> <br /> Our whole project of &quot;human liberation&quot; has rested on a series of gigantic illusions. The catastrophic consequences of our failure during this century—not merely the body count but the monotonous recurrence of despotism and wanton cruelty—cannot be dismissed as aberrations. Slimmed down to a technologically appropriate scale, they have followed in the wake of victories by radical egalitarian movements throughout history. We have yet to answer our right-wing critics' claims, which are regrettably well documented, that throughout history, from ancient times to the peasant wars of the sixteenth century to the Reign of Terror and beyond, social movements that have espoused radical egalitarianism and participatory democracy have begun with mass murder and ended in despotism.<br /> <br /> Let us grant, arguendo, that the ruling classes have done worse. Whatever solace that thought may give us, our own problem remains: what kind of society could we build on a worldview marred by flagrant irrationalities paraded as self-evident truths, even if reinforced by sandbox cries of &quot;You're another&quot;?<br /> <br /> The allegedly high ideals we placed at the center of our ideology and politics are precisely what need to be reexamined, but they can no longer even be made a subject for discussion in the mass media and our universities, to say nothing of the left itself. They are givens: an unattainable equality of condition; a radical democracy that has always ended in the tyranny it is supposed to overcome; a celebration of human goodness or malleability, accompanied by the daily announcement of newly discovered &quot;inalienable rights&quot; to personal self-expression; destruction of all hierarchy and elites, as if ideological repudiation has ever prevented or ever could prevent the formation and reformation of hierarchies and elites; condemnation of &quot;illegitimate&quot; authority in the absence of any notion of what might constitute legitimate authority; and, at the root of all, a thorough secularization of society, bolstered by the monstrous lie that the constitutional separation of church and state was meant to separate religion from society. And we have yet to reassess the anti-Americanism—the self-hatred implicit in the attitude we have generally affected toward our country—that has led us into countless stupidities and worse.}}<br /> <br /> ::-Eugene D. Genovese, &quot;[https://www.dissentmagazine.org/wp-content/files_mf/1353953160genovesethequestion.pdf The Question],&quot; ''Dissent'' [summer 1994], pp. 371-6, at 375<br /> <br /> {{cquote|When I was editor of ''The Journal of Law and Economics'', we published a whole series of studies of regulation and its effects. Almost all the studies--perhaps all the studies--suggested that the results of regulation had been bad, that the prices were higher, that the product was worse adapted to the needs of consumers, than it otherwise would have been. I was not willing to accept the view that all regulation was bound to produce these results. Therefore, what was my explanation for the results we had? I argued that the most probable explanation was that the government now operates on such a massive scale that it had reached the stage of what economists call negative marginal returns. Anything additional it does, it messes up. But that doesn't mean that if we reduce the size of government considerably, we wouldn't find then that there were some activities it did well. Until we reduce the size of government, we won't know what they are. ... I can't remember one that's good. Regulation of transport, regulation of agriculture-- agriculture is a, zoning is z. You know, you go from a to z, they are all bad. There were so many studies, and the result was quite universal: The effects were bad.}}<br /> ::-Ronald Coase, quoted in Thomas W. Hazlitt, &quot;[http://reason.com/archives/1997/01/01/looking-for-results/singlepage Looking for Results],&quot; ''Reason'', January 1997</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_1&diff=1408168 User:FOIA/Archive 1 2018-03-10T07:38:29Z <p>FOIA: /* 20th century: Stalinist anti-Semitism */</p> <hr /> <div>=Left-wing anti-Semitism=<br /> Although many leftists [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2009-08-11/news/0908100426_1_town-hall-meetings-swastikas-bob-macguffie try] to [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNQTwSZCPo deny] it, “modern, political anti-Semitism is a creature of the left as well as the right,” admits Warwick University Sociology Professor Robert Fine, a [http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/emeritus/robertfine/home/mycv/ member] of the [http://www.cseweb.org.uk/ Conference of Socialist Economists].&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006).&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[A]nti-Semitism that we might call populist or democratic.... is linked equally to the left and right,&quot; agrees George L. Mosse, professor of history at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, &quot;to the new nationalism, but also to certain tendencies in socialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; Omer Bartov of Brown University comments:<br /> {{cquote|[O]ne of the most frightening aspects of Hitler's book is not that he said what he said at the time, but that much of what he said can be found today in innumerable places ... As long as it does not have Hitler's name attached to it, this deranged discourse will be ignored or allowed to pass. The voices that express these opinions do not belong to a single political or ideological current ... They belong to the right and the left, to the religious and the secular, to the West and the East, to the rabble and the leaders, to terrorists and intellectuals, students and peasants, pacifists and militants, expansionists and anti-globalization activists.&lt;ref&gt;Omer Bartov, &quot;[http://www.tnr.com/article/he-meant-what-he-said He Meant What He Said],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 2, 2004&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Twenty-five years ago in the heart of the Cold War debate, anti-Americanism, anti-Israeli sentiment, and anti-Semitism &quot;were fringe phenomena while now they are more fashionable and mainstream ... [T]hese sentiments are no longer the monopoly of any particular part of the political spectrum. They are there on the European Left, Right, and in the center,&quot; agrees Jeffrey Gedman, president of London's Legatum Institute.&lt;ref&gt;Jeffrey Gedmin, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=633&amp;TTL=Experiencing_European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Israelism Experiencing European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Israelism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 27 (December 2004), Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Origins of left-wing anti-Semitism==<br /> There were “strong anti-Semitic currents on the European left in Marx’s time,&quot; writes Fine; &quot;[T]here is a strong tradition of [https://www.ushmm.org/media/emu/get?irn=544974&amp;mm_irn=32140&amp;file=primary anti-Semitism on the Left].”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; One &quot;need not venture far into the pre-1930 literature of anti-economics before encountering conspicuous anti-Semitic effusions,&quot; observes William Coleman of the Australian National University. &quot;One may say that, before about 1930, anti-economics and anti-Semitism existed in striking conjunction.&quot; He adds that &quot;the conjunction was not accidental... [A]nti-economics and modern anti-Semitism shared some leading ideological contentions.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Coleman, &quot;[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/history_of_political_economy/v035/35.4coleman.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'', Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), pp. 759-777&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> From the outset, according to French historian Marc Crapez, European racism and socialism were closely affiliated.&lt;ref&gt;Marc Crapez, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=l-dtAAAAMAAJ L'antisémitisme de gauche au XIXe siècle]'' (Paris: Berg international, 2002) ISBN 2-911289-43-9&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, &quot;anti-capitalism and anti-Semitism were deeply intertwined,&quot; writes Mosse. &quot;[I]n fact, they had been connected since the middle-ages.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For centuries, Jewish economic success led anti-Semites to condemn capitalism as a form of Jewish domination and exploitation,&quot; writes Columbia University history professor Jerry Z. Muller, &quot;or to attribute Jewish success to unsavory qualities of the Jews themselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jerry Z. Muller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nMZ_w0mFGIgC Capitalism and the Jews]'' (Princeton University Press, 2010) ISBN 0691144788, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The Marxist, postmodern and post-Zionist pseudo-liberal views on democracy lead back to the totalitarian democracy of the French Enlightenment, in which anti-Semitism formed an essential ingredient,” writes Shlomo Sharan of Tel Aviv University.&lt;ref&gt;Shlomo Sharan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5U-Dk-5p0mIC Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk]'' (Sussex Academic Press, 2003) ISBN 1903900522 , p. 125&lt;/ref&gt; At that time, &quot;the Jews symbolised the distressing symptoms of modernity ushered in by capitalism and political liberalism,&quot; writes Christian Wiese, professor of Jewish history at the University of Sussex.&lt;ref&gt;Christian Wiese, &quot;Modern Antisemitism and Jewish Responses in Germany and France,&quot; in Michael Brenner, Vicki Caron and Uri R. Kaufmann, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b2DN7yDuCyoC Jewish emancipation reconsidered: the French and German models]'' (Mohr Siebeck, 2003) ISBN 316148018X, p. 136&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> {{cquote|Dissatisfaction with the practical consequences of Liberalism was even stronger in economic than in political matters; anti-capitalism was, after all, one of the oldest and most natural forms of anti-Semitism. Liberal society was characterized by a high degree of social mobility with a premium on individual worth and ability. Perhaps this pill was the hardest to swallow. All those who had an assured place in an ordered hierarchy, even if it was a comparatively low one, looked with distaste on an order which allowed others to rise to positions of eminence and influence ... anti-Semitism is anti-capitalist since capitalism is one of the causes of social mobility.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The Rise of Political Anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria] (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> “[T]he sudden prominence of a few Jews who benefited from economic liberalisation provoked a backlash from the Left.”&lt;ref&gt;David Cesarani, ''[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/ressources/left_jews/Left_Jews_final.pdf The Jews and the Left] (Labour Friends of Israel 2004) ISBN 0 9500536-5-1, p. 3 (PDF p.9)&lt;/ref&gt; In France, writes Göttingen historian Karlheinz Weissmann, many on the left saw the Jews &quot;as the embodiment of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Some of the most prominent thinkers of the Enlightenment were virulent anti-Semites: Voltaire denounced the Jews as &quot;the greatest scoundrels who have ever sullied the face of the globe&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Hertzberg and Aron Hirt-Manheimer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hiWBs5HM_E0C Jews: the essence and character of a people]'' (HarperCollins, 1998) ISBN 0060638354, p. 164&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews, he wrote, &quot;deserve to be punished,&quot; for it is their &quot;destiny.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Avner Falk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_0WOiZj0oC Anti-semitism: a history and psychoanalysis of contemporary hatred]'' (ABC-CLIO, 2008) ISBN 0313353840, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jewish nation dares to display an irreconcilable hatred toward all nations, and revolts against all masters,&quot; wrote Voltaire, &quot;always superstitious, always greedy for the well-being enjoyed by others, always barbarous&amp;mdash;cringing in misfortune and insolent in prosperity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Voltaire, ''Essai sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations'', Introduction, [http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/11/07INTFIN.html#i42 XLII: Des Juifs depuis Saül], 1753&lt;/ref&gt; Immanuel Kant expressed similar views: &quot;'The Jews still cannot claim any true genius, any truly great man. All their talents and skills revolve around stratagems and low cunning ... They are a nation of swindlers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Socialist Anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;It was in those days that the complaint arose that Jews were 'unproductive middle men,' 'economic parasites,'&quot; wrote Edward H. Flannery, a professor at the Institute of Judeo-Christian Studies at Seton Hall University.&lt;ref&gt;Eric Pace, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/22/us/the-rev-edward-flannery-86-priest-who-fought-anti-semitism.html The Rev. Edward Flannery, 86, Priest Who Fought Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The New York Times'', October 22, 1998&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;It was shaped for the most part by socialist writers and became a favorite theme with later racist antisemites of a socialist stripe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward H. Flannery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J40gNC7cxfYC The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism]'' (Paulist Press, 2004) ISBN 0809143240, p. 168&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Certain anti-economists affiliated with the socialist movement held Jews<br /> to be potentates of an oppressive contemporary social order.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt; Among the French Left, observes Weissmann, were &quot;numerous individuals and groups who considered class struggle and race struggle as one and the same thing&amp;mdash;especially with reference to the Jews....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “Socialist anti-Semitism is indeed almost as old as modern Socialism,” writes historian Edmund Silberner of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” Scripta Hierosolymitana, vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; Early socialism was inseparable from anti-Semitism, portraying Jews as exploiters, leeches and parasites.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” ''Scripta Hierosolymitana'', vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[V]irtually every major figure in the early history of socialism — including Friedrich Engels, Charles Fourier, Ferdinand Lassalle, Marx, and Joseph Proudhon — showed a marked antipathy to Jews,&quot; observes Daniel Pipes.&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Pipes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PPdv8sAtZ4UC Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1999) ISBN 0684871114, p. 88&lt;/ref&gt; In his comprehensive survey of French socialist literature from 1820 to 1920, historian Zosa Szajkowski found not a single word on behalf of Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Zosa Szajkowski, ''[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4464737 The Jewish Saint-Simonians and Socialist Antisemites in France]'', ''Jewish Social Studies'', Vol. 9, No. 1 (January, 1947), pp. 33-60 &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Leroux===<br /> Pierre Leroux (1797-1871), who coined the word &quot;socialism&quot;, “identified the Jews with the despised capitalism, and regarded them as the incarnation of mammon, who lived by exploiting others.”&lt;ref&gt;Dennis Prager and Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC Why the Jews?: the reason for antisemitism]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2003) ISBN 0743246209, p. 127&lt;/ref&gt; He said, &quot;When we speak of the Jews, we mean the Jewish spirit – the spirit of profit, of lucre, of gain, the spirit of commerce, of speculation, in a word, the banker spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lewis S. Feuer and Irving Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8TwfWRr21zEC Ideology and the Ideologists]'' (Transaction Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1412814421, p. 141&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The true successor of Napoleon,&quot; wrote Leroux, &quot;is the Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fichte===<br /> &quot;[T]hrough almost all countries of Europe there is spreading a powerful, hostile state, which is perpetually at war with all other States, and which in some of them oppresses the citizens with the utmost severity: it is Jewry.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Leshem, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NGSAAAAAIAAJ Balaam's curse: how Israel lost its way, and how it can find it again]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1989) ISBN 067167918X, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt; wrote the early socialist Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814). &quot;I see no other means of protecting ourselves against them, than by conquering their Promised Land and sending them all there.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; Elsewhere, he suggested a more radical solution, in which Gentiles &quot;chop off all their [Jews'] heads and replace them with new ones, in which there would not be a single Jewish idea.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jon Stratton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Blh7RLQVIUcC Jewish identity in Western pop culture: the Holocaust and trauma through modernity]'' (Macmillan, 2008), ISBN 0230604749, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt; In Fichte's text &quot;we see the beginnings of the 'anticapitalist' impulse in modern antisemitism, which became central to revolutionist agendas for the redemption of humanity through the regeneration of Jewry,&quot; observes [http://www.gf.org/fellows/8291-anthony-j-la-vopa Guggenheim Fellow] Anthony J. LaVopa.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony J. LaVopa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vQx0_69P4z4C Fichte: the self and the calling of philosophy, 1762-1799]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2001), ISBN 052179145, p. 135&lt;/ref&gt; Duquesne University professor Tom Rockmore comments that &quot;available evidence points strongly to an early and perhaps enduring Marxian interest in Fichte's position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Tom Rockmore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qrS4AAAAIAAJ Fichte, Marx, and the German philosophical tradition]'' (Southern Illinois University Press, 1980), ISBN 0809309556, p. 126&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fourier===<br /> Early socialist Charles Fourier (1768-1830) attacked (classical) &quot;liberal retrogression&quot; (i.e, ''laissez faire'' capitalism) for what he called &quot;monstrous actions, such as the admission of the Jews to the rights of citizens&quot; which, he wrote, introduce into society &quot;parasites, unproductives.&quot; He added, &quot;The Jewish nation is not civilised ... it devotes itself exclusively to traffic, to usury, and to mercantile depravity ... Every government having regard to good morals ought to repress the Jews,&quot; whom Fourier described as &quot;all parasites, merchants, usurers, etc.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Fourier (Tr. Julian H. Franklin), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w2CgXn5jAm8C Selections from the Works of Fourier]'' (Allen &amp; Unwin, 1901), p. 96. Cf. Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' [W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999] ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; Fourier's disciple, Alphonse Toussenel, called Jews &quot;the kings of the epoch,&quot; writing that &quot;Europe is entailed to the domination of Israel. This universal domination, of which so many conquerors have dreamed, the Jews have in their hands.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Lichtheim, &quot;Socialism and the Jews,&quot; [http://search.opinionarchives.com/Dissent_Web/DigitalArchive.aspx?panes=1&amp;aid=01504314_1 ''Dissent'', Vol. 15, No. 4 (July 1968)], p. 320&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[I]ndustrial feudalism&quot;&amp;mdash;as Toussenel called capitalism&amp;mdash;&quot;is personified in the cosmopolitan Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jacob Katz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FeH_uNpWbZAC From prejudice to destruction: anti-Semitism, 1700-1933]'' (Harvard University Press, 1980) ISBN 0674325079, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dühring===<br /> Marx's mentor Bruno Bauer published antisemitic articles by Marx's intellectual rival in the German Social Democratic Party, Eugen Dühring, &quot;descibing Jews as idle usurers exploiting productive labor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard S. Levy, ''[http://books.google.com.au/books/about/Antisemitism.html?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia Of Prejudice And Persecution]'', Volume 1 (ABC-CLIO, 2005) ISBN 1851094393, pp. 61-62&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Proudhon===<br /> Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), one of the [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/grahamproudhon.html leading socialist] theorists of his day (and a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1846/letters/46_05_05.htm correspondent of Marx]), called Jews “the race which poisons everything” and “the enemy of the human race”;&lt;ref&gt;Norman Podhoretz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QUfFP_Q_nqIC Why are Jews Liberals?]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 0385529198, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jew is by temperament an anti-producer, neither a farmer nor an industrialist nor even a true merchant,&quot; wrote Prodhon. &quot;He is an intermediary, always fraudulent and parasitic, who operates, in trade as in philosophy, by means of falsification, counterfeiting, and horse-trading.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; He wrote, &quot;This race must be sent back to Asia, or exterminated.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Halévy and Pierre Haubtmann, eds., ''Carnets de P.J. Proudhon'' (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1961), Vol. II, p. 337; Vol. VI, p. 178&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;By fire or fusion, or by expulsion the Jew must disappear.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard L. Rubenstein and John K. Roth, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy] (Westminster John Knox Press, 2003) ISBN 0664223532, p. 77&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Bakhunin===<br /> Mikhail Bakunin, Marx's intellectual rival in the First International, called Jews “an exploiting sect, a bloodsucking people, a unique devouring parasite,”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, “[http://leobaeck.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/37/1/111 Socialism and Judeophobia: Antisemitism in Europe before 1914],” ''Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook'', Vol. 37, No. 1 (January 1992), pp. 111-145&lt;/ref&gt; Jews, he wrote, are disqualified from socialist leadership by &quot;that mercantile passion which constitutes one of the principle traits of their national character.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===L'Affaire Dryfus/&quot;J'Accuse&quot;===<br /> When the bourgeois&lt;ref&gt;&quot;M. Doumic on Victor Hugo as a Bourgeois,&quot; Boston ''Transcript'' (reprinted in Theodore Stanton, &quot;M. René Doumic,&quot; New York ''Evening Post'', March 24, 1898, as cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=Y94aAAAAYAAJ ''Public Opinion'', Vol. XXIV, No. 12] (January-June, 1898), p. 374&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Hugo, a cultural Catholic,&lt;ref&gt;John Andrew Frey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=olFboDm4bcgC A Victor Hugo encyclopedia]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999) ISBN 0313298963, p. 222&lt;/ref&gt; defended Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer scapegoated by the French army, the French socialist press published a manifesto denouncing Hugo's crusade on the grounds that Jewish capitalists would use the rehabilitation of a single Jew to wash out &quot;all the sins of Israel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bIHtJzYCkqEC Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know About the Jewish Religion, Its People, and Its History]'' (HarperCollins, 2008) ISBN 0061374989, p. 275&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Hyndman===<br /> Henry Hyndman, founder of Britain's atheistic, Marxist Social Democratic Federation (Britain's first socialist party) and National Socialist Party (now part of the Labour Party), &quot;repeatedly invoked the stereotype of the 'rich capitalist Jew' in his anti-semitic remarks.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karin Hofmeester, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hYZrdkniDYkC Jewish Workers and the Labour Movement: A Comparative Study of Amsterdam, London and Paris, 1870-1914]'' (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004) ISBN 0754609073, p. 304&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jew moneylenders,&quot; complained Hyndman's ''Justice, Organ of the Social Democracy'' (the first Marxist periodical in England),&lt;ref&gt;Laurel Brake and Marysa Demoor, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qVrUTUelE6YC Dictionary of nineteenth-century journalism in Great Britain and Ireland]'' [Academia Press, 2009] ISBN 9038213409, p. 328&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;now control nearly every Foreign Office in Europe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Guido Kisch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5h8WAAAAIAAJ Historia judaica: a journal of studies in Jewish history, especially in legal and economic history of the Jews'', Volumes 13-14] (Historia Judaica, 1951), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt; He blamed the Boer war on &quot;Jew financial cliques&quot; and the &quot;Jew-jingo press.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Crick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eea_kByVYsoC The History of the Social-Democratic Federation] (Edinburgh University Press, 1994) ISBN 1853310913, p. 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Sombart===<br /> Werner Sombart, a German economist, sociologist and self-proclaimed &quot;convinced Marxist&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hermynia Zur Mühlen (Tr. Lionel Gossman), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_gd1Aw0ZlEwC The End and the Beginning: The Book of My Life, Volume 1]'' (Open Book Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1906924279, p. 241&lt;/ref&gt; -- praised by Friedrich Engels as the only German professor who understood ''Das Kapital''&lt;ref&gt;Frederick Engels, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/supp.htm Introduction], ''Capital'' Volume III (Supplement), 1894. Cf. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/letters/95_03_11.htm Engels To W. Sombart in Breslaun, London, March 11, 1895], in ''Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutscher Arbeiterbewegung'' No. 3, 1961, reprinted in Marx and Engels, ''Selected Works'', Volume 3, pp. 504-506. Marxists Internet Archive (marxists.org)&lt;/ref&gt; -- wrote &quot;modern capitalism is nothing more or less than an expression of the Jewish spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; According to the ''Universal Jewish Encyclopaedia'', Sombart “[http://econlog.econlib.org/archives/2009/09/capitalism_and.html accused the Jews of having created capitalism]” -- as should perhaps be expected of a &quot;convinced Marxist&quot; (Marx viewed Jews as &quot;responsible for capitalism,&quot; according Princeton's Bernard Lewis.)&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dreiser===<br /> Theodore Dreiser, an [[atheist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html Religion: Atheist's Oath],&quot; ''Time'', August 20, 1928&lt;/ref&gt; as well as a [[Communist]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, &quot;Request to Become a Communist,&quot; ''[[The Daily Worker]]'', July 30, 1945, reprinted in Albert Fried, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLJbT3NMbN4C Communism in America: A History in Documents]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231102356, pp. 348-350&lt;/ref&gt; was also a virulent [[anti-Semite]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;the Jew ... has been in America all of two hundred years, and he has not faded into a pure American by any means, and he will not. As I said before, he maintains his religious dogmas and his racial sympathies, race characteristics, and race cohesion as against all the types or nationalities surrounding him wheresoever.&quot; Dreiser quoted in Lee Bernstein, &quot;The Avengers of Christie: Street Racism and Jewish Working-Class Rebellion in Mike Gold’s 'Jews Without Money'',&quot; in Janet Galligani Casey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wLliXDo2iwC The Novel and the American Left: Critical Essays on Depression-Era Fiction]'' (University of Iowa Press, 2004) 1587294753, p. 118&lt;/ref&gt; and defender of [[Hitler]].&lt;ref&gt; Dreiser excused the Holocaust, saying that British rule in India &quot;makes Germany's cruelties seem like a pipe dream,&quot; and &quot;If Germany can beat England at the game of mass human torture ... it will have to go some.&quot; The editor explains in a footnote that Dreiser was parroting the Communist Party line during the Nazi-Soviet pact &quot;by portraying Britain as a greater threat to world democracy and peace than Germany.&quot; (Frederic E. Rusch and Donald Pizer, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tQL7UitACW4C Theodore Dreiser: Interviews]'' (University of Illinois Press, 2004) ISBN 0252029437, p. 305) Cf. H. Elias, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKtEAAAAYAAJ Letters of Theodore Dreiser: A Selection, vol. 2]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959), pp. 405, 650–52; Richard Tuerk, “The American Spectator Symposium Controversy: Was Dreiser Anti-Semitic?” ''Prospects 16'' (1991), pp. 367–89; Louis Harap, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC Creative Awakening: The Jewish Presence in Twentieth-Century American Literature, 1900-1940s],'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987) ISBN 0313253862, pp. 128-132.&lt;/ref&gt; New York is a &quot;kike's dream of a ghetto,&quot; he wrote; Jews are not &quot;pure Americans&quot; and &quot;lack integrity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Organizations==<br /> Perhaps more important than the widespread anti-Semitism among socialist leaders was the anti-semitism of socialist groups such as the Socialist International and the Fabian Society.<br /> <br /> ===Second International===<br /> After reference to the exploitation of workers by Jewish capitalists and denunciation of &quot;philo-Semitic agitation,&quot; the Second International (the original Socialist International) adopted a resolution condemning not just antisemitic, but &quot;philo-Semite outbursts as one of the means by which the capitalist class and the reactionary circles seek to divert the Socialist movement from its purpose and divide the workers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0018_0_18779.html Socialism], ''[http://www.gale.cengage.com/servlet/ItemDetailServlet?region=9&amp;imprint=000&amp;titleCode=M355&amp;cf=p&amp;type=4&amp;id=194102 Encyclopaedia Judaica]'' (The Gale Group, 2008), via [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/indexold.html The Jewish Virtual Library]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fabian Society===<br /> Britain's Fabian Society (which &quot;set up the banner of socialism militant&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;G. Bernard Shaw, &quot;[http://walterschafer.com/fabiansocietyhistory.htm Fabian Tract No. 41: The Fabian Society, Its Early History],&quot; (Fabian Society Reprint, 1899)&lt;/ref&gt; hosted a number of anti-Semites, including Beatrice Webb, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, J.A. Hobson, and Oswald Mosley.<br /> <br /> Beatrice Webb, who played a crucial role in the founding of the Fabian Society, wrote that “the strongest impelling motive of the Jewish race” was “the love of ''profit'' as distinct from other forms of money-earning.” (Italics in original.)&lt;ref&gt;Beatrice Webb, “East London Labour,” ''[http://books.google.com/bookes?id=udcaAAAAYAAJ The Nineteenth Century]'', Vol. XXIV (July-December 1888), p. 176.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;A careful study of anti-Semitism, prejudice and accusations might be of great value to many Jews,&quot; wrote H.G. Wells, &quot;who do not adequately realize the irritation they inflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; George Bernard Shaw once exhorted Jews to &quot;stop being Jews and start being human beings.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Shaw Society of America, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HERbAAAAMAAJ The Shaw review, Volumes 3-4] (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1960), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> J.A. Hobson blamed London poverty on &quot;the foreign Jew,&quot; whom he described as &quot;a terrible competitor. He is ... almost void of social morality. No compunction or consideration for his fellow-worker will keep him from underselling and overreaching them; he acquires a thorough mastery of all the dishonourable tricks of trade which are difficult to restrain by law; the superior calculating intellect, which is a national heritage, is used unsparingly to enable him to take advantage of every weakness, folly, and vice of the society in which he lives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John A. Hobson, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10710/10710-h/10710-h.htm Problems of Poverty: An Inquiry into the Industrial Condition of The Poor]'' (1891), Project Gutenberg&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;He craves the position of a sweating-master, the lowest step in a ladder that may lead to a life of magnificence, supported out of usury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England]'' (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, p. 405&lt;/ref&gt; In his 1898 book ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Hobson/hbsnImp.html Imperialism: A Study]'' -- which would profoundly influence Lenin's ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/ Imperialism, the Higherst Stage of Capitalism]'' (1917) -- Hobson blamed the Boer War on &quot;Jew power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, <br /> [http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England] (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, pp. 201-202&lt;/ref&gt; That war, he wrote, was fought for the benefit of &quot;a small group of international financiers, chiefly German in origin and Jewish in race.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bryan Cheyette, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HTdwPbE6KoIC Constructions of &quot;the Jew&quot; in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations, 1875-1945]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1995) ISBN 0521558778, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> One Fabian socialist from the 1920s and '30s, Oswald Mosley,&lt;ref&gt;Rose L. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9_vvAAAAMAAJ Fabian Freeway: High Road to Socialism in the U.S.A., 1884-1966]'' (Fidelis, 1968), p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; went on to found and lead the British Union of Fascists (which &quot;at first was modeled after Mussolini’s example but later became patterned after Hitler&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Zygmund Dobbs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N-g1AQAAIAAJ Keynes at Harvard: economic deception as a political credo],'' (New York: Veritas Foundation, 1960), pp. 88-90&lt;/ref&gt; in which role he was lauded by Shaw.&lt;ref&gt;Gareth Griffith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aGAEWDI3SR4C Socialism and Superior Brains: The Political Thought of Bernard Shaw]'' (CRC Press, 2002) ISBN 0203210832, p. 263&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalist anti-semitism in Germany==<br /> During the 19th century, the center of left-wing anti-Semitism gradually shifted from Paris to Vienna, where the &quot;radical-democratic and nationalist left wing&quot; was headed by German Liberal Party leader Georg von Schönerer,&lt;ref&gt;Viktor Karády, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline]'' (Central European University Press, 2004) ISBN 9639241520, p. 360&lt;/ref&gt; one of a group of &quot;left-wing German liberals&quot; who demanded &quot;the exclusion of Jews from the new movement and as far as possible from public life&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Robert A. Kann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cG570mijBF4C A history of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918]'' (University of California Press, 1980) ISBN 0520042069, p. 433&lt;/ref&gt; Hitler would later ascribe to Schönerer &quot;the wisdom of a prophet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Adolf Hitler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EBUBUEeUwxUC Mein Kampf: zwei Bände in einem Band'', Vol. 1], 40th ed., (Bottom of the Hill, 1938) ISBN 1935785079, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; Wilhelm Marr, who [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anti-Semitism coined the term] &quot;antisemitism,&quot; wrote that &quot;anti-Semitism is a Socialist movement, only in nobler and purer forms than Social Democracy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In late 19th century Germany, a popular critical view held that capitalism was a product of Jewish culture.&lt;ref&gt;Cristobal Young, &quot;[http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/3/0/8/9/5/pages308953/p308953-1.php Christianity, Judaism, and the Spirit of Capitalism: The Weber-Sombart Debates],&quot; Department of Sociology, Princeton University, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; Adolf Stöcker, leader of the left-wing Christian Social Party, wrote, &quot;I see in unrestrained capitalism the evil of our epoch and am naturally also an opponent of modern Judaism on account of my socio-political views.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 95.&lt;/ref&gt; Meanwhile, anti-capitalist leader Adam Müller said, “The Jewish messiah, the Antichrist, has come to earth in the guise of the steam engine, and this in order to speed up the end of the world.”&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The doctrine of egalitarian free economics and of corresponding human rights in economics, as they were formulated in a humanely well-meaning way by the Scotsmen Hume and Smith, were used by the Jews in order to derive from them their monopoly,&quot; according to the anti-semitic ''Die Judenfrage''.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 51&lt;/ref&gt; According to Tyler Cowen, professor of economics at George Mason University:<br /> {{cquote|German writers picked up on earlier anti-Enlightenment theories of a Judeo-Masonic conspiracy to rule the world. During the French Revolution, the Jews, along with the Masons, were identified as forces for liberalism, secularism, and capitalism. German writers quickly found the Jews to be a more popular target than the Masons, perhaps because they were more visible or more different. The originally Judeo-Masonic theories eventually discarded the other conspirators, such as the Templars and the Illuminati, and focused on the Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Cowen, &quot;[http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/the-socialist-roots-of-modern-anti-semitism/ The Socialist Roots of Modern Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The Freeman'' (Foundation for Economic Education), January 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ==20th century: Stalinist anti-Semitism==<br /> According to Henry L. Feingold, director of the Jewish Resource Center at Baruch College, &quot;socialism contained the seeds to become the anti-Semitism of the intellectuals of the Left.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry L. Feingold, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-ZrhFjuebEEC Lest memory cease: finding meaning in the American Jewish past]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1996) ISBN 0815604009, p. 81&lt;/ref&gt; In the 20th century, those seeds took root and grew into a forest bearing poisonous fruit. For example, in the former Soviet Union, even after the death of the anti-Semite Stalin,&lt;ref&gt;See Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov, &quot;[http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 4, No. 1 (Winter 2002), pp. 66-80. Cf. Louis Rapoport, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990) ISBN 0029258219&lt;/ref&gt; Soviet anti-Semitism persisted:<br /> {{cquote|Since World War II Jews and Judaism have been liberated in every country and territory where capitalism has been restored to vigorous growth&amp;mdash;and this includes Germany. By contrast, wherever anticapitalism or precapitalism has prevailed the status of Jews and Judaism has either undergone deterioration or is highly precarious. Thus at this very moment the country where developing global capitalism is most advanced, the United States, accords Jews and Judaism a freedom that is known nowhere else in the world and that was never known in the past. It is a freedom that is not matched even in Israel ... By contrast, in the Soviet Union, the citadel of anticapitalism, the Jews are cowed by anti-Semitism, threatened by extinction, and barred from access to their God.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Rivkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MUk1SwAACAAJ The shaping of Jewish history: A radical new interpretation],'' (C. Scribner's Sons, 1971) ISBN 0684132362, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> According to Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal, during the Six Day War on Israel in 1967, the East German Communist regime employed former Nazi propagandists to write anti-Israeli propaganda, with the substitution of a few words such as “Israeli” for “Jew” and “progressive forces” for “National Socialism.”&lt;ref&gt;Simon Wiesenthal, ''The Same Language: First for Hitler&amp;mdash;Now for Ulbricht'' (Bonn: Rolf Vogel, Deutschland Berichte, 1968), as cited in Jeffrey Herf, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yahqnBEEbQEC Divided memory: the Nazi past in the two Germanys]'' (Harvard University Press, 1997) ISBN 0674213033, p. 189&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Historian Susan Urban of the Jersusalem Center for Public Affairs writes, &quot;Germany has seen a growth of leftist anti-Semitism along with anti-imperialist, antiglobalization, and anti-Zionist attitudes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Susanne Urban, &quot;Anti-Semitism In Germany Today: Its Roots And Tendencies1,&quot; ''Jewish Political Studies Review'' Vol. 16 (Fall 2004), pp. 3-4&lt;/ref&gt; The Tupamoros-West Berlin, a Communist group headed by Dieter Kunzelmann (who would later become a leader of the Green Party),&lt;ref&gt;Aribert Reimann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MGKnrkMmY5cC Dieter Kunzelmann: Avantgardist, Protestler, Radikaler],'' (Vandenhoeck &amp; Ruprecht, 2009), ISBN 3525370105, pp. 274-286&lt;/ref&gt; attempted to bomb Berlin's Jewish Community Center during a commemoration of the anniversary of ''Kristallnacht'' in 1969.&lt;ref&gt;Walter Laqueur, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMGeXXBSY8wC The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2006) ISBN 0195304292, p. 147&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Berlin's Red Army Faction (RAF), a Communist group, was led by Ulrike Meinhof, who stated, &quot;Auschwitz means that six million Jews were murdered and carted on to the rubbish dumps of Europe for being that which was maintained of them&amp;mdash;Money-Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''Auschwitz heisst, das sechs Millionen Juden ermordet und auf die Müllkippen Europas gekarrt wurden als das, als was man sie ausgab — als Geldjuden.''&quot;) Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=acBtAAAAMAAJ Hitler's apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi legacy]'' (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 1985) ISBN 0297787195, p. 230&lt;/ref&gt; She added that &quot;Anti-Semitism is really hatred of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''Antisemitismus eigentlich Haß auf Kapitalismus ist.'' George Watson, &quot;Race and the Socialists. On the Progressive Principle of Revolutionary Extermination,&quot; ''Encounter'' 47, 1976, pp. 15-18&lt;/ref&gt; Another founder of this Communist group, Horst Mahler, an anti-Semite and Holocaust denier,&lt;ref&gt;“[http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,550430,00.html One-Man Right-Wing Circus Act: German Sentenced to 10 Months for Hitler Greeting],” ''Der Speigel'' Online International&lt;/ref&gt; was sentenced to six years in prison for incitement to racial hatred in 2005.&lt;ref&gt;”[http://www.ejpress.org/article/12601 Neo-Nazi Horst Mahler transferred to prison in Bavaria],” ''European Jewish Press'', December 29, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Despite being labeled “right-wing” in the media, this Communist revolutionary insisted in a 2007 interview that his beliefs had not changed (&quot;[http://shoabloger.wordpress.com/texts/michael-friedman-interviews-horst-mahler-full-text/ The enemy is the same]&quot;)&lt;ref&gt; “Der Feind ist derselbe.” Hoerst Mahler in Michael Friedman, “[https://archive.org/download/Friedman-Michel-Interview-mit-Horst-Mahler-und-Sylvia-Stolz/FriedmanMichel-InterviewMitHorstMahlerUndSylviaStolz200789S.Text.pdf So spricht man mit Nazis],” ''Vanity Fair (German edition), November, 2007, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt; since his days as an informant for the Stasi,&lt;ref&gt;Helen Pidd, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/01/baader-m einhof-gang-founder-stasi Baader-Meinhof terrorist may have worked for the Stasi],&quot; ''The Guardian'', August 1, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the secret police of Communist East Germany. (After the fall of East German Communism in 1990, it was revealed that the Stasi had been supplying the RAF with funds and logistic support, including false identities and network of safehouses in West Berlin.)&lt;ref&gt;John Schmeidel &quot;[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02684529308432225#preview My Enemy's Enemy: Twenty Years of Co-operation between West Germany's Red Army Faction and the GDR Ministry for State Security],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' Vol. 8, No. 4 (October 1993), pp. 59–72.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1976, the Revolutionary Cells (''Revolutionäre Zellen''), another German Communist group, joined with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (a hard-line Marxist&lt;ref&gt;Edmund L. Andrews and John Kifner, [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/africa/27iht-obits.1.9523942.html George Habash, 82, founder of Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine], ''The New York Times'', January 27, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; terrorist group) to hijack an Air France flight to Entebbe, Uganda, where they singled out the Jewish passengers in a plot to murder them.&lt;ref&gt;Stephen E. Atkins, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b8k4rEPvq_8C Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313324859, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> In 1979, the Sandinistas, a [http://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/timeline-nicaragua.php Marxist-Leninist] group, seized control of the government of Nicaragua, supporting a newspaper that proclaimed that &quot;the world's money, banking and finance are in the hands of descendants of Jews ... [C]ontrolling economic power, they control political power as now happens in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''El Nuevo Diario'', July 17, 1982, as cited in Porfirio R. Solórzano, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tFwSAQAAIAAJ The Nirex Collection: Nicaraguan Revolution Extracts, Twelve Years, 1978-1990, Vol VII: Of War and Peace]'' [Litex, 1993] ISBN 1877970018)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|In 1979 many of the country's approximately 250 Jews fled abroad in the face of persecution and imprisonment by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). The FSLN bombed and partially destroyed the country's only synagogue, then confiscated the property shortly afterward and converted it into a youth training camp.&lt;ref&gt;Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5681.htm Nicaragua], Annual Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2001). Cf. Elliott Abrams, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1079/is_v84/ai_3408623/?tag=content;col1 Persecution and Restrictions of Religion in Nicaragua],&quot; (Transcript), ''Department of State bulletin'', October-December 1984, pp. 49-50&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1985, the Palestinian Liberation Front, then a [http://www.adl.org/terrorism/symbols/palestinian_liberation_front.asp Communist group], which had hijacked an Italian cruise ship, the MS ''Achille Lauro'', murdered 69-year-old passenger Leon Klinghoffer, an American, shooting him to death and rolling his wheelchair off the deck, dumping his body into the ocean. The PLF singled out Klinghoffer for murder [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2003-04-17/news/0304161228_1_achille-lauro-abul-abbas-palestinian-authority because he was Jewish]. <br /> <br /> &quot;Outside of the Western communist parties, which were mostly oriented solidly towards Moscow’s anti-Zionism, a fully articulated anti-Zionism appeared only in the early 1970s with the formation of the so-called New Left, which interpreted the Middle-East conflict in terms of its anti-imperialist and anti-colonialist rhetoric,&quot; reports the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. &quot;As many authors have shown since, the anti-Zionism of the 1970s was largely not just ideological criticism of Israel, but a form of [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/184-AS-Main-report.pdf secondary anti-Semitism]. The rhetoric of these organizations, whose remnants survive into the present day, often indicates the antisemitic nature of their criticism.&quot; A 2016 study by the Research Association on the SED [Socialist Unity Party] State at Berlin's Free University, financed by Germany's Federal Ministry of Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, found that &quot;there has been more left-wing violence in Germany since 2009 than right-wing violence.&quot; Researchers found extensive anti-Semitism among left-wing extremists in Germany, and said the view of anti-Jewish extremist leftism can be traced to the word [http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/German-left-wing-radicals-say-Jews-have-too-much-influence-460773 “Jew” as a synonym for “capitalist” and “exploiter.”]<br /> <br /> ==21st-century anti-Semitism: the union of leftism and Islamism==<br /> In the 21st century these seeds have festered into full flower, with the embrace of Islamist anti-Semitism by the Left:<br /> {{cquote|Although traditional Trotskyite ideology is in no way close to radical Islamic teachings and the shariah, since the radical Islamists also subscribed to anticapitalism, antiglobalism, and anti-Americanism, there seemed to be sufficient common ground for an alliance. Thus, the militants of the far left began to march side by side with the radical Islamists in demonstrations, denouncing American aggression and Israeli crimes. In Britain a new political party named Respect was established, uniting Trotskyites, Stalinists, Muslim Brotherhood militants, and similar groups.&lt;ref&gt;Walter Laquer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMGeXXBSY8wC The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day]'' [Oxford University Press US, 2006] ISBN 0195304292, p. 186&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> For example, the European Union's European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia decided not to publish its comprehensive study of the causes of anti-Semitism in Europe in 2003, a source familiar with the report told London's ''Financial Times'', after the report uncovered &quot;a trend towards Muslim anti-Semitism,&quot; and that &quot;on the left there is also mobilization against Israel that is not always free of prejudice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Reuters, &quot;[http://www.haaretz.com/news/eu-racism-watchdog-shelves-anti-semitism-report-1.106473 EU racism watchdog shelves anti-Semitism report],&quot; ''Haaretz'', November 22, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> That year, one academic, Michael Neumann, Professor of Philosophy at Canada's Trent University, wrote that he wants to<br /> {{cquote|help the Palestinians.... I am not interested in the truth, or justice, or understanding, or anything else, except so far as it serves that purpose. If an effective strategy means that some truths about the Jews don’t come to light, I don’t care. If an effective strategy means encouraging reasonable anti-Semitism, or reasonable hostility to Jews, I also don’t care. If it means encouraging vicious racist anti-Semitism, or the destruction of the State of Israel, I still don’t care.&lt;ref&gt;Yoni Petel, &quot;Antisemitism on Campus: A Student's Perspective,&quot; League for Human Rights, B'nai B'rith of Canada, ''[http://www.bnaibrith.ca/briefs/klein/klein030925.html Submission to the Special Rapporteur on Racism]'', Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, September 25, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> According to the progressive magazine ''Tikkun'', &quot;A.N.S.W.E.R. refuses to acknowledge or support the right of the Jewish people to national self-determination&amp;mdash;though it supports that right for every other group with a history of oppression. When Jews are denied the rights of others, it is a tell-tale sign of anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20041019075845/http://www.tikkun.org/magazine/index.cfm/action/tikkun/issue/tik0305/article/030512a.html Authoritarianism and Anti-Semitism in the Anti-War Movement?],&quot; ''Tikkun'', May-June 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[L]eftists who despise their own capitalist societies inevitably come to sympathize with militants&amp;mdash;communists, Tier-mondistes, Islamists, it doesn't make any difference&amp;mdash;who attack those societies from without. Right now, the only corner of the world putting up any sort of serious ideological fight against Western-style capitalism and liberalism is the Muslim Middle East. So, just as the left uncritically swallowed Stalin's propaganda in the 1930s, expect the left to increasingly swallow Arabist propaganda in our own era. And since one of the key elements of Arabist propaganda is a hatred of Israel and a suspicion of Jews, these building blocks of anti-Semitism will become more and more a part of mainstream leftist discourse.&lt;ref&gt;Johnathan Kay, quoted in Jamie Glazov, Symposium: &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=19272 Anti-Semitism - the New Call of the Left],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, March 14, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Thus in 2009, the &quot;progressive&quot; webzine Counterpunch.org, edited by Alexander Cockburn, son of Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn, could publish a revival of the &quot;Blood Libel,&quot; alleging that Israeli Jews were killing Palestinian Muslims to harvest their organs.&lt;ref&gt;Alison Weir, &quot;[http://www.counterpunch.org/weir08282009.html Israeli Organ Harvesting],&quot; Counterpunch.org, August 28-30, 2009) Cf. David Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=azE5qoXTgoAC Unholy alliance: radical Islam and the American left]'' (Regnery Publishing, 2004) ISBN 089526076X, p. 148&lt;/ref&gt; By 2011, the Anti-Defamation League had documented the growing list of [https://web.archive.org/web/20140413064836/http://archive.adl.org:80/main_extremism/occupy_wall_street.html#.WY5m_lGQzIU anti-semitic incidents] at rallies of the left-wing &quot;Occupy&quot; movement. A 2012 survey of 5,847 Jews in the European Union found that more than three out of four said anti-Semitism had increased over the preceding five years, and more respondents blamed perpetrators of the most serious incidents on the political left than the right, according to the EU's Fundamental Rights Agency.&lt;ref&gt;European Union Fundamental Rights Agency, [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2013-discrimination-hate-crime-against-jews-eu-member-states_en.pdf Discrimination and hate crime against Jews in EU Member States: experiences and perceptions of anti-Semitism] (Vienna: EU-FRA, 2013) ISBN 978-92-9239-262-8, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers at Tel Aviv University reported that anti-Semitic violence worldwide surged 40 percent in 2014.&lt;ref&gt;Kim Hjelmgaard, &quot;[http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/04/15/jewish-anti-semitic-attacks-western-europe/25807273/ Anti-Semitic violence surged 40% worldwide last year],&quot; ''USA Today'', April 16, 2015&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;[T]he left's anti-Semitism&amp;mdash;which, of course, it never acknowledges and fervently denies&amp;mdash;rather than the right's conventional version of this hatred comprises the key ingredient of anti-Semitism's current European existence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Andrei S. Markovits, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=1754&amp;TTL=%22Twin_Brothers%22:_European_Anti-Semitism_and_Anti-Americanism 'Twin Brothers': European Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 6 [January 2006] Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt; Antisemitism may be found within much contemporary &quot;antihegemonic, radical, liberal and socialist&quot; discourse, admits David Hirsh of the University of London, who concedes that &quot;antisemitism is a live and virulent threat.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;David Hirsh, Book Review: &quot;[http://engageonline.wordpress.com/2009/05/07/book/ Perry and Schweitzer, ''Antisemitic myths: a historical and contemporary anthology''],&quot; ''[http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/01419870.asp Ethnic and Racial Studies]'', Vol. 32, No. 4 (May 2009), pp. 749-750&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[T]he locus of anti-Semitism has moved from the right side of the political spectrum to the left ... These days, the hatemongers targeting Jews’ right to live peacefully spout the mantras of 'social justice' and 'peace studies,' not racial purity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Kay, &quot;[http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/03/02/jonathan-kay-on-the-lesson-from-israel-apartheid-week-anti-semitism-is-now-a-creature-of-the-left.aspx The lesson from Israel Apartheid Week: Anti-Semitism is now a creature of the left],&quot; ''National Post'', March 2, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|The resurgence of anti-Semitism in Europe &quot;hails much more from the left than the right. The latter&amp;mdash;mainly because of the continued illegitimacy and unacceptability of Nazism and fascism in European public opinion&amp;mdash;has had a much more circumspect influence on how Jews and Israel are depicted than the left has had. Because classical anti-Semitism&amp;mdash;certainly in its praxis&amp;mdash;was mostly associated with the European right, the left enjoyed a certain bonus when it came to discussing all matters relating to Jews and Israel. The left could take liberties with being anti-Israeli and anti-Semitic that the right could never have. This legitimacy bonus enabled the left to employ anti-Israeli discourse that&amp;mdash;in the meantime&amp;mdash;has become completely common and acceptable parlance in Europe. Because of this general acceptability and overall legitimacy, left-wing anti-Semitism is much more relevant and disturbing than right-wing anti-Semitism.&lt;ref&gt;Andrei S. Markovits, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-markovits-05.htm European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 2 [August 2005], Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> As Urban concludes: &quot;The extreme leftist trend in Germany contains elements that envision [http://jcpa.org/article/being-leftist-and-anti-semitic-in-germany/ a world cleansed of the Jewish state].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalism, Anti-Americanism and anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;[I]n North America,&quot; wrote Marx, the &quot;practical domination of Judaism over the Christian world&quot; had achieved what he called &quot;its unambiguous and normal expression.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, &quot;On The Jewish Question,&quot; ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'', February 1844, reprinted in Karl Marx, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKdLO2jvbqsC Early writings]'' (Penguin, 1992) ISBN 0140445749, p. 232&lt;/ref&gt; According to Sombart, “what we call Americanism is nothing else, if we may say so, than the Jewish spirit distilled.”&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The anti-American left... is at least as anti-Jewish as the clerical conservative right, especially among those who have embraced a pronounced 'antifascist' and 'antiracist' credo.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42D75369-D582-4380-8395-D25925B85EAF%7D/wistrich.pdf European Anti-Semitism Reinvents Itself],'' [The American Jewish Committee, 2002], p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Anti-Americanism in the Islamic world and Anti-Americanism in Europe are in fact linked, and both bear an uncanny resemblance to anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Natan Sharansky, &quot;On Hating Jews: The inextricable link between anti-Semitism and anti-Americanism,&quot; ''The Wall Street Journal'', November 17, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;America and Jews are seen by many Europeans as paragons of a modernity they dislike and distrust: money-driven, profit-hungry, urban, universalistic, individualistic, mobile, rootless, inauthentic, and thus hostile to established traditions and values.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=658&amp;TTL=European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Semitism:_Similarities_and_Differences European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Semitism: Similarities and Differences],&quot; An Interview with Andrei S. Markovits, ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'' [Institute for Global Jewish Affairs], No. 16 [January 1, 2004]&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jews were blamed for the evils of capitalism in earlier centuries. Americans are blamed for globalization, that is, technological and economic change to the max, in our days.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Josef Joffe, quoted in Mark O'Keefe, &quot;[http://pewforum.org/Politics-and-Elections/Anti-Semitism-and-Anti-Americanism.aspx Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; Pew Forum on Religion &amp; Public Life, May 5, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;America today has become the world's market-dominant minority,&quot; while &quot;Jews are a market-dominant mionority in the Middle East.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Amy Chua, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KSp1okOggpkC World on fire: how exporting free market democracy breeds ethnic hatred and global instability]'' [Random House, Inc., 2004] ISBN 0385721862, pp. 218, 229&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Thus post-unification Germany, observed a journalist in 2005, is marked by &quot;a poisonous cocktail of the three big As: anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism and anti-capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Munchau, &quot;[http://www.spectator.co.uk/essays/13684/part_2/antiamericanism-antisemitism-anticapitalism.thtml Anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism, anti-capitalism],&quot; ''The Spectator'', May 21, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; This association of Jews with America was illustrated in 2006, when German Neo-Nazis burned a copy of ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y50yo2rnJHcC Anne Frank: Diary of a Young Girl]'' together [http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/germany/9582 with an American flag].<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> {{reflist|3}}</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_1&diff=1408167 User:FOIA/Archive 1 2018-03-10T07:36:58Z <p>FOIA: /* 20th century: Stalinist anti-Semitism */</p> <hr /> <div>=Left-wing anti-Semitism=<br /> Although many leftists [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2009-08-11/news/0908100426_1_town-hall-meetings-swastikas-bob-macguffie try] to [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNQTwSZCPo deny] it, “modern, political anti-Semitism is a creature of the left as well as the right,” admits Warwick University Sociology Professor Robert Fine, a [http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/emeritus/robertfine/home/mycv/ member] of the [http://www.cseweb.org.uk/ Conference of Socialist Economists].&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006).&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[A]nti-Semitism that we might call populist or democratic.... is linked equally to the left and right,&quot; agrees George L. Mosse, professor of history at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, &quot;to the new nationalism, but also to certain tendencies in socialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; Omer Bartov of Brown University comments:<br /> {{cquote|[O]ne of the most frightening aspects of Hitler's book is not that he said what he said at the time, but that much of what he said can be found today in innumerable places ... As long as it does not have Hitler's name attached to it, this deranged discourse will be ignored or allowed to pass. The voices that express these opinions do not belong to a single political or ideological current ... They belong to the right and the left, to the religious and the secular, to the West and the East, to the rabble and the leaders, to terrorists and intellectuals, students and peasants, pacifists and militants, expansionists and anti-globalization activists.&lt;ref&gt;Omer Bartov, &quot;[http://www.tnr.com/article/he-meant-what-he-said He Meant What He Said],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 2, 2004&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Twenty-five years ago in the heart of the Cold War debate, anti-Americanism, anti-Israeli sentiment, and anti-Semitism &quot;were fringe phenomena while now they are more fashionable and mainstream ... [T]hese sentiments are no longer the monopoly of any particular part of the political spectrum. They are there on the European Left, Right, and in the center,&quot; agrees Jeffrey Gedman, president of London's Legatum Institute.&lt;ref&gt;Jeffrey Gedmin, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=633&amp;TTL=Experiencing_European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Israelism Experiencing European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Israelism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 27 (December 2004), Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Origins of left-wing anti-Semitism==<br /> There were “strong anti-Semitic currents on the European left in Marx’s time,&quot; writes Fine; &quot;[T]here is a strong tradition of [https://www.ushmm.org/media/emu/get?irn=544974&amp;mm_irn=32140&amp;file=primary anti-Semitism on the Left].”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; One &quot;need not venture far into the pre-1930 literature of anti-economics before encountering conspicuous anti-Semitic effusions,&quot; observes William Coleman of the Australian National University. &quot;One may say that, before about 1930, anti-economics and anti-Semitism existed in striking conjunction.&quot; He adds that &quot;the conjunction was not accidental... [A]nti-economics and modern anti-Semitism shared some leading ideological contentions.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Coleman, &quot;[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/history_of_political_economy/v035/35.4coleman.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'', Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), pp. 759-777&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> From the outset, according to French historian Marc Crapez, European racism and socialism were closely affiliated.&lt;ref&gt;Marc Crapez, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=l-dtAAAAMAAJ L'antisémitisme de gauche au XIXe siècle]'' (Paris: Berg international, 2002) ISBN 2-911289-43-9&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, &quot;anti-capitalism and anti-Semitism were deeply intertwined,&quot; writes Mosse. &quot;[I]n fact, they had been connected since the middle-ages.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For centuries, Jewish economic success led anti-Semites to condemn capitalism as a form of Jewish domination and exploitation,&quot; writes Columbia University history professor Jerry Z. Muller, &quot;or to attribute Jewish success to unsavory qualities of the Jews themselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jerry Z. Muller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nMZ_w0mFGIgC Capitalism and the Jews]'' (Princeton University Press, 2010) ISBN 0691144788, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The Marxist, postmodern and post-Zionist pseudo-liberal views on democracy lead back to the totalitarian democracy of the French Enlightenment, in which anti-Semitism formed an essential ingredient,” writes Shlomo Sharan of Tel Aviv University.&lt;ref&gt;Shlomo Sharan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5U-Dk-5p0mIC Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk]'' (Sussex Academic Press, 2003) ISBN 1903900522 , p. 125&lt;/ref&gt; At that time, &quot;the Jews symbolised the distressing symptoms of modernity ushered in by capitalism and political liberalism,&quot; writes Christian Wiese, professor of Jewish history at the University of Sussex.&lt;ref&gt;Christian Wiese, &quot;Modern Antisemitism and Jewish Responses in Germany and France,&quot; in Michael Brenner, Vicki Caron and Uri R. Kaufmann, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b2DN7yDuCyoC Jewish emancipation reconsidered: the French and German models]'' (Mohr Siebeck, 2003) ISBN 316148018X, p. 136&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> {{cquote|Dissatisfaction with the practical consequences of Liberalism was even stronger in economic than in political matters; anti-capitalism was, after all, one of the oldest and most natural forms of anti-Semitism. Liberal society was characterized by a high degree of social mobility with a premium on individual worth and ability. Perhaps this pill was the hardest to swallow. All those who had an assured place in an ordered hierarchy, even if it was a comparatively low one, looked with distaste on an order which allowed others to rise to positions of eminence and influence ... anti-Semitism is anti-capitalist since capitalism is one of the causes of social mobility.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The Rise of Political Anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria] (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> “[T]he sudden prominence of a few Jews who benefited from economic liberalisation provoked a backlash from the Left.”&lt;ref&gt;David Cesarani, ''[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/ressources/left_jews/Left_Jews_final.pdf The Jews and the Left] (Labour Friends of Israel 2004) ISBN 0 9500536-5-1, p. 3 (PDF p.9)&lt;/ref&gt; In France, writes Göttingen historian Karlheinz Weissmann, many on the left saw the Jews &quot;as the embodiment of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Some of the most prominent thinkers of the Enlightenment were virulent anti-Semites: Voltaire denounced the Jews as &quot;the greatest scoundrels who have ever sullied the face of the globe&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Hertzberg and Aron Hirt-Manheimer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hiWBs5HM_E0C Jews: the essence and character of a people]'' (HarperCollins, 1998) ISBN 0060638354, p. 164&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews, he wrote, &quot;deserve to be punished,&quot; for it is their &quot;destiny.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Avner Falk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_0WOiZj0oC Anti-semitism: a history and psychoanalysis of contemporary hatred]'' (ABC-CLIO, 2008) ISBN 0313353840, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jewish nation dares to display an irreconcilable hatred toward all nations, and revolts against all masters,&quot; wrote Voltaire, &quot;always superstitious, always greedy for the well-being enjoyed by others, always barbarous&amp;mdash;cringing in misfortune and insolent in prosperity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Voltaire, ''Essai sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations'', Introduction, [http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/11/07INTFIN.html#i42 XLII: Des Juifs depuis Saül], 1753&lt;/ref&gt; Immanuel Kant expressed similar views: &quot;'The Jews still cannot claim any true genius, any truly great man. All their talents and skills revolve around stratagems and low cunning ... They are a nation of swindlers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Socialist Anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;It was in those days that the complaint arose that Jews were 'unproductive middle men,' 'economic parasites,'&quot; wrote Edward H. Flannery, a professor at the Institute of Judeo-Christian Studies at Seton Hall University.&lt;ref&gt;Eric Pace, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/22/us/the-rev-edward-flannery-86-priest-who-fought-anti-semitism.html The Rev. Edward Flannery, 86, Priest Who Fought Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The New York Times'', October 22, 1998&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;It was shaped for the most part by socialist writers and became a favorite theme with later racist antisemites of a socialist stripe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward H. Flannery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J40gNC7cxfYC The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism]'' (Paulist Press, 2004) ISBN 0809143240, p. 168&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Certain anti-economists affiliated with the socialist movement held Jews<br /> to be potentates of an oppressive contemporary social order.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt; Among the French Left, observes Weissmann, were &quot;numerous individuals and groups who considered class struggle and race struggle as one and the same thing&amp;mdash;especially with reference to the Jews....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “Socialist anti-Semitism is indeed almost as old as modern Socialism,” writes historian Edmund Silberner of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” Scripta Hierosolymitana, vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; Early socialism was inseparable from anti-Semitism, portraying Jews as exploiters, leeches and parasites.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” ''Scripta Hierosolymitana'', vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[V]irtually every major figure in the early history of socialism — including Friedrich Engels, Charles Fourier, Ferdinand Lassalle, Marx, and Joseph Proudhon — showed a marked antipathy to Jews,&quot; observes Daniel Pipes.&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Pipes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PPdv8sAtZ4UC Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1999) ISBN 0684871114, p. 88&lt;/ref&gt; In his comprehensive survey of French socialist literature from 1820 to 1920, historian Zosa Szajkowski found not a single word on behalf of Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Zosa Szajkowski, ''[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4464737 The Jewish Saint-Simonians and Socialist Antisemites in France]'', ''Jewish Social Studies'', Vol. 9, No. 1 (January, 1947), pp. 33-60 &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Leroux===<br /> Pierre Leroux (1797-1871), who coined the word &quot;socialism&quot;, “identified the Jews with the despised capitalism, and regarded them as the incarnation of mammon, who lived by exploiting others.”&lt;ref&gt;Dennis Prager and Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC Why the Jews?: the reason for antisemitism]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2003) ISBN 0743246209, p. 127&lt;/ref&gt; He said, &quot;When we speak of the Jews, we mean the Jewish spirit – the spirit of profit, of lucre, of gain, the spirit of commerce, of speculation, in a word, the banker spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lewis S. Feuer and Irving Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8TwfWRr21zEC Ideology and the Ideologists]'' (Transaction Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1412814421, p. 141&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The true successor of Napoleon,&quot; wrote Leroux, &quot;is the Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fichte===<br /> &quot;[T]hrough almost all countries of Europe there is spreading a powerful, hostile state, which is perpetually at war with all other States, and which in some of them oppresses the citizens with the utmost severity: it is Jewry.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Leshem, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NGSAAAAAIAAJ Balaam's curse: how Israel lost its way, and how it can find it again]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1989) ISBN 067167918X, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt; wrote the early socialist Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814). &quot;I see no other means of protecting ourselves against them, than by conquering their Promised Land and sending them all there.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; Elsewhere, he suggested a more radical solution, in which Gentiles &quot;chop off all their [Jews'] heads and replace them with new ones, in which there would not be a single Jewish idea.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jon Stratton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Blh7RLQVIUcC Jewish identity in Western pop culture: the Holocaust and trauma through modernity]'' (Macmillan, 2008), ISBN 0230604749, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt; In Fichte's text &quot;we see the beginnings of the 'anticapitalist' impulse in modern antisemitism, which became central to revolutionist agendas for the redemption of humanity through the regeneration of Jewry,&quot; observes [http://www.gf.org/fellows/8291-anthony-j-la-vopa Guggenheim Fellow] Anthony J. LaVopa.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony J. LaVopa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vQx0_69P4z4C Fichte: the self and the calling of philosophy, 1762-1799]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2001), ISBN 052179145, p. 135&lt;/ref&gt; Duquesne University professor Tom Rockmore comments that &quot;available evidence points strongly to an early and perhaps enduring Marxian interest in Fichte's position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Tom Rockmore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qrS4AAAAIAAJ Fichte, Marx, and the German philosophical tradition]'' (Southern Illinois University Press, 1980), ISBN 0809309556, p. 126&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fourier===<br /> Early socialist Charles Fourier (1768-1830) attacked (classical) &quot;liberal retrogression&quot; (i.e, ''laissez faire'' capitalism) for what he called &quot;monstrous actions, such as the admission of the Jews to the rights of citizens&quot; which, he wrote, introduce into society &quot;parasites, unproductives.&quot; He added, &quot;The Jewish nation is not civilised ... it devotes itself exclusively to traffic, to usury, and to mercantile depravity ... Every government having regard to good morals ought to repress the Jews,&quot; whom Fourier described as &quot;all parasites, merchants, usurers, etc.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Fourier (Tr. Julian H. Franklin), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w2CgXn5jAm8C Selections from the Works of Fourier]'' (Allen &amp; Unwin, 1901), p. 96. Cf. Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' [W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999] ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; Fourier's disciple, Alphonse Toussenel, called Jews &quot;the kings of the epoch,&quot; writing that &quot;Europe is entailed to the domination of Israel. This universal domination, of which so many conquerors have dreamed, the Jews have in their hands.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Lichtheim, &quot;Socialism and the Jews,&quot; [http://search.opinionarchives.com/Dissent_Web/DigitalArchive.aspx?panes=1&amp;aid=01504314_1 ''Dissent'', Vol. 15, No. 4 (July 1968)], p. 320&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[I]ndustrial feudalism&quot;&amp;mdash;as Toussenel called capitalism&amp;mdash;&quot;is personified in the cosmopolitan Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jacob Katz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FeH_uNpWbZAC From prejudice to destruction: anti-Semitism, 1700-1933]'' (Harvard University Press, 1980) ISBN 0674325079, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dühring===<br /> Marx's mentor Bruno Bauer published antisemitic articles by Marx's intellectual rival in the German Social Democratic Party, Eugen Dühring, &quot;descibing Jews as idle usurers exploiting productive labor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard S. Levy, ''[http://books.google.com.au/books/about/Antisemitism.html?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia Of Prejudice And Persecution]'', Volume 1 (ABC-CLIO, 2005) ISBN 1851094393, pp. 61-62&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Proudhon===<br /> Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), one of the [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/grahamproudhon.html leading socialist] theorists of his day (and a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1846/letters/46_05_05.htm correspondent of Marx]), called Jews “the race which poisons everything” and “the enemy of the human race”;&lt;ref&gt;Norman Podhoretz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QUfFP_Q_nqIC Why are Jews Liberals?]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 0385529198, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jew is by temperament an anti-producer, neither a farmer nor an industrialist nor even a true merchant,&quot; wrote Prodhon. &quot;He is an intermediary, always fraudulent and parasitic, who operates, in trade as in philosophy, by means of falsification, counterfeiting, and horse-trading.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; He wrote, &quot;This race must be sent back to Asia, or exterminated.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Halévy and Pierre Haubtmann, eds., ''Carnets de P.J. Proudhon'' (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1961), Vol. II, p. 337; Vol. VI, p. 178&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;By fire or fusion, or by expulsion the Jew must disappear.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard L. Rubenstein and John K. Roth, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy] (Westminster John Knox Press, 2003) ISBN 0664223532, p. 77&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Bakhunin===<br /> Mikhail Bakunin, Marx's intellectual rival in the First International, called Jews “an exploiting sect, a bloodsucking people, a unique devouring parasite,”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, “[http://leobaeck.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/37/1/111 Socialism and Judeophobia: Antisemitism in Europe before 1914],” ''Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook'', Vol. 37, No. 1 (January 1992), pp. 111-145&lt;/ref&gt; Jews, he wrote, are disqualified from socialist leadership by &quot;that mercantile passion which constitutes one of the principle traits of their national character.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===L'Affaire Dryfus/&quot;J'Accuse&quot;===<br /> When the bourgeois&lt;ref&gt;&quot;M. Doumic on Victor Hugo as a Bourgeois,&quot; Boston ''Transcript'' (reprinted in Theodore Stanton, &quot;M. René Doumic,&quot; New York ''Evening Post'', March 24, 1898, as cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=Y94aAAAAYAAJ ''Public Opinion'', Vol. XXIV, No. 12] (January-June, 1898), p. 374&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Hugo, a cultural Catholic,&lt;ref&gt;John Andrew Frey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=olFboDm4bcgC A Victor Hugo encyclopedia]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999) ISBN 0313298963, p. 222&lt;/ref&gt; defended Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer scapegoated by the French army, the French socialist press published a manifesto denouncing Hugo's crusade on the grounds that Jewish capitalists would use the rehabilitation of a single Jew to wash out &quot;all the sins of Israel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bIHtJzYCkqEC Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know About the Jewish Religion, Its People, and Its History]'' (HarperCollins, 2008) ISBN 0061374989, p. 275&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Hyndman===<br /> Henry Hyndman, founder of Britain's atheistic, Marxist Social Democratic Federation (Britain's first socialist party) and National Socialist Party (now part of the Labour Party), &quot;repeatedly invoked the stereotype of the 'rich capitalist Jew' in his anti-semitic remarks.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karin Hofmeester, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hYZrdkniDYkC Jewish Workers and the Labour Movement: A Comparative Study of Amsterdam, London and Paris, 1870-1914]'' (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004) ISBN 0754609073, p. 304&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jew moneylenders,&quot; complained Hyndman's ''Justice, Organ of the Social Democracy'' (the first Marxist periodical in England),&lt;ref&gt;Laurel Brake and Marysa Demoor, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qVrUTUelE6YC Dictionary of nineteenth-century journalism in Great Britain and Ireland]'' [Academia Press, 2009] ISBN 9038213409, p. 328&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;now control nearly every Foreign Office in Europe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Guido Kisch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5h8WAAAAIAAJ Historia judaica: a journal of studies in Jewish history, especially in legal and economic history of the Jews'', Volumes 13-14] (Historia Judaica, 1951), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt; He blamed the Boer war on &quot;Jew financial cliques&quot; and the &quot;Jew-jingo press.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Crick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eea_kByVYsoC The History of the Social-Democratic Federation] (Edinburgh University Press, 1994) ISBN 1853310913, p. 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Sombart===<br /> Werner Sombart, a German economist, sociologist and self-proclaimed &quot;convinced Marxist&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hermynia Zur Mühlen (Tr. Lionel Gossman), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_gd1Aw0ZlEwC The End and the Beginning: The Book of My Life, Volume 1]'' (Open Book Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1906924279, p. 241&lt;/ref&gt; -- praised by Friedrich Engels as the only German professor who understood ''Das Kapital''&lt;ref&gt;Frederick Engels, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/supp.htm Introduction], ''Capital'' Volume III (Supplement), 1894. Cf. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/letters/95_03_11.htm Engels To W. Sombart in Breslaun, London, March 11, 1895], in ''Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutscher Arbeiterbewegung'' No. 3, 1961, reprinted in Marx and Engels, ''Selected Works'', Volume 3, pp. 504-506. Marxists Internet Archive (marxists.org)&lt;/ref&gt; -- wrote &quot;modern capitalism is nothing more or less than an expression of the Jewish spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; According to the ''Universal Jewish Encyclopaedia'', Sombart “[http://econlog.econlib.org/archives/2009/09/capitalism_and.html accused the Jews of having created capitalism]” -- as should perhaps be expected of a &quot;convinced Marxist&quot; (Marx viewed Jews as &quot;responsible for capitalism,&quot; according Princeton's Bernard Lewis.)&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dreiser===<br /> Theodore Dreiser, an [[atheist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html Religion: Atheist's Oath],&quot; ''Time'', August 20, 1928&lt;/ref&gt; as well as a [[Communist]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, &quot;Request to Become a Communist,&quot; ''[[The Daily Worker]]'', July 30, 1945, reprinted in Albert Fried, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLJbT3NMbN4C Communism in America: A History in Documents]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231102356, pp. 348-350&lt;/ref&gt; was also a virulent [[anti-Semite]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;the Jew ... has been in America all of two hundred years, and he has not faded into a pure American by any means, and he will not. As I said before, he maintains his religious dogmas and his racial sympathies, race characteristics, and race cohesion as against all the types or nationalities surrounding him wheresoever.&quot; Dreiser quoted in Lee Bernstein, &quot;The Avengers of Christie: Street Racism and Jewish Working-Class Rebellion in Mike Gold’s 'Jews Without Money'',&quot; in Janet Galligani Casey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wLliXDo2iwC The Novel and the American Left: Critical Essays on Depression-Era Fiction]'' (University of Iowa Press, 2004) 1587294753, p. 118&lt;/ref&gt; and defender of [[Hitler]].&lt;ref&gt; Dreiser excused the Holocaust, saying that British rule in India &quot;makes Germany's cruelties seem like a pipe dream,&quot; and &quot;If Germany can beat England at the game of mass human torture ... it will have to go some.&quot; The editor explains in a footnote that Dreiser was parroting the Communist Party line during the Nazi-Soviet pact &quot;by portraying Britain as a greater threat to world democracy and peace than Germany.&quot; (Frederic E. Rusch and Donald Pizer, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tQL7UitACW4C Theodore Dreiser: Interviews]'' (University of Illinois Press, 2004) ISBN 0252029437, p. 305) Cf. H. Elias, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKtEAAAAYAAJ Letters of Theodore Dreiser: A Selection, vol. 2]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959), pp. 405, 650–52; Richard Tuerk, “The American Spectator Symposium Controversy: Was Dreiser Anti-Semitic?” ''Prospects 16'' (1991), pp. 367–89; Louis Harap, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC Creative Awakening: The Jewish Presence in Twentieth-Century American Literature, 1900-1940s],'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987) ISBN 0313253862, pp. 128-132.&lt;/ref&gt; New York is a &quot;kike's dream of a ghetto,&quot; he wrote; Jews are not &quot;pure Americans&quot; and &quot;lack integrity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Organizations==<br /> Perhaps more important than the widespread anti-Semitism among socialist leaders was the anti-semitism of socialist groups such as the Socialist International and the Fabian Society.<br /> <br /> ===Second International===<br /> After reference to the exploitation of workers by Jewish capitalists and denunciation of &quot;philo-Semitic agitation,&quot; the Second International (the original Socialist International) adopted a resolution condemning not just antisemitic, but &quot;philo-Semite outbursts as one of the means by which the capitalist class and the reactionary circles seek to divert the Socialist movement from its purpose and divide the workers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0018_0_18779.html Socialism], ''[http://www.gale.cengage.com/servlet/ItemDetailServlet?region=9&amp;imprint=000&amp;titleCode=M355&amp;cf=p&amp;type=4&amp;id=194102 Encyclopaedia Judaica]'' (The Gale Group, 2008), via [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/indexold.html The Jewish Virtual Library]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fabian Society===<br /> Britain's Fabian Society (which &quot;set up the banner of socialism militant&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;G. Bernard Shaw, &quot;[http://walterschafer.com/fabiansocietyhistory.htm Fabian Tract No. 41: The Fabian Society, Its Early History],&quot; (Fabian Society Reprint, 1899)&lt;/ref&gt; hosted a number of anti-Semites, including Beatrice Webb, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, J.A. Hobson, and Oswald Mosley.<br /> <br /> Beatrice Webb, who played a crucial role in the founding of the Fabian Society, wrote that “the strongest impelling motive of the Jewish race” was “the love of ''profit'' as distinct from other forms of money-earning.” (Italics in original.)&lt;ref&gt;Beatrice Webb, “East London Labour,” ''[http://books.google.com/bookes?id=udcaAAAAYAAJ The Nineteenth Century]'', Vol. XXIV (July-December 1888), p. 176.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;A careful study of anti-Semitism, prejudice and accusations might be of great value to many Jews,&quot; wrote H.G. Wells, &quot;who do not adequately realize the irritation they inflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; George Bernard Shaw once exhorted Jews to &quot;stop being Jews and start being human beings.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Shaw Society of America, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HERbAAAAMAAJ The Shaw review, Volumes 3-4] (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1960), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> J.A. Hobson blamed London poverty on &quot;the foreign Jew,&quot; whom he described as &quot;a terrible competitor. He is ... almost void of social morality. No compunction or consideration for his fellow-worker will keep him from underselling and overreaching them; he acquires a thorough mastery of all the dishonourable tricks of trade which are difficult to restrain by law; the superior calculating intellect, which is a national heritage, is used unsparingly to enable him to take advantage of every weakness, folly, and vice of the society in which he lives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John A. Hobson, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10710/10710-h/10710-h.htm Problems of Poverty: An Inquiry into the Industrial Condition of The Poor]'' (1891), Project Gutenberg&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;He craves the position of a sweating-master, the lowest step in a ladder that may lead to a life of magnificence, supported out of usury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England]'' (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, p. 405&lt;/ref&gt; In his 1898 book ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Hobson/hbsnImp.html Imperialism: A Study]'' -- which would profoundly influence Lenin's ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/ Imperialism, the Higherst Stage of Capitalism]'' (1917) -- Hobson blamed the Boer War on &quot;Jew power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, <br /> [http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England] (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, pp. 201-202&lt;/ref&gt; That war, he wrote, was fought for the benefit of &quot;a small group of international financiers, chiefly German in origin and Jewish in race.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bryan Cheyette, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HTdwPbE6KoIC Constructions of &quot;the Jew&quot; in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations, 1875-1945]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1995) ISBN 0521558778, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> One Fabian socialist from the 1920s and '30s, Oswald Mosley,&lt;ref&gt;Rose L. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9_vvAAAAMAAJ Fabian Freeway: High Road to Socialism in the U.S.A., 1884-1966]'' (Fidelis, 1968), p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; went on to found and lead the British Union of Fascists (which &quot;at first was modeled after Mussolini’s example but later became patterned after Hitler&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Zygmund Dobbs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N-g1AQAAIAAJ Keynes at Harvard: economic deception as a political credo],'' (New York: Veritas Foundation, 1960), pp. 88-90&lt;/ref&gt; in which role he was lauded by Shaw.&lt;ref&gt;Gareth Griffith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aGAEWDI3SR4C Socialism and Superior Brains: The Political Thought of Bernard Shaw]'' (CRC Press, 2002) ISBN 0203210832, p. 263&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalist anti-semitism in Germany==<br /> During the 19th century, the center of left-wing anti-Semitism gradually shifted from Paris to Vienna, where the &quot;radical-democratic and nationalist left wing&quot; was headed by German Liberal Party leader Georg von Schönerer,&lt;ref&gt;Viktor Karády, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline]'' (Central European University Press, 2004) ISBN 9639241520, p. 360&lt;/ref&gt; one of a group of &quot;left-wing German liberals&quot; who demanded &quot;the exclusion of Jews from the new movement and as far as possible from public life&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Robert A. Kann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cG570mijBF4C A history of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918]'' (University of California Press, 1980) ISBN 0520042069, p. 433&lt;/ref&gt; Hitler would later ascribe to Schönerer &quot;the wisdom of a prophet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Adolf Hitler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EBUBUEeUwxUC Mein Kampf: zwei Bände in einem Band'', Vol. 1], 40th ed., (Bottom of the Hill, 1938) ISBN 1935785079, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; Wilhelm Marr, who [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anti-Semitism coined the term] &quot;antisemitism,&quot; wrote that &quot;anti-Semitism is a Socialist movement, only in nobler and purer forms than Social Democracy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In late 19th century Germany, a popular critical view held that capitalism was a product of Jewish culture.&lt;ref&gt;Cristobal Young, &quot;[http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/3/0/8/9/5/pages308953/p308953-1.php Christianity, Judaism, and the Spirit of Capitalism: The Weber-Sombart Debates],&quot; Department of Sociology, Princeton University, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; Adolf Stöcker, leader of the left-wing Christian Social Party, wrote, &quot;I see in unrestrained capitalism the evil of our epoch and am naturally also an opponent of modern Judaism on account of my socio-political views.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 95.&lt;/ref&gt; Meanwhile, anti-capitalist leader Adam Müller said, “The Jewish messiah, the Antichrist, has come to earth in the guise of the steam engine, and this in order to speed up the end of the world.”&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The doctrine of egalitarian free economics and of corresponding human rights in economics, as they were formulated in a humanely well-meaning way by the Scotsmen Hume and Smith, were used by the Jews in order to derive from them their monopoly,&quot; according to the anti-semitic ''Die Judenfrage''.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 51&lt;/ref&gt; According to Tyler Cowen, professor of economics at George Mason University:<br /> {{cquote|German writers picked up on earlier anti-Enlightenment theories of a Judeo-Masonic conspiracy to rule the world. During the French Revolution, the Jews, along with the Masons, were identified as forces for liberalism, secularism, and capitalism. German writers quickly found the Jews to be a more popular target than the Masons, perhaps because they were more visible or more different. The originally Judeo-Masonic theories eventually discarded the other conspirators, such as the Templars and the Illuminati, and focused on the Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Cowen, &quot;[http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/the-socialist-roots-of-modern-anti-semitism/ The Socialist Roots of Modern Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The Freeman'' (Foundation for Economic Education), January 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ==20th century: Stalinist anti-Semitism==<br /> According to Henry L. Feingold, director of the Jewish Resource Center at Baruch College, &quot;socialism contained the seeds to become the anti-Semitism of the intellectuals of the Left.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry L. Feingold, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-ZrhFjuebEEC Lest memory cease: finding meaning in the American Jewish past]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1996) ISBN 0815604009, p. 81&lt;/ref&gt; In the 20th century, those seeds took root and grew into a forest bearing poisonous fruit. For example, in the former Soviet Union, even after the death of the anti-Semite Stalin,&lt;ref&gt;See Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov, &quot;[http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 4, No. 1 (Winter 2002), pp. 66-80. Cf. Louis Rapoport, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990) ISBN 0029258219&lt;/ref&gt; Soviet anti-Semitism persisted:<br /> {{cquote|Since World War II Jews and Judaism have been liberated in every country and territory where capitalism has been restored to vigorous growth&amp;mdash;and this includes Germany. By contrast, wherever anticapitalism or precapitalism has prevailed the status of Jews and Judaism has either undergone deterioration or is highly precarious. Thus at this very moment the country where developing global capitalism is most advanced, the United States, accords Jews and Judaism a freedom that is known nowhere else in the world and that was never known in the past. It is a freedom that is not matched even in Israel ... By contrast, in the Soviet Union, the citadel of anticapitalism, the Jews are cowed by anti-Semitism, threatened by extinction, and barred from access to their God.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Rivkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MUk1SwAACAAJ The shaping of Jewish history: A radical new interpretation],'' (C. Scribner's Sons, 1971) ISBN 0684132362, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> According to Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal, during the Six Day War on Israel in 1967, the East German Communist regime employed former Nazi propagandists to write anti-Israeli propaganda, with the substitution of a few words such as “Israeli” for “Jew” and “progressive forces” for “National Socialism.”&lt;ref&gt;Simon Wiesenthal, ''The Same Language: First for Hitler&amp;mdash;Now for Ulbricht'' (Bonn: Rolf Vogel, Deutschland Berichte, 1968), as cited in Jeffrey Herf, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yahqnBEEbQEC Divided memory: the Nazi past in the two Germanys]'' (Harvard University Press, 1997) ISBN 0674213033, p. 189&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Historian Susan Urban of the Jersusalem Center for Public Affairs writes, &quot;Germany has seen a growth of leftist anti-Semitism along with anti-imperialist, antiglobalization, and anti-Zionist attitudes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Susanne Urban, &quot;Anti-Semitism In Germany Today: Its Roots And Tendencies1,&quot; ''Jewish Political Studies Review'' Vol. 16 (Fall 2004), pp. 3-4&lt;/ref&gt; The Tupamoros-West Berlin, a Communist group headed by Dieter Kunzelmann (who would later become a leader of the Green Party),&lt;ref&gt;Aribert Reimann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MGKnrkMmY5cC Dieter Kunzelmann: Avantgardist, Protestler, Radikaler],'' (Vandenhoeck &amp; Ruprecht, 2009), ISBN 3525370105, pp. 274-286&lt;/ref&gt; attempted to bomb Berlin's Jewish Community Center during a commemoration of the anniversary of ''Kristallnacht'' in 1969.&lt;ref&gt;Walter Laqueur, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMGeXXBSY8wC The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2006) ISBN 0195304292, p. 147&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Berlin's Red Army Faction (RAF), a Communist group, was led by Ulrike Meinhof, who stated, &quot;Auschwitz means that six million Jews were murdered and carted on to the rubbish dumps of Europe for being that which was maintained of them&amp;mdash;Money-Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''Auschwitz heisst, das sechs Millionen Juden ermordet und auf die Müllkippen Europas gekarrt wurden als das, als was man sie ausgab — als Geldjuden.''&quot;) Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=acBtAAAAMAAJ Hitler's apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi legacy]'' (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 1985) ISBN 0297787195, p. 230&lt;/ref&gt; She added that &quot;Anti-Semitism is really hatred of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''Antisemitismus eigentlich Haß auf Kapitalismus ist.'' George Watson, &quot;Race and the Socialists. On the Progressive Principle of Revolutionary Extermination,&quot; ''Encounter'' 47, 1976, pp. 15-18&lt;/ref&gt; Another founder of this Communist group, Horst Mahler, an anti-Semite and Holocaust denier,&lt;ref&gt;“[http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,550430,00.html One-Man Right-Wing Circus Act: German Sentenced to 10 Months for Hitler Greeting],” ''Der Speigel'' Online International&lt;/ref&gt; was sentenced to six years in prison for incitement to racial hatred in 2005.&lt;ref&gt;”[http://www.ejpress.org/article/12601 Neo-Nazi Horst Mahler transferred to prison in Bavaria],” ''European Jewish Press'', December 29, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Despite being labeled “right-wing” in the media, this Communist revolutionary insisted in a 2007 interview that his beliefs had not changed (&quot;[http://shoabloger.wordpress.com/texts/michael-friedman-interviews-horst-mahler-full-text/ The enemy is the same]&quot;)&lt;ref&gt; “Der Feind ist derselbe.” Hoerst Mahler in Michael Friedman, “[https://archive.org/download/Friedman-Michel-Interview-mit-Horst-Mahler-und-Sylvia-Stolz/FriedmanMichel-InterviewMitHorstMahlerUndSylviaStolz200789S.Text.pdf So spricht man mit Nazis],” ''Vanity Fair (German edition), November, 2007, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt; since his days as an informant for the Stasi,&lt;ref&gt;Helen Pidd, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/01/baader-m einhof-gang-founder-stasi Baader-Meinhof terrorist may have worked for the Stasi],&quot; ''The Guardian'', August 1, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the secret police of Communist East Germany. (After the fall of East German Communism in 1990, it was revealed that the Stasi had been supplying the RAF with funds and logistic support, including false identities and network of safehouses in West Berlin.)&lt;ref&gt;John Schmeidel &quot;[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02684529308432225#preview My Enemy's Enemy: Twenty Years of Co-operation between West Germany's Red Army Faction and the GDR Ministry for State Security],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' Vol. 8, No. 4 (October 1993), pp. 59–72.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1976, the Revolutionary Cells (''Revolutionäre Zellen''), another German Communist group, joined with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (a hard-line Marxist&lt;ref&gt;Edmund L. Andrews and John Kifner, [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/africa/27iht-obits.1.9523942.html George Habash, 82, founder of Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine], ''The New York Times'', January 27, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; terrorist group) to hijack an Air France flight to Entebbe, Uganda, where they singled out the Jewish passengers in a plot to murder them.&lt;ref&gt;Stephen E. Atkins, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b8k4rEPvq_8C Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313324859, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt; In 1979, the Sandinistas, a [http://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/timeline-nicaragua.php Marxist-Leninist] group, seized control of the government of Nicaragua, supporting a newspaper that proclaimed that &quot;the world's money, banking and finance are in the hands of descendants of Jews ... [C]ontrolling economic power, they control political power as now happens in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''El Nuevo Diario'', July 17, 1982, as cited in Porfirio R. Solórzano, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tFwSAQAAIAAJ The Nirex Collection: Nicaraguan Revolution Extracts, Twelve Years, 1978-1990, Vol VII: Of War and Peace]'' [Litex, 1993] ISBN 1877970018)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|In 1979 many of the country's approximately 250 Jews fled abroad in the face of persecution and imprisonment by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). The FSLN bombed and partially destroyed the country's only synagogue, then confiscated the property shortly afterward and converted it into a youth training camp.&lt;ref&gt;Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5681.htm Nicaragua], Annual Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2001). Cf. Elliott Abrams, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1079/is_v84/ai_3408623/?tag=content;col1 Persecution and Restrictions of Religion in Nicaragua],&quot; (Transcript), ''Department of State bulletin'', October-December 1984, pp. 49-50&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1985, the Palestinian Liberation Front, then a [http://www.adl.org/terrorism/symbols/palestinian_liberation_front.asp Communist group], which had hijacked an Italian cruise ship, the MS ''Achille Lauro'', murdered 69-year-old passenger Leon Klinghoffer, an American, shooting him to death and rolling his wheelchair off the deck, dumping his body into the ocean. The PLF singled out Klinghoffer for murder [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2003-04-17/news/0304161228_1_achille-lauro-abul-abbas-palestinian-authority because he was Jewish]. <br /> <br /> &quot;Outside of the Western communist parties, which were mostly oriented solidly towards Moscow’s anti-Zionism, a fully articulated anti-Zionism appeared only in the early 1970s with the formation of the so-called New Left, which interpreted the Middle-East conflict in terms of its anti-imperialist and anti-colonialist rhetoric,&quot; reports the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. &quot;As many authors have shown since, the anti-Zionism of the 1970s was largely not just ideological criticism of Israel, but a form of [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/184-AS-Main-report.pdf secondary anti-Semitism]. The rhetoric of these organizations, whose remnants survive into the present day, often indicates the antisemitic nature of their criticism.&quot; A 2016 study by the Research Association on the SED [Socialist Unity Party] State at Berlin's Free University, financed by Germany's Federal Ministry of Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, found that &quot;there has been more left-wing violence in Germany since 2009 than right-wing violence.&quot; Researchers found extensive anti-Semitism among left-wing extremists in Germany, and said the view of anti-Jewish extremist leftism can be traced to the word [http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/German-left-wing-radicals-say-Jews-have-too-much-influence-460773 “Jew” as a synonym for “capitalist” and “exploiter.”]<br /> <br /> ==21st-century anti-Semitism: the union of leftism and Islamism==<br /> In the 21st century these seeds have festered into full flower, with the embrace of Islamist anti-Semitism by the Left:<br /> {{cquote|Although traditional Trotskyite ideology is in no way close to radical Islamic teachings and the shariah, since the radical Islamists also subscribed to anticapitalism, antiglobalism, and anti-Americanism, there seemed to be sufficient common ground for an alliance. Thus, the militants of the far left began to march side by side with the radical Islamists in demonstrations, denouncing American aggression and Israeli crimes. In Britain a new political party named Respect was established, uniting Trotskyites, Stalinists, Muslim Brotherhood militants, and similar groups.&lt;ref&gt;Walter Laquer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMGeXXBSY8wC The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day]'' [Oxford University Press US, 2006] ISBN 0195304292, p. 186&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> For example, the European Union's European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia decided not to publish its comprehensive study of the causes of anti-Semitism in Europe in 2003, a source familiar with the report told London's ''Financial Times'', after the report uncovered &quot;a trend towards Muslim anti-Semitism,&quot; and that &quot;on the left there is also mobilization against Israel that is not always free of prejudice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Reuters, &quot;[http://www.haaretz.com/news/eu-racism-watchdog-shelves-anti-semitism-report-1.106473 EU racism watchdog shelves anti-Semitism report],&quot; ''Haaretz'', November 22, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> That year, one academic, Michael Neumann, Professor of Philosophy at Canada's Trent University, wrote that he wants to<br /> {{cquote|help the Palestinians.... I am not interested in the truth, or justice, or understanding, or anything else, except so far as it serves that purpose. If an effective strategy means that some truths about the Jews don’t come to light, I don’t care. If an effective strategy means encouraging reasonable anti-Semitism, or reasonable hostility to Jews, I also don’t care. If it means encouraging vicious racist anti-Semitism, or the destruction of the State of Israel, I still don’t care.&lt;ref&gt;Yoni Petel, &quot;Antisemitism on Campus: A Student's Perspective,&quot; League for Human Rights, B'nai B'rith of Canada, ''[http://www.bnaibrith.ca/briefs/klein/klein030925.html Submission to the Special Rapporteur on Racism]'', Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, September 25, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> According to the progressive magazine ''Tikkun'', &quot;A.N.S.W.E.R. refuses to acknowledge or support the right of the Jewish people to national self-determination&amp;mdash;though it supports that right for every other group with a history of oppression. When Jews are denied the rights of others, it is a tell-tale sign of anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20041019075845/http://www.tikkun.org/magazine/index.cfm/action/tikkun/issue/tik0305/article/030512a.html Authoritarianism and Anti-Semitism in the Anti-War Movement?],&quot; ''Tikkun'', May-June 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[L]eftists who despise their own capitalist societies inevitably come to sympathize with militants&amp;mdash;communists, Tier-mondistes, Islamists, it doesn't make any difference&amp;mdash;who attack those societies from without. Right now, the only corner of the world putting up any sort of serious ideological fight against Western-style capitalism and liberalism is the Muslim Middle East. So, just as the left uncritically swallowed Stalin's propaganda in the 1930s, expect the left to increasingly swallow Arabist propaganda in our own era. And since one of the key elements of Arabist propaganda is a hatred of Israel and a suspicion of Jews, these building blocks of anti-Semitism will become more and more a part of mainstream leftist discourse.&lt;ref&gt;Johnathan Kay, quoted in Jamie Glazov, Symposium: &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=19272 Anti-Semitism - the New Call of the Left],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, March 14, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Thus in 2009, the &quot;progressive&quot; webzine Counterpunch.org, edited by Alexander Cockburn, son of Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn, could publish a revival of the &quot;Blood Libel,&quot; alleging that Israeli Jews were killing Palestinian Muslims to harvest their organs.&lt;ref&gt;Alison Weir, &quot;[http://www.counterpunch.org/weir08282009.html Israeli Organ Harvesting],&quot; Counterpunch.org, August 28-30, 2009) Cf. David Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=azE5qoXTgoAC Unholy alliance: radical Islam and the American left]'' (Regnery Publishing, 2004) ISBN 089526076X, p. 148&lt;/ref&gt; By 2011, the Anti-Defamation League had documented the growing list of [https://web.archive.org/web/20140413064836/http://archive.adl.org:80/main_extremism/occupy_wall_street.html#.WY5m_lGQzIU anti-semitic incidents] at rallies of the left-wing &quot;Occupy&quot; movement. A 2012 survey of 5,847 Jews in the European Union found that more than three out of four said anti-Semitism had increased over the preceding five years, and more respondents blamed perpetrators of the most serious incidents on the political left than the right, according to the EU's Fundamental Rights Agency.&lt;ref&gt;European Union Fundamental Rights Agency, [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2013-discrimination-hate-crime-against-jews-eu-member-states_en.pdf Discrimination and hate crime against Jews in EU Member States: experiences and perceptions of anti-Semitism] (Vienna: EU-FRA, 2013) ISBN 978-92-9239-262-8, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers at Tel Aviv University reported that anti-Semitic violence worldwide surged 40 percent in 2014.&lt;ref&gt;Kim Hjelmgaard, &quot;[http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/04/15/jewish-anti-semitic-attacks-western-europe/25807273/ Anti-Semitic violence surged 40% worldwide last year],&quot; ''USA Today'', April 16, 2015&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;[T]he left's anti-Semitism&amp;mdash;which, of course, it never acknowledges and fervently denies&amp;mdash;rather than the right's conventional version of this hatred comprises the key ingredient of anti-Semitism's current European existence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Andrei S. Markovits, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=1754&amp;TTL=%22Twin_Brothers%22:_European_Anti-Semitism_and_Anti-Americanism 'Twin Brothers': European Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 6 [January 2006] Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt; Antisemitism may be found within much contemporary &quot;antihegemonic, radical, liberal and socialist&quot; discourse, admits David Hirsh of the University of London, who concedes that &quot;antisemitism is a live and virulent threat.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;David Hirsh, Book Review: &quot;[http://engageonline.wordpress.com/2009/05/07/book/ Perry and Schweitzer, ''Antisemitic myths: a historical and contemporary anthology''],&quot; ''[http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/01419870.asp Ethnic and Racial Studies]'', Vol. 32, No. 4 (May 2009), pp. 749-750&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[T]he locus of anti-Semitism has moved from the right side of the political spectrum to the left ... These days, the hatemongers targeting Jews’ right to live peacefully spout the mantras of 'social justice' and 'peace studies,' not racial purity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Kay, &quot;[http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/03/02/jonathan-kay-on-the-lesson-from-israel-apartheid-week-anti-semitism-is-now-a-creature-of-the-left.aspx The lesson from Israel Apartheid Week: Anti-Semitism is now a creature of the left],&quot; ''National Post'', March 2, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|The resurgence of anti-Semitism in Europe &quot;hails much more from the left than the right. The latter&amp;mdash;mainly because of the continued illegitimacy and unacceptability of Nazism and fascism in European public opinion&amp;mdash;has had a much more circumspect influence on how Jews and Israel are depicted than the left has had. Because classical anti-Semitism&amp;mdash;certainly in its praxis&amp;mdash;was mostly associated with the European right, the left enjoyed a certain bonus when it came to discussing all matters relating to Jews and Israel. The left could take liberties with being anti-Israeli and anti-Semitic that the right could never have. This legitimacy bonus enabled the left to employ anti-Israeli discourse that&amp;mdash;in the meantime&amp;mdash;has become completely common and acceptable parlance in Europe. Because of this general acceptability and overall legitimacy, left-wing anti-Semitism is much more relevant and disturbing than right-wing anti-Semitism.&lt;ref&gt;Andrei S. Markovits, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-markovits-05.htm European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 2 [August 2005], Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> As Urban concludes: &quot;The extreme leftist trend in Germany contains elements that envision [http://jcpa.org/article/being-leftist-and-anti-semitic-in-germany/ a world cleansed of the Jewish state].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalism, Anti-Americanism and anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;[I]n North America,&quot; wrote Marx, the &quot;practical domination of Judaism over the Christian world&quot; had achieved what he called &quot;its unambiguous and normal expression.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, &quot;On The Jewish Question,&quot; ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'', February 1844, reprinted in Karl Marx, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKdLO2jvbqsC Early writings]'' (Penguin, 1992) ISBN 0140445749, p. 232&lt;/ref&gt; According to Sombart, “what we call Americanism is nothing else, if we may say so, than the Jewish spirit distilled.”&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The anti-American left... is at least as anti-Jewish as the clerical conservative right, especially among those who have embraced a pronounced 'antifascist' and 'antiracist' credo.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42D75369-D582-4380-8395-D25925B85EAF%7D/wistrich.pdf European Anti-Semitism Reinvents Itself],'' [The American Jewish Committee, 2002], p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Anti-Americanism in the Islamic world and Anti-Americanism in Europe are in fact linked, and both bear an uncanny resemblance to anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Natan Sharansky, &quot;On Hating Jews: The inextricable link between anti-Semitism and anti-Americanism,&quot; ''The Wall Street Journal'', November 17, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;America and Jews are seen by many Europeans as paragons of a modernity they dislike and distrust: money-driven, profit-hungry, urban, universalistic, individualistic, mobile, rootless, inauthentic, and thus hostile to established traditions and values.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=658&amp;TTL=European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Semitism:_Similarities_and_Differences European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Semitism: Similarities and Differences],&quot; An Interview with Andrei S. Markovits, ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'' [Institute for Global Jewish Affairs], No. 16 [January 1, 2004]&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jews were blamed for the evils of capitalism in earlier centuries. Americans are blamed for globalization, that is, technological and economic change to the max, in our days.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Josef Joffe, quoted in Mark O'Keefe, &quot;[http://pewforum.org/Politics-and-Elections/Anti-Semitism-and-Anti-Americanism.aspx Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; Pew Forum on Religion &amp; Public Life, May 5, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;America today has become the world's market-dominant minority,&quot; while &quot;Jews are a market-dominant mionority in the Middle East.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Amy Chua, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KSp1okOggpkC World on fire: how exporting free market democracy breeds ethnic hatred and global instability]'' [Random House, Inc., 2004] ISBN 0385721862, pp. 218, 229&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Thus post-unification Germany, observed a journalist in 2005, is marked by &quot;a poisonous cocktail of the three big As: anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism and anti-capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Munchau, &quot;[http://www.spectator.co.uk/essays/13684/part_2/antiamericanism-antisemitism-anticapitalism.thtml Anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism, anti-capitalism],&quot; ''The Spectator'', May 21, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; This association of Jews with America was illustrated in 2006, when German Neo-Nazis burned a copy of ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y50yo2rnJHcC Anne Frank: Diary of a Young Girl]'' together [http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/germany/9582 with an American flag].<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> {{reflist|3}}</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_1&diff=1408166 User:FOIA/Archive 1 2018-03-10T07:35:55Z <p>FOIA: </p> <hr /> <div>=Left-wing anti-Semitism=<br /> Although many leftists [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2009-08-11/news/0908100426_1_town-hall-meetings-swastikas-bob-macguffie try] to [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNQTwSZCPo deny] it, “modern, political anti-Semitism is a creature of the left as well as the right,” admits Warwick University Sociology Professor Robert Fine, a [http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/emeritus/robertfine/home/mycv/ member] of the [http://www.cseweb.org.uk/ Conference of Socialist Economists].&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006).&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[A]nti-Semitism that we might call populist or democratic.... is linked equally to the left and right,&quot; agrees George L. Mosse, professor of history at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, &quot;to the new nationalism, but also to certain tendencies in socialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; Omer Bartov of Brown University comments:<br /> {{cquote|[O]ne of the most frightening aspects of Hitler's book is not that he said what he said at the time, but that much of what he said can be found today in innumerable places ... As long as it does not have Hitler's name attached to it, this deranged discourse will be ignored or allowed to pass. The voices that express these opinions do not belong to a single political or ideological current ... They belong to the right and the left, to the religious and the secular, to the West and the East, to the rabble and the leaders, to terrorists and intellectuals, students and peasants, pacifists and militants, expansionists and anti-globalization activists.&lt;ref&gt;Omer Bartov, &quot;[http://www.tnr.com/article/he-meant-what-he-said He Meant What He Said],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 2, 2004&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Twenty-five years ago in the heart of the Cold War debate, anti-Americanism, anti-Israeli sentiment, and anti-Semitism &quot;were fringe phenomena while now they are more fashionable and mainstream ... [T]hese sentiments are no longer the monopoly of any particular part of the political spectrum. They are there on the European Left, Right, and in the center,&quot; agrees Jeffrey Gedman, president of London's Legatum Institute.&lt;ref&gt;Jeffrey Gedmin, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=633&amp;TTL=Experiencing_European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Israelism Experiencing European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Israelism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 27 (December 2004), Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Origins of left-wing anti-Semitism==<br /> There were “strong anti-Semitic currents on the European left in Marx’s time,&quot; writes Fine; &quot;[T]here is a strong tradition of [https://www.ushmm.org/media/emu/get?irn=544974&amp;mm_irn=32140&amp;file=primary anti-Semitism on the Left].”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; One &quot;need not venture far into the pre-1930 literature of anti-economics before encountering conspicuous anti-Semitic effusions,&quot; observes William Coleman of the Australian National University. &quot;One may say that, before about 1930, anti-economics and anti-Semitism existed in striking conjunction.&quot; He adds that &quot;the conjunction was not accidental... [A]nti-economics and modern anti-Semitism shared some leading ideological contentions.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Coleman, &quot;[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/history_of_political_economy/v035/35.4coleman.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'', Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), pp. 759-777&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> From the outset, according to French historian Marc Crapez, European racism and socialism were closely affiliated.&lt;ref&gt;Marc Crapez, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=l-dtAAAAMAAJ L'antisémitisme de gauche au XIXe siècle]'' (Paris: Berg international, 2002) ISBN 2-911289-43-9&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, &quot;anti-capitalism and anti-Semitism were deeply intertwined,&quot; writes Mosse. &quot;[I]n fact, they had been connected since the middle-ages.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For centuries, Jewish economic success led anti-Semites to condemn capitalism as a form of Jewish domination and exploitation,&quot; writes Columbia University history professor Jerry Z. Muller, &quot;or to attribute Jewish success to unsavory qualities of the Jews themselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jerry Z. Muller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nMZ_w0mFGIgC Capitalism and the Jews]'' (Princeton University Press, 2010) ISBN 0691144788, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The Marxist, postmodern and post-Zionist pseudo-liberal views on democracy lead back to the totalitarian democracy of the French Enlightenment, in which anti-Semitism formed an essential ingredient,” writes Shlomo Sharan of Tel Aviv University.&lt;ref&gt;Shlomo Sharan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5U-Dk-5p0mIC Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk]'' (Sussex Academic Press, 2003) ISBN 1903900522 , p. 125&lt;/ref&gt; At that time, &quot;the Jews symbolised the distressing symptoms of modernity ushered in by capitalism and political liberalism,&quot; writes Christian Wiese, professor of Jewish history at the University of Sussex.&lt;ref&gt;Christian Wiese, &quot;Modern Antisemitism and Jewish Responses in Germany and France,&quot; in Michael Brenner, Vicki Caron and Uri R. Kaufmann, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b2DN7yDuCyoC Jewish emancipation reconsidered: the French and German models]'' (Mohr Siebeck, 2003) ISBN 316148018X, p. 136&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> {{cquote|Dissatisfaction with the practical consequences of Liberalism was even stronger in economic than in political matters; anti-capitalism was, after all, one of the oldest and most natural forms of anti-Semitism. Liberal society was characterized by a high degree of social mobility with a premium on individual worth and ability. Perhaps this pill was the hardest to swallow. All those who had an assured place in an ordered hierarchy, even if it was a comparatively low one, looked with distaste on an order which allowed others to rise to positions of eminence and influence ... anti-Semitism is anti-capitalist since capitalism is one of the causes of social mobility.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The Rise of Political Anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria] (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> “[T]he sudden prominence of a few Jews who benefited from economic liberalisation provoked a backlash from the Left.”&lt;ref&gt;David Cesarani, ''[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/ressources/left_jews/Left_Jews_final.pdf The Jews and the Left] (Labour Friends of Israel 2004) ISBN 0 9500536-5-1, p. 3 (PDF p.9)&lt;/ref&gt; In France, writes Göttingen historian Karlheinz Weissmann, many on the left saw the Jews &quot;as the embodiment of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Some of the most prominent thinkers of the Enlightenment were virulent anti-Semites: Voltaire denounced the Jews as &quot;the greatest scoundrels who have ever sullied the face of the globe&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Hertzberg and Aron Hirt-Manheimer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hiWBs5HM_E0C Jews: the essence and character of a people]'' (HarperCollins, 1998) ISBN 0060638354, p. 164&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews, he wrote, &quot;deserve to be punished,&quot; for it is their &quot;destiny.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Avner Falk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_0WOiZj0oC Anti-semitism: a history and psychoanalysis of contemporary hatred]'' (ABC-CLIO, 2008) ISBN 0313353840, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jewish nation dares to display an irreconcilable hatred toward all nations, and revolts against all masters,&quot; wrote Voltaire, &quot;always superstitious, always greedy for the well-being enjoyed by others, always barbarous&amp;mdash;cringing in misfortune and insolent in prosperity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Voltaire, ''Essai sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations'', Introduction, [http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/11/07INTFIN.html#i42 XLII: Des Juifs depuis Saül], 1753&lt;/ref&gt; Immanuel Kant expressed similar views: &quot;'The Jews still cannot claim any true genius, any truly great man. All their talents and skills revolve around stratagems and low cunning ... They are a nation of swindlers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Socialist Anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;It was in those days that the complaint arose that Jews were 'unproductive middle men,' 'economic parasites,'&quot; wrote Edward H. Flannery, a professor at the Institute of Judeo-Christian Studies at Seton Hall University.&lt;ref&gt;Eric Pace, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/22/us/the-rev-edward-flannery-86-priest-who-fought-anti-semitism.html The Rev. Edward Flannery, 86, Priest Who Fought Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The New York Times'', October 22, 1998&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;It was shaped for the most part by socialist writers and became a favorite theme with later racist antisemites of a socialist stripe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward H. Flannery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J40gNC7cxfYC The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism]'' (Paulist Press, 2004) ISBN 0809143240, p. 168&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Certain anti-economists affiliated with the socialist movement held Jews<br /> to be potentates of an oppressive contemporary social order.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt; Among the French Left, observes Weissmann, were &quot;numerous individuals and groups who considered class struggle and race struggle as one and the same thing&amp;mdash;especially with reference to the Jews....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “Socialist anti-Semitism is indeed almost as old as modern Socialism,” writes historian Edmund Silberner of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” Scripta Hierosolymitana, vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; Early socialism was inseparable from anti-Semitism, portraying Jews as exploiters, leeches and parasites.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” ''Scripta Hierosolymitana'', vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[V]irtually every major figure in the early history of socialism — including Friedrich Engels, Charles Fourier, Ferdinand Lassalle, Marx, and Joseph Proudhon — showed a marked antipathy to Jews,&quot; observes Daniel Pipes.&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Pipes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PPdv8sAtZ4UC Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1999) ISBN 0684871114, p. 88&lt;/ref&gt; In his comprehensive survey of French socialist literature from 1820 to 1920, historian Zosa Szajkowski found not a single word on behalf of Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Zosa Szajkowski, ''[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4464737 The Jewish Saint-Simonians and Socialist Antisemites in France]'', ''Jewish Social Studies'', Vol. 9, No. 1 (January, 1947), pp. 33-60 &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Leroux===<br /> Pierre Leroux (1797-1871), who coined the word &quot;socialism&quot;, “identified the Jews with the despised capitalism, and regarded them as the incarnation of mammon, who lived by exploiting others.”&lt;ref&gt;Dennis Prager and Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC Why the Jews?: the reason for antisemitism]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2003) ISBN 0743246209, p. 127&lt;/ref&gt; He said, &quot;When we speak of the Jews, we mean the Jewish spirit – the spirit of profit, of lucre, of gain, the spirit of commerce, of speculation, in a word, the banker spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lewis S. Feuer and Irving Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8TwfWRr21zEC Ideology and the Ideologists]'' (Transaction Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1412814421, p. 141&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The true successor of Napoleon,&quot; wrote Leroux, &quot;is the Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fichte===<br /> &quot;[T]hrough almost all countries of Europe there is spreading a powerful, hostile state, which is perpetually at war with all other States, and which in some of them oppresses the citizens with the utmost severity: it is Jewry.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Leshem, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NGSAAAAAIAAJ Balaam's curse: how Israel lost its way, and how it can find it again]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1989) ISBN 067167918X, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt; wrote the early socialist Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814). &quot;I see no other means of protecting ourselves against them, than by conquering their Promised Land and sending them all there.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; Elsewhere, he suggested a more radical solution, in which Gentiles &quot;chop off all their [Jews'] heads and replace them with new ones, in which there would not be a single Jewish idea.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jon Stratton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Blh7RLQVIUcC Jewish identity in Western pop culture: the Holocaust and trauma through modernity]'' (Macmillan, 2008), ISBN 0230604749, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt; In Fichte's text &quot;we see the beginnings of the 'anticapitalist' impulse in modern antisemitism, which became central to revolutionist agendas for the redemption of humanity through the regeneration of Jewry,&quot; observes [http://www.gf.org/fellows/8291-anthony-j-la-vopa Guggenheim Fellow] Anthony J. LaVopa.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony J. LaVopa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vQx0_69P4z4C Fichte: the self and the calling of philosophy, 1762-1799]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2001), ISBN 052179145, p. 135&lt;/ref&gt; Duquesne University professor Tom Rockmore comments that &quot;available evidence points strongly to an early and perhaps enduring Marxian interest in Fichte's position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Tom Rockmore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qrS4AAAAIAAJ Fichte, Marx, and the German philosophical tradition]'' (Southern Illinois University Press, 1980), ISBN 0809309556, p. 126&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fourier===<br /> Early socialist Charles Fourier (1768-1830) attacked (classical) &quot;liberal retrogression&quot; (i.e, ''laissez faire'' capitalism) for what he called &quot;monstrous actions, such as the admission of the Jews to the rights of citizens&quot; which, he wrote, introduce into society &quot;parasites, unproductives.&quot; He added, &quot;The Jewish nation is not civilised ... it devotes itself exclusively to traffic, to usury, and to mercantile depravity ... Every government having regard to good morals ought to repress the Jews,&quot; whom Fourier described as &quot;all parasites, merchants, usurers, etc.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Fourier (Tr. Julian H. Franklin), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w2CgXn5jAm8C Selections from the Works of Fourier]'' (Allen &amp; Unwin, 1901), p. 96. Cf. Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' [W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999] ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; Fourier's disciple, Alphonse Toussenel, called Jews &quot;the kings of the epoch,&quot; writing that &quot;Europe is entailed to the domination of Israel. This universal domination, of which so many conquerors have dreamed, the Jews have in their hands.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Lichtheim, &quot;Socialism and the Jews,&quot; [http://search.opinionarchives.com/Dissent_Web/DigitalArchive.aspx?panes=1&amp;aid=01504314_1 ''Dissent'', Vol. 15, No. 4 (July 1968)], p. 320&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[I]ndustrial feudalism&quot;&amp;mdash;as Toussenel called capitalism&amp;mdash;&quot;is personified in the cosmopolitan Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jacob Katz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FeH_uNpWbZAC From prejudice to destruction: anti-Semitism, 1700-1933]'' (Harvard University Press, 1980) ISBN 0674325079, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dühring===<br /> Marx's mentor Bruno Bauer published antisemitic articles by Marx's intellectual rival in the German Social Democratic Party, Eugen Dühring, &quot;descibing Jews as idle usurers exploiting productive labor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard S. Levy, ''[http://books.google.com.au/books/about/Antisemitism.html?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia Of Prejudice And Persecution]'', Volume 1 (ABC-CLIO, 2005) ISBN 1851094393, pp. 61-62&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Proudhon===<br /> Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), one of the [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/grahamproudhon.html leading socialist] theorists of his day (and a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1846/letters/46_05_05.htm correspondent of Marx]), called Jews “the race which poisons everything” and “the enemy of the human race”;&lt;ref&gt;Norman Podhoretz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QUfFP_Q_nqIC Why are Jews Liberals?]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 0385529198, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jew is by temperament an anti-producer, neither a farmer nor an industrialist nor even a true merchant,&quot; wrote Prodhon. &quot;He is an intermediary, always fraudulent and parasitic, who operates, in trade as in philosophy, by means of falsification, counterfeiting, and horse-trading.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; He wrote, &quot;This race must be sent back to Asia, or exterminated.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Halévy and Pierre Haubtmann, eds., ''Carnets de P.J. Proudhon'' (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1961), Vol. II, p. 337; Vol. VI, p. 178&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;By fire or fusion, or by expulsion the Jew must disappear.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard L. Rubenstein and John K. Roth, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy] (Westminster John Knox Press, 2003) ISBN 0664223532, p. 77&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Bakhunin===<br /> Mikhail Bakunin, Marx's intellectual rival in the First International, called Jews “an exploiting sect, a bloodsucking people, a unique devouring parasite,”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, “[http://leobaeck.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/37/1/111 Socialism and Judeophobia: Antisemitism in Europe before 1914],” ''Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook'', Vol. 37, No. 1 (January 1992), pp. 111-145&lt;/ref&gt; Jews, he wrote, are disqualified from socialist leadership by &quot;that mercantile passion which constitutes one of the principle traits of their national character.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===L'Affaire Dryfus/&quot;J'Accuse&quot;===<br /> When the bourgeois&lt;ref&gt;&quot;M. Doumic on Victor Hugo as a Bourgeois,&quot; Boston ''Transcript'' (reprinted in Theodore Stanton, &quot;M. René Doumic,&quot; New York ''Evening Post'', March 24, 1898, as cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=Y94aAAAAYAAJ ''Public Opinion'', Vol. XXIV, No. 12] (January-June, 1898), p. 374&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Hugo, a cultural Catholic,&lt;ref&gt;John Andrew Frey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=olFboDm4bcgC A Victor Hugo encyclopedia]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999) ISBN 0313298963, p. 222&lt;/ref&gt; defended Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer scapegoated by the French army, the French socialist press published a manifesto denouncing Hugo's crusade on the grounds that Jewish capitalists would use the rehabilitation of a single Jew to wash out &quot;all the sins of Israel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bIHtJzYCkqEC Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know About the Jewish Religion, Its People, and Its History]'' (HarperCollins, 2008) ISBN 0061374989, p. 275&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Hyndman===<br /> Henry Hyndman, founder of Britain's atheistic, Marxist Social Democratic Federation (Britain's first socialist party) and National Socialist Party (now part of the Labour Party), &quot;repeatedly invoked the stereotype of the 'rich capitalist Jew' in his anti-semitic remarks.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karin Hofmeester, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hYZrdkniDYkC Jewish Workers and the Labour Movement: A Comparative Study of Amsterdam, London and Paris, 1870-1914]'' (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004) ISBN 0754609073, p. 304&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jew moneylenders,&quot; complained Hyndman's ''Justice, Organ of the Social Democracy'' (the first Marxist periodical in England),&lt;ref&gt;Laurel Brake and Marysa Demoor, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qVrUTUelE6YC Dictionary of nineteenth-century journalism in Great Britain and Ireland]'' [Academia Press, 2009] ISBN 9038213409, p. 328&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;now control nearly every Foreign Office in Europe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Guido Kisch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5h8WAAAAIAAJ Historia judaica: a journal of studies in Jewish history, especially in legal and economic history of the Jews'', Volumes 13-14] (Historia Judaica, 1951), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt; He blamed the Boer war on &quot;Jew financial cliques&quot; and the &quot;Jew-jingo press.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Crick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eea_kByVYsoC The History of the Social-Democratic Federation] (Edinburgh University Press, 1994) ISBN 1853310913, p. 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Sombart===<br /> Werner Sombart, a German economist, sociologist and self-proclaimed &quot;convinced Marxist&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hermynia Zur Mühlen (Tr. Lionel Gossman), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_gd1Aw0ZlEwC The End and the Beginning: The Book of My Life, Volume 1]'' (Open Book Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1906924279, p. 241&lt;/ref&gt; -- praised by Friedrich Engels as the only German professor who understood ''Das Kapital''&lt;ref&gt;Frederick Engels, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/supp.htm Introduction], ''Capital'' Volume III (Supplement), 1894. Cf. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/letters/95_03_11.htm Engels To W. Sombart in Breslaun, London, March 11, 1895], in ''Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutscher Arbeiterbewegung'' No. 3, 1961, reprinted in Marx and Engels, ''Selected Works'', Volume 3, pp. 504-506. Marxists Internet Archive (marxists.org)&lt;/ref&gt; -- wrote &quot;modern capitalism is nothing more or less than an expression of the Jewish spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; According to the ''Universal Jewish Encyclopaedia'', Sombart “[http://econlog.econlib.org/archives/2009/09/capitalism_and.html accused the Jews of having created capitalism]” -- as should perhaps be expected of a &quot;convinced Marxist&quot; (Marx viewed Jews as &quot;responsible for capitalism,&quot; according Princeton's Bernard Lewis.)&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dreiser===<br /> Theodore Dreiser, an [[atheist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html Religion: Atheist's Oath],&quot; ''Time'', August 20, 1928&lt;/ref&gt; as well as a [[Communist]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, &quot;Request to Become a Communist,&quot; ''[[The Daily Worker]]'', July 30, 1945, reprinted in Albert Fried, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLJbT3NMbN4C Communism in America: A History in Documents]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231102356, pp. 348-350&lt;/ref&gt; was also a virulent [[anti-Semite]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;the Jew ... has been in America all of two hundred years, and he has not faded into a pure American by any means, and he will not. As I said before, he maintains his religious dogmas and his racial sympathies, race characteristics, and race cohesion as against all the types or nationalities surrounding him wheresoever.&quot; Dreiser quoted in Lee Bernstein, &quot;The Avengers of Christie: Street Racism and Jewish Working-Class Rebellion in Mike Gold’s 'Jews Without Money'',&quot; in Janet Galligani Casey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wLliXDo2iwC The Novel and the American Left: Critical Essays on Depression-Era Fiction]'' (University of Iowa Press, 2004) 1587294753, p. 118&lt;/ref&gt; and defender of [[Hitler]].&lt;ref&gt; Dreiser excused the Holocaust, saying that British rule in India &quot;makes Germany's cruelties seem like a pipe dream,&quot; and &quot;If Germany can beat England at the game of mass human torture ... it will have to go some.&quot; The editor explains in a footnote that Dreiser was parroting the Communist Party line during the Nazi-Soviet pact &quot;by portraying Britain as a greater threat to world democracy and peace than Germany.&quot; (Frederic E. Rusch and Donald Pizer, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tQL7UitACW4C Theodore Dreiser: Interviews]'' (University of Illinois Press, 2004) ISBN 0252029437, p. 305) Cf. H. Elias, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKtEAAAAYAAJ Letters of Theodore Dreiser: A Selection, vol. 2]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959), pp. 405, 650–52; Richard Tuerk, “The American Spectator Symposium Controversy: Was Dreiser Anti-Semitic?” ''Prospects 16'' (1991), pp. 367–89; Louis Harap, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC Creative Awakening: The Jewish Presence in Twentieth-Century American Literature, 1900-1940s],'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987) ISBN 0313253862, pp. 128-132.&lt;/ref&gt; New York is a &quot;kike's dream of a ghetto,&quot; he wrote; Jews are not &quot;pure Americans&quot; and &quot;lack integrity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Organizations==<br /> Perhaps more important than the widespread anti-Semitism among socialist leaders was the anti-semitism of socialist groups such as the Socialist International and the Fabian Society.<br /> <br /> ===Second International===<br /> After reference to the exploitation of workers by Jewish capitalists and denunciation of &quot;philo-Semitic agitation,&quot; the Second International (the original Socialist International) adopted a resolution condemning not just antisemitic, but &quot;philo-Semite outbursts as one of the means by which the capitalist class and the reactionary circles seek to divert the Socialist movement from its purpose and divide the workers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0018_0_18779.html Socialism], ''[http://www.gale.cengage.com/servlet/ItemDetailServlet?region=9&amp;imprint=000&amp;titleCode=M355&amp;cf=p&amp;type=4&amp;id=194102 Encyclopaedia Judaica]'' (The Gale Group, 2008), via [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/indexold.html The Jewish Virtual Library]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fabian Society===<br /> Britain's Fabian Society (which &quot;set up the banner of socialism militant&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;G. Bernard Shaw, &quot;[http://walterschafer.com/fabiansocietyhistory.htm Fabian Tract No. 41: The Fabian Society, Its Early History],&quot; (Fabian Society Reprint, 1899)&lt;/ref&gt; hosted a number of anti-Semites, including Beatrice Webb, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, J.A. Hobson, and Oswald Mosley.<br /> <br /> Beatrice Webb, who played a crucial role in the founding of the Fabian Society, wrote that “the strongest impelling motive of the Jewish race” was “the love of ''profit'' as distinct from other forms of money-earning.” (Italics in original.)&lt;ref&gt;Beatrice Webb, “East London Labour,” ''[http://books.google.com/bookes?id=udcaAAAAYAAJ The Nineteenth Century]'', Vol. XXIV (July-December 1888), p. 176.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;A careful study of anti-Semitism, prejudice and accusations might be of great value to many Jews,&quot; wrote H.G. Wells, &quot;who do not adequately realize the irritation they inflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; George Bernard Shaw once exhorted Jews to &quot;stop being Jews and start being human beings.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Shaw Society of America, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HERbAAAAMAAJ The Shaw review, Volumes 3-4] (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1960), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> J.A. Hobson blamed London poverty on &quot;the foreign Jew,&quot; whom he described as &quot;a terrible competitor. He is ... almost void of social morality. No compunction or consideration for his fellow-worker will keep him from underselling and overreaching them; he acquires a thorough mastery of all the dishonourable tricks of trade which are difficult to restrain by law; the superior calculating intellect, which is a national heritage, is used unsparingly to enable him to take advantage of every weakness, folly, and vice of the society in which he lives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John A. Hobson, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10710/10710-h/10710-h.htm Problems of Poverty: An Inquiry into the Industrial Condition of The Poor]'' (1891), Project Gutenberg&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;He craves the position of a sweating-master, the lowest step in a ladder that may lead to a life of magnificence, supported out of usury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England]'' (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, p. 405&lt;/ref&gt; In his 1898 book ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Hobson/hbsnImp.html Imperialism: A Study]'' -- which would profoundly influence Lenin's ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/ Imperialism, the Higherst Stage of Capitalism]'' (1917) -- Hobson blamed the Boer War on &quot;Jew power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, <br /> [http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England] (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, pp. 201-202&lt;/ref&gt; That war, he wrote, was fought for the benefit of &quot;a small group of international financiers, chiefly German in origin and Jewish in race.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bryan Cheyette, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HTdwPbE6KoIC Constructions of &quot;the Jew&quot; in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations, 1875-1945]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1995) ISBN 0521558778, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> One Fabian socialist from the 1920s and '30s, Oswald Mosley,&lt;ref&gt;Rose L. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9_vvAAAAMAAJ Fabian Freeway: High Road to Socialism in the U.S.A., 1884-1966]'' (Fidelis, 1968), p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; went on to found and lead the British Union of Fascists (which &quot;at first was modeled after Mussolini’s example but later became patterned after Hitler&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Zygmund Dobbs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N-g1AQAAIAAJ Keynes at Harvard: economic deception as a political credo],'' (New York: Veritas Foundation, 1960), pp. 88-90&lt;/ref&gt; in which role he was lauded by Shaw.&lt;ref&gt;Gareth Griffith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aGAEWDI3SR4C Socialism and Superior Brains: The Political Thought of Bernard Shaw]'' (CRC Press, 2002) ISBN 0203210832, p. 263&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalist anti-semitism in Germany==<br /> During the 19th century, the center of left-wing anti-Semitism gradually shifted from Paris to Vienna, where the &quot;radical-democratic and nationalist left wing&quot; was headed by German Liberal Party leader Georg von Schönerer,&lt;ref&gt;Viktor Karády, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline]'' (Central European University Press, 2004) ISBN 9639241520, p. 360&lt;/ref&gt; one of a group of &quot;left-wing German liberals&quot; who demanded &quot;the exclusion of Jews from the new movement and as far as possible from public life&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Robert A. Kann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cG570mijBF4C A history of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918]'' (University of California Press, 1980) ISBN 0520042069, p. 433&lt;/ref&gt; Hitler would later ascribe to Schönerer &quot;the wisdom of a prophet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Adolf Hitler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EBUBUEeUwxUC Mein Kampf: zwei Bände in einem Band'', Vol. 1], 40th ed., (Bottom of the Hill, 1938) ISBN 1935785079, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; Wilhelm Marr, who [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anti-Semitism coined the term] &quot;antisemitism,&quot; wrote that &quot;anti-Semitism is a Socialist movement, only in nobler and purer forms than Social Democracy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In late 19th century Germany, a popular critical view held that capitalism was a product of Jewish culture.&lt;ref&gt;Cristobal Young, &quot;[http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/3/0/8/9/5/pages308953/p308953-1.php Christianity, Judaism, and the Spirit of Capitalism: The Weber-Sombart Debates],&quot; Department of Sociology, Princeton University, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; Adolf Stöcker, leader of the left-wing Christian Social Party, wrote, &quot;I see in unrestrained capitalism the evil of our epoch and am naturally also an opponent of modern Judaism on account of my socio-political views.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 95.&lt;/ref&gt; Meanwhile, anti-capitalist leader Adam Müller said, “The Jewish messiah, the Antichrist, has come to earth in the guise of the steam engine, and this in order to speed up the end of the world.”&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The doctrine of egalitarian free economics and of corresponding human rights in economics, as they were formulated in a humanely well-meaning way by the Scotsmen Hume and Smith, were used by the Jews in order to derive from them their monopoly,&quot; according to the anti-semitic ''Die Judenfrage''.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 51&lt;/ref&gt; According to Tyler Cowen, professor of economics at George Mason University:<br /> {{cquote|German writers picked up on earlier anti-Enlightenment theories of a Judeo-Masonic conspiracy to rule the world. During the French Revolution, the Jews, along with the Masons, were identified as forces for liberalism, secularism, and capitalism. German writers quickly found the Jews to be a more popular target than the Masons, perhaps because they were more visible or more different. The originally Judeo-Masonic theories eventually discarded the other conspirators, such as the Templars and the Illuminati, and focused on the Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Tyler Cowen, &quot;[http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/the-socialist-roots-of-modern-anti-semitism/ The Socialist Roots of Modern Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The Freeman'' (Foundation for Economic Education), January 1997&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> ==20th century: Stalinist anti-Semitism==<br /> According to Henry L. Feingold, director of the Jewish Resource Center at Baruch College, &quot;socialism contained the seeds to become the anti-Semitism of the intellectuals of the Left.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry L. Feingold, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=-ZrhFjuebEEC Lest memory cease: finding meaning in the American Jewish past]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1996) ISBN 0815604009, p. 81&lt;/ref&gt; In the 20th century, those seeds took root and grew into a forest bearing poisonous fruit. For example, in the former Soviet Union, even after the death of the anti-Semite Stalin,&lt;ref&gt;See Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov, &quot;[http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 4, No. 1 (Winter 2002), pp. 66-80. Cf. Louis Rapoport, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990) ISBN 0029258219&lt;/ref&gt; Soviet anti-Semitism persisted:<br /> {{cquote|Since World War II Jews and Judaism have been liberated in every country and territory where capitalism has been restored to vigorous growth&amp;mdash;and this includes Germany. By contrast, wherever anticapitalism or precapitalism has prevailed the status of Jews and Judaism has either undergone deterioration or is highly precarious. Thus at this very moment the country where developing global capitalism is most advanced, the United States, accords Jews and Judaism a freedom that is known nowhere else in the world and that was never known in the past. It is a freedom that is not matched even in Israel ... By contrast, in the Soviet Union, the citadel of anticapitalism, the Jews are cowed by anti-Semitism, threatened by extinction, and barred from access to their God.&lt;ref&gt;Ellis Rivkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MUk1SwAACAAJ The shaping of Jewish history: A radical new interpretation],'' (C. Scribner's Sons, 1971) ISBN 0684132362, p. 240&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> According to Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal, during the Six Day War on Israel in 1967, the East German Communist regime employed former Nazi propagandists to write anti-Israeli propaganda, with the substitution of a few words such as “Israeli” for “Jew” and “progressive forces” for “National Socialism.”&lt;ref&gt;Simon Wiesenthal, ''The Same Language: First for Hitler&amp;mdash;Now for Ulbricht'' (Bonn: Rolf Vogel, Deutschland Berichte, 1968), as cited in Jeffrey Herf, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yahqnBEEbQEC Divided memory: the Nazi past in the two Germanys]'' (Harvard University Press, 1997) ISBN 0674213033, p. 189&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Historian Susan Urban of the Jersusalem Center for Public Affairs writes, &quot;Germany has seen a growth of leftist anti-Semitism along with anti-imperialist, antiglobalization, and anti-Zionist attitudes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Susanne Urban, &quot;Anti-Semitism In Germany Today: Its Roots And Tendencies1,&quot; ''Jewish Political Studies Review'' Vol. 16 (Fall 2004), pp. 3-4&lt;/ref&gt; The Tupamoros-West Berlin, a Communist group headed by Dieter Kunzelmann (who would later become a leader of the Green Party),&lt;ref&gt;Aribert Reimann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MGKnrkMmY5cC Dieter Kunzelmann: Avantgardist, Protestler, Radikaler],'' (Vandenhoeck &amp; Ruprecht, 2009), ISBN 3525370105, pp. 274-286&lt;/ref&gt; attempted to bomb Berlin's Jewish Community Center during a commemoration of the anniversary of ''Kristallnacht'' in 1969.&lt;ref&gt;Walter Laqueur, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMGeXXBSY8wC The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2006) ISBN 0195304292, p. 147&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> Berlin's Red Army Faction (RAF), a Communist group, was led by Ulrike Meinhof, who stated, &quot;Auschwitz means that six million Jews were murdered and carted on to the rubbish dumps of Europe for being that which was maintained of them&amp;mdash;Money-Jews.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''Auschwitz heisst, das sechs Millionen Juden ermordet und auf die Müllkippen Europas gekarrt wurden als das, als was man sie ausgab — als Geldjuden.''&quot;) Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=acBtAAAAMAAJ Hitler's apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi legacy]'' (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 1985) ISBN 0297787195, p. 230&lt;/ref&gt; She added that &quot;Anti-Semitism is really hatred of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''Antisemitismus eigentlich Haß auf Kapitalismus ist.'' George Watson, &quot;Race and the Socialists. On the Progressive Principle of Revolutionary Extermination,&quot; ''Encounter'' 47, 1976, pp. 15-18&lt;/ref&gt; Another founder of this Communist group, Horst Mahler, an anti-Semite and Holocaust denier,&lt;ref&gt;“[http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,550430,00.html One-Man Right-Wing Circus Act: German Sentenced to 10 Months for Hitler Greeting],” ''Der Speigel'' Online International&lt;/ref&gt; was sentenced to six years in prison for incitement to racial hatred in 2005.&lt;ref&gt;”[http://www.ejpress.org/article/12601 Neo-Nazi Horst Mahler transferred to prison in Bavaria],” ''European Jewish Press'', December 29, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Despite being labeled “right-wing” in the media, this Communist revolutionary insisted in a 2007 interview that his beliefs had not changed (&quot;[http://shoabloger.wordpress.com/texts/michael-friedman-interviews-horst-mahler-full-text/ The enemy is the same]&quot;)&lt;ref&gt; “Der Feind ist derselbe.” Hoerst Mahler in Michael Friedman, “[https://archive.org/download/Friedman-Michel-Interview-mit-Horst-Mahler-und-Sylvia-Stolz/FriedmanMichel-InterviewMitHorstMahlerUndSylviaStolz200789S.Text.pdf So spricht man mit Nazis],” ''Vanity Fair (German edition), November, 2007, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt; since his days as an informant for the Stasi,&lt;ref&gt;Helen Pidd, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/01/baader-m einhof-gang-founder-stasi Baader-Meinhof terrorist may have worked for the Stasi],&quot; ''The Guardian'', August 1, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the secret police of Communist East Germany. (After the fall of East German Communism in 1990, it was revealed that the Stasi had been supplying the RAF with funds and logistic support, including false identities and network of safehouses in West Berlin.)&lt;ref&gt;John Schmeidel &quot;[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02684529308432225#preview My Enemy's Enemy: Twenty Years of Co-operation between West Germany's Red Army Faction and the GDR Ministry for State Security],&quot; ''Intelligence and National Security'' Vol. 8, No. 4 (October 1993), pp. 59–72.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1976, the Revolutionary Cells (''Revolutionäre Zellen''), another German Communist group, joined with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (a hard-line Marxist&lt;ref&gt;Edmund L. Andrews and John Kifner, [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/africa/27iht-obits.1.9523942.html George Habash, 82, founder of Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine], ''The New York Times'', January 27, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; terrorist group) to hijack an Air France flight to Entebbe, Uganda, where they singled out the Jewish passengers in a plot to murder them.&lt;ref&gt;Stephen E. Atkins, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b8k4rEPvq_8C Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313324859, p. 277&lt;/ref&gt; In 1979, the Sandinistas, a [http://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/timeline-nicaragua.php Marxist-Leninist] group, seized control of the government of Nicaragua, supporting a newspaper that proclaimed that &quot;the world's money, banking and finance are in the hands of descendants of Jews ... [C]ontrolling economic power, they control political power as now happens in the United States.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;''El Nuevo Diario'', July 17, 1982, as cited in Porfirio R. Solórzano, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tFwSAQAAIAAJ The Nirex Collection: Nicaraguan Revolution Extracts, Twelve Years, 1978-1990, Vol VII: Of War and Peace]'' [Litex, 1993] ISBN 1877970018)&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|In 1979 many of the country's approximately 250 Jews fled abroad in the face of persecution and imprisonment by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). The FSLN bombed and partially destroyed the country's only synagogue, then confiscated the property shortly afterward and converted it into a youth training camp.&lt;ref&gt;Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5681.htm Nicaragua], Annual Report on International Religious Freedom (U.S. Department of State, 2001). Cf. Elliott Abrams, &quot;[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1079/is_v84/ai_3408623/?tag=content;col1 Persecution and Restrictions of Religion in Nicaragua],&quot; (Transcript), ''Department of State bulletin'', October-December 1984, pp. 49-50&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> In 1985, the Palestinian Liberation Front, then a [http://www.adl.org/terrorism/symbols/palestinian_liberation_front.asp Communist group], which had hijacked an Italian cruise ship, the MS ''Achille Lauro'', murdered 69-year-old passenger Leon Klinghoffer, an American, shooting him to death and rolling his wheelchair off the deck, dumping his body into the ocean. The PLF singled out Klinghoffer for murder [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2003-04-17/news/0304161228_1_achille-lauro-abul-abbas-palestinian-authority because he was Jewish]. <br /> <br /> &quot;Outside of the Western communist parties, which were mostly oriented solidly towards Moscow’s anti-Zionism, a fully articulated anti-Zionism appeared only in the early 1970s with the formation of the so-called New Left, which interpreted the Middle-East conflict in terms of its anti-imperialist and anti-colonialist rhetoric,&quot; reports the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. &quot;As many authors have shown since, the anti-Zionism of the 1970s was largely not just ideological criticism of Israel, but a form of [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/184-AS-Main-report.pdf secondary anti-Semitism]. The rhetoric of these organizations, whose remnants survive into the present day, often indicates the antisemitic nature of their criticism.&quot; A 2016 study by the Research Association on the SED [Socialist Unity Party] State at Berlin's Free University, financed by Germany's Federal Ministry of Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, found that &quot;there has been more left-wing violence in Germany since 2009 than right-wing violence.&quot; Researchers found extensive anti-Semitism among left-wing extremists in Germany, and said the view of anti-Jewish extremist leftism can be traced to the word [http://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/German-left-wing-radicals-say-Jews-have-too-much-influence-460773 “Jew” as a synonym for “capitalist” and “exploiter.”]<br /> <br /> ==21st-century anti-Semitism: the union of leftism and Islamism==<br /> In the 21st century these seeds have festered into full flower, with the embrace of Islamist anti-Semitism by the Left:<br /> {{cquote|Although traditional Trotskyite ideology is in no way close to radical Islamic teachings and the shariah, since the radical Islamists also subscribed to anticapitalism, antiglobalism, and anti-Americanism, there seemed to be sufficient common ground for an alliance. Thus, the militants of the far left began to march side by side with the radical Islamists in demonstrations, denouncing American aggression and Israeli crimes. In Britain a new political party named Respect was established, uniting Trotskyites, Stalinists, Muslim Brotherhood militants, and similar groups.&lt;ref&gt;Walter Laquer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMGeXXBSY8wC The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day]'' [Oxford University Press US, 2006] ISBN 0195304292, p. 186&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> For example, the European Union's European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia decided not to publish its comprehensive study of the causes of anti-Semitism in Europe in 2003, a source familiar with the report told London's ''Financial Times'', after the report uncovered &quot;a trend towards Muslim anti-Semitism,&quot; and that &quot;on the left there is also mobilization against Israel that is not always free of prejudice.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Reuters, &quot;[http://www.haaretz.com/news/eu-racism-watchdog-shelves-anti-semitism-report-1.106473 EU racism watchdog shelves anti-Semitism report],&quot; ''Haaretz'', November 22, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> That year, one academic, Michael Neumann, Professor of Philosophy at Canada's Trent University, wrote that he wants to<br /> {{cquote|help the Palestinians.... I am not interested in the truth, or justice, or understanding, or anything else, except so far as it serves that purpose. If an effective strategy means that some truths about the Jews don’t come to light, I don’t care. If an effective strategy means encouraging reasonable anti-Semitism, or reasonable hostility to Jews, I also don’t care. If it means encouraging vicious racist anti-Semitism, or the destruction of the State of Israel, I still don’t care.&lt;ref&gt;Yoni Petel, &quot;Antisemitism on Campus: A Student's Perspective,&quot; League for Human Rights, B'nai B'rith of Canada, ''[http://www.bnaibrith.ca/briefs/klein/klein030925.html Submission to the Special Rapporteur on Racism]'', Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, September 25, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> According to the progressive magazine ''Tikkun'', &quot;A.N.S.W.E.R. refuses to acknowledge or support the right of the Jewish people to national self-determination&amp;mdash;though it supports that right for every other group with a history of oppression. When Jews are denied the rights of others, it is a tell-tale sign of anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20041019075845/http://www.tikkun.org/magazine/index.cfm/action/tikkun/issue/tik0305/article/030512a.html Authoritarianism and Anti-Semitism in the Anti-War Movement?],&quot; ''Tikkun'', May-June 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|[L]eftists who despise their own capitalist societies inevitably come to sympathize with militants&amp;mdash;communists, Tier-mondistes, Islamists, it doesn't make any difference&amp;mdash;who attack those societies from without. Right now, the only corner of the world putting up any sort of serious ideological fight against Western-style capitalism and liberalism is the Muslim Middle East. So, just as the left uncritically swallowed Stalin's propaganda in the 1930s, expect the left to increasingly swallow Arabist propaganda in our own era. And since one of the key elements of Arabist propaganda is a hatred of Israel and a suspicion of Jews, these building blocks of anti-Semitism will become more and more a part of mainstream leftist discourse.&lt;ref&gt;Johnathan Kay, quoted in Jamie Glazov, Symposium: &quot;[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=19272 Anti-Semitism - the New Call of the Left],&quot; FrontPageMagazine.com, March 14, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Thus in 2009, the &quot;progressive&quot; webzine Counterpunch.org, edited by Alexander Cockburn, son of Soviet agent&lt;ref&gt;Chapman Pincher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=netJI5stGlwC Treachery: Betrayals, Blunders, and Cover-ups: Six Decades of Espionage against America and Great Britain]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 140006807X, pp. 43-47&lt;/ref&gt; Claud Cockburn, could publish a revival of the &quot;Blood Libel,&quot; alleging that Israeli Jews were killing Palestinian Muslims to harvest their organs.&lt;ref&gt;Alison Weir, &quot;[http://www.counterpunch.org/weir08282009.html Israeli Organ Harvesting],&quot; Counterpunch.org, August 28-30, 2009) Cf. David Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=azE5qoXTgoAC Unholy alliance: radical Islam and the American left]'' (Regnery Publishing, 2004) ISBN 089526076X, p. 148&lt;/ref&gt; By 2011, the Anti-Defamation League had documented the growing list of [https://web.archive.org/web/20140413064836/http://archive.adl.org:80/main_extremism/occupy_wall_street.html#.WY5m_lGQzIU anti-semitic incidents] at rallies of the left-wing &quot;Occupy&quot; movement. A 2012 survey of 5,847 Jews in the European Union found that more than three out of four said anti-Semitism had increased over the preceding five years, and more respondents blamed perpetrators of the most serious incidents on the political left than the right, according to the EU's Fundamental Rights Agency.&lt;ref&gt;European Union Fundamental Rights Agency, [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2013-discrimination-hate-crime-against-jews-eu-member-states_en.pdf Discrimination and hate crime against Jews in EU Member States: experiences and perceptions of anti-Semitism] (Vienna: EU-FRA, 2013) ISBN 978-92-9239-262-8, p. 13&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers at Tel Aviv University reported that anti-Semitic violence worldwide surged 40 percent in 2014.&lt;ref&gt;Kim Hjelmgaard, &quot;[http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/04/15/jewish-anti-semitic-attacks-western-europe/25807273/ Anti-Semitic violence surged 40% worldwide last year],&quot; ''USA Today'', April 16, 2015&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;[T]he left's anti-Semitism&amp;mdash;which, of course, it never acknowledges and fervently denies&amp;mdash;rather than the right's conventional version of this hatred comprises the key ingredient of anti-Semitism's current European existence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Andrei S. Markovits, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=1754&amp;TTL=%22Twin_Brothers%22:_European_Anti-Semitism_and_Anti-Americanism 'Twin Brothers': European Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 6 [January 2006] Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt; Antisemitism may be found within much contemporary &quot;antihegemonic, radical, liberal and socialist&quot; discourse, admits David Hirsh of the University of London, who concedes that &quot;antisemitism is a live and virulent threat.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;David Hirsh, Book Review: &quot;[http://engageonline.wordpress.com/2009/05/07/book/ Perry and Schweitzer, ''Antisemitic myths: a historical and contemporary anthology''],&quot; ''[http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/01419870.asp Ethnic and Racial Studies]'', Vol. 32, No. 4 (May 2009), pp. 749-750&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[T]he locus of anti-Semitism has moved from the right side of the political spectrum to the left ... These days, the hatemongers targeting Jews’ right to live peacefully spout the mantras of 'social justice' and 'peace studies,' not racial purity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan Kay, &quot;[http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/03/02/jonathan-kay-on-the-lesson-from-israel-apartheid-week-anti-semitism-is-now-a-creature-of-the-left.aspx The lesson from Israel Apartheid Week: Anti-Semitism is now a creature of the left],&quot; ''National Post'', March 2, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {{cquote|The resurgence of anti-Semitism in Europe &quot;hails much more from the left than the right. The latter&amp;mdash;mainly because of the continued illegitimacy and unacceptability of Nazism and fascism in European public opinion&amp;mdash;has had a much more circumspect influence on how Jews and Israel are depicted than the left has had. Because classical anti-Semitism&amp;mdash;certainly in its praxis&amp;mdash;was mostly associated with the European right, the left enjoyed a certain bonus when it came to discussing all matters relating to Jews and Israel. The left could take liberties with being anti-Israeli and anti-Semitic that the right could never have. This legitimacy bonus enabled the left to employ anti-Israeli discourse that&amp;mdash;in the meantime&amp;mdash;has become completely common and acceptable parlance in Europe. Because of this general acceptability and overall legitimacy, left-wing anti-Semitism is much more relevant and disturbing than right-wing anti-Semitism.&lt;ref&gt;Andrei S. Markovits, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-markovits-05.htm European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 2 [August 2005], Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> As Urban concludes: &quot;The extreme leftist trend in Germany contains elements that envision [http://jcpa.org/article/being-leftist-and-anti-semitic-in-germany/ a world cleansed of the Jewish state].&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalism, Anti-Americanism and anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;[I]n North America,&quot; wrote Marx, the &quot;practical domination of Judaism over the Christian world&quot; had achieved what he called &quot;its unambiguous and normal expression.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karl Marx, &quot;On The Jewish Question,&quot; ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'', February 1844, reprinted in Karl Marx, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKdLO2jvbqsC Early writings]'' (Penguin, 1992) ISBN 0140445749, p. 232&lt;/ref&gt; According to Sombart, “what we call Americanism is nothing else, if we may say so, than the Jewish spirit distilled.”&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The anti-American left... is at least as anti-Jewish as the clerical conservative right, especially among those who have embraced a pronounced 'antifascist' and 'antiracist' credo.”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, ''[http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42D75369-D582-4380-8395-D25925B85EAF%7D/wistrich.pdf European Anti-Semitism Reinvents Itself],'' [The American Jewish Committee, 2002], p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Anti-Americanism in the Islamic world and Anti-Americanism in Europe are in fact linked, and both bear an uncanny resemblance to anti-Semitism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Natan Sharansky, &quot;On Hating Jews: The inextricable link between anti-Semitism and anti-Americanism,&quot; ''The Wall Street Journal'', November 17, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &quot;America and Jews are seen by many Europeans as paragons of a modernity they dislike and distrust: money-driven, profit-hungry, urban, universalistic, individualistic, mobile, rootless, inauthentic, and thus hostile to established traditions and values.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=658&amp;TTL=European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Semitism:_Similarities_and_Differences European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Semitism: Similarities and Differences],&quot; An Interview with Andrei S. Markovits, ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'' [Institute for Global Jewish Affairs], No. 16 [January 1, 2004]&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jews were blamed for the evils of capitalism in earlier centuries. Americans are blamed for globalization, that is, technological and economic change to the max, in our days.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Josef Joffe, quoted in Mark O'Keefe, &quot;[http://pewforum.org/Politics-and-Elections/Anti-Semitism-and-Anti-Americanism.aspx Anti-Semitism and Anti-Americanism],&quot; Pew Forum on Religion &amp; Public Life, May 5, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;America today has become the world's market-dominant minority,&quot; while &quot;Jews are a market-dominant mionority in the Middle East.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Amy Chua, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KSp1okOggpkC World on fire: how exporting free market democracy breeds ethnic hatred and global instability]'' [Random House, Inc., 2004] ISBN 0385721862, pp. 218, 229&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Thus post-unification Germany, observed a journalist in 2005, is marked by &quot;a poisonous cocktail of the three big As: anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism and anti-capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Wolfgang Munchau, &quot;[http://www.spectator.co.uk/essays/13684/part_2/antiamericanism-antisemitism-anticapitalism.thtml Anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism, anti-capitalism],&quot; ''The Spectator'', May 21, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; This association of Jews with America was illustrated in 2006, when German Neo-Nazis burned a copy of ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y50yo2rnJHcC Anne Frank: Diary of a Young Girl]'' together [http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/germany/9582 with an American flag].<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> {{reflist|3}}</div> FOIA https://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=User:FOIA/Archive_1&diff=1408165 User:FOIA/Archive 1 2018-03-10T07:31:10Z <p>FOIA: </p> <hr /> <div>=Left-wing anti-Semitism=<br /> Although many leftists [http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2009-08-11/news/0908100426_1_town-hall-meetings-swastikas-bob-macguffie try] to [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNQTwSZCPo deny] it, “modern, political anti-Semitism is a creature of the left as well as the right,” admits Warwick University Sociology Professor Robert Fine, a [http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/emeritus/robertfine/home/mycv/ member] of the [http://www.cseweb.org.uk/ Conference of Socialist Economists].&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006).&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[A]nti-Semitism that we might call populist or democratic.... is linked equally to the left and right,&quot; agrees George L. Mosse, professor of history at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, &quot;to the new nationalism, but also to certain tendencies in socialism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; Omer Bartov of Brown University comments:<br /> {{cquote|[O]ne of the most frightening aspects of Hitler's book is not that he said what he said at the time, but that much of what he said can be found today in innumerable places ... As long as it does not have Hitler's name attached to it, this deranged discourse will be ignored or allowed to pass. The voices that express these opinions do not belong to a single political or ideological current ... They belong to the right and the left, to the religious and the secular, to the West and the East, to the rabble and the leaders, to terrorists and intellectuals, students and peasants, pacifists and militants, expansionists and anti-globalization activists.&lt;ref&gt;Omer Bartov, &quot;[http://www.tnr.com/article/he-meant-what-he-said He Meant What He Said],&quot; ''The New Republic'', February 2, 2004&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> Twenty-five years ago in the heart of the Cold War debate, anti-Americanism, anti-Israeli sentiment, and anti-Semitism &quot;were fringe phenomena while now they are more fashionable and mainstream ... [T]hese sentiments are no longer the monopoly of any particular part of the political spectrum. They are there on the European Left, Right, and in the center,&quot; agrees Jeffrey Gedman, president of London's Legatum Institute.&lt;ref&gt;Jeffrey Gedmin, &quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DRIT=3&amp;DBID=1&amp;LNGID=1&amp;TMID=111&amp;FID=624&amp;PID=0&amp;IID=633&amp;TTL=Experiencing_European_Anti-Americanism_and_Anti-Israelism Experiencing European Anti-Americanism and Anti-Israelism],&quot; ''Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism'', No. 27 (December 2004), Institute for Global Jewish Affairs&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Origins of left-wing anti-Semitism==<br /> There were “strong anti-Semitic currents on the European left in Marx’s time,&quot; writes Fine; &quot;[T]here is a strong tradition of [https://www.ushmm.org/media/emu/get?irn=544974&amp;mm_irn=32140&amp;file=primary anti-Semitism on the Left].”&lt;ref&gt;Robert Fine, “[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id=10&amp;article_id=33 Karl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism],” ''Engage'', No. 2 (May 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; One &quot;need not venture far into the pre-1930 literature of anti-economics before encountering conspicuous anti-Semitic effusions,&quot; observes William Coleman of the Australian National University. &quot;One may say that, before about 1930, anti-economics and anti-Semitism existed in striking conjunction.&quot; He adds that &quot;the conjunction was not accidental... [A]nti-economics and modern anti-Semitism shared some leading ideological contentions.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Coleman, &quot;[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/history_of_political_economy/v035/35.4coleman.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'', Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), pp. 759-777&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> From the outset, according to French historian Marc Crapez, European racism and socialism were closely affiliated.&lt;ref&gt;Marc Crapez, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=l-dtAAAAMAAJ L'antisémitisme de gauche au XIXe siècle]'' (Paris: Berg international, 2002) ISBN 2-911289-43-9&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, &quot;anti-capitalism and anti-Semitism were deeply intertwined,&quot; writes Mosse. &quot;[I]n fact, they had been connected since the middle-ages.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George L. Mosse, [http://history.wisc.edu/mosse/george_mosse/summaries/jewish_history_lecture7.htm Modern Jewish History - Summary: Lecture #7], March 1, 1971, George L. Mosse Program in History, Department of History, University of Wisconsin-Madison&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For centuries, Jewish economic success led anti-Semites to condemn capitalism as a form of Jewish domination and exploitation,&quot; writes Columbia University history professor Jerry Z. Muller, &quot;or to attribute Jewish success to unsavory qualities of the Jews themselves.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jerry Z. Muller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nMZ_w0mFGIgC Capitalism and the Jews]'' (Princeton University Press, 2010) ISBN 0691144788, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “The Marxist, postmodern and post-Zionist pseudo-liberal views on democracy lead back to the totalitarian democracy of the French Enlightenment, in which anti-Semitism formed an essential ingredient,” writes Shlomo Sharan of Tel Aviv University.&lt;ref&gt;Shlomo Sharan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5U-Dk-5p0mIC Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk]'' (Sussex Academic Press, 2003) ISBN 1903900522 , p. 125&lt;/ref&gt; At that time, &quot;the Jews symbolised the distressing symptoms of modernity ushered in by capitalism and political liberalism,&quot; writes Christian Wiese, professor of Jewish history at the University of Sussex.&lt;ref&gt;Christian Wiese, &quot;Modern Antisemitism and Jewish Responses in Germany and France,&quot; in Michael Brenner, Vicki Caron and Uri R. Kaufmann, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=b2DN7yDuCyoC Jewish emancipation reconsidered: the French and German models]'' (Mohr Siebeck, 2003) ISBN 316148018X, p. 136&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> {{cquote|Dissatisfaction with the practical consequences of Liberalism was even stronger in economic than in political matters; anti-capitalism was, after all, one of the oldest and most natural forms of anti-Semitism. Liberal society was characterized by a high degree of social mobility with a premium on individual worth and ability. Perhaps this pill was the hardest to swallow. All those who had an assured place in an ordered hierarchy, even if it was a comparatively low one, looked with distaste on an order which allowed others to rise to positions of eminence and influence ... anti-Semitism is anti-capitalist since capitalism is one of the causes of social mobility.&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The Rise of Political Anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria] (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, pp. 42-43&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br /> <br /> “[T]he sudden prominence of a few Jews who benefited from economic liberalisation provoked a backlash from the Left.”&lt;ref&gt;David Cesarani, ''[http://www.engageonline.org.uk/ressources/left_jews/Left_Jews_final.pdf The Jews and the Left] (Labour Friends of Israel 2004) ISBN 0 9500536-5-1, p. 3 (PDF p.9)&lt;/ref&gt; In France, writes Göttingen historian Karlheinz Weissmann, many on the left saw the Jews &quot;as the embodiment of capitalism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Some of the most prominent thinkers of the Enlightenment were virulent anti-Semites: Voltaire denounced the Jews as &quot;the greatest scoundrels who have ever sullied the face of the globe&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Arthur Hertzberg and Aron Hirt-Manheimer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hiWBs5HM_E0C Jews: the essence and character of a people]'' (HarperCollins, 1998) ISBN 0060638354, p. 164&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews, he wrote, &quot;deserve to be punished,&quot; for it is their &quot;destiny.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Avner Falk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_0WOiZj0oC Anti-semitism: a history and psychoanalysis of contemporary hatred]'' (ABC-CLIO, 2008) ISBN 0313353840, p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jewish nation dares to display an irreconcilable hatred toward all nations, and revolts against all masters,&quot; wrote Voltaire, &quot;always superstitious, always greedy for the well-being enjoyed by others, always barbarous&amp;mdash;cringing in misfortune and insolent in prosperity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Voltaire, ''Essai sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations'', Introduction, [http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/11/07INTFIN.html#i42 XLII: Des Juifs depuis Saül], 1753&lt;/ref&gt; Immanuel Kant expressed similar views: &quot;'The Jews still cannot claim any true genius, any truly great man. All their talents and skills revolve around stratagems and low cunning ... They are a nation of swindlers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Early Socialist Anti-Semitism==<br /> &quot;It was in those days that the complaint arose that Jews were 'unproductive middle men,' 'economic parasites,'&quot; wrote Edward H. Flannery, a professor at the Institute of Judeo-Christian Studies at Seton Hall University.&lt;ref&gt;Eric Pace, &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/22/us/the-rev-edward-flannery-86-priest-who-fought-anti-semitism.html The Rev. Edward Flannery, 86, Priest Who Fought Anti-Semitism],&quot; ''The New York Times'', October 22, 1998&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;It was shaped for the most part by socialist writers and became a favorite theme with later racist antisemites of a socialist stripe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Edward H. Flannery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J40gNC7cxfYC The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism]'' (Paulist Press, 2004) ISBN 0809143240, p. 168&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Certain anti-economists affiliated with the socialist movement held Jews<br /> to be potentates of an oppressive contemporary social order.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt; Among the French Left, observes Weissmann, were &quot;numerous individuals and groups who considered class struggle and race struggle as one and the same thing&amp;mdash;especially with reference to the Jews....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karlheinz Weissmann, &quot;[http://mises.org/journals/jls/12_2/12_2_3.pdf The Epoch of National Socialism],&quot; ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. 12, No. 2 (Fall 1996), pp. 257–294, citing Edmund Silberner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=y6EiAAAAMAAJ Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19.Jahrhunderts bis 1914]'' (Berlin, 1962), pp. 65–82&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> “Socialist anti-Semitism is indeed almost as old as modern Socialism,” writes historian Edmund Silberner of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” Scripta Hierosolymitana, vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; Early socialism was inseparable from anti-Semitism, portraying Jews as exploiters, leeches and parasites.&lt;ref&gt;Edmund Silberner, “The Anti-Semitic Tradition in Modern Socialism,” ''Scripta Hierosolymitana'', vol. III (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1956), pp.378-379&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[V]irtually every major figure in the early history of socialism — including Friedrich Engels, Charles Fourier, Ferdinand Lassalle, Marx, and Joseph Proudhon — showed a marked antipathy to Jews,&quot; observes Daniel Pipes.&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Pipes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PPdv8sAtZ4UC Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1999) ISBN 0684871114, p. 88&lt;/ref&gt; In his comprehensive survey of French socialist literature from 1820 to 1920, historian Zosa Szajkowski found not a single word on behalf of Jews.&lt;ref&gt;Zosa Szajkowski, ''[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4464737 The Jewish Saint-Simonians and Socialist Antisemites in France]'', ''Jewish Social Studies'', Vol. 9, No. 1 (January, 1947), pp. 33-60 &lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Leroux===<br /> Pierre Leroux (1797-1871), who coined the word &quot;socialism&quot;, “identified the Jews with the despised capitalism, and regarded them as the incarnation of mammon, who lived by exploiting others.”&lt;ref&gt;Dennis Prager and Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VK0llzUqQ2YC Why the Jews?: the reason for antisemitism]'' (Simon and Schuster, 2003) ISBN 0743246209, p. 127&lt;/ref&gt; He said, &quot;When we speak of the Jews, we mean the Jewish spirit – the spirit of profit, of lucre, of gain, the spirit of commerce, of speculation, in a word, the banker spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lewis S. Feuer and Irving Horowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8TwfWRr21zEC Ideology and the Ideologists]'' (Transaction Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1412814421, p. 141&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The true successor of Napoleon,&quot; wrote Leroux, &quot;is the Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;William Oliver Coleman, &quot;[http://www.bupedu.com/lms/admin/uploded_article/eA.368.pdf Anti-Semitism in Anti-economics],&quot; ''History of Political Economy'' (Duke University Press), Vol. 35, No. 4 (Winter 2003), p. 764&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fichte===<br /> &quot;[T]hrough almost all countries of Europe there is spreading a powerful, hostile state, which is perpetually at war with all other States, and which in some of them oppresses the citizens with the utmost severity: it is Jewry.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Leshem, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NGSAAAAAIAAJ Balaam's curse: how Israel lost its way, and how it can find it again]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1989) ISBN 067167918X, p. 53&lt;/ref&gt; wrote the early socialist Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814). &quot;I see no other means of protecting ourselves against them, than by conquering their Promised Land and sending them all there.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; Elsewhere, he suggested a more radical solution, in which Gentiles &quot;chop off all their [Jews'] heads and replace them with new ones, in which there would not be a single Jewish idea.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jon Stratton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Blh7RLQVIUcC Jewish identity in Western pop culture: the Holocaust and trauma through modernity]'' (Macmillan, 2008), ISBN 0230604749, p. 24&lt;/ref&gt; In Fichte's text &quot;we see the beginnings of the 'anticapitalist' impulse in modern antisemitism, which became central to revolutionist agendas for the redemption of humanity through the regeneration of Jewry,&quot; observes [http://www.gf.org/fellows/8291-anthony-j-la-vopa Guggenheim Fellow] Anthony J. LaVopa.&lt;ref&gt;Anthony J. LaVopa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vQx0_69P4z4C Fichte: the self and the calling of philosophy, 1762-1799]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2001), ISBN 052179145, p. 135&lt;/ref&gt; Duquesne University professor Tom Rockmore comments that &quot;available evidence points strongly to an early and perhaps enduring Marxian interest in Fichte's position.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Tom Rockmore, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qrS4AAAAIAAJ Fichte, Marx, and the German philosophical tradition]'' (Southern Illinois University Press, 1980), ISBN 0809309556, p. 126&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fourier===<br /> Early socialist Charles Fourier (1768-1830) attacked (classical) &quot;liberal retrogression&quot; (i.e, ''laissez faire'' capitalism) for what he called &quot;monstrous actions, such as the admission of the Jews to the rights of citizens&quot; which, he wrote, introduce into society &quot;parasites, unproductives.&quot; He added, &quot;The Jewish nation is not civilised ... it devotes itself exclusively to traffic, to usury, and to mercantile depravity ... Every government having regard to good morals ought to repress the Jews,&quot; whom Fourier described as &quot;all parasites, merchants, usurers, etc.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Charles Fourier (Tr. Julian H. Franklin), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=w2CgXn5jAm8C Selections from the Works of Fourier]'' (Allen &amp; Unwin, 1901), p. 96. Cf. Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' [W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999] ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; Fourier's disciple, Alphonse Toussenel, called Jews &quot;the kings of the epoch,&quot; writing that &quot;Europe is entailed to the domination of Israel. This universal domination, of which so many conquerors have dreamed, the Jews have in their hands.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;George Lichtheim, &quot;Socialism and the Jews,&quot; [http://search.opinionarchives.com/Dissent_Web/DigitalArchive.aspx?panes=1&amp;aid=01504314_1 ''Dissent'', Vol. 15, No. 4 (July 1968)], p. 320&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[I]ndustrial feudalism&quot;&amp;mdash;as Toussenel called capitalism&amp;mdash;&quot;is personified in the cosmopolitan Jew.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Jacob Katz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FeH_uNpWbZAC From prejudice to destruction: anti-Semitism, 1700-1933]'' (Harvard University Press, 1980) ISBN 0674325079, p. 125&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dühring===<br /> Marx's mentor Bruno Bauer published antisemitic articles by Marx's intellectual rival in the German Social Democratic Party, Eugen Dühring, &quot;descibing Jews as idle usurers exploiting productive labor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard S. Levy, ''[http://books.google.com.au/books/about/Antisemitism.html?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia Of Prejudice And Persecution]'', Volume 1 (ABC-CLIO, 2005) ISBN 1851094393, pp. 61-62&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Proudhon===<br /> Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), one of the [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/grahamproudhon.html leading socialist] theorists of his day (and a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1846/letters/46_05_05.htm correspondent of Marx]), called Jews “the race which poisons everything” and “the enemy of the human race”;&lt;ref&gt;Norman Podhoretz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QUfFP_Q_nqIC Why are Jews Liberals?]'' (Random House, Inc., 2009) ISBN 0385529198, p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The Jew is by temperament an anti-producer, neither a farmer nor an industrialist nor even a true merchant,&quot; wrote Prodhon. &quot;He is an intermediary, always fraudulent and parasitic, who operates, in trade as in philosophy, by means of falsification, counterfeiting, and horse-trading.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 111&lt;/ref&gt; He wrote, &quot;This race must be sent back to Asia, or exterminated.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Halévy and Pierre Haubtmann, eds., ''Carnets de P.J. Proudhon'' (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1961), Vol. II, p. 337; Vol. VI, p. 178&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;By fire or fusion, or by expulsion the Jew must disappear.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Richard L. Rubenstein and John K. Roth, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IfoBx6skMCkC Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy] (Westminster John Knox Press, 2003) ISBN 0664223532, p. 77&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Bakhunin===<br /> Mikhail Bakunin, Marx's intellectual rival in the First International, called Jews “an exploiting sect, a bloodsucking people, a unique devouring parasite,”&lt;ref&gt;Robert S. Wistrich, “[http://leobaeck.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/37/1/111 Socialism and Judeophobia: Antisemitism in Europe before 1914],” ''Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook'', Vol. 37, No. 1 (January 1992), pp. 111-145&lt;/ref&gt; Jews, he wrote, are disqualified from socialist leadership by &quot;that mercantile passion which constitutes one of the principle traits of their national character.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice] (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===L'Affaire Dryfus/&quot;J'Accuse&quot;===<br /> When the bourgeois&lt;ref&gt;&quot;M. Doumic on Victor Hugo as a Bourgeois,&quot; Boston ''Transcript'' (reprinted in Theodore Stanton, &quot;M. René Doumic,&quot; New York ''Evening Post'', March 24, 1898, as cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=Y94aAAAAYAAJ ''Public Opinion'', Vol. XXIV, No. 12] (January-June, 1898), p. 374&lt;/ref&gt; Victor Hugo, a cultural Catholic,&lt;ref&gt;John Andrew Frey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=olFboDm4bcgC A Victor Hugo encyclopedia]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999) ISBN 0313298963, p. 222&lt;/ref&gt; defended Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer scapegoated by the French army, the French socialist press published a manifesto denouncing Hugo's crusade on the grounds that Jewish capitalists would use the rehabilitation of a single Jew to wash out &quot;all the sins of Israel.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Joseph Telushkin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bIHtJzYCkqEC Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know About the Jewish Religion, Its People, and Its History]'' (HarperCollins, 2008) ISBN 0061374989, p. 275&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Hyndman===<br /> Henry Hyndman, founder of Britain's atheistic, Marxist Social Democratic Federation (Britain's first socialist party) and National Socialist Party (now part of the Labour Party), &quot;repeatedly invoked the stereotype of the 'rich capitalist Jew' in his anti-semitic remarks.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Karin Hofmeester, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hYZrdkniDYkC Jewish Workers and the Labour Movement: A Comparative Study of Amsterdam, London and Paris, 1870-1914]'' (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004) ISBN 0754609073, p. 304&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Jew moneylenders,&quot; complained Hyndman's ''Justice, Organ of the Social Democracy'' (the first Marxist periodical in England),&lt;ref&gt;Laurel Brake and Marysa Demoor, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qVrUTUelE6YC Dictionary of nineteenth-century journalism in Great Britain and Ireland]'' [Academia Press, 2009] ISBN 9038213409, p. 328&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;now control nearly every Foreign Office in Europe.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Guido Kisch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5h8WAAAAIAAJ Historia judaica: a journal of studies in Jewish history, especially in legal and economic history of the Jews'', Volumes 13-14] (Historia Judaica, 1951), p. 44&lt;/ref&gt; He blamed the Boer war on &quot;Jew financial cliques&quot; and the &quot;Jew-jingo press.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin Crick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eea_kByVYsoC The History of the Social-Democratic Federation] (Edinburgh University Press, 1994) ISBN 1853310913, p. 159&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Sombart===<br /> Werner Sombart, a German economist, sociologist and self-proclaimed &quot;convinced Marxist&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Hermynia Zur Mühlen (Tr. Lionel Gossman), ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_gd1Aw0ZlEwC The End and the Beginning: The Book of My Life, Volume 1]'' (Open Book Publishers, 2010) ISBN 1906924279, p. 241&lt;/ref&gt; -- praised by Friedrich Engels as the only German professor who understood ''Das Kapital''&lt;ref&gt;Frederick Engels, [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/supp.htm Introduction], ''Capital'' Volume III (Supplement), 1894. Cf. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/letters/95_03_11.htm Engels To W. Sombart in Breslaun, London, March 11, 1895], in ''Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutscher Arbeiterbewegung'' No. 3, 1961, reprinted in Marx and Engels, ''Selected Works'', Volume 3, pp. 504-506. Marxists Internet Archive (marxists.org)&lt;/ref&gt; -- wrote &quot;modern capitalism is nothing more or less than an expression of the Jewish spirit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Werner Sombart, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=P33VHF1aBAcC The Jews and Modern Capitalism]'' (E. P. Dutton, 1913), p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; According to the ''Universal Jewish Encyclopaedia'', Sombart “[http://econlog.econlib.org/archives/2009/09/capitalism_and.html accused the Jews of having created capitalism]” -- as should perhaps be expected of a &quot;convinced Marxist&quot; (Marx viewed Jews as &quot;responsible for capitalism,&quot; according Princeton's Bernard Lewis.)&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lewis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GteStbiDEjAC Semites and anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice]'' (W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1999) ISBN 0393318397, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Dreiser===<br /> Theodore Dreiser, an [[atheist]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html Religion: Atheist's Oath],&quot; ''Time'', August 20, 1928&lt;/ref&gt; as well as a [[Communist]],&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Theodore Dreiser, &quot;Request to Become a Communist,&quot; ''[[The Daily Worker]]'', July 30, 1945, reprinted in Albert Fried, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLJbT3NMbN4C Communism in America: A History in Documents]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) ISBN 0231102356, pp. 348-350&lt;/ref&gt; was also a virulent [[anti-Semite]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;the Jew ... has been in America all of two hundred years, and he has not faded into a pure American by any means, and he will not. As I said before, he maintains his religious dogmas and his racial sympathies, race characteristics, and race cohesion as against all the types or nationalities surrounding him wheresoever.&quot; Dreiser quoted in Lee Bernstein, &quot;The Avengers of Christie: Street Racism and Jewish Working-Class Rebellion in Mike Gold’s 'Jews Without Money'',&quot; in Janet Galligani Casey, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wLliXDo2iwC The Novel and the American Left: Critical Essays on Depression-Era Fiction]'' (University of Iowa Press, 2004) 1587294753, p. 118&lt;/ref&gt; and defender of [[Hitler]].&lt;ref&gt; Dreiser excused the Holocaust, saying that British rule in India &quot;makes Germany's cruelties seem like a pipe dream,&quot; and &quot;If Germany can beat England at the game of mass human torture ... it will have to go some.&quot; The editor explains in a footnote that Dreiser was parroting the Communist Party line during the Nazi-Soviet pact &quot;by portraying Britain as a greater threat to world democracy and peace than Germany.&quot; (Frederic E. Rusch and Donald Pizer, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tQL7UitACW4C Theodore Dreiser: Interviews]'' (University of Illinois Press, 2004) ISBN 0252029437, p. 305) Cf. H. Elias, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TKtEAAAAYAAJ Letters of Theodore Dreiser: A Selection, vol. 2]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959), pp. 405, 650–52; Richard Tuerk, “The American Spectator Symposium Controversy: Was Dreiser Anti-Semitic?” ''Prospects 16'' (1991), pp. 367–89; Louis Harap, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mAPvam-n_DYC Creative Awakening: The Jewish Presence in Twentieth-Century American Literature, 1900-1940s],'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987) ISBN 0313253862, pp. 128-132.&lt;/ref&gt; New York is a &quot;kike's dream of a ghetto,&quot; he wrote; Jews are not &quot;pure Americans&quot; and &quot;lack integrity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 113&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Organizations==<br /> Perhaps more important than the widespread anti-Semitism among socialist leaders was the anti-semitism of socialist groups such as the Socialist International and the Fabian Society.<br /> <br /> ===Second International===<br /> After reference to the exploitation of workers by Jewish capitalists and denunciation of &quot;philo-Semitic agitation,&quot; the Second International (the original Socialist International) adopted a resolution condemning not just antisemitic, but &quot;philo-Semite outbursts as one of the means by which the capitalist class and the reactionary circles seek to divert the Socialist movement from its purpose and divide the workers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0018_0_18779.html Socialism], ''[http://www.gale.cengage.com/servlet/ItemDetailServlet?region=9&amp;imprint=000&amp;titleCode=M355&amp;cf=p&amp;type=4&amp;id=194102 Encyclopaedia Judaica]'' (The Gale Group, 2008), via [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/indexold.html The Jewish Virtual Library]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Fabian Society===<br /> Britain's Fabian Society (which &quot;set up the banner of socialism militant&quot;)&lt;ref&gt;G. Bernard Shaw, &quot;[http://walterschafer.com/fabiansocietyhistory.htm Fabian Tract No. 41: The Fabian Society, Its Early History],&quot; (Fabian Society Reprint, 1899)&lt;/ref&gt; hosted a number of anti-Semites, including Beatrice Webb, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, J.A. Hobson, and Oswald Mosley.<br /> <br /> Beatrice Webb, who played a crucial role in the founding of the Fabian Society, wrote that “the strongest impelling motive of the Jewish race” was “the love of ''profit'' as distinct from other forms of money-earning.” (Italics in original.)&lt;ref&gt;Beatrice Webb, “East London Labour,” ''[http://books.google.com/bookes?id=udcaAAAAYAAJ The Nineteenth Century]'', Vol. XXIV (July-December 1888), p. 176.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;A careful study of anti-Semitism, prejudice and accusations might be of great value to many Jews,&quot; wrote H.G. Wells, &quot;who do not adequately realize the irritation they inflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alan M. Dershowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3jjNW-_TnusC Chutzpah]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1992) ISBN 0671760890, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt; George Bernard Shaw once exhorted Jews to &quot;stop being Jews and start being human beings.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Shaw Society of America, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HERbAAAAMAAJ The Shaw review, Volumes 3-4] (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1960), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> J.A. Hobson blamed London poverty on &quot;the foreign Jew,&quot; whom he described as &quot;a terrible competitor. He is ... almost void of social morality. No compunction or consideration for his fellow-worker will keep him from underselling and overreaching them; he acquires a thorough mastery of all the dishonourable tricks of trade which are difficult to restrain by law; the superior calculating intellect, which is a national heritage, is used unsparingly to enable him to take advantage of every weakness, folly, and vice of the society in which he lives.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;John A. Hobson, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10710/10710-h/10710-h.htm Problems of Poverty: An Inquiry into the Industrial Condition of The Poor]'' (1891), Project Gutenberg&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;He craves the position of a sweating-master, the lowest step in a ladder that may lead to a life of magnificence, supported out of usury.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England]'' (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, p. 405&lt;/ref&gt; In his 1898 book ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Hobson/hbsnImp.html Imperialism: A Study]'' -- which would profoundly influence Lenin's ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/ Imperialism, the Higherst Stage of Capitalism]'' (1917) -- Hobson blamed the Boer War on &quot;Jew power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Anthony Julius, <br /> [http://books.google.com/books?id=BGkSLxDBNTgC Trials of the Diaspora: A History of Anti-Semitism in England] (Oxford University Press, 2010) ISBN 0199297053, pp. 201-202&lt;/ref&gt; That war, he wrote, was fought for the benefit of &quot;a small group of international financiers, chiefly German in origin and Jewish in race.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bryan Cheyette, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HTdwPbE6KoIC Constructions of &quot;the Jew&quot; in English Literature and Society: Racial Representations, 1875-1945]'' (Cambridge University Press, 1995) ISBN 0521558778, p. 156&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> One Fabian socialist from the 1920s and '30s, Oswald Mosley,&lt;ref&gt;Rose L. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9_vvAAAAMAAJ Fabian Freeway: High Road to Socialism in the U.S.A., 1884-1966]'' (Fidelis, 1968), p. 62&lt;/ref&gt; went on to found and lead the British Union of Fascists (which &quot;at first was modeled after Mussolini’s example but later became patterned after Hitler&quot;),&lt;ref&gt;Zygmund Dobbs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N-g1AQAAIAAJ Keynes at Harvard: economic deception as a political credo],'' (New York: Veritas Foundation, 1960), pp. 88-90&lt;/ref&gt; in which role he was lauded by Shaw.&lt;ref&gt;Gareth Griffith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aGAEWDI3SR4C Socialism and Superior Brains: The Political Thought of Bernard Shaw]'' (CRC Press, 2002) ISBN 0203210832, p. 263&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Anti-capitalist anti-semitism in Germany==<br /> During the 19th century, the center of left-wing anti-Semitism gradually shifted from Paris to Vienna, where the &quot;radical-democratic and nationalist left wing&quot; was headed by German Liberal Party leader Georg von Schönerer,&lt;ref&gt;Viktor Karády, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline]'' (Central European University Press, 2004) ISBN 9639241520, p. 360&lt;/ref&gt; one of a group of &quot;left-wing German liberals&quot; who demanded &quot;the exclusion of Jews from the new movement and as far as possible from public life&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Robert A. Kann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cG570mijBF4C A history of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918]'' (University of California Press, 1980) ISBN 0520042069, p. 433&lt;/ref&gt; Hitler would later ascribe to Schönerer &quot;the wisdom of a prophet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Adolf Hitler, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EBUBUEeUwxUC Mein Kampf: zwei Bände in einem Band'', Vol. 1], 40th ed., (Bottom of the Hill, 1938) ISBN 1935785079, p. 93&lt;/ref&gt; Wilhelm Marr, who [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anti-Semitism coined the term] &quot;antisemitism,&quot; wrote that &quot;anti-Semitism is a Socialist movement, only in nobler and purer forms than Social Democracy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988) ISBN 0674771664, p. 45&lt;/ref&gt; In late 19th century Germany, a popular critical view held that capitalism was a product of Jewish culture.&lt;ref&gt;Cristobal Young, &quot;[http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/3/0/8/9/5/pages308953/p308953-1.php Christianity, Judaism, and the Spirit of Capitalism: The Weber-Sombart Debates],&quot; Department of Sociology, Princeton University, p. 1&lt;/ref&gt; Adolf Stöcker, leader of the left-wing Christian Social Party, wrote, &quot;I see in unrestrained capitalism the evil of our epoch and am naturally also an opponent of modern Judaism on account of my socio-political views.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Peter G. J. Pulzer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zCoUo84hXDEC The rise of political anti-semitism in Germany &amp; Austria]'' (Harvard University Press, 1