Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Noah's Ark

2011-06-04T02:47:37Z

EvelynJ:

The claim that the Chinese character for boat is flawed. The word 'boat' in Chinese is made up of three parts, 'boat', 'mouth' however the last part is not 'eight'. It is a radical which looks similar to 'eight' but in fact is not. It means table. Could this be changed?
[[User:EvelynJ|EvelynJ]]

"asswaged"?
:Yes. ''Asswaged'' is the proper Biblical spelling of the modern ''assuaged'', as it is in the original authorized English translation of the Holy Scriptures. Many modern "King James" Bibles actually alter the text, which can lead to confusion and errant exegesis (see [http://www.jesus-is-savior.com/Bible/king_james_glossary.htm "King James Glossary"] & [http://www.biblebelievers.com/believers-org/counterfeit-kjv.html "Believers Beware of Counterfeit King James Bibles"] for other spelling alterations).

:: Um, how can changing the spelling in a translation result in exegetic problems? [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 14:57, 7 March 2007 (EST)

:King James-onlyism is not an official position of Conservapedia last I checked. [[User:MountainDew|MountainDew]] 15:01, 7 March 2007 (EST)
:: Oh my, was that the logic behind the user's comment. *checks link*. Yep, wow. I don't know what to say to that. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 15:08, 7 March 2007 (EST)
:: In fact, looking at that website in detail it argues for among other things the old-style British spelling of "Savior" as "Saviour" so per Conservapedias rules about British and American English if anything Conservapedia is anti-KJV onlyism. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 15:13, 7 March 2007 (EST)

:::By that reasoning, any edition claiming to be the King James Version that omits the Apocrypha is counterfeit. What do they have to say about the Apocrypha? Is it OK to omit them? [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 16:13, 7 March 2007 (EST)

:::(Sigh) Why do I even ask? Yes, they have [http://www.biblebelievers.com/Gipp/answer/gipp_answer_34.html a pat answer]. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 16:13, 7 March 2007 (EST)
:::: Well at least they are aware that the apocrpha was in the original KJV. Many KJVist don't even know that. I can spot at least 4 factual errors in that piece though (ignoring things that aren't factual errors per se but just very odd language choice like the "Jewish Church"). What fun. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 16:17, 7 March 2007 (EST)

::::: Conservapedia is obviously '''not''' King-James-only, since the article on the [[Ark of the Covenant]] says it was made of "acacia" wood. :-) [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 13:37, 10 March 2007 (EST)

== Dates ==

Excuse me but where the heck are the Roman calendar dates coming from? There is no way that that was the calendrical system in use. Most likely the system refferred to is a lunar calendar or lunar-solar calendar like that that Jews currently use. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 14:59, 7 March 2007 (EST)

== Post-Diluvian Content ==

I am unsure that the explanation of the dispersal of animals from after they exited the Ark is within the scope of this article as it isn't really ''about'' the Ark itself. I think instead a separate article on the Post-Diluvian Diasporas should be created and linked to from here. [[User:Rich P|Dr. Richard Paley]] 08:34, 10 March 2007 (EST)
: I agree. Started article [[Post-Diluvian Diasporas]]--[[User:AustinM|AustinM]] 11:23, 10 March 2007 (EST)

== Polar Bears? ==

Were polar species such as [[Polar Bear]]s and [[Penguin]]s to be found on the ark? I'm guessing they would not be friendly with their cell-mates for 40 days: Feeding regiments must have been tricky, but above all the middle-eastern climate must have been damaging to their well-being.

If God can flood the Earth, he can keep penguins alive. [[User:MountainDew|MountainDew]] 01:21, 14 March 2007 (EDT)

:If God can keep penguins alive, he could've just let all chosen animals and humans survive miraculously without the need for an ark. ;) --[[User:Sid 3050|Sid 3050]] 09:29, 14 March 2007 (EDT)
:: I included a comment about dinosaurs, which conceivably could have had difficulty coexisting on the Ark with other animals, as another controversial issue about the Ark. However, I'm not sure why it was removed. [[User:Fairandbalanced|Fairandbalanced]] 22:17, 21 March 2007 (EDT)
::: Not being the one who removed it, I couldn't say for sure, but it was a fairly vague criticism (what "difficulty"?), and not worthy of an encyclopedia article as it stood. However, I don't think locking the article was justified; apart from your (presumably well-intentioned) edit there was only ''one'' attempt at vandalism. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 22:40, 21 March 2007 (EDT)
:::: Thanks. It seems like a fair amount of content on Conservapedia is locked from editing. In addition, it may be worth pointing out that as one possibility, the reason why dinosaurs are extinct is because they were not allowed on the Ark. [[User:Fairandbalanced|Fairandbalanced]] 10:41, 22 March 2007 (EDT)
::::: I was premature in the above comment, as according to this: http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/Area/AnswersBook/dinosaurs19.asp, dinosaurs were definitely on the ark. [[User:Fairandbalanced|Fairandbalanced]] 14:03, 22 March 2007 (EDT)
::::::You are aware that this is a hotly debated topic, yes? --[[User:Hojimachong|'''Hojimachong''']][[User_Talk:Hojimachong|talk]] 14:13, 22 March 2007 (EDT)
:::::It is important to consider that, pace Carl Everett, that dinosaurs and their fossilized 'remains' might well be red herrings of a sort, designed by Satan to trap or confuse the believer. [[User:DunsScotus|DunsScotus]] 14:16, 22 March 2007 (EDT)
::::::Hmmm, I'll just point you to [[Theistic Evolution]] and [[Old Earth Creationism]], both classes consider themselves Christian. --[[User:Hojimachong|'''Hojimachong''']][[User_Talk:Hojimachong|talk]] 14:18, 22 March 2007 (EDT)

'''Fairandbalanced''': Yes, the Bible says that two (or more) of ''every'' kind of land-dwelling, air-breathing creature were on the ark. This leaves two possibilities: (a) Dinosaurs were on the ark, or (b) dinosaurs were extinct before the flood. However, the second option is ruled out because there are fossils of them in flood-laid deposits, indicating that they were around at the time of the flood.

'''Hojimachong''', I'm not sure what you are getting at there. What is hotly debated? That dinosaurs were on the ark? Although there is a debate over whether the ark existed (as described in Genesis at least), I'm not aware of any real debate on, if the story is true, whether dinosaurs were on it.

'''DunsScotus''': No informed creationist claims that dinosaurs were designed by Satan to trap or confuse believers.

[[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 21:15, 22 March 2007 (EDT)

==Pic added==
And other improvements will follow. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 21:58, 21 March 2007 (EDT)

==Disambig [[Great Flood]]==
Great Flood should be a separate article, and the title should not have to redirect here. Noah's ark should be about the ark, it's description, and a history of searches for it. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 12:17, 22 March 2007 (EDT)

:I agree, and I've actually started drafting (off-line) an article for the flood itself. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 21:37, 22 March 2007 (EDT)

== Objections ==

This isn't a troll, though it may seem like one at times such is my contempt for the biblical creationist point of view. Bear with me, I'm genuinely interested in the answers to my objections. From my observations, it seems to me that creationists prefer answers to objections that don't break any known law of physics over the ultimate fallback, "god made it so with magic" wherever possible. For example, when it is pointed out that naval engineering even thousands of years later was not up to producing such a large vessel, fundamentalists seem to prefer to postulate that Noah used space frame construction rather than, say, god used magic to bring about a localised increase in the molecular binding force. Of course, none of the so-called "creationist scientists" would actually break out mathematica and attempt to prove such construction is possible, because I suspect in their hearts they know it is not. So, given this, I wonder how the following objections are reconciled with the real world:

: The Ark was supposed to be what amounts to a closed system for a year. In a year, animals will eat several times their body weight in food, especially grazers such as rabbits or cattle which derive very little nutrition from that food they eat. It follows that most of the Ark must have been given over to the storage of fresh water and food supplies, thus drastically reducing the space available for animals. Fresh water is always a problem in such situations, humans can drink spirits such as rum, which keep far longer than water does. However, most animals can not. By the second month, the fresh water supplies would be brackish and undrinkable, disease would quickly spread. Similarly, food would rot. It is not possible to preserve fodder for animals for an entire year. How is this reconciled with the rosy picture the bible paints?

: As already noted, most of the Ark must have been devoted to stores. It is accepted even by creationists that the Ark could not have contained even one pair of every species, instead they fall back on that ultimate moveable feast, [[Baramin]]. Personally, "kinds" simply sounds to me like a pre-scientific word for species, but lets accept the creationist definition for now. Given that we see from the debate topic that creationists do not believe in evolution to the point of a wolf becoming a domestic dog, how is this notion reconciled with the current diversity of species? Even if we accept evolution, how is it possible to reconcile the idea that all existing species descend from the occupants of the Ark, with the idea that all this happened only 5000 years ago? Observably too little time to account for the present diversity.

: The flood waters covered the entire world, yet once they had receded the occupants of the Ark were able to exit and continue with their lives much as they had done previously. Considering all vegetation must have been wiped out, how is this possible? As you can observe at any local beach, it takes a pretty hardy type of plant to thrive in a saltwater environment, these plants would be the first to return. Very little else would grow in the immediate aftermath of a global flood. It would take hundreds of years for vegetation to return to anything like what it was pre-flood. In the mean time, how did the animals survive? How did humans manage cultivation in an environment saturated with salt?

--[[User:Abrown|Abrown]] 13:15, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

:Abrown, I'm sure it would have been possible for Noah's wife and daughters to have tended a vegetable and herb garden, perhaps with some (salt-sensitive) citrus trees for the duration of the flood. This would have reduced scurvy among the animals and family members, and provided fresh foodstuffs for the animals. It is important, moreover, to remember that this was the Lord's work, and what the Lord set asunder, He certainly worked to repair. [[User:DunsScotus|DunsScotus]] 18:07, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

::Scurvy can also be kept in check through the vitamins and minerals that are absorbed in the body through the consumption of various organs, such as: eyes, hearts and livers. Noah's family clearly ate some of the animals to provide necessary nutrition and disease prevention, although some animals unfortunately went the way of the Dodo. I think this makes a lot more sense than salt-sensitive citrus. --[[User:Huey gunna getcha|Huey gunna getcha]] 18:10, 28 March 2007 (EDT)
::: That might explain why the unicorn didn't make it. There's that story of it being late and missing the boat but perhaps they sacrificed it for the greater good. A scapegoat of sorts. [[User:GentlemanSun|GentlemanSun]]
::: See, that only sounds reasonable until you think about it. Think about the number of animals vs. deck space. Maybe that would work with hydroponics and full spectrum lamps, but the bible mysteriously fails to mention any of those. --[[User:Abrown|Abrown]] 21:48, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

ABrown, thank you for putting your questions in a fairly civil manner. I couldn't count the number of times I've had sceptics be downright rude about such things. However, I will chastise you a bit, for having such a negative attitude about creation ("my contempt for the biblical creationist point of view") when you obviously have little idea of the concept that you have so much contempt for. Answers to your questions are readily available from creationist sources, so if you don't know them, you haven't looked for them, yet you seem to think you know enough about creationism to have contempt for it! And I'll also chastise you for your putting the term "creationist scientist" in quotes, as though they are not scientists—that's not nice and not fair.

I have to go out shortly, so may not get to answer everything now, but I will be back.

The observations that you mentioned in your third sentence is correct. Despite frequent accusations to the contrary, creationists do not fall back on "God did it", except is certain circumstance (such as the Bible ''saying'' that God did it).

I disagree that none of the creationists would do the maths on space-frame construction. They may not have yet, but creationary scientists are relatively few in number and get virtually no government or other funding (except for donations from supporters), which severely limits the research that can be done. If you'd like to fund this research... :-)

Gotta go now; I'll be back. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 19:20, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

: I think it is fair to cast doubt on so-called "creationist scientists" scientific credentials. How can any process be called scientific when the theory is pre-existing and unmodifiable? A scientist doesn't start with a theory, and attempt to manipulate the data to fit it. They observe facts and attempt to draft a theory to fit it. The very phrase "creationist scientist" already predefines their views, and those views are unchanging regardless of the mountain of evidence to the contrary. I think the space frame example is a good benchmark for the whole of "creation science", the Bible suggests there existed a man called Noah who build a vast boat. Sceptics of this view have pointed out that there has never existed a wooden boat of similar size, and that it seems that such a boat would be beyond the tolerances of a purely wooden structure. Creationists respond with a theory that it was constructed using techniques humans have only discovered during the 20th century. At this point a real scientist would attempt to create a model to prove his theory is at least possible, but so-called "creationist scientists" do not. All the creationist "evidence" is like this, unfounded speculation with a thin veneer of plausibility. --[[User:Abrown|Abrown]] 21:58, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

Part 2:

I don't know the specific answers to your questions about life on the ark, but I do know that a creationist has studied these issues extensively and published a book on them. The book is ''Noah's Ark; a Feasibility Study''. If you really are interested in finding the answers, I suggest you read that book. He does calculate, if I recall correctly, that only about one third of the space on the ark would be needed to house the animals themselves.

I dispute your characterisation that creationists "fall back" on using ''baramin''. This suggests that ''species'' is the obvious intention, and ''baramin'' is an unlikely alternative. But why is this so? I know of no reason whatsoever, except for an irrelevant etymological one, for supposing that ''species'' was the intention. I also dispute that it is a "movable feast" any more than ''species'' is.

You are simply wrong to assert that creationists don't believe in speciation, and they do accept that wolves and dogs are related. Speciation can happen quite rapidly, and the time available since the flood is quite sufficient.

I think the afore-mentioned book also explains how the people and animals survived after disembarking, but the Bible actually explains that they didn't leave the ark until there was new growth. Clearly it wouldn't take hundreds of years for vegetation to return in sufficient quantities to feed the relatively few creatures that had been on the ark. And I also see no reason for supposing that life continued much as it had done before; I expect that life was quite different. The flood waters would have been nowhere near as salty as they are today, so the salt was likely not a problem at all, or a minor one at worst.

What makes you think that creationism is unmodifiable and unchanging? This is nothing more than a sceptic-spread furphy, and is dead wrong. Your rosy picture of impartial scientists observing facts and drafting a theory to fit it is the ideal, but far from reality. If "creationist scientist" predefines their views, then can the same be said of "evolutionist scientist"?

You say that sceptics point out that there has never been a wooden boat of that size, but surely that is (a) an argument from ignorance ("we don't know of one so there must not have been one") and (b) begs the question ("we reject that the ark—a wooden boat of that size—existed, so we therefore know of no wooden boats of that size").

Your comment about space-frame construction only being discovered in the 20th century is itself ''based'' on your evolutionary views. Evolutionists believe that man has evolved to be smarter and smarter, so in the past was too primitive to invent great technology. Creationists, conversely, believe that man was created without blemish, and has ''deteriorated'' since. It follows that man was ''smarter'' in the past (although lacking the accumulated knowledge that we have built up over time). Therefore, how do you know that Noah (or God for that matter, as he gave Noah the instructions) didn't know about space-frame construction, and that it wasn't ''rediscovered'' in modern times? Your basis for rejecting this possibility seems to be your evolutionary paradigm, not any inconsistency with the facts nor the creationary view.

[[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 00:45, 29 March 2007 (EDT)

"Evolutionists believe that man has evolved to be smarter and smarter, so in the past was too primitive to invent great technology." - em.. no, what on earth gave you that idea? average IQ has increased for a number of reasons but nowhere near the levels required to make that statement true. Why is this article locked? --[[User:Cgday|Cgday]] 12:27, 10 April 2007 (EDT)

== BBC Article: Dutchman builds modern Noah's Ark ==

 <nowiki> *{{Harvard reference </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Surname = BBC </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Given = British Broadcasting Corporation </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Year = 2006 </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Date = 2006-03-28 </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Title = Dutchman builds modern Noah's Ark </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Publisher = BBC News 24 </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | URL = </nowiki>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4853890.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4853890.stm]
 <nowiki> }} Retrieved on 2007-05-13 </nowiki>

Hope this helps. [[User:HeartOfGold|HeartOfGold]] 23:10, 13 May 2007 (EDT)

:One other comment. If we only had written descriptions of the pyramids, we would not believe that ancient civilizations could have built them. [[User:HeartOfGold|HeartOfGold]] 23:13, 13 May 2007 (EDT)

== Kinds ==

I think ''kinds'' should be linked to [[Baraminology]] [[User:PrometheusX303|PrometheusX303]] 09:36, 15 July 2007 (EDT)
:Done! [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 11:24, 15 July 2007 (EDT)

== cubit ==

I suggest the "design and construction" section note that there are different widely-used lengths of the cubit in ancient times (egyptian royal, sumerian nipur, roman, greek, arabic, and the potential that the cubit referred to in Genesis was different than all of them), so we don't really know what the size of the ark was in feet. [[User:Ungtss|Ungtss]] 11:47, 15 July 2007 (EDT)

: Do you by chance read [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v2/n2/original-cubit Answers Magazine]? I agree. You might also want to include which cubit measurement was used in the current cited size, and also add more info to [[cubit]]. [[User:PrometheusX303|PrometheusX303]] 10:06, 23 July 2007 (EDT)
:: Good to see you again, my friend:). The protection of creationism-oriented articles makes development very difficult without admins dedicated to discussing and making changes. Simple, commonsense edits like this one seem to just sit on talk pages and go nowhere:(. [[User:Ungtss|Ungtss]] 20:56, 25 July 2007 (EDT)

== Lets distinguish between articles ==

I feel that with this subject, there could be a lot of duplication between this one and the [[Great Flood]]. This article should be talking about the Ark as you would talk about any vessel. Another way we could look at this is, we shouldn't see any general flood criticisms in this article, but we might have criticisms of the ark as a vessel. Also, we don't need to talk about the life of Noah here, since it's about the vessel itself. Just some thoughts to keep in mind while we edit. --[[User:Ymmotrojam|Ymmotrojam]] 20:56, 20 June 2008 (EDT)
: I agree. And in the same vein, [[Great Flood]] is about flood accounts, not about [[Flood geology]], which has its own article.

== References ==

It's common in Bible study notes and the like to put scripture references inline, but in other publications, it's normal to put references as footnotes or the like. This being an encyclopaedia, I think we should put scripture references in as footnotes rather than inline, as they were before Ymmotrojam changed them.

Also, Ymmotrojam removed the explanatory footnote of the flood being a year long. The Bible doesn't spell out in so many words that it lasted a year, so as it's a (simple) deduction from what it does say, I feel that this footnote should have remained.

[[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 23:57, 20 June 2008 (EDT)

==Depth of the Ark==
Is there a measurement for the depth of the Ark? The draft is the measurement from the keel to the waterline. It would be helpful to know the cubic meters for the Ark to understand its size.--[[User:Able806|Able806]] 09:47, 8 December 2008 (EST)
: Did you see the footnote for the draft? [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 09:53, 8 December 2008 (EST)
::No, I did not, thank you for pointing that out. Could we add the 30 cubits since most hull measurements include depth? I would add it but the page is locked.--[[User:Able806|Able806]] 10:01, 8 December 2008 (EST)

==Responses to Criticisms==
I recently received my copy of Woodmorappe's Ark Feasibility Study and I see that it comprehensibly addresses all of the criticisms listed. I would like to address each criticism with a '''Response'''. Is there any chance of this article being unlocked? [[User:CherylE|CherylE]] 12:27, 29 January 2009 (EST)
: I've unlocked it. It's been locked too long anyway. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 15:00, 29 January 2009 (EST)

== problematic use of reference - the graph ==

Dear ladies and gentlemen,

apart from the general questionable character of the Noah's Ark article, I as a historian have to object to the graph presented. Obviously methods of ship construction evolved during the first millenium B.C., wherefor the equation of technolgy levels presented is inacceptable. The graph, whereever it may come from, is clearly not based on scientific grounds. The succession of "Roman era, Dark Ages, Renaissance" is clearly made up in regards to general history, history of technology and history of ship-building.

The presented "model" of the Ark is absurd at the least. If one feels the urge to present the Ark as anything other as an allegory, it should be done another way. I would suggest a whole fleet for the beginning...

With best regards,

J.F.H.

Talk:Noah's Ark

2011-06-04T02:46:04Z

EvelynJ:

The claim that the Chinese character for boat is flawed. The word 'boat' in Chinese is made up of three parts, 'boat', 'mouth' however the last part is not 'eight'. It is a radical which looks similar to 'eight' but in fact is not. Could this be changed?

"asswaged"?
:Yes. ''Asswaged'' is the proper Biblical spelling of the modern ''assuaged'', as it is in the original authorized English translation of the Holy Scriptures. Many modern "King James" Bibles actually alter the text, which can lead to confusion and errant exegesis (see [http://www.jesus-is-savior.com/Bible/king_james_glossary.htm "King James Glossary"] & [http://www.biblebelievers.com/believers-org/counterfeit-kjv.html "Believers Beware of Counterfeit King James Bibles"] for other spelling alterations).

:: Um, how can changing the spelling in a translation result in exegetic problems? [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 14:57, 7 March 2007 (EST)

:King James-onlyism is not an official position of Conservapedia last I checked. [[User:MountainDew|MountainDew]] 15:01, 7 March 2007 (EST)
:: Oh my, was that the logic behind the user's comment. *checks link*. Yep, wow. I don't know what to say to that. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 15:08, 7 March 2007 (EST)
:: In fact, looking at that website in detail it argues for among other things the old-style British spelling of "Savior" as "Saviour" so per Conservapedias rules about British and American English if anything Conservapedia is anti-KJV onlyism. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 15:13, 7 March 2007 (EST)

:::By that reasoning, any edition claiming to be the King James Version that omits the Apocrypha is counterfeit. What do they have to say about the Apocrypha? Is it OK to omit them? [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 16:13, 7 March 2007 (EST)

:::(Sigh) Why do I even ask? Yes, they have [http://www.biblebelievers.com/Gipp/answer/gipp_answer_34.html a pat answer]. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 16:13, 7 March 2007 (EST)
:::: Well at least they are aware that the apocrpha was in the original KJV. Many KJVist don't even know that. I can spot at least 4 factual errors in that piece though (ignoring things that aren't factual errors per se but just very odd language choice like the "Jewish Church"). What fun. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 16:17, 7 March 2007 (EST)

::::: Conservapedia is obviously '''not''' King-James-only, since the article on the [[Ark of the Covenant]] says it was made of "acacia" wood. :-) [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 13:37, 10 March 2007 (EST)

== Dates ==

Excuse me but where the heck are the Roman calendar dates coming from? There is no way that that was the calendrical system in use. Most likely the system refferred to is a lunar calendar or lunar-solar calendar like that that Jews currently use. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] 14:59, 7 March 2007 (EST)

== Post-Diluvian Content ==

I am unsure that the explanation of the dispersal of animals from after they exited the Ark is within the scope of this article as it isn't really ''about'' the Ark itself. I think instead a separate article on the Post-Diluvian Diasporas should be created and linked to from here. [[User:Rich P|Dr. Richard Paley]] 08:34, 10 March 2007 (EST)
: I agree. Started article [[Post-Diluvian Diasporas]]--[[User:AustinM|AustinM]] 11:23, 10 March 2007 (EST)

== Polar Bears? ==

Were polar species such as [[Polar Bear]]s and [[Penguin]]s to be found on the ark? I'm guessing they would not be friendly with their cell-mates for 40 days: Feeding regiments must have been tricky, but above all the middle-eastern climate must have been damaging to their well-being.

If God can flood the Earth, he can keep penguins alive. [[User:MountainDew|MountainDew]] 01:21, 14 March 2007 (EDT)

:If God can keep penguins alive, he could've just let all chosen animals and humans survive miraculously without the need for an ark. ;) --[[User:Sid 3050|Sid 3050]] 09:29, 14 March 2007 (EDT)
:: I included a comment about dinosaurs, which conceivably could have had difficulty coexisting on the Ark with other animals, as another controversial issue about the Ark. However, I'm not sure why it was removed. [[User:Fairandbalanced|Fairandbalanced]] 22:17, 21 March 2007 (EDT)
::: Not being the one who removed it, I couldn't say for sure, but it was a fairly vague criticism (what "difficulty"?), and not worthy of an encyclopedia article as it stood. However, I don't think locking the article was justified; apart from your (presumably well-intentioned) edit there was only ''one'' attempt at vandalism. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 22:40, 21 March 2007 (EDT)
:::: Thanks. It seems like a fair amount of content on Conservapedia is locked from editing. In addition, it may be worth pointing out that as one possibility, the reason why dinosaurs are extinct is because they were not allowed on the Ark. [[User:Fairandbalanced|Fairandbalanced]] 10:41, 22 March 2007 (EDT)
::::: I was premature in the above comment, as according to this: http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/Area/AnswersBook/dinosaurs19.asp, dinosaurs were definitely on the ark. [[User:Fairandbalanced|Fairandbalanced]] 14:03, 22 March 2007 (EDT)
::::::You are aware that this is a hotly debated topic, yes? --[[User:Hojimachong|'''Hojimachong''']][[User_Talk:Hojimachong|talk]] 14:13, 22 March 2007 (EDT)
:::::It is important to consider that, pace Carl Everett, that dinosaurs and their fossilized 'remains' might well be red herrings of a sort, designed by Satan to trap or confuse the believer. [[User:DunsScotus|DunsScotus]] 14:16, 22 March 2007 (EDT)
::::::Hmmm, I'll just point you to [[Theistic Evolution]] and [[Old Earth Creationism]], both classes consider themselves Christian. --[[User:Hojimachong|'''Hojimachong''']][[User_Talk:Hojimachong|talk]] 14:18, 22 March 2007 (EDT)

'''Fairandbalanced''': Yes, the Bible says that two (or more) of ''every'' kind of land-dwelling, air-breathing creature were on the ark. This leaves two possibilities: (a) Dinosaurs were on the ark, or (b) dinosaurs were extinct before the flood. However, the second option is ruled out because there are fossils of them in flood-laid deposits, indicating that they were around at the time of the flood.

'''Hojimachong''', I'm not sure what you are getting at there. What is hotly debated? That dinosaurs were on the ark? Although there is a debate over whether the ark existed (as described in Genesis at least), I'm not aware of any real debate on, if the story is true, whether dinosaurs were on it.

'''DunsScotus''': No informed creationist claims that dinosaurs were designed by Satan to trap or confuse believers.

[[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 21:15, 22 March 2007 (EDT)

==Pic added==
And other improvements will follow. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 21:58, 21 March 2007 (EDT)

==Disambig [[Great Flood]]==
Great Flood should be a separate article, and the title should not have to redirect here. Noah's ark should be about the ark, it's description, and a history of searches for it. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 12:17, 22 March 2007 (EDT)

:I agree, and I've actually started drafting (off-line) an article for the flood itself. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 21:37, 22 March 2007 (EDT)

== Objections ==

This isn't a troll, though it may seem like one at times such is my contempt for the biblical creationist point of view. Bear with me, I'm genuinely interested in the answers to my objections. From my observations, it seems to me that creationists prefer answers to objections that don't break any known law of physics over the ultimate fallback, "god made it so with magic" wherever possible. For example, when it is pointed out that naval engineering even thousands of years later was not up to producing such a large vessel, fundamentalists seem to prefer to postulate that Noah used space frame construction rather than, say, god used magic to bring about a localised increase in the molecular binding force. Of course, none of the so-called "creationist scientists" would actually break out mathematica and attempt to prove such construction is possible, because I suspect in their hearts they know it is not. So, given this, I wonder how the following objections are reconciled with the real world:

: The Ark was supposed to be what amounts to a closed system for a year. In a year, animals will eat several times their body weight in food, especially grazers such as rabbits or cattle which derive very little nutrition from that food they eat. It follows that most of the Ark must have been given over to the storage of fresh water and food supplies, thus drastically reducing the space available for animals. Fresh water is always a problem in such situations, humans can drink spirits such as rum, which keep far longer than water does. However, most animals can not. By the second month, the fresh water supplies would be brackish and undrinkable, disease would quickly spread. Similarly, food would rot. It is not possible to preserve fodder for animals for an entire year. How is this reconciled with the rosy picture the bible paints?

: As already noted, most of the Ark must have been devoted to stores. It is accepted even by creationists that the Ark could not have contained even one pair of every species, instead they fall back on that ultimate moveable feast, [[Baramin]]. Personally, "kinds" simply sounds to me like a pre-scientific word for species, but lets accept the creationist definition for now. Given that we see from the debate topic that creationists do not believe in evolution to the point of a wolf becoming a domestic dog, how is this notion reconciled with the current diversity of species? Even if we accept evolution, how is it possible to reconcile the idea that all existing species descend from the occupants of the Ark, with the idea that all this happened only 5000 years ago? Observably too little time to account for the present diversity.

: The flood waters covered the entire world, yet once they had receded the occupants of the Ark were able to exit and continue with their lives much as they had done previously. Considering all vegetation must have been wiped out, how is this possible? As you can observe at any local beach, it takes a pretty hardy type of plant to thrive in a saltwater environment, these plants would be the first to return. Very little else would grow in the immediate aftermath of a global flood. It would take hundreds of years for vegetation to return to anything like what it was pre-flood. In the mean time, how did the animals survive? How did humans manage cultivation in an environment saturated with salt?

--[[User:Abrown|Abrown]] 13:15, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

:Abrown, I'm sure it would have been possible for Noah's wife and daughters to have tended a vegetable and herb garden, perhaps with some (salt-sensitive) citrus trees for the duration of the flood. This would have reduced scurvy among the animals and family members, and provided fresh foodstuffs for the animals. It is important, moreover, to remember that this was the Lord's work, and what the Lord set asunder, He certainly worked to repair. [[User:DunsScotus|DunsScotus]] 18:07, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

::Scurvy can also be kept in check through the vitamins and minerals that are absorbed in the body through the consumption of various organs, such as: eyes, hearts and livers. Noah's family clearly ate some of the animals to provide necessary nutrition and disease prevention, although some animals unfortunately went the way of the Dodo. I think this makes a lot more sense than salt-sensitive citrus. --[[User:Huey gunna getcha|Huey gunna getcha]] 18:10, 28 March 2007 (EDT)
::: That might explain why the unicorn didn't make it. There's that story of it being late and missing the boat but perhaps they sacrificed it for the greater good. A scapegoat of sorts. [[User:GentlemanSun|GentlemanSun]]
::: See, that only sounds reasonable until you think about it. Think about the number of animals vs. deck space. Maybe that would work with hydroponics and full spectrum lamps, but the bible mysteriously fails to mention any of those. --[[User:Abrown|Abrown]] 21:48, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

ABrown, thank you for putting your questions in a fairly civil manner. I couldn't count the number of times I've had sceptics be downright rude about such things. However, I will chastise you a bit, for having such a negative attitude about creation ("my contempt for the biblical creationist point of view") when you obviously have little idea of the concept that you have so much contempt for. Answers to your questions are readily available from creationist sources, so if you don't know them, you haven't looked for them, yet you seem to think you know enough about creationism to have contempt for it! And I'll also chastise you for your putting the term "creationist scientist" in quotes, as though they are not scientists—that's not nice and not fair.

I have to go out shortly, so may not get to answer everything now, but I will be back.

The observations that you mentioned in your third sentence is correct. Despite frequent accusations to the contrary, creationists do not fall back on "God did it", except is certain circumstance (such as the Bible ''saying'' that God did it).

I disagree that none of the creationists would do the maths on space-frame construction. They may not have yet, but creationary scientists are relatively few in number and get virtually no government or other funding (except for donations from supporters), which severely limits the research that can be done. If you'd like to fund this research... :-)

Gotta go now; I'll be back. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 19:20, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

: I think it is fair to cast doubt on so-called "creationist scientists" scientific credentials. How can any process be called scientific when the theory is pre-existing and unmodifiable? A scientist doesn't start with a theory, and attempt to manipulate the data to fit it. They observe facts and attempt to draft a theory to fit it. The very phrase "creationist scientist" already predefines their views, and those views are unchanging regardless of the mountain of evidence to the contrary. I think the space frame example is a good benchmark for the whole of "creation science", the Bible suggests there existed a man called Noah who build a vast boat. Sceptics of this view have pointed out that there has never existed a wooden boat of similar size, and that it seems that such a boat would be beyond the tolerances of a purely wooden structure. Creationists respond with a theory that it was constructed using techniques humans have only discovered during the 20th century. At this point a real scientist would attempt to create a model to prove his theory is at least possible, but so-called "creationist scientists" do not. All the creationist "evidence" is like this, unfounded speculation with a thin veneer of plausibility. --[[User:Abrown|Abrown]] 21:58, 28 March 2007 (EDT)

Part 2:

I don't know the specific answers to your questions about life on the ark, but I do know that a creationist has studied these issues extensively and published a book on them. The book is ''Noah's Ark; a Feasibility Study''. If you really are interested in finding the answers, I suggest you read that book. He does calculate, if I recall correctly, that only about one third of the space on the ark would be needed to house the animals themselves.

I dispute your characterisation that creationists "fall back" on using ''baramin''. This suggests that ''species'' is the obvious intention, and ''baramin'' is an unlikely alternative. But why is this so? I know of no reason whatsoever, except for an irrelevant etymological one, for supposing that ''species'' was the intention. I also dispute that it is a "movable feast" any more than ''species'' is.

You are simply wrong to assert that creationists don't believe in speciation, and they do accept that wolves and dogs are related. Speciation can happen quite rapidly, and the time available since the flood is quite sufficient.

I think the afore-mentioned book also explains how the people and animals survived after disembarking, but the Bible actually explains that they didn't leave the ark until there was new growth. Clearly it wouldn't take hundreds of years for vegetation to return in sufficient quantities to feed the relatively few creatures that had been on the ark. And I also see no reason for supposing that life continued much as it had done before; I expect that life was quite different. The flood waters would have been nowhere near as salty as they are today, so the salt was likely not a problem at all, or a minor one at worst.

What makes you think that creationism is unmodifiable and unchanging? This is nothing more than a sceptic-spread furphy, and is dead wrong. Your rosy picture of impartial scientists observing facts and drafting a theory to fit it is the ideal, but far from reality. If "creationist scientist" predefines their views, then can the same be said of "evolutionist scientist"?

You say that sceptics point out that there has never been a wooden boat of that size, but surely that is (a) an argument from ignorance ("we don't know of one so there must not have been one") and (b) begs the question ("we reject that the ark—a wooden boat of that size—existed, so we therefore know of no wooden boats of that size").

Your comment about space-frame construction only being discovered in the 20th century is itself ''based'' on your evolutionary views. Evolutionists believe that man has evolved to be smarter and smarter, so in the past was too primitive to invent great technology. Creationists, conversely, believe that man was created without blemish, and has ''deteriorated'' since. It follows that man was ''smarter'' in the past (although lacking the accumulated knowledge that we have built up over time). Therefore, how do you know that Noah (or God for that matter, as he gave Noah the instructions) didn't know about space-frame construction, and that it wasn't ''rediscovered'' in modern times? Your basis for rejecting this possibility seems to be your evolutionary paradigm, not any inconsistency with the facts nor the creationary view.

[[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 00:45, 29 March 2007 (EDT)

"Evolutionists believe that man has evolved to be smarter and smarter, so in the past was too primitive to invent great technology." - em.. no, what on earth gave you that idea? average IQ has increased for a number of reasons but nowhere near the levels required to make that statement true. Why is this article locked? --[[User:Cgday|Cgday]] 12:27, 10 April 2007 (EDT)

== BBC Article: Dutchman builds modern Noah's Ark ==

 <nowiki> *{{Harvard reference </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Surname = BBC </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Given = British Broadcasting Corporation </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Year = 2006 </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Date = 2006-03-28 </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Title = Dutchman builds modern Noah's Ark </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | Publisher = BBC News 24 </nowiki>
 <nowiki> | URL = </nowiki>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4853890.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4853890.stm]
 <nowiki> }} Retrieved on 2007-05-13 </nowiki>

Hope this helps. [[User:HeartOfGold|HeartOfGold]] 23:10, 13 May 2007 (EDT)

:One other comment. If we only had written descriptions of the pyramids, we would not believe that ancient civilizations could have built them. [[User:HeartOfGold|HeartOfGold]] 23:13, 13 May 2007 (EDT)

== Kinds ==

I think ''kinds'' should be linked to [[Baraminology]] [[User:PrometheusX303|PrometheusX303]] 09:36, 15 July 2007 (EDT)
:Done! [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 11:24, 15 July 2007 (EDT)

== cubit ==

I suggest the "design and construction" section note that there are different widely-used lengths of the cubit in ancient times (egyptian royal, sumerian nipur, roman, greek, arabic, and the potential that the cubit referred to in Genesis was different than all of them), so we don't really know what the size of the ark was in feet. [[User:Ungtss|Ungtss]] 11:47, 15 July 2007 (EDT)

: Do you by chance read [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v2/n2/original-cubit Answers Magazine]? I agree. You might also want to include which cubit measurement was used in the current cited size, and also add more info to [[cubit]]. [[User:PrometheusX303|PrometheusX303]] 10:06, 23 July 2007 (EDT)
:: Good to see you again, my friend:). The protection of creationism-oriented articles makes development very difficult without admins dedicated to discussing and making changes. Simple, commonsense edits like this one seem to just sit on talk pages and go nowhere:(. [[User:Ungtss|Ungtss]] 20:56, 25 July 2007 (EDT)

== Lets distinguish between articles ==

I feel that with this subject, there could be a lot of duplication between this one and the [[Great Flood]]. This article should be talking about the Ark as you would talk about any vessel. Another way we could look at this is, we shouldn't see any general flood criticisms in this article, but we might have criticisms of the ark as a vessel. Also, we don't need to talk about the life of Noah here, since it's about the vessel itself. Just some thoughts to keep in mind while we edit. --[[User:Ymmotrojam|Ymmotrojam]] 20:56, 20 June 2008 (EDT)
: I agree. And in the same vein, [[Great Flood]] is about flood accounts, not about [[Flood geology]], which has its own article.

== References ==

It's common in Bible study notes and the like to put scripture references inline, but in other publications, it's normal to put references as footnotes or the like. This being an encyclopaedia, I think we should put scripture references in as footnotes rather than inline, as they were before Ymmotrojam changed them.

Also, Ymmotrojam removed the explanatory footnote of the flood being a year long. The Bible doesn't spell out in so many words that it lasted a year, so as it's a (simple) deduction from what it does say, I feel that this footnote should have remained.

[[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 23:57, 20 June 2008 (EDT)

==Depth of the Ark==
Is there a measurement for the depth of the Ark? The draft is the measurement from the keel to the waterline. It would be helpful to know the cubic meters for the Ark to understand its size.--[[User:Able806|Able806]] 09:47, 8 December 2008 (EST)
: Did you see the footnote for the draft? [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 09:53, 8 December 2008 (EST)
::No, I did not, thank you for pointing that out. Could we add the 30 cubits since most hull measurements include depth? I would add it but the page is locked.--[[User:Able806|Able806]] 10:01, 8 December 2008 (EST)

==Responses to Criticisms==
I recently received my copy of Woodmorappe's Ark Feasibility Study and I see that it comprehensibly addresses all of the criticisms listed. I would like to address each criticism with a '''Response'''. Is there any chance of this article being unlocked? [[User:CherylE|CherylE]] 12:27, 29 January 2009 (EST)
: I've unlocked it. It's been locked too long anyway. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 15:00, 29 January 2009 (EST)

== problematic use of reference - the graph ==

Dear ladies and gentlemen,

apart from the general questionable character of the Noah's Ark article, I as a historian have to object to the graph presented. Obviously methods of ship construction evolved during the first millenium B.C., wherefor the equation of technolgy levels presented is inacceptable. The graph, whereever it may come from, is clearly not based on scientific grounds. The succession of "Roman era, Dark Ages, Renaissance" is clearly made up in regards to general history, history of technology and history of ship-building.

The presented "model" of the Ark is absurd at the least. If one feels the urge to present the Ark as anything other as an allegory, it should be done another way. I would suggest a whole fleet for the beginning...

With best regards,

J.F.H.

Cold War

2011-05-28T13:53:23Z

EvelynJ:

The '''Cold War''' was a period of suspicion and distrust between the US and it's alliances and the Soviet Union and it's more or less puppet allies, and was started by [[Josef Stalin]].<ref> [http://cnsnews.com/commentary/article/59591 CNSNews.com - U.S. Honors Stalin on Hallowed Ground – Will Saddam Hussein Be Next?
] </ref>,the natural enmity between communism and most other forms of government and the incompatible goals the two sides held.

The Cold War was marked by a nuclear [[arms race]] between the two super-powers, and the unchecked [[proliferation]] of [[nuclear weapons]] was a cause for concern in many quarters. The Cold War also was marked by high levels of [[espionage]].

Although there was no direct fighting between the superpowers, each country was involved in medium-scale proxy wars, most notably in [[Vietnam]], [[Korea]] and [[Afghanistan]]. The most tense moment between the two main powers came in October 1962 during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], which ended without escalation into warfare.

It was a political, economic and psychological conflict, together with regional hot wars, between the [[United States]], [[NATO]] and other allies, and the [[USSR]], [[China]] and their allies between 1947 and 1989. After 1960, China split with the Soviet Union and set up its own alliances as part of its Cold War with the U.S and it's attempt to overtake the USSR as leader of the communist movement. <ref> [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter98_99/art05.html] </ref>

The tension during the Cold War fluctuated, with the super powers going through periods of heightened conflict and also periods of improved relations. It ended on November 11, 1989, with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet overseas empire. History closed the books on the Soviet Union itself on December 25, 1991. It was replaced by 15 smaller countries, especially [[Russia]], which all rejected Communism and the Cold War.
==Causes==
The success of the wartime alliance with Britain, China and the Soviet Union led Americans to reject the isolationism of the interwar years. Victory in 1945 and the demobilization of the world’s armies and navies brought a general sense of confidence that the wartime alliance would continue and form the leadership of the new [[United Nations]], Hopefully the UN would provide the basis for international law and the solution of all serious problems, but it never lived up to expectations. Instead by 1947 the wartime alliance collapsed; The basic reason being an incompatibility in the two systems that each sought to remold the world too, either in American terms of democracy, liberal government, and capitalism, or else the Soviet goals of dictatorship of the Communist party as the mechanism to destroy capitalism. In immediate terms the issue was the independence of Poland, Czechoslovakia and other central European countries that had been taken over first by the Nazis, and after 1945 by the Soviet army.

[[Harry S. Truman]] had no knowledge or interest in foreign policy before becoming president in April 1945, and depended on the State Department for foreign policy advice. In 1946, George Kennan, an American diplomat wrote the ''Long Telegram'', in which argued for the necessity of [[Containment|containing]] the Soviet Union. His cable resonated with President [[Harry Truman]]'s administration and Truman shifted from FDR's détente to [[containment]] as soon as [[Dean Acheson]] convinced him the Soviet Union was a long-term threat to American interests. They viewed communism as a secular, millennial religion that informed the Kremlin's worldview and actions and made it the chief threat to American security, liberty, and world peace. They rejected the moral equivalence of democratic and Communist governments and concluded that until the regime in Moscow changed only American and Allied strength could curb the Soviets.

Following Acheson's advice, Truman in 1947 announced the [[Truman Doctrine]] of containing Communist expansion by furnishing military and economic American aid to Europe and Asia, and particularly to Greece and Turkey. He followed up with the [[Marshall Plan]], which was enacted into law as the European Recovery Program (ERP) and pumped $12.4 into the European economy, forcing the breakdown of old barriers and encouraging modernization along American lines. The State Department later promoted the Point Four program of "foreign aid" (grants with no repayment) to underdeveloped or "[[Third World]]" countries. In general. the money went to corrupt local officials and little moderization took place. The main success stories came in [[Taiwan]] and [[South Korea]].

====Containment====
In 1947 Truman, a Democrat, convinced the Republican-controlled Congress to support the [[Truman Doctrine]] by sending massive aid to the small country of Greece, threatened by a Communist takeover. The rest of Europe was still in economic ruin, which Washington feared would help the spread of Communism, so the [[Marshall Plan]] was proposed to help restore the European economies. When Stalin engineered a Communist takeover of democratic Czechoslovakia in early 1948, and forbade his satellites to accept Marshall plan moneys, Americans realized that Winston Churchill’s warnings about an “iron curtain” had come true.

The strategy of isolationism had failed by 1941; the strategy of détente(or friendship) with Communism had failed by 1948. Some argued for a strategy of direct confrontation or "[[Rollback]]"—but this was considered too dangerous, especially when the Soviets tested their first nuclear weapon in 1950.

Washington decided on a strategy of containment, as embodied in the the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] ('''NATO''') military alliance set up in 1949. The [[NSC-68]] was a secret 1950 plan adopted at the highest levels of the American government to set the overall strategy, and a further step was taken in 1951 with the establishment of the Mutual Security Agency to coordinate U.S. economic, technical and military aid abroad.

The basic goal of containment was to prevent further Communist expansion, hoping that the internal weaknesses of the Soviet system would soon lead to its collapse. The problem with containment was that it meant fighting wars against Communist expansion, especially in Korea in 1950-53, and in Vietnam 1963-73; and had the basic flaw that the enemy could choose the time and place of movement, while America and its allies had to defend everywhere at all times. In 1949 [[Mao Zedong]] and his Communists won the civil war in China which would make the objective of containment even more unobtainable(as seen in the Chinese intervention in korea).

===Korean War: 1950-1953===
The [[Korean War]] began at the end of June 1950 when North Korea, a Communist country, invaded South Korea, which was not under explicit American protection. Without consulting Congress Truman ordered General [[Douglas MacArthur]] to use all American forces to resist the invasion. Truman then received approval from the United Nations, which the Soviets were boycotting. UN forces managed to cling to a toehold in Korea, as the North Koreans outran their supply system. A counterattack at Inchon destroyed the invasion army, and the UN forces captured most of North Korea on their way to the Yalu River, Korea's northern border with China. Truman defined the war goal as [[rollback]] of Communism and reunification of the country under UN auspices.

In late 1950 China intervened unexpectedly, driving the UN forces all the way back to South Korea. The fighting stabilized close to the original 38th parallel that had divided North and South. MacArthur wanted to continue the rollback strategy but Truman had decided on a new policy of containment, allowing North Korea to persist. Truman's dismissal of MacArthur in April 1951 sparked a vehement debate on American Far Eastern policy, as Truman was blamed for a high-cost stalemate with 37,000 Americans killed and over 100,000 wounded.

==Conflicts==

===Major Cold War Fronts===
====Strategic====
* [[Central Intelligence Agency]], chief US spy agency
* [[Containment]], stopping the expansion of Communism
* [[Détente]], trade and friendly relations with Soviets
* [[Rollback]], destruction of Communism
* [[NSC-68]], key planning document for Cold War 1950
* [[Space Race]], [[Sputnik]] 1957
* [[INF Treaty]]
* [[Nonalignment]]
* [[Strategic Defense Initiative]]

====In Europe====
* [[Truman Doctrine]], 1947
* [[History of Poland]]
* [[Berlin Airlift]], 1948-49
* [[Marshall Plan]], 1948-51
* [[NATO]], 1949- present
* [[Tito]]
* [[Berlin Wall]] 1961-89

====In Asia====
* [[Korean War]] (1950-53)
* [[Vietnam War]] (1965-75)
* [[Domino theory]]
* [[Soviet-Afghan War]], (1978-92)
* [[CENTO]]

====Third World====
* [[Peace Corps]], 1961-present
* [[Cuban Revolution]]
* [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]
* [[Nicaraguan Revolution]], [[Contras]]
* [[Salvadorian Civil War]]
* [[Angolan Civil War]]

===The Shootdown of Korean Airlines Flight 007===

Considered by many as the second or third most critical single incident of the Cold War, after the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] of 1962 and [[Able Archer 83]], the shooting down of [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]], including 269 passengers and crew (among which was Georgia Congressman, [[Larry McDonald]]), on Sept. 1, 1983 signal an escalation in tension during the "Second Cold War."

==Breakup of the Soviet Union and Wars End==

The Western democracies, under the leadership of the United States under President [[Ronald Reagan]] won the Cold War with a policy that rejected detente and containment and instead relied on [[Rollback]]. An important element of this victory was Reagan's decision to commit to increased military spending, such as the "[[Strategic Defense Initiative|Star Wars]]" program. Reagan's decisions to intervene in Afghanistan while pursuing an arms race exacerbated structural weaknesses in the Soviet economy and pushed the USSR into an early decline.

In 1985, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] become General Secretary of the Communist Party.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/11/newsid_2538000/2538327.stm Gorbachev Becomes Soviet Leader], ''BBC'', 11 March, 1985.</ref> Recognizing the systemic problems faced by Soviet society, he attempted the twin reform programs of [[Glasnost]] (openness) and [[Perestroika]] (restructuring). Combined with the disaster at Chernobyl and losses in the war in Afghanistan, the effects of Gorbachev's reforms quickly spun out of control. Glasnost allowed media attention to focus on problems which had long been buried by the state's propaganda regime, causing widespread dissatisfaction among Soviet citizens. In 1989, a wave of constituent republics began to seek autonomy from the Soviet Union. Most attempts at succession (with the exception of Lithuania) were met with no Soviet resistance.

==Further reading==

The Cold War is well documented by political scientists and historians--especially since 1991 when archives were opened in ex-Communist countries. Following are selected major scholarly books and articles in English, and some major memoirs.

for a much longer guide see [[Cold War Bibliography]]

* Bacevich, Andrew J., ed. ''The Long War: A New History of U.S. National Security Policy Since World War II'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0231131585/ref=sib_dp_bod_ex?ie=UTF8&p=S00D#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Ball, S. J. ''The Cold War: An International History, 1947–1991'' (1998), British perspective; short summary; [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-cold-war-an-international-history-1947-1991-by-s-j-ball.jsp online edition]
* Boyle Peter G. ''American-Soviet Relations: From the Russian Revolution to the Fall of Communism.'' (1993).
* Brzezinski, Zbigniew. ''The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century'' (1989)
* Crockatt Richard. ''The Fifty Years War: The United States and the Soviet Union in World Politics, 1941-1991.'' (1995), popular. [http://www.amazon.com/Fifty-Years-War-United-Politics/dp/0415135540/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193967506&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Friedman, Norman. ''The Fifty Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the Cold War''. (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Fifty-Year-War-Conflict-Strategy-Cold/dp/1591142873/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193967539&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Gaddis, John Lewis, ''The Cold War. A New History'', 2005. [http://www.amazon.com/Cold-War-New-History/dp/B000GUJH8A/ref=pd_sxp_grid_i_0_0/103-4827826-5463040 excerpt and text search]
* Gaddis, John Lewis. ''Russia, the Soviet Union and the United States. An Interpretative History'' 2nd ed. (1990)
* Gaddis, John Lewis. ''Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War'' (1987) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100560159 online edition]
* Kegley Jr., Charles W. ed., ''The Long Postwar Peace.'' 1991
* Kort, Michael. ''The Columbia Guide to the Cold War'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Columbia-Guide-Cold-War/dp/0231107730/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193967647&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* LaFeber, Walter. ''America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1992'' 9th ed. (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/America-Russia-Cold-1945-2002-Updated/dp/0072849037/ref=pd_sxp_grid_i_2_1/103-4827826-5463040 excerpt and text search], liberal
* Leffler, Melvyn P. ''For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Soul-Mankind-United-States-Soviet/dp/0809097176/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191567573&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search], liberal
* Lundestad, Geir. ''East, West, North, South: Major Developments in International Politics since 1945'' (1999). [http://www.amazon.com/East-West-North-South-International/dp/1412907489/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193964045&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* McCauley, Martin. ''Russia, America and the Cold War: 1949-1991'' (2nd ed. 2008); short textbook [http://www.amazon.com/Russia-America-Cold-War-1949-1991/dp/1405874309/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1252833741&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* Mann, James. ''The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Rebellion-Ronald-Reagan-History-Cold/dp/0670020540/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1252833311&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Paterson, Thomas G. ''On Every Front: The Making and Unmaking of the Cold War.'' 1992. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98945969&oplinknum=8 online edition]; [http://www.amazon.com/Every-Front-Making-Unmaking-Cold/dp/0393030601/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193967604&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; liberal
* Powaski, Ronald E. ''The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917–1991'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78888203 online edition]
* Westad, Odd Arne ''The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of our Times'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/052170314X/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Failed-Empire-Soviet-Gorbachev-History/dp/0807859583/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1252833311&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

==External Links==
*[http://home.att.net/~rw.rynerson/index2.htm Berlin 1969 - midpoint of the Cold War]

== See Also==
*[[Joseph McCarthy]]
*[[Iron Curtain]]
*[[Containment]]
* [[Rollback]]
*[[The Soviet/ U.S naval confrontation]]: incidences during 1983 [[KAL 007]] search

[[category:wars]]
[[category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[category:Military History]]
[[category:diplomacy]]
[[Category:Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Russian History]]
[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:Chinese History]]

User:EvelynJ

2011-05-28T13:50:27Z

EvelynJ:

{{Useful links}}
Hi, I'm Evelyn. Nice to meet you.

Debate: Should Christians be more forthright in stating that Allah is not the same being as the Judeo-Christian God?

2011-05-28T12:26:33Z

EvelynJ:

Muslims regularly state that Allah is the same being as the Judeo-Christian God. This is at least partly to make proselytizing easier. How should Christians deal with these claims?--[[User:Boreas|Boreas]] [[User_Talk:Boreas|'''talk''']] 16:55, 22 May 2010 (EDT)

Allah ''is'' the same as the Judeo-Christian God. The word 'Allah' means God in Arabic. However, the difference between Muslims and Jews and Christians is that they follow the Qu'ran as the true word of God. There is a difference in the central text of the religions, not God himself. [[User:EvelynJ|EvelynJ]]

Debate: Should Christians be more forthright in stating that Allah is not the same being as the Judeo-Christian God?

2011-05-28T12:25:53Z

EvelynJ:

Woodrow Wilson

2011-05-28T12:21:59Z

EvelynJ: /* Paris Peace Conference, 1919 */

{{President
|image=Pppq.jpg
|seq=28
|term_start=March 4, 1913
|term_end=March 4, 1921<ref>http://home.comcast.net/~sharonday7/Presidents/AP060301.htm</ref>
|party=Democratic
|vp=Thomas R. Marshall
|previous=William Howard Taft
|next=Warren G. Harding
|birth_date=December 28, 1856
|birth_place=Staunton, Virginia
|death_date=February 3, 1924
|death_place=Washington, D.C.
|spouse=Ellen Axson Wilson
|spouse2=Edith Galt Wilson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}

'''Woodrow Wilson''' (born Thomas Woodrow Wilson, 1856 - 1924), a Democrat, was elected as the 28th [[President of the United States of America]], and reelected in 1916, serving from 1913 to 1921. A Princeton president who became an intellectual leader of the [[Progressive Movement]], Wilson demonstrated his mastery over Congress by creating the [[Federal Reserve System]], lowering the tariff, and revising the [[antitrust]] laws in a way that ended most of the "trustbusting" and drew clear lineson what was allowed. In general these policies would be in line with conservative recommendations in 2009. He supported liberal policies such as raising wages of railroad workers when they threatened a nationwide strike in 1916.
Trying repeatedly and failing to broker peace during [[World War I]], Wilson in 1917 led the United States into the war. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]].

Wilson played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the Versailles Conference that set the peace terms in 1919. He was the idealist who envisioned Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, unfettered international trade, the end of militarism, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. He failed to obtain Senate approval for the Versailles treaty because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]] and a possible loss of control over the war-making power. Wilson refused to involve the Republicans in the peace-making, even though they controlled Congress, and refused the GOP compromise that would have allowed American entry into the League without giving up sovereignty.

Wilson was a very complex man filled with paradox. He was a southern conservative--an elitist with a profound distrust of radical ideas and such left-wing populists as [[William Jennings Bryan]], but became the Democratic Party's most effective advocate of advanced progressivism. His progressivism in 2009 terms is a mix of liberal and conservative ideas, with a much deper religious underpining than is seen today. He ranks with Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson and Ronald Reagan as the nation's most active and dominant chief executives. He ranks with Abraham Lincoln and Reagan as the most articulate spokesman for national values. He was a war president who largely ignored military affairs and focused on very complex diplomatic issues. He won his war, reshaped the world at the peace conference, and saw his nation reject his idealist League of Nations because he refused to work with republicans on its mechanics.

A rigid, self-exacting personality, whose uncompromising adherence to principles barred agreement on some of his most important political goals, he was a brilliant opportunist who won stunning electoral victories and led controversial laws through Congress. He understood diplomacy and dometic affairs in depth, and was the first to recognize a solution that could satisfy most of the needs of the interested parties. He was willing to negotiate endlessly, usually getting his way in the end, esopecially when his powerful rhetoric energized his backers. A devout Presbyterian who studied the Bible every day, he elevated a religious style of idealism to the central place in American diplomacy. A lonely intellectual, he had few friends, and broke one-by-one with his closest advisors, until in his last two years in office he was an invalid controlled in large part by his wife.

Wilson's idealistic foreign policy, called "Wilsonianism" sought to end militarism as a force in world affairs, vigorously promote national self determination, create international bodies to head off serious disputes, and use American resources to promote democracy. Wilsonianism (and "idealism" generally) is opposed to "realism" in foreign policy, which stresses a concern for American self-interest, especially in economic and military terms. Wilsonianism reshaped the world in the aftermath of the Great War; its values lie at the core of the foreign policy of [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2009). [[File:Ww-sargent.jpg|thumb|350px|1917 portrait by [[John Singer Sargent]]]]
Wilson was the most profoundly Christian political leader in the world in the 20th century. He felt assured that he was following God's guidance. Wilson considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a postmillenarian, and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail.

==Family==
Wilson's father Joseph Ruggles Wilson (1822-1903), born in Ohio, was a Presbyterian minister of Scotch Irish descent. Woodrow's mother Jesse was born in Carlisle, England, to a Scottish-born Presbyterian minister; her family moved to Canada in 1835 and to Ohio in 1837. Woodrow's parents moved South in 1851, owned house slaves, and identified themselves with the culture and political values of the South. The father Joseph Wilson was a theologian, defended slavery and soon emerged as a leader of the Southern Presbyterian Church and an avid supporter of the Confederacy.<ref> In the 1880s Joseph Wilson argued at length that evolution was NOT in conflict with the Bible; he was thereupon forced out as head of the Presbyterian seminary in South Carolina. See Fred Kingsley Elder, ''Woodrow: Apostle of Freedom'' (1996) [http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(199711)63%3A4%3C898%3AWAOF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O&cookieSet=1 online review]</ref>

Wilson's grandfather (Joseph Wilson's father) was James Wilson, who immigrated to the United States from northern Ireland in 1807 and was first an editor of the [[Jeffersonian Republican]] newspaper the ''Aurora'' in Philadelphia, and later published Whig newspapers in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Since his father had been ostracized by the northern relatives, Woodrow had no contact with his grandfather or uncles, who were active in antislavery Republican politics in Ohio and Pennsylvania.<ref>Francis P. Weisenburger, "The Middle Western Antecedents of Woodrow Wilson," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 23, No. 3 (Dec., 1936), pp. 375-390 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886371 in JSTOR]</ref>

Woodrow grew up in the South during the Civil War and Reconstruction his father was a chaplain for the Confederate army. Woodrow saw the humiliation, economic ruin and shame that the loser of a war experiences and the hatred that grows from this, as well as the rampant corruption during Reconstruction in Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. A victim of childhood dyslexia, he became an avid reader. His father imparted a love of literature and politics to his son; much family activity revolved around Bible readings, daily prayers, and worship services at the father's church.

In 1885 Wilson married Ellen Louise Axson (1860 – 1914), the daughter of a Presbyterian minister in Savannah, Georgia. She was an accomplished painter and a successful hostess; they had three daughters.<ref> See [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/ew28-1.html White House biography of Ellen Louise Axson Wilson]</ref>

==Education==
Woodrow studied at Davidson College in North Carolina in 1873-1874 and at Princeton University from 1875 to 1879. he proved a exceptional student, primarily interested in debate and politics. His father always wanted him to be a minister; Wilson greatly admired the British Priome Minister [[William E. Gladstone]], a Christian in politics, and decided to emulate him. Wilson saw politics as a divine vocation--to be a statesman was an expression of Christian service, he believed, a use of power for the sake of principles or moral goals. Wilson saw the "key to success in politics" as "the pursuit of Perfection through hard work and the fulfillment of ideals." Politics would allow him to spread spiritual enlightenment to the American people.

He was an editor of the ''Princetonian'' and wrote his senior thesis on "Cabinet Government in the United States;" it was later published. The essay stressed the superior qualities of the British cabinet system and said it ought to be tried in the United States.<ref>Edward S. Corwin, "Woodrow Wilson and the Presidency," ''Virginia Law Review,'' Vol. 42, No. 6 (Oct., 1956), pp. 761-783 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1070269 in JSTOR]. It was published in a journal edited by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], who became Wilson's bitter enemy in 1919.</ref> After graduation in 1879 he studied law at the University of Virginia; he was admitted to the bar and practiced in Atlanta, in 1882. It was too boring. Wilson's scholarship led him in 1883 to enter the new Johns Hopkins University graduate school where he studied government and history, taking a PhD in 1885. Wilson is the only president to have earned a PhD.
==Academic leader==
In 1885 Wilson was appointed instructor in in history at Bryn Mawr College, an elite Quaker school for women near Philadelphia, as a salary of $1500 a year (which was enough to hire a servant). In 1888 he moved to Wesleyan University, a Methodist college in Connecticut. His reputation as an outstanding leader in political science brought him a professorship of jurisprudence and political economy at [[Princeton University]] in 1890. For the next twelve years he taught at Princeton, popular alike with students and faculty; he became the president of the school in 1902.<ref>W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref>

Henry Wilkinson Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years'' (1967)</ref>

Wilson soon emerged as the nation's foremost academic, in heavy demand in elite circle for his brilliant speeches.

At Princeton he created academic departments but otherwise downplayed the Germanic model of the PhD-oriented research university in favor of the "Oxbridge" (Oxford and Cambridge) model of intense small group discussions and one-one-one tutorials. He hired 50 young professors, called preceptors, to meet with students in small conferences, grilling them about their reading. Complaining that Princeton was dominated by "eating clubs" in which students ate with each other and ignored the professors, he sought to build Oxford-style colleges where students and faculty would eat and talk together. He failed--the eating clubs are still there.<ref>Yale and Harvard later did adopt the college model for undergraduates, but not Princeton. W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref>

Wilson promote the leadership model, whereby the college focused on training a small cadre of undergraduates for national leadership, "the minority who plan, who conceive, who superintend," as he called them in his inaugural address as the university's president. "The college is no less democratic because it is for those who play a special part." He confronted the dean of the graduate school, who had the German research model in mind and outmaneuvered Wilson by obtaining outside funding for a graduate complex for serious scholarlhip that was well separated from the fun-loving undergraduates.
===Political theory===
Wilson made significant contributions to political science.<ref> he also wrote popular history of high quality, including a five-volume history of the United States and a life of George Washington.</ref> In 1885 he published his influential treatise ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics'', based on his PhD dissertation. It set a new standard in analyzing the actual workings of the federal government with striking clarity and thoroughness. Although Wilson had never visited Congress, his emphasis on the centrality of committees in Congress was a major contribution to the study of political science. Noting how the Constitution's separation of powers had been eroded since the Civil War by the increasing power of Congress, he suggested a remedy for this in a cabinet-style government of the variety proposed by [[Walter Bagehot]] in Britain. By criticizing the Constitutionalist and Federalist traditions that had characterized American politics for a century, and showing their faults, Wilson sought to open a serious debate on the political changes in the United States in the intervening century and whether the Constitution remained an adequate regulator of these. By the time he wrote ''Constitutional Government in the United States'' (1908), Wilson was advocating the need for constitutional reform that would make Congress and president more representative and, above all, the need for a strong president who could influence Congress rather than submit to it.

Wilson originated the notion that political parties, besides running campaigns, need to be responsible for clearly designed public policies, which they present to the electorate for approval. The key to responsibility was the presidency. Hegelian conceptions of monarchy strongly influenced Wilson, and his view of public opinion contrasted sharply with the Madisonian view of factionalism. Consequently Wilson viewed parties as primarily the machinery through which strong leaders interpret and pursue the public will.<ref> Scot J. Zentner, "President and Party in the Thought of Woodrow Wilson," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly''; 1996 26(3): 666-677, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551624 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Public administration===
Wilson was a founder of the study of public administration by political scientists. Wilson believed in a strong, active role for the central government and as president succeeded in establishing legislation that significantly enlarged its regulatory powers. With the publication of ''Congressional Government'' in 1885, Wilson established himself as a leader of the political reform movement of the day. The book was the first of its kind to analyze policymaking by the central government and to provide recommendations for changing the process. Wilson was one of the three most prominent public administrationists of the 1880's and 1890's. As an academician, he promoted a separate department for the study of public administration and wrote 'The Study of Adminstration' (1887), the first published essay by a university scholar on the subject, established Wilson as the leading authority in the field. During the next year he inaugurated a course in public administration at Johns Hopkins University, providing three 6-week lecture series arranged in a 3-year cycle. In 1889, Wilson published a textbook, ''The State,'' and, in 1891, he began at Hopkins a new 3-year course which was a further significant step in the development of the study of administration. He was one of the first scholars to realize fully that all government was ultimately to be administration.<ref> Richard J. Stillman, II, "Woodrow Wilson and the Study of Administration: A New Look at an Old Essay," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 67, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 582-588 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1958787 in JSTOR]; Larry Walker, "Woodrow Wilson, Progressive Reform, and Public Administration," ''Political Science Quarterly'', Vol. 104, No. 3 (Autumn, 1989), pp. 509-525 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2151276 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Football===
Wilson as president of Princeton, and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] as president of the United States, took an intense interest in the controversy over the reform of college football. In the 1890s and early 1900s, college football faced sharp of criticism over injuries and the role of athletics in college life. Roosevelt and Wilson, loyal followers of Harvard and Princeton, had defended football in the 1890s. In the fall of 1905, however, President Roosevelt called a conference of football experts at the White House to discuss brutality and unsportsmanlike conduct. Thereafter, Roosevelt worked behind the scenes to bring about sufficient reform to preserve football and insure that it would continue to be played at Harvard. In the years 1909-10, when college football again faced an injury crisis, Wilson worked with the presidents at Harvard and Yale to make reasonable reforms. Both Roosevelt's and Wilson's approaches were consistent with their strategies for national political change. In the years that followed the reforms on the gridiron, football evolved rapidly into the 'attractive' game that Wilson had advocated and a far less brutal game than the unruly spectacle that Roosevelt had tried to control.<ref>John S. Watterson, III, "Political Football: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson and the Gridiron Reform Movement," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1995 25(3): 555-564 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551467 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Southerner===
Wilson was the first southerner elected president since [[Zachary Taylor]] in 1848, and much of his political base came from young progressives in that region, especially intellectuals, editors and lawyers.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR] Andrew Johnson was not elected; he moved from vice president to president after Lincoln's death in 1865.</ref>

Many Civil War veterans were still alive and Wilson used the memory of the War to build nationalism and to facilitate reunion between the North and the South. In his academic work and public comments, Wilson stressed the theoretical and constitutional causes of the war, devaluing the slavery issue and stressing the moral equality of North and South, all in the interest of lessening sectional animosity. During World War I and the struggle for the League of Nations, Wilson frequently drew comparisons between Lincoln and the Union's sacrifices to save the nation and American soldiers' sacrifices during World War I to save the world. He succeeded in overcoming Southern isolationism by convincing the middle class in the region that God had preserved the Union in the Civil War in order to spread democracy throughout the world. He appealed to Southerners to demonstrate the patriotism that many said they lacked. He was able to convince them that they could wage war for democracy abroad without endangering white supremacy at home.<ref> Anthony Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Legacy of the Civil War," ''Civil War History'' 1997 43(3): 225-242; online in [[Questia]]; Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Rise of Militant Interventionism in the South," ''Journal of Southern History'' 1999 65(4): 771-808, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2587587 in JSTOR]</ref>

Wilson drew on Southern conservatism in the development of his political philosophy and identity as a politician from the 1890s to 1921. While Wilson forged a Progressive reformist outlook that encompassed limited government intervention in social and economic matters, he embraced a conservative, organic conception of social change drawn partially from the thought of Edmund Burke and partially from a mythical vision of the Old South as a model of social stability and integration. Deeply alarmed by labor and agrarian radicalism in the 1890s, Wilson resolved to cleanse the Democratic Party of Populist influence. His political vision ultimately sought to adapt American society to the new economic conditions of the 20th century, chiefly defined by the magnification of corporate power, while retaining the race and class hierarchies of tradition. Wilson's vision of Southern conservatism as a regenerative force set the precedent for the conservative ideology that dominated American politics since the 1980s.<ref> Michael Dennis, "Woodrow Wilson and Southern Reform Conservatism," ''Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South'' 2006 13(3-4): 1-28. </ref>

==Reform governor==
As early as 1906 Wilson came under the influence of Colonel George Harvey (1864-1928), a conservative Democrat who owned a publishing empire that included the ''New York World'' and ''Harper's Weekly'' magazine, reaching the nation's intellectual elite. Harvey, with close ties to Wall Street and [[J. P. Morgan]], saw a future conservative president and promoted Wilson heavily. Wilson became the intellecual leader of the anti-Bryan, anti-Populist wing of the Democratic Party. Harvey helped convince the old-fashioned bosses in New Jersey's cities to make Wilson the Democratic nominee for gobvernor in 1910, explaining this would bring in the mioddle class vote. Wilson, frustrated at Princeton, made the move and was elected. Wilson then broke with the bosses, and Harvey, denounced Wall Street and the bosses, and electrified the nation with his Progressive reforms in the notoriously corrupt government of New Jersey. Wilson by 1912 had emerged as the cleanest, most religious, best known and most dynamic leader of the [[Progressive Movement]] in the Democratic Party.

==Election of 1912==
William Frank McCombs, a New York lawyer and a a friend from college days, instigated and managed Wilson's campaign for president in 1912. Much of Wilson's support came from the South, especially from young progressive professionals. Wilson managed to maneuver through the complexities of local politics. For example, in Tennessee the Democratic Party was divided on the issue of prohibition. Wilson was progressive and sober, but not a dry, and appealed to both sides. They united behind him to win the presidential election in the state, but divided over state politics and lost the gubernatorial election.<ref> Arthur S. S. Link, "Democratic Politics and the Presidential Campaign of 1912 in Tennessee," ''East Tennessee Historical Society's Publications'' 1979 51: 114-137</ref>

At the convention deadlock went on for over 40 ballots as a two-thirds vote was needed. A leading opponent was House Speaker [[Champ Clark]], a prominent progressive strongest in the border states. Other contenders were Judson Harmon of Ohio, and Oscar Underwood of Alabama. They lacked Wilson's charisma and dynamism. Clark was supported by publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]], a leader of the left-wing of the party. The critical role was played by [[William Jennings Bryan]], the nominee in 1896, 1900 and 1908, who blocked the nomination of any candidate who had the support of 'the financiers of Wall Street.' He finally announced for Wilson, who won on the 46th.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "The Baltimore Convention of 1912," ''American Historical Review'' 1945 50(4): 691-713 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1842698 in JSTOR]</ref>

Wilson enjoyed the support of many black leaders including [[W.E.B. DuBois]] (a liberal at the time). Wilson's speeches and letters expressed the sentiments of a defender of the underprivileged. However the rejoicing over Wilson's victory was short-lived among blacks as segregationist white Southerners took control of Congress and many executive departments.<ref> Nancy J. Weiss, "The Negro and the New Freedom: Fighting Wilsonian Segregation," ''Political Science Quarterly'' 1969 84(1): 61-79, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2147047 in JSTOR]</ref>

In the campaign Wilson promoted the "New Freedom," emphasizing limited federal government and opposition to monopoly powers--positions that he reversed on coming to office.

President [[William Howard Taft]] defeated ex-President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in a bitter contest for the Republican nomination, but Roosevelt walked out of the Republican convention and ran as a third party candidate. Wilson's success in the electoral college was assured, despite his 41.8% of the popular vote.<ref> Lewis L. Gould, ''Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics,'' (2008); Link (1947)</ref>.

==President: 1913-21==
===First term===
====Domestic policy====
[[File:Ww-prog.jpg|thumb|580px|left]]
=====Immigration=====
Wilson twice vetoed the Burnett Immigration Restriction Bill, which required a literacy test for immigrants and would have sharply reduced the number of poor immigrants from Poland, Italy and other parts of eastern and southern Europe . As a moderate progressive, Wilson believed southern and eastern European immigrants, though often poor and illiterate, to be capable of assimilation into a homogeneous middle class with other whites. He considered so-called hyphenated immigrants unacceptable because they acted as groups rather than blending into the common population. Indeed he denounced the hyphenates. Wilson sought to achieve American strength through unity, blending together the best characteristics of every nationality to create the ideal citizenry, opposing [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]'s nativist view that American civilization must be based on an Anglo-Saxon foundation. Immigration from Europe practically ended when the war began, so the issue was postponed ino the 1920s, when a quota system was set up to keep the country's ethnic balance unchanged.<ref> Hans Vought, . Division and Reunion: Woodrow Wilson, Immigration, and the Myth of American Unity. Journal of American Ethnic History; 1994 13(3): 24-50.</ref>

====Foreign Policy====
=====Mexico=====
The extremely violent civil war that broke out in Mexico in 1911 drove hundreds of thousands of refugees north across the border, and forced Wilson to intervene. [[Francisco Madero]], an idealistic reformer who came to power in 1911. Madero tried to violently upend the social order in Mexico by destroying the landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church. When Madero was overthrown and murdered by [[Victoriano Huerta]] in February 1913, days before Wilson took office, he refused to recognize the new Mexican government. Relations deteriorated between the two countries. After American sailors were arrested in Tampico in April 1914 by Huerta's soldiers, the armed conflict loomed. American soldiers occupied Vera Cruz. In July 1914 Huerta fled to Spain. In 1916 the civil war between warlords [[Venustiano Carranza]] and [[Pancho Villa]] continued, and in March Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 20 Americans.<ref>James A. Sandos, "Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson's Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered," ''Journal of Latin American Studies,'' Vol. 13, No. 2 (Nov., 1981), pp. 293-311 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/156072 in JSTOR]</ref> Wilson sent Brigadier General [[John J. Pershing]] deep into Mexico to capture Villa. Villa escaped the Americans. Despite the demands of outraged senators, Wilson did not declare war on Mexico. He ran for reelection in 1916 on the slogan, "He kept us out of war," meaning out of a war with Mexico.

====Reelection====
[[File:WW-WIN16.jpg|thumb|400px]]
====Woman suffrage====
In the 1910s, suffragists campaigned for the passage of a federal constitutional amendment that would grant women the right to vote. They argued it would purify politics because the new voters would be far less liable to corruption and saloon influences. The movement was led by Protestant Northern women, many of whom were active in the prohibition movement at the same time. Wilson, originally opposed to the amendment, was converted through the efforts of women suffragists and became an advocate of critical importance. Both the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the National Women's Party (NWP) used symbolic representations of President Wilson, conferring on him real or symbolic images of presidential power. In practice Wilson hedged, realizing that male Democrats in the bg city machines in the North and in the rural South were hostile to woman suffrage. The meaning of democracy was at issue: the NWP portrayed Wilson as a tyrant, the NAWSA depicted him as a champion of freedom. Both organizations played essential roles in the passage of the 19th Amendment. After 1919, the absence of a common goal was a contributing factor to the subsequent divisions within the woman's rights movement, as was the loss of a unique adversary.<ref> Christine A. Lunardini, and Thomas J. Knock, Woodrow Wilson and Woman Suffrage: A New Look. Political Science Quarterly; 1980-1981 95(4): 655-671, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150609 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Second term===

===Entering the war===
====Domestic policy====
====Foreign Policy====
====Russia====
Wilson's commitment to the principle of self-determination affected his decision to intervene in Russia in 1918, as the Bolsheviks (Communists) took power. Unswayed by British, French, and Japanese pressure, Wilson insisted that, unless the Russians invited them, the Allies should not interfere with Russia's internal affairs. In the summer of 1918, the president sent American troops into Siberia with the sole purpose of protecting Czechoslovak soldiers who had broken oujt of POW camps and were an independent force. Later Wilson realized that the other Allied nations were using the rescue mission as an 'anti-Bolshevik' crusade and for imperialistic motives. As a result, the president ordered US forces to withdraw.<ref> </ref> Wilson and subsequent presidents until 1933 refused to recognize the new Communist government, and Russia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference.<ref> Betty Miller Unterberger, "Woodrow Wilson and the Bolsheviks: the 'Acid Test' of Soviet-American Relations," ''Diplomatic History'' 1987 11(2): 71-90,</ref>
====Mideast====
In November 1917, Wilson endorsed the [[Zionism|pro-Zionist]] [[Balfour Declaration]] issued by Britain. Wilson's aims in this endorsement were both practical and religious. His deep Christian sentiment led him to seek 'a direct governing role in the Near East in the name of peace, democracy and, especially, Christianity. By agreeing to the use of the mandate system by which the transition governments of the Middle East were partially controlled by Britain and France after the war, Wilson was both contradicting and reaffirming his own ideals by allowing only limited self-determination of Middle-Eastern peoples while assuring some respect for property and order.<ref> Frank W. Brecher, Woodrow Wilson and the Origins of the Arab-israeli Conflict. American Jewish Archives; 1987 39(1): 23-47,</ref>

====Paris Peace Conference, 1919====
President Wilson was present at the Post-World War I Paris Peace Conference, becoming the first President to ever visit Europe whilst in Office. Along with Prime Ministers David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom and Georges Clemenceau of France, the three were collectively known as the Big Three and met and discussed the peace treaties that would shape post-war Europe. President Wilson pushed for terms that were not too harsh on the already war-crippled Germany, though the British and French leaders pushed for the infamous 'War Guilt Clause' that declared Germany guilty of the war and forced her to pay harsh reparations.

Wilson particularly pushed for the League of Nations to be created, a precursor to today's United Nations.

=====Fight for the League=====

==Wilson and religion==
A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, he appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into Wilsonianism.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956); Richard M. Gamble, "Savior Nation: Woodrow Wilson and the Gospel of Service," ''Humanitas'' Volume: 14. Issue: 1. 2001. pp 4+; Cooper, ''Woodrow Wilson'' (2009) p 560.</ref>

Link finds that Wilson from his earliest days had imbibed the beliefs of his denomination - in the omnipotence of God, the morality of the Universe, a system of rewards and punishments and the notion that nations, as well as man, transgressed the laws of God at their peril.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "A Portrait of Wilson," ''Virginia Quarterly Review''1956 32(4): 524-541</ref> Blum (1956) argues that he learned from [[William Gladstone]] a mystic conviction in the superiority of Anglo-Saxons, in their righteous duty to make the world over in their image. Moral principle, constitutionalism, and faith in God were among the prerequisites for alleviating human strife. While he interpreted international law within such a brittle, moral cast, Wilson remained remarkably insensitive to new and changing social forces and conditions of the 20th century. He expected too much justice in a morally brutal world which disregarded the self-righteous resolutions of parliaments and statesmen like himself. Wilson's triumph was as a teacher of international morality to generations yet unborn.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956), p p10, 197-99</ref> [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] sees Wilson's vision of world order anticipated humanity prevailing through the "Holy Ghost of Reason," a vision which rested on religious faith.<ref> David Steigerwald, ''Wilsonian Idealism in America'' (1994) p. 230.</ref>

Wilson was a Presbyterian elder and the son of a leading theologian. He read the Bible daily; he felt 'sorry for the men who do not read the Bible every day.' The Bible, he argued, was 'the one supreme source of revelation of the meaning of life.' Wilson was prone to make explicitly Christian claims about his nation, even excluding the word ''Judeo'' from his characterization of the nation's religious heritage. 'America was born a Christian nation,' he explained in a speech on "The Bible and Progress" in 1911:
"America was born to exemplify that devotion to the elements of righteousness which derived from the revelations of Holy Scripture."<ref>Arthur S. Link, ed. ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' (1977) 23:20, speech on the Bible, in Denver May 7, 1911</ref>

He held that the Bible "is the one supreme source of revelation, the revelation of the meaning of life, of the nature of God and the spiritual nature and need of men. It is the only guide of life which really leads the spirit in the way of peace and salvation."<ref> Josephus Daniels, ''The Life of Woodrow Wilson 1856-1924'' (1924) p. 359</ref>

God was central in Wilson's life and thought. His profound Presbyterian style of thinking assured him that he was following God's guidance. Wilson personified American optimism and considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a postmillenarian, and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail. He saw himself as God's messenger and statesman in a divinely predestined nation; thus he saw himself as God's agent in promoting democracy and world peace. His Fourteen Points and his Covenant of the League of Nations, were, in his view, divinely inspired paths to achieving a new world order.<ref> Malcolm D. Magee, '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008) </ref>

===China policy===
Wilson’s discussions with Presbyterian missionaries visiting Princeton shaped his diplomacy toward [[History of China|China]]. Wilson viewed Christianity as a unifying force in the world and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 as the first step toward the spread of Christianity and democracy for China. Wilson gained the admiration of the missionaries and Chinese when he prohibited US participation in a European loan to China. He moved to recognize the government of Yuan Shih-k'ai, hoping that that regime could bring stability to China favorable to the introduction of Christianity. He sought to appoint an ambassador to China who could express Christian values. During World War I, missionaries successfully urged Wilson's opposition to Japanese demands on China. Although the war and its aftermath diverted Wilson from Chinese problems, his foreign policy continued to be influenced by missionaries, particularly Dr. Samuel I. Woodbridge and the Reverend Charles E. Scott. <ref> Eugene P. Trani, "Woodrow Wilson, China, and the Missionaries, 1913-1921," ''Journal of Presbyterian History'' 1971 49(4): 328-351, </ref>

==Democracy==
''Also see Woodrow Wilson's lasting impact on the [[U.S. Constitution]]: [[Seventeenth Amendment]]''

Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, democracy, unfettered international commerce, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. Wilson framed American participation in the war as the first step in ending all wars. Although 'Wilsonian nationalism' has been blamed for the nationalistic emphasis on race and territory in Europe during the 1920's and 1930's, Wilson's policies had actually used ethnic and territorial issues to encourage self-determination and the development of democracy in postwar nations.

Woodrow Wilson's most lasting political philosophy was his view that [[democracy]] should be installed around the world. As a major player in setting the terms to end World War I, he helped to break up the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Empire]] to advance his goal of installing democracy for each ethnic subpopulation. Similar independence was granted with the breakup of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Many of these new nations were receiving self determination for the first time in centuries. Wilson's view of installing democracy worldwide has since been copied by the [[neoconservatives]]. Wilson was awarded the 1919 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his efforts to start the [[League of Nations]].

==Historiography==
Historians have been fascinated by Wilson and have vigorously defended him (Link) or attacked him (New Left). Since the collapse of the Communism in Europe in 1989, the mood had shifted in Wilson's favor. Even [[George Kennan]], a harsh critic who favored "realism" against Wilson's idealism. has changed his tune. The New Left attacks represented by Lloyd Gardner's highly critical ''A Covenant with Power'' have given way to Thomas Knock's laudatory ''To End All Wars''. The leftist tendency to trace back to Wilson a tradition of economic self-seeking and arrogant interventionism has yielded to a new impulse to see Wilsonian diplomacy as having established "a new American agenda for world affairs," as Akira Iriye writes, built upon "the ideas of economic interdependence and of peaceful settlement of disputes."<ref> see Steigerwald,(1999)</ref>

==Bibliography==
===Biography===
* Brands, H. W. ''Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-H-W-Brands/dp/0805069550/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210644&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search] 169pp; good short summary by scholar [[File:Ww-stamp.jpg|thumb|180px|left]]
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp. major new biography by leading scholar
* Cooper, John Milton. ''The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt'' (1985), fascinating double biography by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Warrior-Priest-Woodrow-Theodore-Roosevelt/dp/0674947517/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210893&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hofstadter, Richard. "Woodrow Wilson: The Conservative as Liberal" in ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), ch. 10. influential essay; at [http://humanitiesebook.org/ ACLS E-books]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson" in Henry F. Graff ed., ''The Presidents: A Reference History '' (2002) pp 365-388
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Wilson: The Road to the White House'' (1947), first volume of standard biography (to 1917); ''Wilson: The New Freedom'' (1956); ''Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915'' (1960); ''Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915-1916'' (1964); ''Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916-1917'' (1965), the last volume of standard biography; [http://humanitiesebook.org/ online at ACLS E-Books]
* Maynard, W. Barksdale. ''Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-Prof-Barksdale-Maynard/dp/0300136048/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259267777&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Woodrow Wilson'' 2 Vol. (1958); Pulitzer prize winning biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24215014 vol 1 online]; well-written but old-fashioned (it was written in the 1950s), it has been replaced by Cooper (2009).

===Domestic affairs and ideas===
[[File:$100k.jpg|250px|thumb|Wilson's image appeared on the now-withdrawn $100,000 bill]]
* Abrams, Richard M. "Woodrow Wilson and the Southern Congressmen, 1913-1916," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 22, No. 4 (Nov., 1956), pp. 417-437 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2954640 in JSTOR]
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers domestic and foreign policies; liberal tone
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Cuff, Robert D. "Woodrow Wilson and Business-Government Relations during World War I," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1969), pp. 385-407 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406552 in JSTOR]
* Curti, Merle. "Woodrow Wilson's Concept of Human Nature," ''Midwest Journal of Political Science,'' Vol. 1, No. 1 (May, 1957), pp. 1-19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2109008 in JSTOR]
* Daniel, Marjorie L. "Woodrow Wilson--Historian," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 21, No. 3 (Dec., 1934), pp. 361-374 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1897380 in JSTOR]
* Dimock, Marshall E. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader," ''The Journal of Politics,'' Vol. 19, No. 1 (Feb., 1957), pp. 3-19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2127283 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1954), remains the standard history of his first term.
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson and the Democratic Party," ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 18, No. 2 (Apr., 1956), pp. 146-156 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1405064 in JSTOR] cover 1913-14
* Livermore, Seward W. ''Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916-1918'' (1966)
* Macmahon, Arthur W. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader and Administrator," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 50, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), pp. 641-675 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1951550 in JSTOR]
* Malin, James C. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5260560 ''The United States after the World War'' ] (1930)
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson and the roots of modern liberalism'' (2005) ISBN: 0742515176' argues Wilson subverted the ideas of the Founders by his progressivism
* Pietrusza, David ''1920: The Year of the Six President''s New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007.
* Saunders, Robert M. ''In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior'' (1998)
* Turner, Henry A. "Woodrow Wilson and Public Opinion," ''Public Opinion Quarterly,'' Vol. 21, No. 4 (Winter, 1957-1958), pp. 505-520 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2746762 in JSTOR]
* Wolgemuth, Kathleen L. "Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation," ''The Journal of Negro History,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Apr., 1959), pp. 158-173 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716036 in JSTOR]
* Weinstein, Edwin A., James William Anderson and Arthur S. Link. "Woodrow Wilson's Political Personality: A Reappraisal," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' Vol. 93, No. 4 (Winter, 1978-1979), pp. 585-598 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150104 at JSTOR]
* Wolfe, Christopher. "Woodrow Wilson: Interpreting the Constitution," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), pp. 121-142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406981 in JSTOR]
* Woodward, Carl R. "Woodrow Wilson's Agricultural Philosophy," ''Agricultural History,'' Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct., 1940), pp. 129-142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3739508 in JSTOR]

===Foreign policy===
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E., “Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies,” ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43.[[File:Ww-war-1917.jpg|thumb|350px]]
* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947)
* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman'' (1999)
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers foreign policy
* Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34:1 (2004). pp 62+.
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Davis, Donald E. and Eugene P. Trani; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109328821 ''The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S.-Soviet Relations''] (2002)
* Greene, Theodore P. ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957)
* Henderson, Peter V. N. "Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico," ''The Americas'', Vol. 41, No. 2 (Oct., 1984), pp. 151-176 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1007454 in JSTOR]
* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995)
* Kimitada, Miwa. "Japanese Opinions on Woodrow Wilson in War and Peace," ''Monumenta Nipponica,'' Vol. 22, No. 3/4 (1967), pp. 368-389 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2383073 in JSTOR]
* Levin, Jr., N. Gordon ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968)
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1972) sumarizes diplomatic history
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957)
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921'' (1982)
* Magee, Malcolm D. '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/What-World-Should-Be-Faith-based/dp/1602580707/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259268113&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959)
* Trani, Eugene P. “Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia: A Reconsideration.” ''Journal of Modern History'' (1976). 48:440—61. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1878747 in JSTOR]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 online edition]
===Historiography===
[[File:Ww-cooper.jpg|thumb|280px]]
* Clements, Kendrick A. "The Papers of Woodrow Wilson and the Interpretation of the Wilson Era", ''The History Teacher,'' Vol. 27, No. 4 (Aug., 1994), pp. 475-489 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/494510 in JSTOR]
* Seltzer, Alan L. "Woodrow Wilson as 'Corporate-Liberal': Toward a Reconsideration of Left Revisionist Historiography," ''Western Political Quarterly,'' Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jun., 1977), pp. 183-212 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/447405 in JSTOR]
* Steigerwald, David. The Reclamation of Woodrow Wilson? Diplomatic History; 1999 23(1): 79-99, on foreign policy in [[EBSCO]]; notes that New Left revisionism (by William Appleman Williams and N. Gordon Levin, Jr.) claiming that Wilson's Open Door was a facade for the imperialistic extension of American economic advantage, has faded away
* Watson, Jr., Richard L. "Woodrow Wilson and His Interpreters, 1947-1957," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Sep., 1957), pp. 207-236 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1887188 in JSTOR], summarizes different interpretations as of 1957
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/wilson Extensive essay on Woodrow Wilson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]

==Primary sources==
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson: The Essential Political Writings'' (2005)
* Link, Arthur S., ed. [http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/pw.html ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' complete in 69 vol, at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of WW's letters, speeches and writings plus many letters written to him]
* Tumulty, Joseph P. ''Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him '' (1921)] memoir by chief of staff [[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8wwik10.txt online edition]
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Freedom'' (1913) 1912 campaign speeches [http://books.google.com/books?id=MW8SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:woodrow+inauthor:wilson&lr=&as_brr=1 online edition]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/whwar10h.htm Wilson, Woodrow. ''Why We Are at War'' (1917)] six war messages to Congress, Jan- April 1917
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Selected Literary & Political Papers & Addresses of Woodrow Wilson'' (3 vol 1918 and later editions)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Messages & Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' 2 vol (ISBN 1-135-19812-8)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Democracy. Presidential Messages, Addresses, and Other Papers (1913-1917)'' 2 vol 1926 (ISBN 0-89875-775-4
* Wilson, Woodrow. [http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/fourteen-points.html ''President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)''].
* [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_brr=1&lr=&as_vt=&as_auth=woodrow+wilson&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= full text of Wilson books and messages online]
==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/wilson-bio.html Nobel Prize biography]

==References==
<references/>

{{USPresidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wilson, Woodrow}}

[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Children of Clergy]]
[[Category:Progressive Era]]
[[Category:Historians]]
[[Category:Political Scientists]]
[[category:diplomacy]][[category:United States History]]
[[Category:New Jersey Governors]]
[[Category:Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]

Australia

2011-05-24T05:04:39Z

EvelynJ: /* Economy */

{{Country
|name =''Commonwealth of Australia''
|map =Australia rel 1999.jpg
|map2 =Australia location.png
|flag =Flag of Australia.png
|arms =Australia coat-of-arms.jpg
|capital =Canberra
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Julia Gillard
|pm-raw =
|area =2,988,888 sq mi
|pop =21.8 million
|pop-basis =2009
|gdp =A$1.17 trillion
|gdp-year =2009
|gdp-pc =A$36,000
|currency =Australian dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The [[Commonwealth]] of Australia is an independent nation that occupies the continent of Australia, with its west coast on the [[Indian Ocean]], east coast on the [[Pacific Ocean]] facing [[New Zealand]], southern coast on the [[Southern Ocean]] facing [[Antarctica]], and northern coast bordering [[Indonesia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. Australia is considered geographically as part of [[Oceania]], but has been establishing its place politically and commercially in [[Southeast Asia]].

Socially and politically however, it bears many similarities to the [[United States of America]].

==Geography==
[[File:Sydney harbour bridge.jpg|thumb|370px|Sydney harbour bridge.]]
Australia is the only country to occupy an entire continent<ref>This refers just to the Australian mainland. Some authorities now include [[Papua New Guinea]], [[New Zealand]], and various other [[Pacific Ocean]] islands in the continent of "Oceania". See [http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/au.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>, the smallest of the planet's seven continents.<ref>Some people count six, combining North and South America or Europe and Asia. See [http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/contnent.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>
It is 2,400 miles, (3,860 km) from east to west and 2,000 miles (3,220 km) from north to south, and covers an area of 2,967,877 sq miles (7,686,810 sq km). The Australian coastline is 22,812 miles long (36,735 kilometers), roughly the size as the mainland 48 states of the USA.
{{Clear}}

====The States and Territories of Australia====
[[File:State Library of Victoria Australia.jpg|thumb|220px|Melbourne, State Library of Victoria.]]
Australia has six states and three internal territories. The states are:
* [[New South Wales]]
* [[Victoria]]
* [[Queensland]]
* [[Western Australia]]
* [[South Australia]]
* [[Tasmania]]
The internal territories are:
* The [[Northern Territory]] (responsible government since 1978)
* [[Australian Capital Territory]] (responsible government since 1988) which is the location of Australia's capital city, [[Canberra]].
* [[Jervis Bay Territory]] (small, not much there, generally forgotten about)
The external territories are:
* [[Christmas Island]]
* [[Norfolk Island]]
* [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
* [[Coral Sea Islands]]
* [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
* [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
{{Clear}}

====Low density====
80% of Australia's population, live on the coast line. It is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries (2.7 people per square kilometre)<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au ABS]</ref>. Water is scarce and most cities have some form of water restrictions in place.

====Weather====
Weather extremes are common in Australia with temperatures sometimes measured into the high 40s Celsius (45 degrees Celsius = 113 degrees Fahrenheit). The city of Darwin was heavily damaged by Cyclone Tracy on Dec. 25, 1974, killing 66 people, and destroying 80% of the buildings. Darwin's utilities were knocked out and 35,000 people were evacuated.

Bush fires often ravage the southern states - one of the worst occurring on Ash Wednesday in 1983 when over 2,000 homes were destroyed and over 70 people lost their lives in Victoria and South Australia. In 2009 severe fires hit much of Victoria, worsened by hot dry winds and a severe drought.

====Flora and fauna====
Australia is noted for its unique biodiversity. Many animals are found only in Australia, the most well known examples are the group of marsupials ([[kangaroo]]s, [[wombat]]s, [[wallaby|wallabies]] and [[koala]]s), and the only two [[monotremes]], the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]. Examples of plants that are native to Australia are the [[banksia]], [[yellow wattle]] and [[gum tree]].

Current evolutionary studies indicate that Australia's unique wildlife is the result of Australia becoming an island, being cut off from the Asian land bridge between 40,000 and 250,000 years ago on the [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian timescale]].

==People==
===Demographics===
[[File:Australian fishing family.jpg|right|270px]]
Although Australia has scarcely more than three people per square kilometer, it is one of the world's most urbanized countries. Less than 2.5% of the population lives in remote or very remote areas.
*Population (2010 est.): 22.27 million. <ref>http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0 Australian Bureau of Statistics</ref>
*Annual population growth rate: 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: European 92%, Asian 6%, Aboriginal 2%.
*Religions (2006): Catholic 26%, Anglican 19%, other Christian 19%, other non-Christian 1%, Buddhist 2.1%, Islam 1.7%, no religion 19%, and not stated 12%.
*Languages: English.
*Education: Years compulsory--to age 16 in all states and territories except New South Wales and the Northern Territory where it is 15, and Western Australia where it is 17. Literacy--over 99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate--4.7/1,000. Life expectancy--males 78 yrs., females 83 yrs.
*Work force (10.8 million): Agriculture--3.3%; mining--1.5%; manufacturing--9.8%; retail trade--11.3%; public administration, defense, and safety--6%; construction--9.2%

===Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders===
Australia's indigenous inhabitants, a hunting-gathering people collectively referred to today as Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders, arrived more than 40,000 years ago. Although their technical culture remained static--depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons--their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Indigenous population density ranged from one person per square mile along the coasts to one person per 35 square miles in the arid interior. When Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770, the native population is estimated to have numbered between 318,000 and 750,000 in as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages. In 2006 the indigenous population was approximately 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population. Since the end of World War II, the government and the public have made efforts to be more responsive to aboriginal rights and needs, most recently with Prime Minister Rudd's historic apology to the indigenous people in February 2008.

===Immigrants===
Immigration has been vital to Australia's development since the beginning of European settlement in 1788. Originally used as a prison for [[convicts]], the discovery of gold in [[Victoria]] convinced many to come to Australia. For generations, most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin, with a culture and outlook similar to those of Americans. A [["White Australia" policy]] operated from 1901 to the 1960s; it encouraged immigration by Europeans and blocked almost all other immigration.

The Chinese who arrived in the late 19th century to work in the gold mines left voluntarily or were expelled. Likewise most of the "Kanakas" --Polynesians--who came to work in the sugar fields were expatriated after 1901. Many Germans settled in South Australia, but those without Australian citizenship were put in camps during World War I and most were sent back to Germany after the war.

===Recent trends===
[[File:Sydney.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Sydney skyline from Taronga Zoo.]]
Since the end of World War II, Australia's population has more than doubled.

Non British/Irish immigration has increased significantly since World War II through an extensive, planned immigration program. Since 1945 around 6.6 million migrants have settled in Australia, including 690,000 refugee and humanitarian entrants. About 80% have remained; 24%--almost one in four--of Australians are foreign-born. Britain, Ireland, Italy, Greece, New Zealand, and the former Yugoslavia were the largest sources of post-war immigration, but New Zealand is closing on Britain as the largest source country for permanent migrants to Australia.

The barriers against Asians fell in the 1970s and thousands of immigrants from the Chinese diaspora resettled in Australia. Immigrants from India and the Philippines were numerous as well.

====Refugees====
Australia's humanitarian and refugee program of about 13,000 per year is in addition to other immigration programs. In recent years, refugees from Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia have comprised the largest element in Australia's refugee program.

====Religion====
Australia is a [[secular]] nation, in that it has no established religion associated with the Government.

According to the 2006 census, 64% of citizens consider themselves to be Christian, including 26% Roman Catholic, 19% Anglican, and 19% other Christian. Buddhists constitute 2.1% of the population, Muslims 1.7%, Hindus 0.7%, Jews 0.4%, and all others professing a religion 0.5%. Of Australia's 21 million people, about 1.5 million attend weekly religious services <ref>[http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083| National Church Life Survey 2004]; U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008" [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108400.htm online]</ref>.
[[File:Ballarat Hebrew Congregation Australia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Ballarat Hebrew Congregation.]]
In 1911, during the first census, 96% identified themselves as Christian. In recent decades traditional Christian denominations have seen their total number and proportion of affiliates stagnate or decrease significantly, although from 2001 to 2006, the total number of Pentecostal and charismatic Christians increased by 12.9%. Over the past decade, increased immigration from Southeast Asia and the Middle East considerably expanded the numbers of citizens who identify themselves as Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, and increased the ethnic diversity of existing Christian denominations. Between 2001 and 2006, the numbers increased for Buddhists by 17% (to 418,000), Muslims by 21% (to 340,393), Jews by 6% (to 89,000), and Hindus by 55% (to 148,131). In 2006 approximately 18.7% of citizens considered themselves to have no religion, up from 17% in 2001, and 11.2% made no statement regarding religious affiliation. According to a 2002 survey, 23% of adults had participated in church or religious activities during the previous 3 months.

The Australian public school system is "free, secular and compulsory" with the secular meaning without favor to any particular religion. Schools are required to offer religious instruction at the primary level, but are not allowed to discriminate between religions. The state systems of a number of states offer studies in religion at the senior level.

There is a large Catholic school system in Australia with most parishes having their own primary school and many hundreds of Catholic high schools across the country. There are also a large number of independent schools founded by various religions or denominations of the Christian faith - some hold that religious background to be more important than others. All schools, state or religious, receive government funding, as funding is provided for every student that is an Australian resident.

At the time of European settlement, aboriginal inhabitants followed religions that were animistic, involving belief in spirits behind the forces of nature and the influence of ancestral spirit beings. According to the 2006 census, 5,206 persons, or less than 0.03% of respondents, reported practicing aboriginal traditional religions, down from 5,244 in 2001. The 2006 census reported that almost 64% of Aborigines identify themselves as Christian and 20% listed no religion.

====Culture====
[[Image:Sidney opera house.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Sydney Opera House, an iconic symbol of the nation]]
Much of Australia's culture is derived from European roots, but distinctive Australian features have evolved from the environment, [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] culture, and the influence of Australia's neighbors. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia--film, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts--have achieved international recognition.

Australian actors and comedians such as Nicole Kidman, Rachel Griffiths, Cate Blanchett, Geoffrey Rush, Paul Hogan, Hugh Jackman, the late Heath Ledger, and Dame Edna Everage (Barry Humphries) have achieved enormous popularity in the United States. Directors such as Peter Weir, Philip Noyes, and Russell Mulcahy, the conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and singers and musicians such as Olivia Newton-John, Men At Work, The Wiggles, AC/DC, Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Nellie Melba, and Kylie Minogue are well known.

Australian artists with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, Pro Hart, and Arthur Boyd. Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker Conway, Peter Carey, Robert Hughes, Germaine Greer, and Nobel Prize winner Patrick White.

====Sports====
[[File:Melbourne Cup Australia.jpg|left|200px|thumb|[[Melbourne]] Cup.]]
Australia is known as a sporting nation with success worldwide in [[swimming]], [[tennis]], [[rugby union]], [[cricket]], [[netball]],and [[basketball]]. Australians are very keen horse racers with the Melbourne Cup <ref>[http://www.melbournecup.com.au| Melbourne Cup]</ref> attracting up to 120,000 spectators at Flemington Race Course on the first Tuesday in November. There is a public holiday for the cup race in Melbourne, while the remainder of the country virtually pauses during the running.

Unique to Australia is a game known as [[Australian rules football]] or Aussie Rules, which is played on a [[cricket]] oval in winter. Australian rules football is the sport most attended in the states of [[Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]], and most attended overall in Australia; in 2006 2.5 million people had attended at least one Aussie Rules game in the preceding 12 months.[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyCatalogue/1F8FAC9C2C7B1623CA2568A900139417?OpenDocument] Australian Rules Football was written by persons educated at the [[Rugby School]] in England and [[Cambridge University]] before the organisation of uniform football codes. It is not as popular in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] although premiership teams are based in these two states.

The other national football code is [[rugby league]]. Rugby league football is the most attended sport in New South Wales and Queensland with its premier club competition being the [[National Rugby League]].

====Tourism====
[[File:Anzac Memorial Sydney Australia 2007.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Anzac Memorial, Sydney, 2007.]]
Most tourists visit places such as Sydney Harbour, Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland. Other favourite destinations are the wine making areas of South Australia and northern Victoria, the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, the natural wonders of Tasmania and the huge outback expanses of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Some cattle stations in Australia rival Texas in size and the distance between towns in some areas is enormous.

==Government==
Australia became a federated nation on January 1, 1901 under the [[Constitution of Australia]], and all former British colonies became states. The parliament met in [[Melbourne]] until the infrastructure was built for the capital city, [[Canberra]].

Australia has a [[Parliament|parliamentary system]] of government based on the British system with a [[bicameral]] system meeting as the [[Parliament of Australia]], consisting of the [[Australian House of Representatives]] and the [[Australian Senate]]. Each state and territory also has its own parliament.

The two other branches of government under the Constitution are the Executive ([[Governor-General of Australia]] taking advice from the Ministers) and the [[judicial]].

Australia is a democracy which has allowed men of European descent to vote since federation, with women gaining the vote in 1902 and Aboriginal men and women gaining suffrage in 1962. Voting is compulsory for all citizens who are 18 years old and over (with a few exceptions.)

Australia's Head of Government is the [[Prime Minister of Australia]]. In June 2010, [[Julia Gillard]] became the first female Prime Minister after she defeated [[Kevin Rudd]] in a partyroom leadership challenge.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gillard ousts Rudd in bloodless coup |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/06/24/2935500.htm|accessdate=24 June 2010|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=24 June 2010}}</ref>

The Head of State is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], the Queen of Australia (who is the same person, but a different title, as the Queen of Great Britain.) Under the Constitution, and in practice, the authority of the Head of State is vested in the [[Governor-General of Australia]], currently Quentin Bryce AC, Previously Governor of [[Queensland]], who assents to acts of parliament, is the Commander in Chief of the military forces, and appoints all Ministers of the Government; all these various powers are normally exercised on advice from the Prime Minister.

The Government of Australia is exercised, day-to-day, by the Ministers through their various Departments of State.

====Voting====
{{main|Voting in Australia}}

Australia has [[preferential voting]], and voting is compulsory for adults (18 years and over), unless they have been deemed unfit to vote, either by mental illness or conviction for serious offenses. Preferential voting encourages a multiplicity of parties and independent candidates, and counting the votes and allocating preferences can take some time where the results are close.

====Terms====
A Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives is elected for a maximum of three years, but the timing of elections is decided by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par3cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part III |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> A Member of Parliament in the Senate is typically elected for six years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par2cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part II |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> The Prime Minister is normally a member of the House of Representatives, and the tenure is not limited by statute. Ministers may continue to serve for up to three months when not a Member or Senator, but must in that time be elected in order to continue. ([[John Gorton]] was a Senator when appointed leader of his party after the death of his predecessor. He immediately resigned from the Senate and stood for election to the House of Representatives, while remaining Prime Minister throughout.)

====Parliamentary political parties====
Currently, the main political parties in Australia are:
* [[Australian Greens]]
* [[Australian Labor Party]]
* [[Family First Party]]
* [[Liberal Party of Australia]]
* [[National Party of Australia]]
* One Nation Party
[[File:Australian house of representatives.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Australian house of representatives.]]
Despite the US connotation associated with the name, the Liberal Party is conservative in political stance. Robert Menzies helped found the Liberal Party in 1944 and was the Prime Minister from 1939 until 1941 and then again from 1949 until 1966.<ref> [http://www.liberals.net/liberalpartyhistory.htm History of the Liberal Party in Australia]</ref> The term "liberal" refers to the party's predominantly-[[free market|free-market]] approach to [[economics|economic management]].

The party currently in power is the [[Australian Labor Party]]. The Labor Party is also in government in all of the states and territories. The Prime Minister is Julia Gillard.

Conservative Queensland polititian and businesswoman, Pauline Hanson formed the One Nation party to give a conservative voice to voters that were not being effectivly represented by the major partys. One Nation has held seats in both the Federal Senate and Lower House, and have been the subject of ridicule by left-leaning media commentators.

Though the Labor party is "social democratic" and the Liberals are "liberal conservatives", some of the smaller parties are more left leaning or more conservative than Labor and Liberal respectively.

''See also a [[list of Prime Ministers of Australia]].''

The Prime Minister of Australia is the most senior elected person in the country. The role is normally filled by the parliamentary leader of the party which forms the government.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Governor General--Quentin Bryce
*Prime Minister--Julia Gillard
*Deputy Prime Minister--Wayne Swan
*Treasurer--Wayne Swan
*Foreign Minister--Kevin Rudd
*Defense Minister--Stephen Smith
*Trade Minister--Craig Emerson

===Political Conditions===
Three political parties dominate the center of the Australian political spectrum. The Liberal Party (LP), nominally representing urban business interests, and its smaller coalition partner, The Nationals, nominally representing rural interests, are the more conservative parties. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) nominally represents workers, trade unions, and left-of-center groups. While the ALP, founded by labor unions, traditionally had been moderately socialist in its policies and approaches to social issues, today it is best described as a social democratic party. All political groups are tied by tradition to welfare programs. Over the last decade, Australia has increased welfare payments to families while imposing obligations on those receiving unemployment benefits and disability pensions. There is strong bipartisan sentiment on many international issues, including Australia's commitment to its alliance with the United States.
[[File:Protests in front of Parliament House Canberra Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
The ALP, under the leadership of Kevin Rudd, defeated the Liberal/National coalition, led by then-Prime Minister John Howard, in the November 24, 2007 election. The ALP now holds 83 seats in the House of Representatives, against 64 for the Liberal/National coalition, and 3 independents. The composition of the Senate is 37 seats for the coalition, 32 for the ALP, five seats for the Greens, one for Family First, and one independent.

The ALP won the election with a message promising "new leadership" after 11 years of the Howard government. Rudd portrayed himself as an "economic conservative," while criticizing unpopular Howard government policies on workplace relations reform, climate change, and the war on Iraq. The Rudd government ratified the Kyoto Protocol and is working with the international community on combating climate change. It is undoing some labor market reforms instituted by the Howard government, such as statutory individual contracts. The Australian government's foreign policy shows strong continuity with that of its predecessors, stressing relations with four key countries: the United States, Japan, China, and Indonesia. The Rudd government strongly supports U.S. engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and increased Australia’s troop contribution in Afghanistan. It withdrew Australia's combat troops from Iraq in 2008; it intends to end its military mission in Iraq on July 31, 2009.

Australia has been an active participant in international affairs since federation in 1901, and Australian forces have fought beside the United States and other Allies in every significant conflict since World War I. On January 8, 1940, the governments of the United States and Australia announced the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations. In 1944, Australia concluded an agreement with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact). After World War II, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch. Australia was one of the founding members of the United Nations, the South Pacific Commission, and the Colombo Plan. In addition to contributing to UN forces in Korea--it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States--Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the 1948-1960 communist revolt in Malaya and later to combat the 1963-1965 Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak. The United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, which remains Australia's pre-eminent formal security treaty alliance. Australia sent troops to assist South Vietnamese and U.S. forces in Vietnam, and joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf conflict in 1991, in Afghanistan in 2001, and in Iraq in 2003.

Australia has been active in the Australia-New Zealand-U.K. agreement and the Five-Power Defense Arrangements--successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.

One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It was last a member of the Security Council in 1985-86, a member of the Economic and Social Council for 1986-89, and a member of the UN Human Rights Commission for 1994-96 and 2003-2005. Australia recently declared its intention to seek a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for 2013-2014. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, nonproliferation and disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Regional Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group--countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations--and in founding the APEC forum. In 2002, Australia joined the International Criminal Court.

Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues, and has been a member of the East Asia Summit since its inauguration in 2005. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory. In 2006, Australia participated in an international peacekeeping operation in Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor). Australia led a regional mission to restore law and order in Solomon Islands in 2003 and again in 2006. Australia is part of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, which also includes the United States.

The government is committed to increasing official development assistance to 0.5% of gross national income by 2015-2016. Australia budgeted A$3.79 billion (U.S. $3.03 billion) for FY 2008-2009 and has budgeted A$3.82 billion (U.S. $3.05 billion) for FY 2009-2010. The Australian aid program is currently concentrated in Southeast Asia (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are the largest recipients) and the Pacific Islands. Selected aid flows are allocated to Africa, South Asia, and reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq. Contributions to multilateral organizations and other expenses account for about one-third of the foreign assistance budget.

===ANZUS and Defense===
The Australia, New Zealand, United States (ANZUS) security treaty was concluded at San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and entered into force on April 29, 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.
[[File:Canberra Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Canberra.]]
In 1984, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed after the Government of New Zealand refused access to its ports by nuclear-weapons-capable and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. The United States suspended defense obligations to New Zealand, and annual bilateral meetings between the U.S. Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Since 1985, U.S. Secretaries of State and Defense and the Australian Foreign and Defense Ministers have held 20 Australia-U.S. Ministerial consultations (AUSMIN), alternating between Australia and the United States. The next AUSMIN is scheduled to take place in Australia in 2010.

The U.S.-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. AUSMIN meetings are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Combatant Commander, Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defense Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

ANZUS has no integrated defense structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training to numerous smaller-scale exercises, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing, where possible, equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate joint defense facilities in Australia.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, then-Prime Minister Howard and U.S. President George W. Bush jointly invoked the ANZUS Treaty for the first time on September 14, 2001. Australia was one of the earliest participants in Operation Enduring Freedom. Australian Defense Forces participated in coalition military action against Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Australian combat forces began their withdrawal from Iraq in mid-2008 and forces are to be fully removed by July 2009. Australia has approximately 1,000 troops deployed in Afghanistan and also provides significant development and capacity building assistance to the country. Based on growing defense commitments, Australia decided to increase the Australian Army from 26,000 to 30,000 over the next several years. This will enable the reestablishment of two infantry battalions, as well as enabling troops, such as a new unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) unit.

The Australian Government has stated its intention to maintain its investment in future capability of the Australian Defense Force (ADF). To do so, the government has committed to a 3% annual growth in real defense funding through 2018--and 2.2% annual real growth beyond--to ensure the ADF can continue to meet capability and interoperability goals. The Australian Defense Force numbers about 54,000 active duty personnel, with planned increases to 57,000 within the next decade. The Royal Australian Navy's (RAN) front-line fleet currently includes 12 frigates, including 4 of the Adelaide class and 8 Australian-built ANZAC class. In August 2004, Australia selected the Aegis Combat Control System for its three air warfare destroyers (AWD), which will start coming into service in 2014. The F/A-18 fighter, built in Australia under license from the U.S. manufacturer, is the principal combat aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force, backed by the U.S.-built F-111 strike aircraft. In October 2002, Australia became a Level III partner in the U.S.-led Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Additionally, the Australian Government signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development MOU in 2006. Australia is projected to buy up to 100 JSF aircraft with deliveries starting in 2013 and running through 2020. The F-111 strike aircraft are scheduled to exit service by 2010 and will be replaced by 24 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18F Super Hornet fighters as an interim strike capability with deliveries commencing in 2010. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) took delivery of the last aircraft in its buy of 4 Lockheed C-17 strategic airlift aircraft in 2008. In addition, Boeing will provide the Commonwealth of Australia's RAAF with an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system based on the Next-Generation 737-700 aircraft as the airborne platform. Recent U.S. sales to the Australian Army include the M1A1 AIM tank, as well as Hellfire and JAVELIN munitions. Future opportunities include CH-47 helicopter replacements, navy helicopter replacements, light and medium cargo aircraft replacements and artillery systems.

In May 2009, the Australian Government released its Defense White Paper, outlining Australia’s long-term strategic outlook. In addition to buying the JSF aircraft, the White Paper proposes to double Australia’s submarine fleet to 12, replace the ANZAC class frigates, and replace the army’s armored personnel carriers.

==Economy==
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|220px|A Melbourne tram.]]
For more see: [[Australian economy]]

Since the 1980s, Australia has undertaken significant structural reform of its economy and has transformed itself from an inward-looking, highly protected, and regulated marketplace to an open, internationally competitive, export-oriented economy. Key economic reforms included unilaterally reducing high tariffs and other protective barriers to free trade, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial services sector, including liberalizing access for foreign banks, increasing flexibility in the labor market, reducing duplication and increasing efficiency between the federal and state branches of government, privatizing many government-owned monopolies, and reforming the taxation system, including introducing a broad-based Goods and Services Tax (GST) and large reductions in income tax rates.
[[File:Salamanca-Market-2008 Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
Australia enjoys a higher standard of living than any G7 country other than the United States. Australia's economic standing in the world is a result of a commitment to best-practice macroeconomic policy settings, including the delegation of the conduct of monetary policy to the independent Reserve Bank of Australia, and a broad acceptance of prudent fiscal policy where the government aims for fiscal balance over the economic cycle. Largely due to the fall in revenue as a result of the global economic downturn, net government debt is projected to reach about A$188 billion (U.S. $150.4 billion) in four years. The previous government, drawing from budget surpluses, created the “Future Fund” to provide for future liabilities resulting from the retirement of civil servants. The Government of Australia is predicting negative 0.5% growth in the 2009-2010 fiscal year; the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted growth to be negative 1.4% for 2009.

Over 2008, unemployment has risen to around 5.5% from 4.2%, and the labor market participation has remained at around 65%. Both the federal and state governments have recognized the need to invest heavily in water, transport, ports, telecommunications, and education infrastructure to expand Australia's supply capacity. The largest river system in Australia, the Murray-Darling, and related coastal lakes and wetlands in South Australia are critically threatened and the government has developed a plan to improve irrigation infrastructure and efficiency and buy back unused water allocations along the river.
*GDP (2009-2010 estimate): A$1.17 trillion (U.S. $893.6 billion).
*Inflation rate (year to March 2009): 2.5% per annum.
*Reserve Bank official interest rate (May 2009): 3.00%.
*Trade: Exports ($178.9 billion, 2008 estimate)--coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment. Major markets--Japan, China, South Korea, U.S. ($10.7 billion), and New Zealand. Imports ($187.2 billion, 2008 estimate)--machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products. Major suppliers--China, United States ($23.96 billion), Japan, Singapore, and Germany.
*Exchange rate (May 2011): U.S. $1.05 = A$1

====Energy====
[[File:Energy 500kv-power-lines Australia.jpg|right|400px]]
Australia is rich in natural resources with significant petroleum, natural gas and coal reserves. Australia’s energy consumption is dominated by coal, which fuels most of the country’s power generation. Petroleum accounts for a large share of energy consumption, but due to declining output, Australia is facing a growing dependence on petroleum imports. Over the past two decades, Australia has steadily consumed increasing amounts of natural gas, which is likely to continue over the medium term.<ref> See Energy Information Administration, "Australia" (2009) [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Australia/Background.html online]</ref>

Australia is one of the four countries (along with Norway, Canada and Mexico) belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that is a significant net energy exporter. Australia is the world’s largest coal exporter and is the fifth largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Australia’s prospects for expanding energy exports in the future are promising as Asian demand for both coal and LNG rises. However, Australia can expect increasing export competition from China (coal) and Indonesia (coal and LNG).

In July 2005, the Australian government formed the Australian Energy Regulator (AER). The AER is responsible for economic regulation in Australian energy markets. In addition, the AER promotes investment in the energy sector to ensure supply security, while monitoring prices faced by end users. In 2006, Australia’s 13 government bodies transferred energy regulation responsibility to the AER. The AER is seeking $23 billion in infrastructure investments over the next 15 years.

====Comparing Australian and U.S. Economic and Health statistics====
Whilst the Australian society is similar in many aspects to those of the U.S., a comparison of key economic (in $U.S.) and health indicators highlights some interesting fundamental differences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!Australia!!U.S.
|-
| '''GDP Per Capita'''
| $32,900.00
| $43,500.00
|-
| '''Budget Deficit/Surplus''' Per capita
| $444.00 surplus. Australia has had budget surpluses every year since 2001
| $841.00 deficit
|-
| '''Public Debt'''
| 14.1% of GDP
| 64.7% of GDP
|-
| '''Military Expenditure'''
| 2.5 % of GDP
| 4.06% of GDP
|-
| '''Life Expectancy at Birth''' (combined male and female)
| 80.5 years
| 77.85 years
|-
| '''Infant Mortality Rates''' deaths/1,000 live births
| 4.63
| 6.43
|-
| '''HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates'''
| 0.1% of population
| 0.6% of population
|}
Australia has a universal health scheme and significant subsidies on most prescription medications.

== History==
''See main article [[History of Australia]]''

Australia was uninhabited until stone-culture peoples arrived, perhaps by boat across the waters separating the island from the Indonesia archipelago more than 40,000 years ago. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English explorers observed the island before 1770, when Captain Cook explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain.
[[File:Aboriginal art Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Aboriginal art.]]
On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the so-called '''First Fleet''' landed at Sydney and the Colony of New South Wales was established. Many, but by no means all, of the first settlers were convicts, some condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. From the mid-19th century convict transportation to Australia significantly declined; the last ship to arrive was in 1868. Many officers of the Royal Navy received grants and established large farms and ranches. Ranchers who used government lands for their herds of sheep were informally called "squatters"; despite the term, most were wealthy. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased immigration, wealth, and trade. A third of the new arrivals were Irish Catholics, and there emerged a political and cultural tension between them and the Protestant British.

The six colonies that became the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1829; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement preceded these dates in most cases.

Negotiations between Australians and the government in London led Parliament to create the '''Commonwealth of Australia''' in 1900, effective January 1, 1901.

Australia came of age in World War I, when it supported the British war effort, and imprisoned German citizens living their. he great defeat at Gallipoli focused Australia's heroes self image.
[[File:UNMCK Australia.jpg|left|280px]]
In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by American Walter Burley Griffin. Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942 (with effect as of September 3, 1939), which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs and formalized a situation that had existed for years.<ref> The Australia Act (effective March 3, 1986) eliminated almost all remaining vestiges of British legal authority, including the ability to appeal to the British Privy Council.</ref>

In World War II Australia again rallied to the British cause, but were left practically undefended when at fall of Singapore in 1942 the Japanese captured much of the Australian army. The rest of the army was rushed back from the Middle East to defend against a possible Japanese invasion. Britain was no help, so Australia turned, permanently, to the United States for its defense.

In practice the monarch is only symbolic--a symbol especially of ties to the [[British Empire]] that the Irish and new immigrants are unwilling to continue. In 1998,republicans were given a free hand to choose the form of republic they wanted. This was put to a referendum in 1999, and enjoyed strong support among the politicians and in the mainstream media. But a campaign led by a group, [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy ] resulted in the defeat of the referendum in all states and 72% of electorates. Republicans remain unable to agree on how to replace the present system--whether with a powerful elected president responsible directly to the people, or with a weak president chosen by the government (as in Germany), the model which was rejected in 1999 because of distrust of politicians.

== See also ==
* [[Australian dollar]]
* [[Currency#Australia|Currency: Australia]]

==Bibliography==

===References===
* Bambrick, Susan ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia'' (1994)
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* O'Shane, Pat et al. ''Australia: The Complete Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Shaw, John, ed. ''Collins Australian Encyclopedia'' (1984)
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949) [http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
[[File:Aussie1.jpg|thumb|280px]]
===Guides===
* ''Australia For Dummies'' by Marc Llewellyn and Lee Mylne. (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Dummies-Travel-Marc-Llewellyn/dp/0470178345/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126338&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* '' Central Australia: Adelaide to Darwin'' by Charles Rawlings-Way and Meg Worby (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Central-Australia-Adelaide-Darwin-Regional/dp/1741046637/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Australia 2009'' by Lee Mylne et al. (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Australia-2009-Complete/dp/0470345446/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Moon Living Abroad in Australia'' by James M. Lane (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Moon-Living-Abroad-Australia-James/dp/1598801392/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to Australia'' by Margo Daly et al. (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-Australia-Travel-Guides/dp/1848360738/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]
* Vaisutis, Justine et al. ''Lonely Planet Sydney & New South Wales'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Country-Guide-Justine-Vaisutis/dp/174179160X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

===Economics and business===
* Kelly, Paul. ''The End of Certainty: Power, Politics and Business in Australia,'' (1994)
* McLean, Ian W. "Consumer Prices and Expenditure Patterns in Australia 1850-1914." ''Australian Economic History Review''(1999) 39(1): 1-28; includes a consumer price index (CPI) for the period 1850 to 1914. Issn: 0004-8992 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Moran, Anthony. ''Australia: Nation, Belonging, and Globalization'' Routledge, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108858937 online edition]
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===Environment and Geography===
* Appleton, Richard, and Barbara Appleton. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Australian Places'' (1993)
* Dovers, Stephen. ''Australian Environmental History: Essays & Cases'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Environmental-History-Essays-Cases/dp/0195534824/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Garden, Don. ''Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental Hisory.'' ABC-CLIO, 2005. 398 pp.
* Hutton, Drew, and Libby Connors. ''History of the Australian Environment Movement'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Australian-Environment-Movement-Hutton/dp/052145686X/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Lines, William. ''Taming the Great South Land: A History of the Conquest of Nature in Australia'' (1992)
*Powell JM . ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. (1988)
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===History===
see [[History of Australia]] for more detaile guide
* Atkinson, Alan. ''The Europeans in Australia: A History. Vol. 2: Democracy.'' (2005). 440 pp.
* Barker, Anthony. ''What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788.'' Allen & Unwin. 2000. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108433410 online edition]
* Basset, Jan. ''The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History'' (1998)
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way'' (2005)
* Clarke, Frank G. ''The History of Australia'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101344125 online edition]
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Day, David. ''Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia'' (2001);
* Edwards, John. ''Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister,'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108661368 online edition]
* Hughes, Robert. ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Founding'' (1988). [http://www.amazon.com/Fatal-Shore-Robert-Hughes/dp/0099448548/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. ''Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation'' Allen & Unwin, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110168653 online edition]
* Kingston, Beverley. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 3: 1860-1900 Glad, Confident Morning'' (1993)
* Kociumbas, Jan. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770-1860 Possessions'' (1995)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age'' (1993)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''A Concise History of Australia'' (2nd. ed. 2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Australia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521735939/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, A. W. ''Robert Menzies: A Life'' (2 vol 1993-99), online at ACLS e-books
* Megalogenis, George. ''The Longest Decade'' (2nd ed. 2009), politics 1990-2008
* Schreuder, Deryck, and Stuart Ward, eds. ''Australia's Empire'' (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Australias-Empire-History-British-Companion/dp/0199273731/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1226788019&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949)[http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
* Taylor, Peter. ''The Atlas of Australian History'' (1991)
* Welsh, Frank. ;;Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land'' (2008)

===International Relations and Military===
* Bridge, Carl ed., ''Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s,'' Melbourne University Press 1991
* Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History.'' 1996)
* Firth, Stewart. ''Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108662470 online edition]
* Grant, Ian. ''A Dictionary of Australian Military History - from Colonial Times to the Gulf War'' (1992)
* Lee, David. ''Search for Security: The Political Economy of Australia's Postwar Foreign and Defence Policy'' (1995)
* McLean, David. "From British Colony to American Satellite? Australia and the USA during the Cold War," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History" (2006) 52 (1), 64–79. Rejects satellite model. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8497.2006.00408a.x online at Blackwell-Synergy]
* McLean, David. "Australia in the Cold War: a Historiographical Review." ''International History Review'' (2001) 23(2): 299-321. Issn: 0707-5332
* Murphy, John. ''Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War'' (1993)
* Watt, Alan. ''The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965,'' Cambridge University Press, 1967

===Culture and society===
* Bebbington, Warren. ''A Dictionary of Australian Music'' (1999)
* Bennett, Bruce et al. ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia'' (1999)
* Bennett, Tony, and David Carter. ''Culture in Australia: Policies, Publics and Programs'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Culture-Australia-Reshaping-Australian-Institutions/dp/0521004039/ref=sr_1_47/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533775&sr=8-47 excerpt and text search]
* Breward, Ian. ''A History of the Churches in Australasia.'' (2002). 474 pp.
* Carey, Hilary. ''Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions'' (1996)
* Horton, David. ''The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture'' (2001)
* Huggan Graham. ''Postcolonialism, Racism, Transnationalism'' (Oxford Studies in Postcolonial Literatures) (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Literature-Postcolonialism-Transnationalism-Postcolonial/dp/0199274622/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James, ed. ''The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins'' (2nd ed. 2002) 960pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521807891/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James. ''The English in Australia'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521542952/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Kleinert, Sylvia. and Margo Neale. ''The Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture'' (2001)
* Leitner, Gerhard. ''Australia's Many Voices: Australian English--the National Language'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/3110181940/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Love, J.W. ed. ''Australia and the Pacific Islands'' (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 9) (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Pacific-Islands-Garland-Encyclopedia/dp/0824060385/ref=sr_1_14/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533487&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* McAllister, Ian, Steve Dowrick, Riaz Hassan; ''The Cambridge Handbook of the Social Sciences in Australia'' Cambridge University Press, 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108131347 online edition]
* McCulloch, Alan. ''Encyclopedia of Australian Art'' 2 vol (1984)
* McDonald, John. ''Federation: Australian Art and Society, 1901-2001. Natl. Gallery of Australia, 2002. 264 pp.
* Moran, Albert. ''Historical Dictionary of Australian Radio and Television'' (2007)
* Nile, Richard. ''The Making of the Australian Literary Imagination.'' (2002). 315 pp.
* Rickard, John, ''Australia: A Cultural History'' (1988)
* Webby, Elizabeth. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Australian-Literature-Companions/dp/0521658438/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wilde, William H. et al eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Literature'' (1995) online at [[OUP]] [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-Literature/dp/019553381X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia.''
* Samuels, Selina, ed. ''Australian Writers, 1915-50.'' (2002). 510 pp.
* Sayers, Andrew. ''Australian Art'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Art-Oxford-History/dp/0192842145/ref=sr_1_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Webby, Elizabeth, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2006)
* Wannan, Bill. ''A Dictionary of Australian Folklore: Lore, Legends, Myths and Traditions'' (1988)

==Primary sources==
* [http://samizdat.stores.yahoo.net/auslitandhis.html Australia: Literature and History 136 e-books]

==External links==
* [http://www.fed.gov.au Australian Government portal]
* [http://www.aph.gov.au Australian Parliament House (Reps & Senate) portal]
* [http://www.gg.gov.au Governor-General of Australia]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/oceania.htm Australia and Oceania]
* [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy]
* [http://www.crownedrepublic.com.au The Crowned Republic ]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
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[[Category:Oceanian Countries]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Australia]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Bibliographies]]

Australia

2011-05-24T05:04:03Z

EvelynJ: /* Economy */ updated exchange rate

{{Country
|name =''Commonwealth of Australia''
|map =Australia rel 1999.jpg
|map2 =Australia location.png
|flag =Flag of Australia.png
|arms =Australia coat-of-arms.jpg
|capital =Canberra
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Julia Gillard
|pm-raw =
|area =2,988,888 sq mi
|pop =21.8 million
|pop-basis =2009
|gdp =A$1.17 trillion
|gdp-year =2009
|gdp-pc =A$36,000
|currency =Australian dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The [[Commonwealth]] of Australia is an independent nation that occupies the continent of Australia, with its west coast on the [[Indian Ocean]], east coast on the [[Pacific Ocean]] facing [[New Zealand]], southern coast on the [[Southern Ocean]] facing [[Antarctica]], and northern coast bordering [[Indonesia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. Australia is considered geographically as part of [[Oceania]], but has been establishing its place politically and commercially in [[Southeast Asia]].

Socially and politically however, it bears many similarities to the [[United States of America]].

==Geography==
[[File:Sydney harbour bridge.jpg|thumb|370px|Sydney harbour bridge.]]
Australia is the only country to occupy an entire continent<ref>This refers just to the Australian mainland. Some authorities now include [[Papua New Guinea]], [[New Zealand]], and various other [[Pacific Ocean]] islands in the continent of "Oceania". See [http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/au.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>, the smallest of the planet's seven continents.<ref>Some people count six, combining North and South America or Europe and Asia. See [http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/contnent.htm WorldAtlas.com].</ref>
It is 2,400 miles, (3,860 km) from east to west and 2,000 miles (3,220 km) from north to south, and covers an area of 2,967,877 sq miles (7,686,810 sq km). The Australian coastline is 22,812 miles long (36,735 kilometers), roughly the size as the mainland 48 states of the USA.
{{Clear}}

====The States and Territories of Australia====
[[File:State Library of Victoria Australia.jpg|thumb|220px|Melbourne, State Library of Victoria.]]
Australia has six states and three internal territories. The states are:
* [[New South Wales]]
* [[Victoria]]
* [[Queensland]]
* [[Western Australia]]
* [[South Australia]]
* [[Tasmania]]
The internal territories are:
* The [[Northern Territory]] (responsible government since 1978)
* [[Australian Capital Territory]] (responsible government since 1988) which is the location of Australia's capital city, [[Canberra]].
* [[Jervis Bay Territory]] (small, not much there, generally forgotten about)
The external territories are:
* [[Christmas Island]]
* [[Norfolk Island]]
* [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]
* [[Coral Sea Islands]]
* [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
* [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
{{Clear}}

====Low density====
80% of Australia's population, live on the coast line. It is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries (2.7 people per square kilometre)<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au ABS]</ref>. Water is scarce and most cities have some form of water restrictions in place.

====Weather====
Weather extremes are common in Australia with temperatures sometimes measured into the high 40s Celsius (45 degrees Celsius = 113 degrees Fahrenheit). The city of Darwin was heavily damaged by Cyclone Tracy on Dec. 25, 1974, killing 66 people, and destroying 80% of the buildings. Darwin's utilities were knocked out and 35,000 people were evacuated.

Bush fires often ravage the southern states - one of the worst occurring on Ash Wednesday in 1983 when over 2,000 homes were destroyed and over 70 people lost their lives in Victoria and South Australia. In 2009 severe fires hit much of Victoria, worsened by hot dry winds and a severe drought.

====Flora and fauna====
Australia is noted for its unique biodiversity. Many animals are found only in Australia, the most well known examples are the group of marsupials ([[kangaroo]]s, [[wombat]]s, [[wallaby|wallabies]] and [[koala]]s), and the only two [[monotremes]], the [[platypus]] and the [[echidna]]. Examples of plants that are native to Australia are the [[banksia]], [[yellow wattle]] and [[gum tree]].

Current evolutionary studies indicate that Australia's unique wildlife is the result of Australia becoming an island, being cut off from the Asian land bridge between 40,000 and 250,000 years ago on the [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarian timescale]].

==People==
===Demographics===
[[File:Australian fishing family.jpg|right|270px]]
Although Australia has scarcely more than three people per square kilometer, it is one of the world's most urbanized countries. Less than 2.5% of the population lives in remote or very remote areas.
*Population (2010 est.): 22.27 million. <ref>http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0 Australian Bureau of Statistics</ref>
*Annual population growth rate: 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: European 92%, Asian 6%, Aboriginal 2%.
*Religions (2006): Catholic 26%, Anglican 19%, other Christian 19%, other non-Christian 1%, Buddhist 2.1%, Islam 1.7%, no religion 19%, and not stated 12%.
*Languages: English.
*Education: Years compulsory--to age 16 in all states and territories except New South Wales and the Northern Territory where it is 15, and Western Australia where it is 17. Literacy--over 99%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate--4.7/1,000. Life expectancy--males 78 yrs., females 83 yrs.
*Work force (10.8 million): Agriculture--3.3%; mining--1.5%; manufacturing--9.8%; retail trade--11.3%; public administration, defense, and safety--6%; construction--9.2%

===Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders===
Australia's indigenous inhabitants, a hunting-gathering people collectively referred to today as Aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders, arrived more than 40,000 years ago. Although their technical culture remained static--depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons--their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Indigenous population density ranged from one person per square mile along the coasts to one person per 35 square miles in the arid interior. When Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770, the native population is estimated to have numbered between 318,000 and 750,000 in as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages. In 2006 the indigenous population was approximately 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population. Since the end of World War II, the government and the public have made efforts to be more responsive to aboriginal rights and needs, most recently with Prime Minister Rudd's historic apology to the indigenous people in February 2008.

===Immigrants===
Immigration has been vital to Australia's development since the beginning of European settlement in 1788. Originally used as a prison for [[convicts]], the discovery of gold in [[Victoria]] convinced many to come to Australia. For generations, most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin, with a culture and outlook similar to those of Americans. A [["White Australia" policy]] operated from 1901 to the 1960s; it encouraged immigration by Europeans and blocked almost all other immigration.

The Chinese who arrived in the late 19th century to work in the gold mines left voluntarily or were expelled. Likewise most of the "Kanakas" --Polynesians--who came to work in the sugar fields were expatriated after 1901. Many Germans settled in South Australia, but those without Australian citizenship were put in camps during World War I and most were sent back to Germany after the war.

===Recent trends===
[[File:Sydney.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Sydney skyline from Taronga Zoo.]]
Since the end of World War II, Australia's population has more than doubled.

Non British/Irish immigration has increased significantly since World War II through an extensive, planned immigration program. Since 1945 around 6.6 million migrants have settled in Australia, including 690,000 refugee and humanitarian entrants. About 80% have remained; 24%--almost one in four--of Australians are foreign-born. Britain, Ireland, Italy, Greece, New Zealand, and the former Yugoslavia were the largest sources of post-war immigration, but New Zealand is closing on Britain as the largest source country for permanent migrants to Australia.

The barriers against Asians fell in the 1970s and thousands of immigrants from the Chinese diaspora resettled in Australia. Immigrants from India and the Philippines were numerous as well.

====Refugees====
Australia's humanitarian and refugee program of about 13,000 per year is in addition to other immigration programs. In recent years, refugees from Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia have comprised the largest element in Australia's refugee program.

====Religion====
Australia is a [[secular]] nation, in that it has no established religion associated with the Government.

According to the 2006 census, 64% of citizens consider themselves to be Christian, including 26% Roman Catholic, 19% Anglican, and 19% other Christian. Buddhists constitute 2.1% of the population, Muslims 1.7%, Hindus 0.7%, Jews 0.4%, and all others professing a religion 0.5%. Of Australia's 21 million people, about 1.5 million attend weekly religious services <ref>[http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083| National Church Life Survey 2004]; U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008" [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108400.htm online]</ref>.
[[File:Ballarat Hebrew Congregation Australia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Ballarat Hebrew Congregation.]]
In 1911, during the first census, 96% identified themselves as Christian. In recent decades traditional Christian denominations have seen their total number and proportion of affiliates stagnate or decrease significantly, although from 2001 to 2006, the total number of Pentecostal and charismatic Christians increased by 12.9%. Over the past decade, increased immigration from Southeast Asia and the Middle East considerably expanded the numbers of citizens who identify themselves as Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims, and increased the ethnic diversity of existing Christian denominations. Between 2001 and 2006, the numbers increased for Buddhists by 17% (to 418,000), Muslims by 21% (to 340,393), Jews by 6% (to 89,000), and Hindus by 55% (to 148,131). In 2006 approximately 18.7% of citizens considered themselves to have no religion, up from 17% in 2001, and 11.2% made no statement regarding religious affiliation. According to a 2002 survey, 23% of adults had participated in church or religious activities during the previous 3 months.

The Australian public school system is "free, secular and compulsory" with the secular meaning without favor to any particular religion. Schools are required to offer religious instruction at the primary level, but are not allowed to discriminate between religions. The state systems of a number of states offer studies in religion at the senior level.

There is a large Catholic school system in Australia with most parishes having their own primary school and many hundreds of Catholic high schools across the country. There are also a large number of independent schools founded by various religions or denominations of the Christian faith - some hold that religious background to be more important than others. All schools, state or religious, receive government funding, as funding is provided for every student that is an Australian resident.

At the time of European settlement, aboriginal inhabitants followed religions that were animistic, involving belief in spirits behind the forces of nature and the influence of ancestral spirit beings. According to the 2006 census, 5,206 persons, or less than 0.03% of respondents, reported practicing aboriginal traditional religions, down from 5,244 in 2001. The 2006 census reported that almost 64% of Aborigines identify themselves as Christian and 20% listed no religion.

====Culture====
[[Image:Sidney opera house.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Sydney Opera House, an iconic symbol of the nation]]
Much of Australia's culture is derived from European roots, but distinctive Australian features have evolved from the environment, [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] culture, and the influence of Australia's neighbors. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia--film, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts--have achieved international recognition.

Australian actors and comedians such as Nicole Kidman, Rachel Griffiths, Cate Blanchett, Geoffrey Rush, Paul Hogan, Hugh Jackman, the late Heath Ledger, and Dame Edna Everage (Barry Humphries) have achieved enormous popularity in the United States. Directors such as Peter Weir, Philip Noyes, and Russell Mulcahy, the conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and singers and musicians such as Olivia Newton-John, Men At Work, The Wiggles, AC/DC, Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Nellie Melba, and Kylie Minogue are well known.

Australian artists with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, Pro Hart, and Arthur Boyd. Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker Conway, Peter Carey, Robert Hughes, Germaine Greer, and Nobel Prize winner Patrick White.

====Sports====
[[File:Melbourne Cup Australia.jpg|left|200px|thumb|[[Melbourne]] Cup.]]
Australia is known as a sporting nation with success worldwide in [[swimming]], [[tennis]], [[rugby union]], [[cricket]], [[netball]],and [[basketball]]. Australians are very keen horse racers with the Melbourne Cup <ref>[http://www.melbournecup.com.au| Melbourne Cup]</ref> attracting up to 120,000 spectators at Flemington Race Course on the first Tuesday in November. There is a public holiday for the cup race in Melbourne, while the remainder of the country virtually pauses during the running.

Unique to Australia is a game known as [[Australian rules football]] or Aussie Rules, which is played on a [[cricket]] oval in winter. Australian rules football is the sport most attended in the states of [[Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]], and most attended overall in Australia; in 2006 2.5 million people had attended at least one Aussie Rules game in the preceding 12 months.[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyCatalogue/1F8FAC9C2C7B1623CA2568A900139417?OpenDocument] Australian Rules Football was written by persons educated at the [[Rugby School]] in England and [[Cambridge University]] before the organisation of uniform football codes. It is not as popular in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] although premiership teams are based in these two states.

The other national football code is [[rugby league]]. Rugby league football is the most attended sport in New South Wales and Queensland with its premier club competition being the [[National Rugby League]].

====Tourism====
[[File:Anzac Memorial Sydney Australia 2007.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Anzac Memorial, Sydney, 2007.]]
Most tourists visit places such as Sydney Harbour, Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Central Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland. Other favourite destinations are the wine making areas of South Australia and northern Victoria, the Great Ocean Road in Victoria, the natural wonders of Tasmania and the huge outback expanses of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Some cattle stations in Australia rival Texas in size and the distance between towns in some areas is enormous.

==Government==
Australia became a federated nation on January 1, 1901 under the [[Constitution of Australia]], and all former British colonies became states. The parliament met in [[Melbourne]] until the infrastructure was built for the capital city, [[Canberra]].

Australia has a [[Parliament|parliamentary system]] of government based on the British system with a [[bicameral]] system meeting as the [[Parliament of Australia]], consisting of the [[Australian House of Representatives]] and the [[Australian Senate]]. Each state and territory also has its own parliament.

The two other branches of government under the Constitution are the Executive ([[Governor-General of Australia]] taking advice from the Ministers) and the [[judicial]].

Australia is a democracy which has allowed men of European descent to vote since federation, with women gaining the vote in 1902 and Aboriginal men and women gaining suffrage in 1962. Voting is compulsory for all citizens who are 18 years old and over (with a few exceptions.)

Australia's Head of Government is the [[Prime Minister of Australia]]. In June 2010, [[Julia Gillard]] became the first female Prime Minister after she defeated [[Kevin Rudd]] in a partyroom leadership challenge.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gillard ousts Rudd in bloodless coup |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/06/24/2935500.htm|accessdate=24 June 2010|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=24 June 2010}}</ref>

The Head of State is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], the Queen of Australia (who is the same person, but a different title, as the Queen of Great Britain.) Under the Constitution, and in practice, the authority of the Head of State is vested in the [[Governor-General of Australia]], currently Quentin Bryce AC, Previously Governor of [[Queensland]], who assents to acts of parliament, is the Commander in Chief of the military forces, and appoints all Ministers of the Government; all these various powers are normally exercised on advice from the Prime Minister.

The Government of Australia is exercised, day-to-day, by the Ministers through their various Departments of State.

====Voting====
{{main|Voting in Australia}}

Australia has [[preferential voting]], and voting is compulsory for adults (18 years and over), unless they have been deemed unfit to vote, either by mental illness or conviction for serious offenses. Preferential voting encourages a multiplicity of parties and independent candidates, and counting the votes and allocating preferences can take some time where the results are close.

====Terms====
A Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives is elected for a maximum of three years, but the timing of elections is decided by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par3cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part III |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> A Member of Parliament in the Senate is typically elected for six years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/par2cha1.htm |title=Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution - Chapter 1 Part II |accessdate=2010-10-13}}</ref> The Prime Minister is normally a member of the House of Representatives, and the tenure is not limited by statute. Ministers may continue to serve for up to three months when not a Member or Senator, but must in that time be elected in order to continue. ([[John Gorton]] was a Senator when appointed leader of his party after the death of his predecessor. He immediately resigned from the Senate and stood for election to the House of Representatives, while remaining Prime Minister throughout.)

====Parliamentary political parties====
Currently, the main political parties in Australia are:
* [[Australian Greens]]
* [[Australian Labor Party]]
* [[Family First Party]]
* [[Liberal Party of Australia]]
* [[National Party of Australia]]
* One Nation Party
[[File:Australian house of representatives.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Australian house of representatives.]]
Despite the US connotation associated with the name, the Liberal Party is conservative in political stance. Robert Menzies helped found the Liberal Party in 1944 and was the Prime Minister from 1939 until 1941 and then again from 1949 until 1966.<ref> [http://www.liberals.net/liberalpartyhistory.htm History of the Liberal Party in Australia]</ref> The term "liberal" refers to the party's predominantly-[[free market|free-market]] approach to [[economics|economic management]].

The party currently in power is the [[Australian Labor Party]]. The Labor Party is also in government in all of the states and territories. The Prime Minister is Julia Gillard.

Conservative Queensland polititian and businesswoman, Pauline Hanson formed the One Nation party to give a conservative voice to voters that were not being effectivly represented by the major partys. One Nation has held seats in both the Federal Senate and Lower House, and have been the subject of ridicule by left-leaning media commentators.

Though the Labor party is "social democratic" and the Liberals are "liberal conservatives", some of the smaller parties are more left leaning or more conservative than Labor and Liberal respectively.

''See also a [[list of Prime Ministers of Australia]].''

The Prime Minister of Australia is the most senior elected person in the country. The role is normally filled by the parliamentary leader of the party which forms the government.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Governor General--Quentin Bryce
*Prime Minister--Julia Gillard
*Deputy Prime Minister--Wayne Swan
*Treasurer--Wayne Swan
*Foreign Minister--Kevin Rudd
*Defense Minister--Stephen Smith
*Trade Minister--Craig Emerson

===Political Conditions===
Three political parties dominate the center of the Australian political spectrum. The Liberal Party (LP), nominally representing urban business interests, and its smaller coalition partner, The Nationals, nominally representing rural interests, are the more conservative parties. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) nominally represents workers, trade unions, and left-of-center groups. While the ALP, founded by labor unions, traditionally had been moderately socialist in its policies and approaches to social issues, today it is best described as a social democratic party. All political groups are tied by tradition to welfare programs. Over the last decade, Australia has increased welfare payments to families while imposing obligations on those receiving unemployment benefits and disability pensions. There is strong bipartisan sentiment on many international issues, including Australia's commitment to its alliance with the United States.
[[File:Protests in front of Parliament House Canberra Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
The ALP, under the leadership of Kevin Rudd, defeated the Liberal/National coalition, led by then-Prime Minister John Howard, in the November 24, 2007 election. The ALP now holds 83 seats in the House of Representatives, against 64 for the Liberal/National coalition, and 3 independents. The composition of the Senate is 37 seats for the coalition, 32 for the ALP, five seats for the Greens, one for Family First, and one independent.

The ALP won the election with a message promising "new leadership" after 11 years of the Howard government. Rudd portrayed himself as an "economic conservative," while criticizing unpopular Howard government policies on workplace relations reform, climate change, and the war on Iraq. The Rudd government ratified the Kyoto Protocol and is working with the international community on combating climate change. It is undoing some labor market reforms instituted by the Howard government, such as statutory individual contracts. The Australian government's foreign policy shows strong continuity with that of its predecessors, stressing relations with four key countries: the United States, Japan, China, and Indonesia. The Rudd government strongly supports U.S. engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and increased Australia’s troop contribution in Afghanistan. It withdrew Australia's combat troops from Iraq in 2008; it intends to end its military mission in Iraq on July 31, 2009.

Australia has been an active participant in international affairs since federation in 1901, and Australian forces have fought beside the United States and other Allies in every significant conflict since World War I. On January 8, 1940, the governments of the United States and Australia announced the establishment of bilateral diplomatic relations. In 1944, Australia concluded an agreement with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact). After World War II, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch. Australia was one of the founding members of the United Nations, the South Pacific Commission, and the Colombo Plan. In addition to contributing to UN forces in Korea--it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States--Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the 1948-1960 communist revolt in Malaya and later to combat the 1963-1965 Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak. The United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, which remains Australia's pre-eminent formal security treaty alliance. Australia sent troops to assist South Vietnamese and U.S. forces in Vietnam, and joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf conflict in 1991, in Afghanistan in 2001, and in Iraq in 2003.

Australia has been active in the Australia-New Zealand-U.K. agreement and the Five-Power Defense Arrangements--successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.

One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It was last a member of the Security Council in 1985-86, a member of the Economic and Social Council for 1986-89, and a member of the UN Human Rights Commission for 1994-96 and 2003-2005. Australia recently declared its intention to seek a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for 2013-2014. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, nonproliferation and disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Regional Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group--countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations--and in founding the APEC forum. In 2002, Australia joined the International Criminal Court.

Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues, and has been a member of the East Asia Summit since its inauguration in 2005. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory. In 2006, Australia participated in an international peacekeeping operation in Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor). Australia led a regional mission to restore law and order in Solomon Islands in 2003 and again in 2006. Australia is part of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, which also includes the United States.

The government is committed to increasing official development assistance to 0.5% of gross national income by 2015-2016. Australia budgeted A$3.79 billion (U.S. $3.03 billion) for FY 2008-2009 and has budgeted A$3.82 billion (U.S. $3.05 billion) for FY 2009-2010. The Australian aid program is currently concentrated in Southeast Asia (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are the largest recipients) and the Pacific Islands. Selected aid flows are allocated to Africa, South Asia, and reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq. Contributions to multilateral organizations and other expenses account for about one-third of the foreign assistance budget.

===ANZUS and Defense===
The Australia, New Zealand, United States (ANZUS) security treaty was concluded at San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and entered into force on April 29, 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.
[[File:Canberra Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Canberra.]]
In 1984, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed after the Government of New Zealand refused access to its ports by nuclear-weapons-capable and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. The United States suspended defense obligations to New Zealand, and annual bilateral meetings between the U.S. Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Since 1985, U.S. Secretaries of State and Defense and the Australian Foreign and Defense Ministers have held 20 Australia-U.S. Ministerial consultations (AUSMIN), alternating between Australia and the United States. The next AUSMIN is scheduled to take place in Australia in 2010.

The U.S.-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. AUSMIN meetings are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Combatant Commander, Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defense Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

ANZUS has no integrated defense structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training to numerous smaller-scale exercises, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing, where possible, equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate joint defense facilities in Australia.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, then-Prime Minister Howard and U.S. President George W. Bush jointly invoked the ANZUS Treaty for the first time on September 14, 2001. Australia was one of the earliest participants in Operation Enduring Freedom. Australian Defense Forces participated in coalition military action against Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Australian combat forces began their withdrawal from Iraq in mid-2008 and forces are to be fully removed by July 2009. Australia has approximately 1,000 troops deployed in Afghanistan and also provides significant development and capacity building assistance to the country. Based on growing defense commitments, Australia decided to increase the Australian Army from 26,000 to 30,000 over the next several years. This will enable the reestablishment of two infantry battalions, as well as enabling troops, such as a new unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) unit.

The Australian Government has stated its intention to maintain its investment in future capability of the Australian Defense Force (ADF). To do so, the government has committed to a 3% annual growth in real defense funding through 2018--and 2.2% annual real growth beyond--to ensure the ADF can continue to meet capability and interoperability goals. The Australian Defense Force numbers about 54,000 active duty personnel, with planned increases to 57,000 within the next decade. The Royal Australian Navy's (RAN) front-line fleet currently includes 12 frigates, including 4 of the Adelaide class and 8 Australian-built ANZAC class. In August 2004, Australia selected the Aegis Combat Control System for its three air warfare destroyers (AWD), which will start coming into service in 2014. The F/A-18 fighter, built in Australia under license from the U.S. manufacturer, is the principal combat aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force, backed by the U.S.-built F-111 strike aircraft. In October 2002, Australia became a Level III partner in the U.S.-led Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Additionally, the Australian Government signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development MOU in 2006. Australia is projected to buy up to 100 JSF aircraft with deliveries starting in 2013 and running through 2020. The F-111 strike aircraft are scheduled to exit service by 2010 and will be replaced by 24 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18F Super Hornet fighters as an interim strike capability with deliveries commencing in 2010. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) took delivery of the last aircraft in its buy of 4 Lockheed C-17 strategic airlift aircraft in 2008. In addition, Boeing will provide the Commonwealth of Australia's RAAF with an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system based on the Next-Generation 737-700 aircraft as the airborne platform. Recent U.S. sales to the Australian Army include the M1A1 AIM tank, as well as Hellfire and JAVELIN munitions. Future opportunities include CH-47 helicopter replacements, navy helicopter replacements, light and medium cargo aircraft replacements and artillery systems.

In May 2009, the Australian Government released its Defense White Paper, outlining Australia’s long-term strategic outlook. In addition to buying the JSF aircraft, the White Paper proposes to double Australia’s submarine fleet to 12, replace the ANZAC class frigates, and replace the army’s armored personnel carriers.

==Economy==
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|220px|A Melbourne tram.]]
For more see: [[Australian economy]]

Since the 1980s, Australia has undertaken significant structural reform of its economy and has transformed itself from an inward-looking, highly protected, and regulated marketplace to an open, internationally competitive, export-oriented economy. Key economic reforms included unilaterally reducing high tariffs and other protective barriers to free trade, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial services sector, including liberalizing access for foreign banks, increasing flexibility in the labor market, reducing duplication and increasing efficiency between the federal and state branches of government, privatizing many government-owned monopolies, and reforming the taxation system, including introducing a broad-based Goods and Services Tax (GST) and large reductions in income tax rates.
[[File:Salamanca-Market-2008 Australia.jpg|left|320px]]
Australia enjoys a higher standard of living than any G7 country other than the United States. Australia's economic standing in the world is a result of a commitment to best-practice macroeconomic policy settings, including the delegation of the conduct of monetary policy to the independent Reserve Bank of Australia, and a broad acceptance of prudent fiscal policy where the government aims for fiscal balance over the economic cycle. Largely due to the fall in revenue as a result of the global economic downturn, net government debt is projected to reach about A$188 billion (U.S. $150.4 billion) in four years. The previous government, drawing from budget surpluses, created the “Future Fund” to provide for future liabilities resulting from the retirement of civil servants. The Government of Australia is predicting negative 0.5% growth in the 2009-2010 fiscal year; the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted growth to be negative 1.4% for 2009.

Over 2008, unemployment has risen to around 5.5% from 4.2%, and the labor market participation has remained at around 65%. Both the federal and state governments have recognized the need to invest heavily in water, transport, ports, telecommunications, and education infrastructure to expand Australia's supply capacity. The largest river system in Australia, the Murray-Darling, and related coastal lakes and wetlands in South Australia are critically threatened and the government has developed a plan to improve irrigation infrastructure and efficiency and buy back unused water allocations along the river.
*GDP (2009-2010 estimate): A$1.17 trillion (U.S. $893.6 billion).
*Inflation rate (year to March 2009): 2.5% per annum.
*Reserve Bank official interest rate (May 2009): 3.00%.
*Trade: Exports ($178.9 billion, 2008 estimate)--coal, iron ore, gold, meat, wool, alumina, wheat, machinery and transport equipment. Major markets--Japan, China, South Korea, U.S. ($10.7 billion), and New Zealand. Imports ($187.2 billion, 2008 estimate)--machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products. Major suppliers--China, United States ($23.96 billion), Japan, Singapore, and Germany.
*Exchange rate (2009): U.S. $1.05 = A$1

====Energy====
[[File:Energy 500kv-power-lines Australia.jpg|right|400px]]
Australia is rich in natural resources with significant petroleum, natural gas and coal reserves. Australia’s energy consumption is dominated by coal, which fuels most of the country’s power generation. Petroleum accounts for a large share of energy consumption, but due to declining output, Australia is facing a growing dependence on petroleum imports. Over the past two decades, Australia has steadily consumed increasing amounts of natural gas, which is likely to continue over the medium term.<ref> See Energy Information Administration, "Australia" (2009) [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Australia/Background.html online]</ref>

Australia is one of the four countries (along with Norway, Canada and Mexico) belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that is a significant net energy exporter. Australia is the world’s largest coal exporter and is the fifth largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Australia’s prospects for expanding energy exports in the future are promising as Asian demand for both coal and LNG rises. However, Australia can expect increasing export competition from China (coal) and Indonesia (coal and LNG).

In July 2005, the Australian government formed the Australian Energy Regulator (AER). The AER is responsible for economic regulation in Australian energy markets. In addition, the AER promotes investment in the energy sector to ensure supply security, while monitoring prices faced by end users. In 2006, Australia’s 13 government bodies transferred energy regulation responsibility to the AER. The AER is seeking $23 billion in infrastructure investments over the next 15 years.

====Comparing Australian and U.S. Economic and Health statistics====
Whilst the Australian society is similar in many aspects to those of the U.S., a comparison of key economic (in $U.S.) and health indicators highlights some interesting fundamental differences:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!Australia!!U.S.
|-
| '''GDP Per Capita'''
| $32,900.00
| $43,500.00
|-
| '''Budget Deficit/Surplus''' Per capita
| $444.00 surplus. Australia has had budget surpluses every year since 2001
| $841.00 deficit
|-
| '''Public Debt'''
| 14.1% of GDP
| 64.7% of GDP
|-
| '''Military Expenditure'''
| 2.5 % of GDP
| 4.06% of GDP
|-
| '''Life Expectancy at Birth''' (combined male and female)
| 80.5 years
| 77.85 years
|-
| '''Infant Mortality Rates''' deaths/1,000 live births
| 4.63
| 6.43
|-
| '''HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates'''
| 0.1% of population
| 0.6% of population
|}
Australia has a universal health scheme and significant subsidies on most prescription medications.

== History==
''See main article [[History of Australia]]''

Australia was uninhabited until stone-culture peoples arrived, perhaps by boat across the waters separating the island from the Indonesia archipelago more than 40,000 years ago. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English explorers observed the island before 1770, when Captain Cook explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain.
[[File:Aboriginal art Australia.jpg|thumb|300px|Aboriginal art.]]
On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the so-called '''First Fleet''' landed at Sydney and the Colony of New South Wales was established. Many, but by no means all, of the first settlers were convicts, some condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. From the mid-19th century convict transportation to Australia significantly declined; the last ship to arrive was in 1868. Many officers of the Royal Navy received grants and established large farms and ranches. Ranchers who used government lands for their herds of sheep were informally called "squatters"; despite the term, most were wealthy. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased immigration, wealth, and trade. A third of the new arrivals were Irish Catholics, and there emerged a political and cultural tension between them and the Protestant British.

The six colonies that became the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1829; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement preceded these dates in most cases.

Negotiations between Australians and the government in London led Parliament to create the '''Commonwealth of Australia''' in 1900, effective January 1, 1901.

Australia came of age in World War I, when it supported the British war effort, and imprisoned German citizens living their. he great defeat at Gallipoli focused Australia's heroes self image.
[[File:UNMCK Australia.jpg|left|280px]]
In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by American Walter Burley Griffin. Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942 (with effect as of September 3, 1939), which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs and formalized a situation that had existed for years.<ref> The Australia Act (effective March 3, 1986) eliminated almost all remaining vestiges of British legal authority, including the ability to appeal to the British Privy Council.</ref>

In World War II Australia again rallied to the British cause, but were left practically undefended when at fall of Singapore in 1942 the Japanese captured much of the Australian army. The rest of the army was rushed back from the Middle East to defend against a possible Japanese invasion. Britain was no help, so Australia turned, permanently, to the United States for its defense.

In practice the monarch is only symbolic--a symbol especially of ties to the [[British Empire]] that the Irish and new immigrants are unwilling to continue. In 1998,republicans were given a free hand to choose the form of republic they wanted. This was put to a referendum in 1999, and enjoyed strong support among the politicians and in the mainstream media. But a campaign led by a group, [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy ] resulted in the defeat of the referendum in all states and 72% of electorates. Republicans remain unable to agree on how to replace the present system--whether with a powerful elected president responsible directly to the people, or with a weak president chosen by the government (as in Germany), the model which was rejected in 1999 because of distrust of politicians.

== See also ==
* [[Australian dollar]]
* [[Currency#Australia|Currency: Australia]]

==Bibliography==

===References===
* Bambrick, Susan ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia'' (1994)
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* O'Shane, Pat et al. ''Australia: The Complete Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Shaw, John, ed. ''Collins Australian Encyclopedia'' (1984)
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[[File:Aussie1.jpg|thumb|280px]]
===Guides===
* ''Australia For Dummies'' by Marc Llewellyn and Lee Mylne. (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Dummies-Travel-Marc-Llewellyn/dp/0470178345/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126338&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* '' Central Australia: Adelaide to Darwin'' by Charles Rawlings-Way and Meg Worby (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Central-Australia-Adelaide-Darwin-Regional/dp/1741046637/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Australia 2009'' by Lee Mylne et al. (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Australia-2009-Complete/dp/0470345446/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126132&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Moon Living Abroad in Australia'' by James M. Lane (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Moon-Living-Abroad-Australia-James/dp/1598801392/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Rough Guide to Australia'' by Margo Daly et al. (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Rough-Guide-Australia-Travel-Guides/dp/1848360738/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]
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===Economics and business===
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* McLean, Ian W. "Consumer Prices and Expenditure Patterns in Australia 1850-1914." ''Australian Economic History Review''(1999) 39(1): 1-28; includes a consumer price index (CPI) for the period 1850 to 1914. Issn: 0004-8992 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Moran, Anthony. ''Australia: Nation, Belonging, and Globalization'' Routledge, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108858937 online edition]
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===Environment and Geography===
* Appleton, Richard, and Barbara Appleton. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Australian Places'' (1993)
* Dovers, Stephen. ''Australian Environmental History: Essays & Cases'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Environmental-History-Essays-Cases/dp/0195534824/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-8 excerpt and text search]
* Garden, Don. ''Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental Hisory.'' ABC-CLIO, 2005. 398 pp.
* Hutton, Drew, and Libby Connors. ''History of the Australian Environment Movement'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Australian-Environment-Movement-Hutton/dp/052145686X/ref=sr_1_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
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*Powell JM . ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. (1988)
*Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ. ''Australia and New Zealand: economy, society and environment''.(2000)

===History===
see [[History of Australia]] for more detaile guide
* Atkinson, Alan. ''The Europeans in Australia: A History. Vol. 2: Democracy.'' (2005). 440 pp.
* Barker, Anthony. ''What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788.'' Allen & Unwin. 2000. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108433410 online edition]
* Basset, Jan. ''The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History'' (1998)
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942-1995. The Middle Way'' (2005)
* Clarke, Frank G. ''The History of Australia'' (2002). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101344125 online edition]
* Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian History'' (2001) online at many academic libraries; also [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-History/dp/019551503X/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Day, David. ''Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia'' (2001);
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* Hughes, Robert. ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Founding'' (1988). [http://www.amazon.com/Fatal-Shore-Robert-Hughes/dp/0099448548/ref=pd_bbs_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. ''Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation'' Allen & Unwin, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=110168653 online edition]
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* Kociumbas, Jan. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 2: 1770-1860 Possessions'' (1995)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 4: 1901-42, the Succeeding Age'' (1993)
* Macintyre, Stuart. ''A Concise History of Australia'' (2nd. ed. 2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Australia-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521735939/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254126389&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, A. W. ''Robert Menzies: A Life'' (2 vol 1993-99), online at ACLS e-books
* Megalogenis, George. ''The Longest Decade'' (2nd ed. 2009), politics 1990-2008
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* Serle. Percival, ed. ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'' (1949)[http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/00-dict-biogIndex.html online edition]
* Taylor, Peter. ''The Atlas of Australian History'' (1991)
* Welsh, Frank. ;;Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land'' (2008)

===International Relations and Military===
* Bridge, Carl ed., ''Munich to Vietnam: Australia's Relations with Britain and the United States since the 1930s,'' Melbourne University Press 1991
* Dennis, Peter, Jeffrey Grey, Ewan Morris, and Robin Prior. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History.'' 1996)
* Firth, Stewart. ''Australia in International Politics: An Introduction to Australian Foreign Policy'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/read/108662470 online edition]
* Grant, Ian. ''A Dictionary of Australian Military History - from Colonial Times to the Gulf War'' (1992)
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* McLean, David. "From British Colony to American Satellite? Australia and the USA during the Cold War," ''Australian Journal of Politics & History" (2006) 52 (1), 64–79. Rejects satellite model. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8497.2006.00408a.x online at Blackwell-Synergy]
* McLean, David. "Australia in the Cold War: a Historiographical Review." ''International History Review'' (2001) 23(2): 299-321. Issn: 0707-5332
* Murphy, John. ''Harvest of Fear: A History of Australia's Vietnam War'' (1993)
* Watt, Alan. ''The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy 1938–1965,'' Cambridge University Press, 1967

===Culture and society===
* Bebbington, Warren. ''A Dictionary of Australian Music'' (1999)
* Bennett, Bruce et al. ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia'' (1999)
* Bennett, Tony, and David Carter. ''Culture in Australia: Policies, Publics and Programs'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Culture-Australia-Reshaping-Australian-Institutions/dp/0521004039/ref=sr_1_47/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533775&sr=8-47 excerpt and text search]
* Breward, Ian. ''A History of the Churches in Australasia.'' (2002). 474 pp.
* Carey, Hilary. ''Believing in Australia: A Cultural History of Religions'' (1996)
* Horton, David. ''The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society and Culture'' (2001)
* Huggan Graham. ''Postcolonialism, Racism, Transnationalism'' (Oxford Studies in Postcolonial Literatures) (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Literature-Postcolonialism-Transnationalism-Postcolonial/dp/0199274622/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James, ed. ''The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins'' (2nd ed. 2002) 960pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521807891/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Jupp, James. ''The English in Australia'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521542952/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Kleinert, Sylvia. and Margo Neale. ''The Oxford Companion to Aboriginal Art and Culture'' (2001)
* Leitner, Gerhard. ''Australia's Many Voices: Australian English--the National Language'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/3110181940/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-4827826-5463040#reader-link excerpt and text search]
* Love, J.W. ed. ''Australia and the Pacific Islands'' (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 9) (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Australia-Pacific-Islands-Garland-Encyclopedia/dp/0824060385/ref=sr_1_14/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193533487&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* McAllister, Ian, Steve Dowrick, Riaz Hassan; ''The Cambridge Handbook of the Social Sciences in Australia'' Cambridge University Press, 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108131347 online edition]
* McCulloch, Alan. ''Encyclopedia of Australian Art'' 2 vol (1984)
* McDonald, John. ''Federation: Australian Art and Society, 1901-2001. Natl. Gallery of Australia, 2002. 264 pp.
* Moran, Albert. ''Historical Dictionary of Australian Radio and Television'' (2007)
* Nile, Richard. ''The Making of the Australian Literary Imagination.'' (2002). 315 pp.
* Rickard, John, ''Australia: A Cultural History'' (1988)
* Webby, Elizabeth. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Australian-Literature-Companions/dp/0521658438/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
* Wilde, William H. et al eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Australian Literature'' (1995) online at [[OUP]] [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Australian-Literature/dp/019553381X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209696680&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Oxford Literary History of Australia.''
* Samuels, Selina, ed. ''Australian Writers, 1915-50.'' (2002). 510 pp.
* Sayers, Andrew. ''Australian Art'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Australian-Art-Oxford-History/dp/0192842145/ref=sr_1_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193540375&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Webby, Elizabeth, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature'' (2006)
* Wannan, Bill. ''A Dictionary of Australian Folklore: Lore, Legends, Myths and Traditions'' (1988)

==Primary sources==
* [http://samizdat.stores.yahoo.net/auslitandhis.html Australia: Literature and History 136 e-books]

==External links==
* [http://www.fed.gov.au Australian Government portal]
* [http://www.aph.gov.au Australian Parliament House (Reps & Senate) portal]
* [http://www.gg.gov.au Governor-General of Australia]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/oceania.htm Australia and Oceania]
* [http://www.norepublic.com.au Australians for Constitutional Monarchy]
* [http://www.crownedrepublic.com.au The Crowned Republic ]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| Some of the text for this article is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2698.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:Oceanian Countries]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Australia]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Bibliographies]]

Melbourne

2011-05-24T05:02:28Z

EvelynJ: Melbourne Economy

''' Melbourne''' is [[Australia]]'s second largest city and the capital of the state of [[Victoria]]. Melbourne is the collective name for the City of Melbourne and greater suburban area and is home to 4 million people.
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|A Melbourne tram.]]
The City of Melbourne is located on the banks of the [[Yarra River]] and is renowned for its parks and gardens. The Victorian state parliament is located in the inner city. The Greater Melbourne area has an extensive system of street [[tram]]s and suburban [[railway]] lines.

The Greater Melbourne area surrounds Port Phillip Bay. Due to a rapid increase in population and a consequent increase in land and house values the metropolitan area now extends almost to the tip of the Mornington Peninsula and the City of [[Geelong]].

Melbourne is famous for being the home of the Australian Football League and for its large [[Greece|Greek]] community.

As a major city of Australia, Melbourne is considered the sporting and cultural capital. Melbourne hosts the Australian Open each year in January and has extensive sporting facilities including the renowned Melbourne Cricket Ground. Melbourne also has many art galleries such as the National Gallery of Victoria. Each year, Melbourne also hosts the internationally recognized Melbourne Comedy Festival in April.

==History==
Between 1837 and 1840 (prior to the Federation), several treaties signed between the southern territory jurisdiction and the Indigenous people.

==Economy==
Industrial development and the rise of manufacturing caused the population to shift gradually from rural areas to cities during the early 1920s<ref>Goodman, R. (1999). "Industrialisation in Australia". Prenwell Press</ref>. In addition, farming remained prevalent. The economy was hard-hit by the [[Great Depression]], resulting in lower prices for farmers, layoffs among iron miners, and industrial unrest. Compounding the adversity, the Northern region were hit by a severe drought. The [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] and other programs around the state established some jobs for Indians on their reservations, and the [[Indian Reorganization Act]] of 1934 provided the tribes with a mechanism of self-government. This measures assisted the Indigenous population, giving them a greater voice within the state, and promoted more respect for tribal customs because religious ceremonies and [[native language]]s were no longer suppressed.

Today, Melbourne is home to the largest port in Australia which provides substantial income for the city and state.

== Transport ==
Melbourne has a reasonably extensive [[freeway]] network, as well as a large suburban railway system and one of the largest tram systems in the world.

Earlier freeways radiated out from the fringes of the inner city, but in more recent times a freeway has been built connecting three of these radial freeways through the inner city, and a ring road has been constructed around the outer suburbs to the west and north.
A freeway running north-south through the eastern suburbs is currently (2007) under construction.
The inner city connecting freeway and the north-south freeway under construction are both electronically [[toll]]ed.

The railway system is broad gauge (5' 3") and electrified at 1500 volts D.C. on overhead wires.
It is a radial system based on the inner city, with [[underground]] lines around the central business district allowing services from most lines to serve all the CBD's five [[station]]s.
Services operate seven days a week, from around 5 a.m. to midnight on most days, and generally with 15 or 20-minute frequencies in off-peak times, and more frequently in peak times.

Melbourne's tram system is standard gauge (4' 8½") and electrified at 600 volts D.C. on overhead wires.
Although it is mostly a radial system, there are several cross-suburban lines.

Melbourne's public transport (suburban railway, tram system, and buses) are privately operated under contract to the State Government and share a common time-based fare and ticketing system.

A feature of Melbourne's tram system is trams converted to operating restaurants that take diners on a tour of the city.

== Facts about Melbourne ==
* Melbourne was the temporary capital of Australia from Federation in 1901 to the transfer of the government to [[Canberra]] in 1927.<ref name="MelbOrg" /><ref>[http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/capital/v.htm Melbourne, Victoria] (Australian Government, Geoscience Australia)</ref>
* Melbourne's Greek community is reputed to be the second largest in the world.<ref name="MelbOrg">[http://www.melbourneaustralia.org/melbourne.html Melbourne, Victoria, Australia], Melbourne Travel Guide.</ref>
* Melbourne's Italian community is reputed to be the largest outside [[Italy]].<ref name="MelbOrg" />
* Melbourne's tram system is the largest in an English-speaking country, the largest in the southern hemisphere, and one of the largest in the world.
* Melbourne was the site of the 1956 [[Olympic Games]] and the 2006 [[Commonwealth Games]].
* Melbourne was portrayed in the 1959 [[Stanley Kramer]] movie ''On the Beach'' (starring [[Ava Gardner]]) as the last pocket of civilisation following a global nuclear war.<ref>[http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0053137/ On the Beach] (Internet Movie Database)</ref>
* Melbourne is the most southerly city in the world with a population of over 1,000,000 people.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108743/Melbourne#361049.hook Melbourne] Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref>
*It is also home to the Australian Formula One Grand Prix.

==See also==
*[[Melbourne Australia Temple]]

==For further reading==
* [http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/ City of Melbourne official site]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Australian Cities and Towns]]

Conservapedia:American Government Fall 2012

2011-05-23T05:08:28Z

EvelynJ:

''The first lecture is available at [[American Government Lecture One]].''
 ''The second lecture is available at [[American Government Lecture Two]].''
 ''The third lecture is being developed at [[American Government Lecture Three]].''
 ''A full set of lectures is available at [[American Government Lectures]].''
 ''Key terms for the course are being listed and explained at [[American Government Key Terms]]''

The final exam is available at [[American Government Final Exam 2010]], and the top scores on that exam are posted at [[Talk:American Government Final Exam 2010]].

Debate topics are being developed at [[American Government Debate Topics]].

Enroll by inserting your user name into this file: click "Edit this page" below, then position your cursor in the Enrollment section below, and then click 10th tab from the left above.

"American Government Fall 2010" is a 14-week course that teaches the basics of government, both federal and state. It covers the political process and operation of the U.S. government, and may be the most important course you will ever take. It includes review of the U.S. Constitution, including concepts like the separation of powers among the branches of government.

'''Unlike other courses, this class will tie closely to current events and the lectures will be revised online and tailored to the most up-to-date available information'''.

Students in this class will make predictions at three different points about the outcome of the midterm elections on November 2nd: as the first homework assignment, after learning a month's worth of material, and just prior to the election.

Students seeking to earn college credit can take the CLEP or AP exams upon successful completion of this course.

This course begins September 2nd and already several dozen students have enrolled. Please add your user id. (as explained above) if you would like to participate in this course in any way, either as a student or as a teacher on this site.

The instructor is Andy Schlafly, who has taught over 15 courses, including one as an adjunct professor at a major law school.

== Enrollment ==

--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 10:39, 6 June 2010 (EDT) (instructor)

--[[User:MartinLXA|Martin Amrowski]] 13:11, 6 June 2010 (EDT) (student)

--[[User:Davidkon|Davidkon]] 15:04, 6 June 2010 (EDT) (student)

--[[User:Beardude1963|Beardude1963]] 15:00, 7 June 2010 (EDT) (student)

--[[User:PNarcisse87|Paul Narcisse]] 13:02, 8 June 2010 (EDT) (student)

--[[User:FloM|Florencia Miguez]] (Student)

--[[User:AJ4JQ|AJ4JQ]] 10:39, 10 June 2010 (EDT) (Student)

--littlehouse (student)

--[[User:OurFuture12|Daniel Bruski]] 10:07, 7 July 2010 (EDT) (Student)

--[[User:James1962|James]] 08:30, 9 July 2010 (EDT) (Student)

--JohnnyZig (student)

--[[User:Israelgarza|Israelgarza]] 22:31, 16 July 2010 (EDT)israel garza (student)

--tallone

--[[User:RMallett|RMallett]] 18:47, 8 August 2010 (EDT) (Student)

--RianB (student)

--TerryB (student)

--Craig1 (student)

--jbeds (student)--[[User:Jbeds|Jbeds]] 21:35, 20 August 2010 (EDT)

--[[User:Smh|Smh]] 16:06, 22 August 2010 (EDT)

--[[User:TeacherEd|TeacherEd]] (student)

-- EvelynJ

--running total of in-person enrollment: 59

--running overall total enrollment: 78

(add your id above)

== Special concepts ==

This course will include many concepts not included in most run-of-the-mill government courses, such as:

*the difference between politics and history, and the similarity between politics and team sports; impediments to teamwork and communication

*political cycles

*political factions, such as Big Labor, anti-war, pro-life, Second Amendment, etc.; interest groups and their scorecards and endorsements, such as the NRA and Elena Kagan and the effect on Harry Reid

*Tea Party: the decentralized political party

*declining role of newspapers, and increasing role of the internet

*the effect of low voter turnout, discuss in the context of initiatives; effect of initiatives on candidates on the ballot

*free speech and campaign finance

*pending court cases concerning the structure of government

*[[media bullying]] (e.g., post-election interviews for [[Rand Paul]]), media bias, [[double standard]]s in reporting news, effect of the bias in misleading the public

*famous expressions and special vocabulary (as in sports): "all politics is local," "if you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen!" "coattails", "political capital," "midterm elections," "filibuster", "voice vote," (add more)

*election process: various signature requirements to qualify for the ballot, use of convention rather than public elections in some areas, primary election, general election, concept of endorsements, term and qualifications for various offices

*correlations of voting patterns by "voting blocs"; "single issue" voters

*initiatives and referenda: how different states handle this differently, track record of various issues, effect on others on the ballot

*polling, pollsters, and their impact (e.g., Scott Brown upset)

*contrast the two-party system in America with multiple-party systems in other nations, how the power of political parties ebbs and flows with changes in campaign finance and the strength of interest groups like the NRA

*elements of a political campaign, including who gets involved and why and how

*the role of the Courts: the "least dangerous branch," or now the most powerful branch of government?

*the U.S. Supreme Court, and how it accepts cases for review and its October through June annual Terms

*administrative law, federal and state agencies, and the most cited U.S. Supreme Court decision: ''Chevron''

*"strict scrutiny," "intermediate scrutiny," and "rational basis" as three levels for judicial review in civil rights

*[[consumer confidence]] and the effect of the economy on elections

*[[think tank]]s and their influence; example of Robert Rector's analysis of proposed immigration changes

*the [[political benefit]] to a side from promoting a particular policy

*the concept of "[[political capital]]"

*commenting on proposed regulations

*[[FOIA]]

*line-item veto at state level, not at federal level

*office of county commissioner, or [[freeholder]]

*political asylum and example of homeschooling family that fled Germany to the U.S.

*pundits, talking heads, talk radio, editorials, endorsements

*Biblical basis for our three branches of government: Isaiah 33:22 ("The LORD is our judge, the LORD our lawgiver, the LORD our king ....").

*role of internet news sources and bloggers; example: Shirley Sherrod firing.

*swing state

*trial balloon

*[[safe seat]]

*plurality vote, majority vote, [[cloture]], and two-thirds vote (supermajority)

*The [[U.S. Supreme Court]] decision in ''Citizens United'', and the liberals' response with the [[DISCLOSE Act]]

*[[Presidential candidates, 2012]] and the political and social undercurrents associated with that contest

(add to list)

== Homework questions ==

*Are politicians leaders or followers of the direction of the nation? Does your answer vary depending on the political position?

*Why is this a famous saying: "All politics is local." Do you agree?

*"Politics is like icebergs: 90% is below the surface." Explain.

*''Why'' should it matter what the original meaning of the U.S. Constitution was?

*Should legislative history be relevant to interpreting a statute?

*Define conservative and liberal. Do you think our nation is becoming more conservative, or more liberal? Are the political cycles oscillating above and below a line that has positive or negative conservative slope?

*Teaching more people how to read: that benefit one political side more than the other? The oil spill in the Gulf: on which side that does that confer greater political benefit? (add more examples)

*Was Jesus pro-life?

== Order of presentation of topics ==

American Government is typically taught in an historical manner. This is disadvantageous for several reasons. First, it's more tedious and less interesting with that approach. Second, politics is not history.

Suggested order of presentation:

# The midterm elections; what it affects, and what it does not affect: [[American Government Lecture One]]
(add more)

== References ==

<references/>

Melbourne

2011-05-21T22:52:55Z

EvelynJ: Melbourne's culture

''' Melbourne''' is [[Australia]]'s second largest city and the capital of the state of [[Victoria]]. Melbourne is the collective name for the City of Melbourne and greater suburban area and is home to 4 million people.
[[Image:Melbourne tram 250.jpg|thumb|A Melbourne tram.]]
The City of Melbourne is located on the banks of the [[Yarra River]] and is renowned for its parks and gardens. The Victorian state parliament is located in the inner city. The Greater Melbourne area has an extensive system of street [[tram]]s and suburban [[railway]] lines.

The Greater Melbourne area surrounds Port Phillip Bay. Due to a rapid increase in population and a consequent increase in land and house values the metropolitan area now extends almost to the tip of the Mornington Peninsula and the City of [[Geelong]].

Melbourne is famous for being the home of the Australian Football League and for its large [[Greece|Greek]] community.

As a major city of Australia, Melbourne is considered the sporting and cultural capital. Melbourne hosts the Australian Open each year in January and has extensive sporting facilities including the renowned Melbourne Cricket Ground. Melbourne also has many art galleries such as the National Gallery of Victoria. Each year, Melbourne also hosts the internationally recognized Melbourne Comedy Festival in April.

==History==
Between 1837 and 1840 (prior to the Federation), several treaties signed between the southern territory jurisdiction and the Indigenous people.

==Economy==
Industrial development and the rise of manufacturing caused the population to shift gradually from rural areas to cities during the early 1920s<ref>Goodman, R. (1999). "Industrialisation in Australia". Prenwell Press</ref>. In addition, farming remained prevalent. The economy was hard-hit by the [[Great Depression]], resulting in lower prices for farmers, layoffs among iron miners, and industrial unrest. Compounding the adversity, the Northern region were hit by a severe drought. The [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] and other programs around the state established some jobs for Indians on their reservations, and the [[Indian Reorganization Act]] of 1934 provided the tribes with a mechanism of self-government. This measures assisted the Indigenous population, giving them a greater voice within the state, and promoted more respect for tribal customs because religious ceremonies and [[native language]]s were no longer suppressed.

== Transport ==
Melbourne has a reasonably extensive [[freeway]] network, as well as a large suburban railway system and one of the largest tram systems in the world.

Earlier freeways radiated out from the fringes of the inner city, but in more recent times a freeway has been built connecting three of these radial freeways through the inner city, and a ring road has been constructed around the outer suburbs to the west and north.
A freeway running north-south through the eastern suburbs is currently (2007) under construction.
The inner city connecting freeway and the north-south freeway under construction are both electronically [[toll]]ed.

The railway system is broad gauge (5' 3") and electrified at 1500 volts D.C. on overhead wires.
It is a radial system based on the inner city, with [[underground]] lines around the central business district allowing services from most lines to serve all the CBD's five [[station]]s.
Services operate seven days a week, from around 5 a.m. to midnight on most days, and generally with 15 or 20-minute frequencies in off-peak times, and more frequently in peak times.

Melbourne's tram system is standard gauge (4' 8½") and electrified at 600 volts D.C. on overhead wires.
Although it is mostly a radial system, there are several cross-suburban lines.

Melbourne's public transport (suburban railway, tram system, and buses) are privately operated under contract to the State Government and share a common time-based fare and ticketing system.

A feature of Melbourne's tram system is trams converted to operating restaurants that take diners on a tour of the city.

== Facts about Melbourne ==
* Melbourne was the temporary capital of Australia from Federation in 1901 to the transfer of the government to [[Canberra]] in 1927.<ref name="MelbOrg" /><ref>[http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/capital/v.htm Melbourne, Victoria] (Australian Government, Geoscience Australia)</ref>
* Melbourne's Greek community is reputed to be the second largest in the world.<ref name="MelbOrg">[http://www.melbourneaustralia.org/melbourne.html Melbourne, Victoria, Australia], Melbourne Travel Guide.</ref>
* Melbourne's Italian community is reputed to be the largest outside [[Italy]].<ref name="MelbOrg" />
* Melbourne's tram system is the largest in an English-speaking country, the largest in the southern hemisphere, and one of the largest in the world.
* Melbourne was the site of the 1956 [[Olympic Games]] and the 2006 [[Commonwealth Games]].
* Melbourne was portrayed in the 1959 [[Stanley Kramer]] movie ''On the Beach'' (starring [[Ava Gardner]]) as the last pocket of civilisation following a global nuclear war.<ref>[http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0053137/ On the Beach] (Internet Movie Database)</ref>
* Melbourne is the most southerly city in the world with a population of over 1,000,000 people.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108743/Melbourne#361049.hook Melbourne] Encyclopedia Britannica.</ref>
*The Australian Open is held annually at Melbourne Park.
*It is also home to the Australian Formula One Grand Prix.

==See also==
*[[Melbourne Australia Temple]]

==For further reading==
* [http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/ City of Melbourne official site]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Australian Cities and Towns]]