Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Counterexamples to Evolution

2010-01-22T23:46:27Z

EvanW: /* My plans for this article */ That's what a miracle is.

[[Talk:Counterexamples_to_Evolution/archive1|Archive 1]]

== My plans for this article ==

I plan on organizing this article into groups, so there would be a group for the statistical counterexamples, and a group for the counterexamples that rely on functions that do not come from the evolutionary mechanisms, or maladaptive characteristics. I am open to suggestions. I also archived the page as it was when I came here. I would also like someone to rewrite the end of the intro paragraph, it doesn't make much sense how it was and only makes a little more how I wrote it. Thanks' --[[User:SamF|SamF]] 22:27, 21 January 2010 (EST)

:First of all, God bless you for archiving and clearing up this page! It makes the discussion better.

:I'm all for better organization of the entry, but without any dilution. So please have at it!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 22:35, 21 January 2010 (EST)
I've categorized, and reworded one poorly worded point. I'll look for resources over the weekend and on Monday morning I should be able to life most of the citation needed tags. Some of these seem like they would be impossible to prove to me. Having looked at consciousness as a subject I feel pretty confident in saying that it is a mystery no matter what, and that it should probably be left off of this list, as a for instance. --[[User:SamF|SamF]] 18:06, 22 January 2010 (EST)

{{quotebox|Consciousness - No animal displays self-awareness (such as clothing), morality, tool-making, or self-sacrifice to the same extent that man does. It is unclear how a random mutation could have arisen which accounts for humanity's significantly higher cognitive ability.[Citation Needed]}}
:What do you mean by "it is a mystery no matter what"? It seems to me that what the article's saying is precisely that it ''is'' a mystery - so no natural process could have created it; since atheistic evolution allows only natural processes, but consciousness exists, atheistic evolution can't be all there is. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 18:20, 22 January 2010 (EST)
::It is just as unclear how a supernatural power might generate consciousness. It is a whole big can of worms and thousands of people in philosophy and neuroscience are working on it. The Evolutionary psychology people have a pretty neat little story about how something that manifests itself exactly like consciousness is beneficial and might come about, I think that if we ever do crack the consciousness puzzle then they will swoop in and claim to have an answer. I think that the bit in that counterexample about consciousness can be axed just fine and the rest left standing. Consciousness is its own big philosophical question, and I have serious doubts as to how accurately an argument about it can be contained in one paragraph, let alone one line. --[[User:SamF|SamF]] 18:28, 22 January 2010 (EST)
:::Um, a miracle? That's the whole point about miracles: we don't understand how God did them. Of course it's "unclear." If you want to say that naturalistic scientists are trying to figure out how evolution might bring consciousness about, that's fine with me, as long as it's clear they haven't found it yet. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 18:46, 22 January 2010 (EST)

Talk:Counterexamples to Evolution

2010-01-22T23:20:56Z

EvanW: /* My plans for this article */ Yes, consciousness is a mystery - that's what the article's saying.

Bilski v. Kappos

2010-01-22T00:17:29Z

EvanW: Briefly start a page on this case currently before the Supreme Court

'''Bilski v. Kappos''' is a case currently (as of 21 January 2010) before the [[United States Supreme Court]] focusing on the question of whether non-material things such as [[software]] and business methods are patentable. There has been much opposition to [[software patent]]s, and numerous [[programmer]]s are hoping for the Supreme Court to use this case to invalidate them.

==Background==
Bilski filed for a patent on a certain "method practiced by a commodity provider for managing... the consumption risks associated with a comodity sold at a fixed price." The patent office rejected his claim, and he appealed - eventually to the United States Supreme Court.

==References==
* [http://www.uspto.gov/go/com/sol/2007-1130bilski_joint_appendix.pdf Bilski's original patent application]
* [http://www.scotuswiki.com/index.php?title=Bilski_v._Kappos#Briefs_and_Documents List of amicus briefs] from ScotusWiki
* [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/08-964.pdf Transcript of oral argument]

[[Category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]

2009 Cert. Granted

2010-01-22T00:10:56Z

EvanW: spelling

* [[Abbott v. Abbott]]: oral argument 1/12/10
* [[Alabama v. North Carolina]]: oral argument 11 January.
* [[Alvarez v. Smith]]: oral argument 10/14/09; decided 12/8/09
* [[American Needle, INC. v. National Football League]]: oral argument 1/13/10
* [[Astrue, Comm’r of Social Security v. Ratliff]]: oral argument 2/22/10
* [[Barber v. Thomas, warden]]: oral argument 3/30/10
* [[Beard, Sec., PA Doc v. Kindler]]: oral argument 11/2/09 ; decided 12/8/09
* [[Berghuis, Warden v. Smith]]: oral argument 1/20/10
* [[Berghuis, warden v. Thompkins]]: oral argument 3/1/10
* [[Bilski v. Kappos]]: oral argument 11/9/09
* [[Black v. United States]]: oral argument 12/8/09
* [[Bloate v. United States]]: oral argument 10/6/09
* [[Briscoe v. Virginia]]: oral argument 11 January.
* [[Carachuri-Rosendo v. Holder, att’y gen.]]: oral argument 3/31/10
* [[Carr v. United States]]: oral argument 2/24/10
* [[Christian Legal Society Chapter v. Martinez]]
* [[Citizens United v. FEC]]:
** oral argument 3/24/09
** order: 6/29/09 – set for reargument
** reargument date: 9/9/09
* [[City of Ontario, CA v. Quon]]
* [[Conkright v. Frommert]]: oral argument 1/20/10
* [[Dillon v. United States]]: oral argument 3/30/10
* [[Doe #1 v. Reed, WA Secretary of State]]
* [[Dolan v. United States]]
* [[Florida v. Powell]]: oral argument 12/7/09
* [[Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Co. Oversight Bd.]]: oral argument 12/7/09
* [[Graham County Soil v. United States]]: oral argument 11/30/09
* [[Graham v. Florida]]: oral argument 11/9/09
* [[Granite Rock co. v. International Brotherhood of Teamsters]]: oral argument 1/19/10
* [[Hamilton v. Lanning]]: oral argument 3/22/10
* [[Hardt v. Reliance Standard Life Insurance]]
* [[Health care service v. Pollitt]]: oral argument 3/3/10
* [[Hemi group, llc v. City of New York, NY]]: oral argument 11/3/09
* [[Henneford v. Castaneda]]
* [[Hertz corp. v. Friend]]: oral argument 11/10/09
* [[Holder, att’y gen. v. Humanitarian Law Project]]: oral argument 2/23/10
* [[Holland v. Florida]]: oral argument 3/1/10
* [[Hui v. Castaneda]]: oral argument 3/2/10
* [[Jerman v. Carlisle, McNellie, Rini, et al.]]: oral argument 1/13/10
* [[Johnson v. United States]]: oral argument 10/6/09
* [[Jones v. Harris Associates l.p.]]: oral argument 11/2/09
* [[Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha ltd. v. Regal-Beloit corp.]]: oral argument 3/24/10
* [[Kiyemba v. Obama, President of U.S.]]: oral argument 3/23/10
* [[Krupski v. Costa Crociere]]
* [[Kucana v. Holder, Attorney gen.]]: oral argument 11/10/09
* [[Levin, tax comm’r, OH v. Commerce Energy, inc.]]: oral argument 3/22/10
* [[Lewis v. City of Chicago, IL]]: oral argument 2/22/10
* [[Mac's Shell Service v. Shell Oil Products Co.]]: oral argument 19 January
* [[Magwood v. Patterson, warden]]: oral argument 3/24/10
* [[Maryland v. Shatzer]]: oral argument 10/5/09
* [[Mcdaniel, warden v. Brown]]: decided 1/11/10
* [[McDonald v. City of Chicago, IL]]: oral argument 3/2/10
* [[Merck & Co. v. Reynolds]]: oral argument 11/30/09
* [[Milavetz, Gallop & Milavetz v. United States]]: oral argument 12/1/09
* [[Mohawk Industries v. Carpenter]]: oral argument 10/5/09 ; decided 12/8/09
* [[Monsanto co. v. Geertson Seed Farms]]
* [[Morrison v. National Australia Bank ltd.]]: oral argument 3/29/10
* [[New Process Steel, l.p. v. National Labor Relations Board]]: oral argument 3/23/10
* [[NRG Power Marketing v. Maine Pub. Utilities]]: oral argument 11/3/09 ; decided 1/13/10
* [[Padilla v. Kentucky]]: oral argument 10/13/09
* [[Perdue, Gov. of Georgia v. Kenny A.]]: oral argument 10/14/09
* [[Pottawattamie county, IA v. McGhee]]: oral argument 11/4/09
* [[Reed Elsevier, inc. v. Muchnick]]: oral argument 7 October
* [[Renico, warden v. Lett]]: oral argument 3/29/10
* [[Rent-a-Center, West v. Jackson]]
* [[Robertson v. United States, ex rel. Watson]]: oral argument 3/31/10
* [[Salazar, Sec. of Interior v. Buono]]: oral argument 10/7/09
* [[Samantar v. Yousuf]]: oral argument 3/3/10
* [[Schwab v. Reilly]]: oral argument 11/3/09
* [[Shady Grove Orthopedic Assoc. v. Allstate Insurance co.]]: oral argument 11/2/09
* [[Skilling v. United States]]: oral argument 3/1/10
* [[Smith, Warden v. Spisak]]: oral argument 10/13/09; decided 1/12/10
* [[South Carolina v. North Carolina]]: oral argument 13 October.
* [[Stolt-Nielsen S.A. v. Animalfeeds International]]: oral argument 12/9/09
* [[Stop the Beach Renourishment v. FL Dept. of Environmental Protection]]: oral argument 12/2/09
* [[Sullivan v. Florida]]: oral argument 11/9/09
* [[Union Pacific Railroad Co. v. Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers]]: oral argument 10/7/09 ; decided 12/8/09
* [[United States v. Comstock]]: oral argument 1/12/10
* [[United States v. Marcus]]: oral argument 2/24/10
* [[United States v. O’Brien]]: oral argument 2/23/10
* [[United States v. Stevens]]: oral argument 10/6/09
* [[United Student Aid Funds, inc. v. Espinosa]]: oral argument 12/1/09
* [[Weyhrauch v. United States]]: oral argument 12/8/09
* [[Wood v. Allen, comm’r, al doc]]: oral argument 11/4/09

2009 Cert. Granted

2010-01-21T23:29:22Z

EvanW: New page. We've got a long way to go - right now, there's only a page for one single one of these cases.

* [[Abbott v. Abbott]]: oral argument 1/12/10
* [[Alabama v. North Carolina]]: oral argument 11 January.
* [[Alvarez v. Smith]]: oral argument 10/14/09; decided 12/8/09
* [[American Needle, INC. v. National Football League]]: oral argument 1/13/10
* [[Astrue, Comm’r of Social Security v. Ratliff]]: oral argument 2/22/10
* [[Barber v. Thomas, warden]]: oral argument 3/30/10
* [[Beard, Sec., PA Doc v. Kindler]]: oral argument 11/2/09 ; decided 12/8/09
* [[Berghuis, Warden v. Smith]]: oral argument 1/20/10
* [[Berghuis, warden v. Thompkins]]: oral argument 3/1/10
* [[Bilski v. Kppos]]: oral argument 11/9/09
* [[Black v. United States]]: oral argument 12/8/09
* [[Bloate v. United States]]: oral argument 10/6/09
* [[Briscoe v. Virginia]]: oral argument 11 January.
* [[Carachuri-Rosendo v. Holder, att’y gen.]]: oral argument 3/31/10
* [[Carr v. United States]]: oral argument 2/24/10
* [[Christian Legal Society Chapter v. Martinez]]
* [[Citizens United v. FEC]]:
** oral argument 3/24/09
** order: 6/29/09 – set for reargument
** reargument date: 9/9/09
* [[City of Ontario, CA v. Quon]]
* [[Conkright v. Frommert]]: oral argument 1/20/10
* [[Dillon v. United States]]: oral argument 3/30/10
* [[Doe #1 v. Reed, WA Secretary of State]]
* [[Dolan v. United States]]
* [[Florida v. Powell]]: oral argument 12/7/09
* [[Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Co. Oversight Bd.]]: oral argument 12/7/09
* [[Graham County Soil v. United States]]: oral argument 11/30/09
* [[Graham v. Florida]]: oral argument 11/9/09
* [[Granite Rock co. v. International Brotherhood of Teamsters]]: oral argument 1/19/10
* [[Hamilton v. Lanning]]: oral argument 3/22/10
* [[Hardt v. Reliance Standard Life Insurance]]
* [[Health care service v. Pollitt]]: oral argument 3/3/10
* [[Hemi group, llc v. City of New York, NY]]: oral argument 11/3/09
* [[Henneford v. Castaneda]]
* [[Hertz corp. v. Friend]]: oral argument 11/10/09
* [[Holder, att’y gen. v. Humanitarian Law Project]]: oral argument 2/23/10
* [[Holland v. Florida]]: oral argument 3/1/10
* [[Hui v. Castaneda]]: oral argument 3/2/10
* [[Jerman v. Carlisle, McNellie, Rini, et al.]]: oral argument 1/13/10
* [[Johnson v. United States]]: oral argument 10/6/09
* [[Jones v. Harris Associates l.p.]]: oral argument 11/2/09
* [[Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha ltd. v. Regal-Beloit corp.]]: oral argument 3/24/10
* [[Kiyemba v. Obama, President of U.S.]]: oral argument 3/23/10
* [[Krupski v. Costa Crociere]]
* [[Kucana v. Holder, Attorney gen.]]: oral argument 11/10/09
* [[Levin, tax comm’r, OH v. Commerce Energy, inc.]]: oral argument 3/22/10
* [[Lewis v. City of Chicago, IL]]: oral argument 2/22/10
* [[Mac's Shell Service v. Shell Oil Products Co.]]: oral argument 19 January
* [[Magwood v. Patterson, warden]]: oral argument 3/24/10
* [[Maryland v. Shatzer]]: oral argument 10/5/09
* [[Mcdaniel, warden v. Brown]]: decided 1/11/10
* [[McDonald v. City of Chicago, IL]]: oral argument 3/2/10
* [[Merck & Co. v. Reynolds]]: oral argument 11/30/09
* [[Milavetz, Gallop & Milavetz v. United States]]: oral argument 12/1/09
* [[Mohawk Industries v. Carpenter]]: oral argument 10/5/09 ; decided 12/8/09
* [[Monsanto co. v. Geertson Seed Farms]]
* [[Morrison v. National Australia Bank ltd.]]: oral argument 3/29/10
* [[New Process Steel, l.p. v. National Labor Relations Board]]: oral argument 3/23/10
* [[NRG Power Marketing v. Maine Pub. Utilities]]: oral argument 11/3/09 ; decided 1/13/10
* [[Padilla v. Kentucky]]: oral argument 10/13/09
* [[Perdue, Gov. of Georgia v. Kenny A.]]: oral argument 10/14/09
* [[Pottawattamie county, IA v. McGhee]]: oral argument 11/4/09
* [[Reed Elsevier, inc. v. Muchnick]]: oral argument 7 October
* [[Renico, warden v. Lett]]: oral argument 3/29/10
* [[Rent-a-Center, West v. Jackson]]
* [[Robertson v. United States, ex rel. Watson]]: oral argument 3/31/10
* [[Salazar, Sec. of Interior v. Buono]]: oral argument 10/7/09
* [[Samantar v. Yousuf]]: oral argument 3/3/10
* [[Schwab v. Reilly]]: oral argument 11/3/09
* [[Shady Grove Orthopedic Assoc. v. Allstate Insurance co.]]: oral argument 11/2/09
* [[Skilling v. United States]]: oral argument 3/1/10
* [[Smith, Warden v. Spisak]]: oral argument 10/13/09; decided 1/12/10
* [[South Carolina v. North Carolina]]: oral argument 13 October.
* [[Stolt-Nielsen S.A. v. Animalfeeds International]]: oral argument 12/9/09
* [[Stop the Beach Renourishment v. FL Dept. of Environmental Protection]]: oral argument 12/2/09
* [[Sullivan v. Florida]]: oral argument 11/9/09
* [[Union Pacific Railroad Co. v. Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers]]: oral argument 10/7/09 ; decided 12/8/09
* [[United States v. Comstock]]: oral argument 1/12/10
* [[United States v. Marcus]]: oral argument 2/24/10
* [[United States v. O’Brien]]: oral argument 2/23/10
* [[United States v. Stevens]]: oral argument 10/6/09
* [[United Student Aid Funds, inc. v. Espinosa]]: oral argument 12/1/09
* [[Weyhrauch v. United States]]: oral argument 12/8/09
* [[Wood v. Allen, comm’r, al doc]]: oral argument 11/4/09

Supreme Court of the United States

2010-01-21T22:32:12Z

EvanW: /* Structure */ I'm embarrassed that we haven't updated the list of cert. granted petitions since 2007. So, I'm linking to a new 2009 article.

[[Image:Supreme Court.jpg|thumb|200px|US Supreme Court Building]]
The '''Supreme Court of the United States''' (SCOTUS) is the highest court of the judiciary of the [[United States of America]]. Between 1800 and 1935, it met primarily in the basement of the United States [[Capitol]] building, then in the Old Senate Chamber, until it moved into its present location at One First Street NE, [[Washington, D.C.]]. [[Alexander Hamilton]] originally described the federal judiciary as the "least dangerous branch," but the Supreme Court has grown in power that now rivals or even exceeds that of the other branches of government.

==Structure==
The Court is currently composed of eight [[Associate Justice]]s and one [[Chief Justice of the United States of America|Chief Justice]]. To assist them there are many clerks, guards, and staff. Cases are heard ''[[en banc]]'' whenever the Court is in session. Historians generally divide Court history into eras named after the Chief Justice then presiding (e.g., the [[Rehnquist Court]]).
[[Image:SCOTUS.jpg|300px|left|thumb|The Supreme Court of the United States, 2007 Back Row (l-r):Breyer, Thomas, Bader-Ginsburg, Alito Front Row(l-r):Kennedy, Stevens, Roberts, Scalia, Souter]]
Justices are appointed by the U.S. [[President]] with the advice and approval of the [[U.S. Senate]]. Justices must be approved by a simple majority of the Senate.

A list of pending cases to be heard on their merits by the Supreme Court, also known as petitions for which [[certiorari]] has been granted, is available on its website.<ref>[http://www.supremecourtus.gov/orders/07grantednotedlist.pdf Cases pending for the 2007 term]</ref>
* For a list of petitions granted and to be heard in fall 2007, see [[2007 Cert. Granted]].
* For a list of petitions granted and heard in fall 2009, see [[2009 Cert. Granted]].

==Opinions==
Prior to the [[Marshall Court]], the Court issued [[opinion|opinions]] in ''seriatim''. This means that each Justice wrote his own opinion and delivered it from the bench. Currently, the Court issues one opinion, said to be "the opinion of the Court". Opinions tend to have the history of the case, followed by the Court's reasoning and action. Generally the opinion will be written by a member of the majority, chosen by either the Chief Justice or the most senior Justice in the majority.

When a majority of Justices agrees to the opinion, it is called the [[Majority Opinion|majority opinion]]. Occasionally, a majority of Justices agrees to the [[remedy]], yet a minority of Justices agrees with the main opinion. This is called a [[plurality opinion]].

Justices that disagree with the Court's action can and frequently do write [[dissenting opinion]]s, which state their objections to the ruling. When a Justice agrees with an action, but not the reasoning behind it, he may write a concurring opinion, which states the reasoning he would have used. Such opinions have no bearing on the case at bar, but are often used later in time as justification for legal rulings.

==Conservative and liberal votes==
[[File:Judges-over-time.jpg|thumb|200px|How judges became more conservative (moving up) or liberal (moving down) over time. Click to enlarge.]]

Four of the five most conservative justices to serve on the court since 1937, out of a total of 43 justices, are on the court right now: Chief Justice [[John Roberts]] and Justices [[Antonin Scalia]], [[Clarence Thomas]] and [[Samuel Alito]] The fifth was Chief Justice [[William Rehnquist]], whom Chief Justice Roberts replaced in 2005.<ref> see Adam Liptak, "To Nudge, Shift or Shove the Supreme Court Left," [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/01/weekinreview/01liptak.html?_r=1&hp ''New York Times'' Jan. 31, 2009] Data from a 2008 study by William M. Landes, who teaches law and economics at the University of Chicago, and conservative Judge Richard A. Posner of the federal appeals court. </ref> Looking at votes in divided cases on ideologically charged issues like criminal procedure, civil rights and the First Amendment shows Justice Thomas, the most conservative justice. He voted for the conservative position in those cases 82% of the time. Justice Marshall, the only other African-American to serve on the court, was by this measure the most liberal, voting for the conservative side 21% of the time.

In ten of the last eleven appointments, the new justice was more conservative than the one replaced.

==Current Members==
{|
|
{|class="wikitable"
!Name!!Date of Accession!!Appointed by!!Title!!General ideology
|-
|[[John Paul Stevens]]||December 19, 1975|||[[Gerald Ford]]|||[[Associate Justice]]|||[[liberal]]
|-
|[[Antonin Scalia]]||September 26, 1986|||[[Ronald Reagan]]|||[[Associate Justice]]|||[[conservative]]
|-
|[[Anthony Kennedy]]||February 18, 1988|||[[Ronald Reagan]]|||[[Associate Justice]]|||moderate/swing
|-
|[[Clarence Thomas]]||October 23, 1991|||[[George H. W. Bush]]|||[[Associate Justice]]|||[[conservative]]
|-
|[[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]]||August 10, 1993|||[[Bill Clinton]]|||[[Associate Justice]]|||[[liberal]]
|-
|[[Stephen Breyer]]||August 3, 1994|||[[Bill Clinton]]|||[[Associate Justice]]|||[[liberal]]
|-
|[[John Roberts]]||September 29, 2005|||[[George W. Bush]]|||[[Chief Justice of the United States of America|Chief Justice]]|||[[conservative]]
|-
|[[Samuel Alito]]||January 31, 2006|||[[George W. Bush]]|||[[Associate Justice]]|||[[conservative]]
|-
|[[Sonia Sotomayor]]||August 6, 2009|||[[Barack Obama]]|||[[Associate Justice]]|||[[liberal]]
|-
|}

==See Also==
*[[State supreme court]], usually the corresponding court in a [[state court]] system
*[[Supreme Court]] for supreme courts generally

==Further Reading==
* Hall, Kermit L., ed. ''The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-Supreme-United-States/dp/0195176618/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1233525239&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search], complete text online at many academic libraries.
** Patrick, John J. ed. ''The Young Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States'' (1994)
* Hall, Kermit L., and James W Ely Jr., eds. ''The Oxford Guide to United State Supreme Court Decisions'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Guide-United-Supreme-Decisions/dp/019537939X/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1233525239&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search], complete text online at many academic libraries.
* Rehnquist, William H. ''The Supreme Court'' (2002), a popular introduction [http://www.amazon.com/Supreme-Court-William-H-Rehnquist/dp/0375708618/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1233525459&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Savage, David G. ''Turning Right: The Making of the Rehnquist Supreme Court'' (1993) [http://www.amazon.com/Turning-Right-Making-Rehnquist-Supreme/dp/0471595535/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1233525459&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

== References ==

<references/>

[[category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]
[[category:United States Supreme Court]]
[[Category:United States Law]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]
[[Category:New Deal]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]
[[Category:United States History]]

Campaign finance

2010-01-21T22:23:09Z

EvanW: Update re Citizens United v. FEC - a large part of this now should be in past tense.

'''Campaign finance''' is a field of [[law]] governing the spending of money on political elections. Federal law defines the rules for federal elections, and the [[Federal Election Commission]] is the regulatory body that oversees complaints and disputes in financing federal campaigns. State law dictates the rules for state elections.

There are two types of funds: [[hard money]] and [[soft money]]. In simple terms, hard money consists of donations to campaigns, while soft money consists of other expenditures that do not "expressly advocate" the election or defeat of a candidate.

Until it [[Citizens United v. FEC|was overturned]] in January 2010, Federal law prohibited corporations and unions from donating directly to a candidate for him to spend on his campaign, but most states allowed for some types of corporate donations. Small corporations that satisfy the "[[Federal Election Commission v. Massachusetts Citizens for Life|MCFL]]" exception have been allowed to donate to candidates since 1986. Instead, corporations and unions were forced to establish [[political action committee]]s (PACs) for raising money for the purpose of donating to campaigns - a restriction which the Supreme Court has since called "burdensome alternatives... expensive to administer and subject to extensive regulations... onerous"<ref>[[Citizens United v. FEC]], January 2010</ref>.

Incumbents have an incentive to restrict the ability of challengers to raise money, and also to prevent independent groups to spend money criticizing the incumbents. Repeatedly legislators have passed limitations on campaign spending, but many of those restrictions have been declared unconstitutional under the [[Free Speech Clause]] of the Constitution.<ref>''[[Buckley v. Valeo]]'' (1976); [[Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life]], 2007; [[Citizens United v. FEC]], January 2010</ref>

The '''McCain-Feingold''' Campaign Finance Act imposed strict prohibitions on issue ads by any person or entity other than the candidates with two or three months prior to an election. President [[George W. Bush]] signed it into law even though he had spoken against it in [[United States presidential election, 2000|his campaign]], and even though he declared in his [[signing statement]] that he considered parts of it unconstitutional under the [[First Amendment]]. The [[U.S. Supreme Court]] has declared much of this law unconstitutional.

== References ==

<references/>
[[category:Election Terms]]

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission

2010-01-21T16:57:18Z

EvanW: Begin describing opinions

'''Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission''' is a 2009-2010 case in which the [[United States Supreme Court]] overturned significant parts of the [[McCain-Feingold]] Act restricting campaign finance contributions, saying it violated the [[First Amendment]]. While the Supreme Court agreed to an unusually early fall sitting so it could decide the case before the 2010 primary elections, it finally released the opinion on January 21, 2010 - an almost unprecedented delay<ref>http://volokh.com/2009/12/08/so-where-are-the-argued-supreme-court-opinions-part-iii/</ref>.

==Background==
In 2008, Citizens United produced a television documentary attacking [[Hillary Clinton]], then a candidate for President. It wanted to pay a [[video on demand]] service to make the documentary available during the primary election season; however, this was considered illegal under the [[McCain-Feingold]] campaign finance act. The group sued, arguing both that McCain-Feingold does not apply to video-on-demand services and that McCain-Feingold is unconstitutional<ref>http://www.slate.com/id/2221753/</ref>.

==Decision==
Justice [[Anthony Kennedy]] wrote the opinion of the court, overturning the broad corporate financing ban but upholding limited disclosure requirements<ref>http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/01/campaign-disclosure-rules-upheld/</ref>.

Chief Justice [[John Roberts]] concurred, and Justice [[John Paul Stevens]] dissented.<ref>http://volokh.com/2010/01/21/citizens-united/</ref>. Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] also joined in the judgment but wrote a separate concurring opinion explaining (even quoting [[Noah Webster]]'s [[Webster's Dictionary|1828 dictionary]]) that corporations do have First Amendment rights to free speech and freedom of the press. Justice [[Clarence Thomas]] also dissented, arguing that the Court's opinion does not go far enough - the disclosure requirements are unconstitutional as well, because they allow speakers to be intimidated. Thomas quoted numerous examples, including liberal harassment of supporters of [[Proposition 8]].

==References==
<references />

*[http://www.scotuswiki.com/index.php?title=Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission#Briefs_and_Documents List of briefs], from Scotusblog.com
*[http://www.supremecourtus.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/08-205%5BReargued%5D.pdf Transcript of oral argument]
*[http://www.supremecourtus.gov/opinions/09pdf/08-205.pdf Full text of all opinions] (PDF, 183 pages)

[[Category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]
[[Category:First Amendment]]

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission

2010-01-21T16:45:49Z

EvanW: The case has been decided

'''Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission''' is a 2009-2010 case in which the [[United States Supreme Court]] overturned significant parts of the [[McCain-Feingold]] Act restricting campaign finance contributions, saying it violated the [[First Amendment]]. While the Supreme Court agreed to an unusually early fall sitting so it could decide the case before the 2010 primary elections, it finally released the opinion on January 21, 2010 - an almost unprecedented delay<ref>http://volokh.com/2009/12/08/so-where-are-the-argued-supreme-court-opinions-part-iii/</ref>.

==Background==
In 2008, Citizens United produced a television documentary attacking [[Hillary Clinton]], then a candidate for President. It wanted to pay a [[video on demand]] service to make the documentary available during the primary election season; however, this was considered illegal under the [[McCain-Feingold]] campaign finance act. The group sued, arguing both that McCain-Feingold does not apply to video-on-demand services and that McCain-Feingold is unconstitutional<ref>http://www.slate.com/id/2221753/</ref>.

==Decision==
Justice [[Anthony Kennedy]] wrote the opinion of the court, overturning the broad corporate financing ban but upholding limited disclosure requirements<ref>http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/01/campaign-disclosure-rules-upheld/</ref>.

Chief Justice [[John Roberts]] and Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] wrote two separate concurring opinions, and Justices [[Clarence Thomas]] and [[John Paul Stephens]] dissented.<ref>http://volokh.com/2010/01/21/citizens-united/</ref><ref>[http://www.supremecourtus.gov/opinions/09pdf/08-205.pdf Full text of all opinions] (PDF, 183 pages)</ref>

==References==
<references />

*[http://www.scotuswiki.com/index.php?title=Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission#Briefs_and_Documents List of briefs], from Scotusblog.com
*[http://www.supremecourtus.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/08-205%5BReargued%5D.pdf Transcript of oral argument]

[[Category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]
[[Category:First Amendment]]

User talk:Reac

2010-01-20T20:20:44Z

EvanW: /* Where is Zolacolor? */ Thanks

==Where is Zolacolor?==

{{quotebox|I'm the mayor of a small town, Zolacolor, which is located in Kansas.}}
Where is this town? I can't find it on either Google or Wikipedia or Conservapedia or Citizendium or Mapquest. Does it exist? --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 15:14, 20 January 2010 (EST)
:He's already be blocked my friend. [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 15:17, 20 January 2010 (EST)
::Thanks. I blanked the user page and left a note behind, to avoid any more confusion. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 15:20, 20 January 2010 (EST)

User:Reac

2010-01-20T20:20:15Z

EvanW: to avoid confusion - he's blocked

==Blocked for five years==

Talk:Animal

2010-01-20T20:18:08Z

EvanW: /* Are humans animals? */ Was Solomon right?

Not qualified to improve this article, other than to make it even shorter...
the article states that animals have no cell walls. If the article means Animal CELLS have no cell walls, I'm pretty sure this is incorrect. I'm an animal, and I'm sure somethings keeping the cytoplasm in my cells!

== Are humans animals? ==

I would just change this, but since an administrator wrote it I'll discuss it here first.

For the purposes of scientific classification, an 'animal' is any living thing that fulfils certain criteria, like being multicellular, eukaryotic, ingesting other organisms for nourishment, and a few other things. According to these standards, human beings are animals. Of course there are many important ways in which we differ from other animals, but for scientific purposes these are of secondary importance to the fact that we are multicellular, eukaryotic, etc...

In the opening paragraph, which describes the scientific definition of ''animal'', it is not appropriate to say that humans do not belong in this category. From a scientific point of view, ''animal'' is a plain description of physical features and not a pejorative description of primitive behavior. [[User:Eoinc|Eoinc]] 17:28, 16 January 2010 (EST)

:Those "scientific standards" fail to distinguish between human beings and animals. When secular standards conflict with reality, one of the two must suffer. We at Conservapedia prefer to retain reality at the expense of standards which contradict the truth.

:Granted that the [[human body]] is mammalian, let us not lose sight of what sets mankind apart from animals. We need not adopt the views of [[Nietzsche]] here. Calling a person an [[animal]] is always pejorative; if liberals object to use of the term "[[redneck]]", I can't see how they can tolerate classifying [[human being]]s as animals.

:This discussion is closed, unless you want to contribute to our [[Debate Topics]].

::You acknowledge that the human body is mammalian - ie, that we are mammals. Mammals are one of many subsets of the kingdom ''animalia''. Yes, we differ from every other animal in some very important ways. But, '''for the purposes of describing the physical and biological nature''' of human beings, which is all that the scientific classification is intended to do, being multicellular and eukaryotic is of more fundamental importance than our intelligence, cultural achievements, ethics, or anything else.

:::My possession of a mammalian body no more makes me a "[[mammal]]" than your position of property and use of money makes you a "[[Capitalist]]". In my view, human society and the [[Animal kingdom]] are distinct, by virtue of the fundamental [[God]]-given differences between [[human nature]] and the mere [[instinct]] of animals, as well as the divine commandment or "blessing" to take dominion over the entire [[natural world]].

:::*"And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth." King James Version, Genesis 1:28
:::*"God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground." New International Version, Genesis 1:28

:::You are free to believe [[Feuerbach]]'s view that, "Man is a [[higher animal]] which developed from animals through the process of [[evolution]]." As a writer here, you are free to trace the source of this view, and to tell which scientists agree with it. But please don't assert it as [[truth]]; you might try telling us what percent of biologists or other scientists agree with it, though. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 11:22, 20 January 2010 (EST)

::It is regrettable that you conflate the meanings of ''animal'' as a neutral term for certain types of organisms, ''animal'' as a colloquial term for non-human animals, and ''animal'' as a pejorative description for a human being who acts upon their most base impulses. As a piece of scientific terminology, no such negative connotations are intended.

::Couldn't the article have the standard scientific meaning of ''animal'', and then state that "colloquially, however, 'animal' is usually taken to mean any non-human animal...etc"? [[User:Eoinc|Eoinc]] 18:37, 16 January 2010 (EST)
::Or, you could have it the other way around, put the Biblical definitions first, and then add that the scientific definition of ''animal'' is any multicellular (etc, etc...), including humans. [[User:Eoinc|Eoinc]] 18:45, 16 January 2010 (EST)

::I find the above statements interesting considering the human bring article that is linked to says: ""Human being" is a term for a human that emphasizes the role of a human not merely as a social animal, but a thinking person." We are social animals, we by all scientific definitions are part of the animal kingdom, this article ignores the established biological taxonomies completely while taking one author's religious views as undisputed fact, when it is obviously not. That is not encyclopedic, nor is it honest. Instead it should be noted in the article that virtually all scientific classification in biology has our species as part of the animal kingdom. The reasons are clear, because we share all the basic definitions in biology of what falls into the kingdom Animalia. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 19:12, 16 January 2010 (EST)

* virtually all scientific classification in biology has our species as part of the animal kingdom

Yes, that sentence should be in the article. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 19:40, 16 January 2010 (EST)

Oink, at the risk of being pig-headed, let me point out that "the scientific definition" is merely a viewpoint of [[physical science]]. We take a broader view of [[Science]] here, including the [[social sciences]]. [[Anthropology]], [[psychology]], [[economics]], [[political science]], [[history]] and so on need not adhere to the [[naturalism]], [[atheism]], or even the [[agnosticism]] of modern liberal science.

The assumption that religious or supernatural ideas cannot or should not be studied, is not inherently scientific (see [[methodological naturalism]]). --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 21:36, 16 January 2010 (EST)

===(extra section break inserted to help things out)===
:I was a bit arrogant to "close" discussion on this point. Sorry! Let's keep talking - and not just because I have something new to say, although I admit that helped me to realize my mistake. :-)

:*Feuerbach's materialism defines the [[human being]] as a [[higher animal]] which developed from [[animal]]s through the process of [[evolution]]. [http://www.unification.org/ucbooks/cncc/cncc-02.htm]

:Conservative thought opposes this view, so on an editorial basis alone any encyclopedia would have to make its readers aware of the controversy over this point. We can't simply say that man "is an animal" on the basis of [[scientific standards]] used in [[biology]].

:Moreover, we need to explain '''why''' biologists assert that human beings are animals. Is it just because the human body is so obviously [[mammal]]ian? Or are they expressing an ideology which denies such ideas as [[life after death]], the existence of the human [[soul]] or [[spirit]], and (greatest of all) the doctrine that God created man in His image?

:There's more here than meets the eye, and I'd rather not let liberals or anyone else sweep these issues under the rug. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 11:11, 20 January 2010 (EST)

::First I must point out that not all conservatives disagree with the evolutionary theory. I hold many conservative views and I accept fully evolution. For me conservatism is a political concept while evolution is a concept of science. Other may disagree of course, but that I where I am coming from, I just want to mention that so as the straightforward and honest in my views.

::Biologists assert human are animals based on biological definitions of what an animal is. In basic biological terms animals are eukaryotic, heterotrophic, lack rigid cell walls, are motile (even if at only certain sages of life), it is a very broad category and most people misinterpret the biological term with more colloquial (and often ill-defined) terms for the word. However humans do have all these attributes. The first person to come up with a taxonomic classification for animals was Carl Linnaeus and he place humans in that kingdom, note this was a century before the theory of evolution existed, Linnaeus was a creationist.

::In this view, souls and other metaphysical ideas are not considered as they are not part of biology. I do not object to writing about metaphysical concepts when it comes to humans (us) but those are separate subjects and should have their own entries. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 15:01, 20 January 2010 (EST)

:::As a theological issue I think this matters to my work on the CBP, specifically [[Ecclesiastes_(Translated)#Chapter_3]] 18-22 please go take a look. --[[User:SamF|SamF]] 15:12, 20 January 2010 (EST)

::::Myself, I don't think the actual answer matters to Ecclesiastes, because (according to my analysis) Solomon wrote this book while he was an idolater - so he got a lot of things wrong. (Perhaps this page isn't [[Talk:Ecclesiastes|the best place to discuss this sub-topic further]]...) --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 15:18, 20 January 2010 (EST)

User talk:Reac

2010-01-20T20:14:20Z

EvanW: Where is the town you say you're from?

Cranmer

2010-01-20T20:09:03Z

EvanW: Redirect to full name

#Redirect[[Thomas Cranmer]]

Switzerland

2010-01-20T20:03:44Z

EvanW: More organization and wikification

{{Country
|name =''Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft (German) Confédération suisse (French) Confederazione Svizzera (Italian) Confederaziun svizra (Romansch)''
|map =Switzerland rel 2000.jpg
|map2 =Switzerland location.png
|flag =Flag of Switzerland.png
|arms =Arms of Switzerland.png
|capital =Bern
|capital-raw =
|government-raw =[[Federal|Federal State]], [[direct democracy]]
|language =German, French, Italian, Romansch
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Doris Leuthard
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =41,285 sq mi
|pop =7,508,700 (2006)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$264.1 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$50,532 (2005)
|currency =Swiss franc
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Switzerland''' is a [[Europe]]an country located between [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[France]], and [[Austria]]. Its capital is [[Bern]], and its largest city is [[Zurich]]. Four languages have been designated as official: [[German]], [[French]], [[Italian]], and [[Romansch]] (a dialect spoken by a small minority, closely related to [[Latin]]). Switzerland has been an independent country since 1291 and is a confederation of 26 cantons with elements of direct democracy in that all laws passed by parliament can be overturned by arranging a [[referendum]]. Switzerland is also well-known for having strict [[neutrality]].

==People==
Switzerland sits at the crossroads of several major European cultures, which have heavily influenced the country's languages and cultural practices. Switzerland has four official languages--German, French, Italian, and Romansch (based on Latin and spoken by a small minority in the Canton Graubunden). The [[German]] spoken is predominantly a Swiss dialect, but newspapers and some broadcasts use [[High German]]. Many Swiss speak more than one language. [[English]] is widely known, especially among professionals.

More than 75% of the population lives in the central plain, which stretches between the [[Alps]] and the [[Jura]] Mountains and from [[Geneva]] in the southwest to the [[Rhine]] River and [[Lake Constance]] in the northeast. Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 20% of the population.

According to the Swiss Federal Office of Statistics, the population in Switzerland increased to an estimated 7,523,934 by July 2006. Three-quarters of this growth was attributed to migration. Switzerland naturalized 22% more people in 2006 compared to 2005, totaling 46,700 persons. By the end of 2006, there were 850,000 foreigners working legally in Switzerland. The rise of German immigrants, as confirmed in earlier reports, increased by 10.6% (+10,000). Portuguese workers also increased by 7.4% (+7000). On the other hand, the number of the Italians continued to drop by –3.2% (-5000). The major ethnic groups are: German 65%, French 10%, and Italians 6%.

Almost all Swiss are literate. Switzerland's 13 university institutes enrolled 111,100 students in the academic year of 2004-05. About 25% of the adult population holds a diploma of higher learning.

The Constitution guarantees freedom of worship, and the different religious communities co-exist peacefully. About 40% of the population are [[Protestants]] and 46% are [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]s.

Switzerland consistently ranks high on quality of life indices, including highest per capita income, one of the highest concentrations of computer and Internet usage per capita, highest insurance coverage per individual, and high health care rates. For these and many other reasons, it serves as an excellent [[test market]] for businesses hoping to introduce new products into Europe.

==Government==
Switzerland is a federal state composed of 26 [[canton]]s (20 are "full" cantons and six "half" cantons for purposes of representation in the federal legislature) that retain many attributes of [[sovereignty]], such as fiscal autonomy and the right to manage internal cantonal affairs. The 1874 Constitution began, "Together, the peoples of the 23 sovereign Cantons of Switzerland united by the present alliance..." Similarly, under the current 2000 Constitution, cantons hold all powers not specifically delegated to the federation. Switzerland's federal institutions are:
*A bicameral legislature--the Federal Assembly;
*A collegial executive of seven members--the Federal Council; and
*A judiciary consisting of a regular court in [[Lausanne]]--the Federal Tribunal--and special military and administrative courts.
**The Federal Insurance Tribunal is an independent division of the Federal Tribunal that handles social security questions; its seat is in [[Lucerne]].
**The Federal Criminal Court, located in [[Bellinzona]], is the [[court of first instance]] for all criminal cases under federal jurisdiction.
*The Constitution provides for separation of the three branches of government.

===Federal Assembly===
The Federal Assembly is the primary seat of power, although in practice the executive branch has been increasing its power at the expense of the legislative branch. The Federal Assembly has two houses--the Council of States and the National Council. These two houses have equal powers in all respects, including the right to introduce legislation. Legislation cannot be vetoed by the executive nor reviewed for constitutionality by the judiciary, but all laws (except the budget) can be reviewed by popular referendum before taking effect. The 46 members of the Council of States (two from each canton and one from each half canton) are directly elected in each canton by majority voting. The 200 members of the National Council are directly elected in each canton under a system of proportional representation. Members of both houses serve for 4 years.

The Federal Assembly meets quarterly for 3-week plenary sessions. The parliamentary committees of the two houses, which are often key in shaping legislation, meet behind closed doors, but both majority and minority positions are presented during the plenary sessions. The Federal Assembly is a militia parliament, and members commonly retain their traditional professions. Individual members of parliament have no personal staff.

The Assembly can be legally dissolved only after the adoption of a popular initiative calling for a complete revision of the Constitution. All citizens 18 or older have the right to vote and run for office in national, cantonal, and communal elections unless individually disqualified by the relevant legislature.

===Federal Council===
The top executive body is the seven-member cabinet called the Federal Council. The Federal Assembly individually elects the seven Federal Councilors in a joint session of both houses at the opening of a new legislature. Federal Councilors are elected for 4-year terms; there are no term limits and no provision to recall the cabinet or individual members during the legislature. Each year, the Federal Assembly elects from among the seven Federal Councilors a president and vice president, following the principle of seniority. The member who is vice president one year traditionally is elected president the next. Although the Constitution provides that the Federal Assembly chooses and supervises the cabinet, the latter has gradually assumed a preeminent role in directing the legislative process as well as executing federal laws.

Under an arrangement between the four major parties called the "magic formula" which was introduced in 1959 but ended in December 2003, two Federal Councilors (ministers) were elected each from the Christian Democrats, the Social Democrats, and the Free Democrats and one from the Swiss People's Party. Under the new magic formula starting January 1, 2004, the new party composition of the cabinet changed to the following composition: 1 Christian Democrat, 2 Social Democrats, 2 Free Democrats, and 2 representatives of the Swiss People's Party. This arrangement was shaken up in the aftermath of the 2008 federal elections: a leftist coalition of Social Democrats, Greens and Christian Democrats formed a parliamentary majority to oust Councilor Christoph Blocher, the iconic leader of the [[Swiss People's Party]], from office even though his party had just achieved a decisive electoral victory. He was replaced by party colleague Evelin Widmer-Schlumpf, who was subsequently banned from the party for conspiring against Blocher, along with fellow Councilor Samuel Schmid. The two went on to form a new breakaway party, the Conservative Democratic Party. The Swiss People's Party has since returned as a participant in the national government following the demission of Schmid, who was replaced by Ueli Maurer.

The Constitution requires that Federal Councilors act collectively in all matters, not as individual ministers or as representatives of their parties. Each Councilor heads one of seven federal departments and is responsible for preparing legislation pertaining to matters under its jurisdiction. The president, who remains responsible for the department he heads, has limited prerogatives and is first among equals (there is no formal prime minister).

====Federal Council Membership====
*President and Economic Affairs--Doris Leuthard (Christian Democrat)
*Vice President and Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications--Moritz Leuenberger (Social Democrat)
*Justice and Police--Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf (Conservative Democratic Party)
*Defense, Civil Protection and Sports--Ueli Maurer (Swiss People's Party)
*Finance--Hans-Rudolf Merz (Free Democrat)
*Foreign Affairs--Micheline Calmy-Rey (Social Democrat)
*Home Affairs--Didier Burkhalter (Free Democrat)
*Federal Chancellor--Annemarie Huber-Hotz (Ex Officio)

===Judiciary===
The administration of justice is primarily a cantonal function. The Federal Tribunal is limited in its jurisdiction. Its principal function is to hear appeals of civil and criminal cases. It also hears complaints of violations of the constitutional rights of citizens and has authority to review cantonal court decisions involving federal law as well as certain administrative rulings of federal departments. However, it has no power to review federal legislation for constitutionality. The Tribunal's 30 full-time and 30 part-time judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for 6-year terms. The Federal Criminal Court is the court of first instance for criminal cases involving organized and white-collar crime, money laundering, and corruption, which are under federal jurisdiction. The Court’s 11 judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for 6-year terms.

===Local Government===
The cantons regulate local government. The basic unit of local government, which administers a village, town, or city, is the commune or municipality. Citizenship is derived from membership in a commune and can be conferred on non-Swiss by a commune. Cantons are subordinate to federal authority but keep autonomy in implementing federal law.

===[[Referendum|Referenda]]===
A strong emphasis on ballot votes arises out of the traditional Swiss belief that the will of the people is the final national authority. Every constitutional amendment adopted by parliament is automatically brought to the ballot and has to carry a double majority of votes and cantons in order to become effective. The voters themselves may actively seek changes to the Constitution by means of the popular [[initiative]]: 100,000 voters may with their signatures request a national vote on a proposed [[constitutional amendment]]. New federal legislation also is subject to popular review, under the so-called referendum: 50,000 signatures suffice to call a ballot vote on any federal law adopted by parliament. The Assembly can declare an act to be too urgent to allow time for popular consideration, but this is rare. At any rate, an act passed urgently must have a time limit and is later subject to the same constitutional provisions on popular review as other legislation. This device provides a useful channel for linking laws closely to the will of the people and reducing the influence of elites. A stunning example of this process occurred in November 2009, when Swiss voters turned out at the polls in huge numbers to approve of an amendment to the constitution banning the construction of [[minaret]]s <ref>http://www.admin.ch/ch/d//pore/va/20091129/det547.html Official voting results (in German)</ref>. This decision of a vast majority of voters to take a stand against political Islam came after a campaign in which the establishment elites had presented a unified front against the measure: all political parties except the [[Swiss People's Party]] had strongly opposed the suggested amendment, and most of the media openly mocked its supporters as racist and foolish.

===Political Conditions===
Although it has a diverse society, Switzerland has a stable government. Most voters support the government in the armed neutrality underlying its foreign and defense policies. Domestic policy poses no major problems, but the changing international environment has generated a significant reexamination of Swiss policy in key areas such as defense, neutrality, and immigration. Quadrennial national elections typically produce only marginal changes in party representation.

In recent years, Switzerland has seen a gradual shift in the party landscape. The rightist Swiss People's Party (SVP), traditionally the junior partner in the four-party coalition government, more than doubled its voting share from 11% in 1987 to 22.5% in 1999, and finally to 26.6% in 2003, thus overtaking its three coalition partners. This shift in voting shares ended the 44-year old "magic formula," the power-broking agreement of the four coalition parties, and gave a second seat in the 7-person Swiss cabinet to the Swiss People's Party at the expense of the Christian Democrats, now the weakest party with 14.4% of the votes. For the first time in Swiss history, the SVP has two seats in the government, reflecting its new status as Switzerland's most popular party.

On December 10, 2003, [[Christoph Blocher]]--a self-made industrialist and main figure of the right-populist Swiss People's Party known for his strong opinions on asylum and migration and law and order issues--was elected to the cabinet by parliament, replacing the incumbent Christian Democrat Justice and Police Minister Ruth Metzler. The parliament also elected the Free Democrat Hans-Rudolf Merz to replace retiring Finance Minister Kaspar Villiger. Both Blocher and Merz are strong advocates of drastic public spending cuts in order to reduce the country's mounting $102 billion francs state deficit and are staunch opponents to Switzerland's entering the European Union. On June 14, 2006, the Federal Council elected Doris Leuthard of the Christian Democratic Party. Leuthard replaced the retiring Joseph Deiss and has assumed the Economics and Trade portfolio that Deiss managed. Leuthard’s election and Deiss’ resignation do not change the dynamics of the Federal Council. The current makeup of the government remains fiscally conservative and against further integration with the European Union.

The Constitution limits federal influence in the formulation of domestic policy and emphasizes the roles of private enterprise and cantonal government. However, the Confederation has been compelled to enlarge its policymaking powers in recent years to cope with national problems such as education, agriculture, energy, environment, organized crime, and narcotics.

==Foreign Relations==
Traditionally, Switzerland has avoided [[alliance]]s that might entail military, political, or direct economic action. Since its forces suffered a major military defeat in the Middle Ages, it has stayed strictly [[neutral]]. Switzerland maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and has no major dispute in its bilateral relations. Historically, it has served as a neutral intermediary between hostile powers and host to major international treaty conferences. After [[World War I]], it hosted the [[League of Nations]] headquarters; during [[World War II]] it represented German interests in America and American and British interests in Germany. Since 1980, Switzerland has represented American interests in [[Iran]]. It also played a key role in brokering a truce agreement between the Sudanese Government and Sudan's Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA) for the Nuba Mountain region, signed after a week's negotiations taking place near [[Lucerne]] in January 2002.

The Swiss Constitution declares the preservation of Switzerland's independence and welfare as the supreme objective of Swiss [[foreign policy]]. Below this overarching goal, the Constitution sets five specific foreign policy objectives: to further the peaceful coexistence of nations; promote respect for [[human rights]], [[democracy]], and the [[rule of law]]; promote Swiss economic interests abroad, alleviate need and poverty in the world; and preserve natural resources.

The Swiss feel a moral obligation to undertake social, economic, and humanitarian activities that contribute to world peace and prosperity. This is manifested by Swiss bilateral and multilateral diplomatic activity, assistance to developing countries, and support for the extension of international law, particularly humanitarian law. Switzerland (mainly Geneva) is home to many international governmental and nongovernmental organizations, including the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (whose flag is essentially the Swiss flag with colors reversed--the Red Cross historically being a Swiss organization). One of the first international organizations, the [[Universal Postal Union]], is located in Bern.

===International Organizations===
In recent years, the Swiss have broadened the scope of activities in which they feel able to participate without compromising their neutrality. Swiss voters first rejected [[United Nations]] membership by a 3-to-1 margin in 1986 but in March 2002 adopted it, albeit in a very close election, making Switzerland the first country to join the UN based on a popular referendum decision. In similar fashion, the electorate rejected a government proposition to deploy Swiss troops as UN peacekeepers (Blue Helmets) in 1994, but Switzerland joined NATO's Partnership for Peace and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1996 and 1997, respectively, and deployed Yellow Berets to support the OSCE in Bosnia. In June 2001, Swiss voters approved new legislation providing for the deployment of armed Swiss troops for international peacekeeping missions under UN or OSCE auspices as well as closer international cooperation in military training.

On September 10, 2002, Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations. Switzerland had previously been involved as party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice and member of most UN specialized agencies, as well as the International Atomic Energy Agency. Switzerland has long participated in many UN activities, including the Economic Commission for Europe, UN Environment Program, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UN Conference for Trade and Development, UN Industrial Development Organization, and the Universal Postal Union (UPU). Prior to its formal accession, Switzerland had maintained a permanent observer mission at UN Headquarters since 1948.

Switzerland also is a member of the following international organizations: World Trade Organization, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, European Free Trade Association, Bank for International Settlements, Council of Europe, and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). In 1992, Swiss voters approved membership in the Bretton Woods organizations but later that year rejected the European Economic Area agreement, which the government viewed as a first step toward EU membership.

Switzerland has furnished military observers and medical teams to several UN operations. Switzerland is an active participant in the OSCE, its foreign minister serving as Chairman-in-Office for 1996. Switzerland also is an active participant in the major nonproliferation and export control regimes.

===[[War on Terror]]===
The Swiss Government on June 25, 2003, eased most of the sanctions against the Republic of [[Iraq]] in accord with UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1483. The government lifted the trade embargo, flight restrictions, and financial sanctions in place since August 1990. The weapons embargo and the asset freeze, the scope of which was extended, remain in force, and restrictions on the trade in Iraqi cultural goods were newly imposed. Though not a member at the time, Switzerland had joined UN sanctions against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait. Switzerland in recent years joined UN and EU economic sanctions imposed on Sierra Leone, UNITA (Angola), Liberia, Serbia and Montenegro, Burma, Zimbabwe, Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Cote d'Ivoire. On October 15, 2003, the Federal Council ended the import restrictions on raw diamonds from Sierra Leone and lifted sanctions against Libya.

Switzerland in October 2000 implemented an ordinance to enforce UN sanctions against the Taliban (UNSCR 1267), which it subsequently amended in April 2001 in accord with tighter UN regulations (UNSCR 1333). On May 2, 2002, the Swiss Government eased the sanctions regime in accord with UNSCR 1388 and 1390, lifting the ban on the sale of acetic acid (used in drug production), Afghani Airlines, and Afghani diplomatic representations. The weapons embargo, travel restrictions, and financial sanctions remain in force. The Swiss Government in November 2001 issued an ordinance declaring illegal the terrorist organization [[al Qaeda]] as well as possible successor or supporting organizations. More than 200 individuals or companies linked to international terrorism have been blacklisted to have their assets frozen. Thus far, Swiss authorities have blocked about 72 accounts totaling 34 million francs.

==Defence==
On May 18, 2003, Swiss voters approved the military reform project "Army XXI" that will drastically reduce the size of the Swiss Army. In January 2004, the 524,000-strong militia started paring down to 220,000 conscripts, including 80,000 reservists. The defense budget of currently SF 4.3 billion ($3.1 billion) will be trimmed by SF 300 million, and some 2,000 jobs are expected to be shed between 2004 and 2011. The mandatory time of service will be curtailed from 300 to 260 days. All able-bodied Swiss males aged 20 to 30 must serve. Thereafter, most personnel are assigned to civil protection duties until the age of 37.

A new category of soldiers called "single-term conscripts" will discharge the total time of service of about 300 days of active duty in one go. Recruiting is on a voluntary basis and should not exceed 20% of a year's draft. The armed forces have a small nucleus of about 3,600 professional staff, half of whom are either instructors or staff officers, with the remainder mostly being fortification guards. The army has virtually no full-time active combat units but is capable of full mobilization within 72 hours. Women may volunteer to serve in the armed forces and may now join all units, including combat troops. About 2,000 women already serve in the army but, so far, have not been allowed to use weapons for purposes other than self-defense.

The armed forces are organized in four army corps and an air force and are equipped with modern, sophisticated, and well-maintained gear. In 1993, the Swiss Government procured 34 [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18 fighters]] from the United States.

==Economy==
Despite a dearth of [[natural resources]], the Swiss economy is among the world's most advanced and prosperous. Per capita income is virtually the highest in the world, as are wages. Trade has been the key to prosperity in Switzerland. The country is dependent upon [[export]] markets to generate income while dependent upon imports for raw materials and to expand the range of goods and services available in the country. Switzerland has liberal investment and trade policies, notwithstanding agriculture, and a conservative fiscal policy. The Swiss legal system is highly developed, commercial law is well defined, and solid laws and policies protect investments. The Swiss franc is one of the world's soundest currencies, and the country is known for its high standard of banking and financial services. Switzerland is a member of a number of international economic organizations, including the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[World Bank]], and the [[Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development]] (OECD).

Switzerland's machinery, metals, electronics, and chemicals sectors are world-renowned for precision and quality. Together they account for well over half of Swiss export revenues. In agriculture, Switzerland is about 60% self-sufficient. Only 7.5% of the remaining imports originated from the U.S. Swiss farmers are one of the most highly protected and subsidized producer group in the world. OECD estimates show that Switzerland is subsidizing more than 70% of its agriculture, compared to 35% in the EU. According to the newly adopted "2008-2011 Agricultural Program", Switzerland intends to reduce its subsidies from SF 14.1 billion (U.S. $11.6 billion) to SF 13.6 billion (U.S. $10.5 billion) over the next four years. In March 2007, the parliament increased the initial government bill by SF 150 million (U.S. $123 million) on the grounds that Swiss farm reforms were going too fast. The parliament also accepted international parallel imports for fertilizers and tractors. Swiss farmers will be allowed to import tractors produced in China or India and sold in the EU, and save up to $41 million (SF 50 million) annual in expenses. German [[fertilizer]] could save another $20 million (SF 25 million). A more general bill on parallel imports will be presented by the Justice Ministry to parliament by the end of 2007.

[[Tourism]], [[banking]], [[engineering]], and [[insurance]] are significant sectors of the economy and heavily influence the country's economic policies. Swiss trading companies have unique marketing expertise in many parts of the world, including Eastern Europe, the Far East, Africa, and the Middle East. Not only does Switzerland have a highly developed [[tourism]] infrastructure (making it a good market for tourism-related equipment and services), the Swiss also are intrepid travelers. Per capita, more Swiss visit the United States every year than from any other country. Tourism is the most important U.S. export to Switzerland (earning almost $1.5 billion). In 2004, more than 285,000 Swiss came to the United States as tourists.

In 2005, the dollar/Swiss franc exchange rate continued to be shaped by geopolitical tensions. The dollar depreciated further against the Swiss franc from SF 1.49 in October 2002 to SF 1.31 in 2003, to 1.28 in 2005 to 1.23 in July 2006, and 1.22 in January 2007. The strengthening of the Euro, however, helped Switzerland to minimize the pressure from a weakening dollar. The Swiss National Bank raised interest rates on June 15, 2006 to 1.5%, the third increase since January 2006. The Swiss National Bank also said it expected economic growth to be a robust 2.5% in 2006 and 2007.

While the number of bankruptcies in Switzerland had been on the rise for four years, reaching alarming levels in 2005 (10,800), the rate dropped by 4.7% in 2006. Compared to other European countries, Switzerland's bankruptcy rates ranks fourth (1.35%) among the hardest hit countries, after Luxemburg (2.39%), Austria (1.9%) and France (1.49%).

The Swiss economy expanded by 2.7% in 2006, the fastest rate in six years, thus confirming sustained growth over the last four years. GDP growth was primarily due to the positive evolution of private consumption and expansion of investment in fixed assets and software. For once, all export industries benefited from increased demand from foreign markets. With a surplus of $9.6 billion (SF 11.7 billion), the Swiss trade balance reached unprecedented levels. On the inflation side, import prices increased more rapidly than exports.

Switzerland was ranked as the most competitive economy in the World Economic Forum’s 2006 Global Competitiveness Report for the first time, reflecting the country’s sound institutional environment, excellent infrastructure, efficient markets, competent macroeconomic management, world-class educational attainment, and high levels of technological innovation, which boost Switzerland's competitiveness in the global economy. The country has a well-developed infrastructure for scientific research, companies spend generously on research and development, and intellectual property protection is strong. Business activity benefits from a well-developed institutional framework, characterized by the rule of law, an efficient judicial system, and high levels of transparency and accountability within public institutions. Higher education and training are rapidly growing in importance as engines of productivity growth.

===Global Economic Crisis===
Being a nation that depends upon exports for economic growth, and due to the fact that it is so closely linked to the economies of Western Europe and the United States, Switzerland was not able to escape recent slowdowns experienced in these countries. During most of the 1990s, the Swiss economy was Western Europe's weakest, with annual GDP growth averaging 0% between 1991 and 1997. Beginning in late 1997, the economy steadily gained momentum until peaking in 2000 with 3% growth in real terms. The economy returned to lackluster growth during 2001-2003, but has been growing at or above potential since 2004--2.5% per annum. The Swiss Economic Ministry reports that strong global demand, particularly in the U.S. and Asia, and better Euro zone growth has helped Switzerland’s economic recovery. Long-run economic growth, however, is predicated on structural reforms. In order to maximize its economic potential, Switzerland will need to push through difficult agrarian and competition policy reforms. These are essential if the government is to reduce its budget deficits and meet its 3% growth target.

The recent economic upswing had some positive impact on the labor market. Unemployment decreased from 4.1% in December 2003 to 3.1% in March 2007. Swiss in the 15-25 age bracket continue to fight unemployment numbers with a rate of 5.4%, and hotel and restaurant industry workers with 10.4%. One-fourth of the country's full-time workers are unionized. In general, labor/management relations are good, mostly characterized by a willingness on both sides to settle disputes by negotiations rather than by labor action. About 600 collective bargaining agreements exist today in Switzerland and are regularly renewed without major problems. However, the mood is changing. The massive layoffs that resulted from both the global economic slowdown and major management scandals have strained the traditional Swiss "labor peace." Swiss trade unions encouraged strikes against several companies, including the national airline SWISS, Coca-Cola, and Orange (the French telecom operator), but total days lost to strikes remain among the lowest in the OECD. Uncertainties concerning the proper management of pension funds, and the prospect of a potential hike in the retirement age from 65 to 67 have stirred heated political debate.

===Trade with the EU===
The Swiss economy earns roughly half of its corporate earnings from the export industry, and 62% of Swiss exports are destined for the [[EU]] market. The EU is Switzerland's largest trading partner, and economic and trade barriers between them are minimal. In the wake of the Swiss voters' rejection of the European Economic Area Agreement in 1992, the Swiss Government set its sights on negotiating bilateral sectoral agreements with the EU. After more than 4 years of negotiations, an agreement covering seven sectors (research, public procurement, technical barriers to trade, agriculture, civil aviation, land transport, and the free movement of persons) was achieved at the end of 1998. Parliament officially endorsed the so-called "Bilaterals I" in 1999, and the Swiss people approved them in a referendum in May 2000. The agreements, which had to be ratified by the European Parliament as well as legislatures in all 15 EU member states, entered into force on June 1, 2002. Switzerland has so far attempted to mitigate possible adverse effects of non-membership by conforming many of its regulations, standards, and practices to EU directives and norms. Full access to the Swiss market for the original 15 EU member states entered into force in June 2004, ending as a result the “national preference”. The Swiss agreed to extend these preferences to the 10 new EU members on September 25, 2005.

The Swiss Government embarked in July 2001 on a second round of bilateral negotiations with the EU known as “Bilaterals II”. Talks focused on customs fraud, environment, statistics, trade in processed agricultural goods, media, the taxation of savings, and police/judicial cooperation (dubbed the Schengen-Dublin accords). Amid a fierce political debate over the essence of Swiss-EU relations and populist warnings against EU workers and criminals entering Switzerland, the Schengen-Dublin package was approved on June 5, 2005 by a referendum of 54.6%. Fears of cheap labor coming from new EU member states have prompted the government to provide for tripartite surveillance committees to ensure that decent wages are enforced. The EU has still to ratify the extension of Schengen to Switzerland, and implement the bilateral agreements on research and development and media cooperation.

As part of the bilateral agreement on the taxation of savings signed in June 2003, Swiss banks will levy a withholding tax on EU citizens' savings income. The tax, which started on July 1, 2005, will increase gradually to 35% by 2011, with 75% of the funds being transferred to the EU.

On November 26, 2006, the Swiss electorate approved a government bill to contribute 1 billion Swiss francs (about $800 million) to the 10 new EU member states. In a nation-wide referendum, 53.4% of voters accepted the “Eastern Europe Cooperation Act,” which entitles the government to spend 1 billion Swiss francs on projects in primarily Central European states over the next 10 years. Switzerland had pledged this contribution to share the burden of the EU’s eastern expansion in order to facilitate the conclusion of the second set of bilateral negotiations with the EU. The right-populist Swiss People’s Party (SVP), which prompted the referendum, was disappointed, but pleased that it mobilized a 47% opposition. The Eastern Europe Cooperation Act gives a new legal basis for Swiss aid to countries in Eastern Europe. The act has a 10-year term and replaces the former federal Law on Aid to Eastern Europe, which came into force in 1995. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, Switzerland has spent SF 3.5 billion on about 1,000 aid projects in Central and Eastern Europe to help countries in the region transform into market economies. Sixty percent of the SF 1 billion is to come from the budget of the departments of foreign and economic affairs, mainly from cuts in aid programs to other parts of the world. The remaining 40% will be taken from the regular budget of the federal administration. The funds are to be used on projects chosen by Switzerland and focused on education, trade promotion, environment, and internal security. The money is paid directly to the projects and does not go the EU cohesion fund in Brussels. Switzerland has no formal agreement with the European Union concerning these contributions. Instead, there is a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that sets out the general conditions of the Swiss commitment to the ten new EU member states. Under the MOU, almost half of the funding will go to Poland. Hungary's benefit will be SF 131 million, while the Czech Republic will receive SF 110 million.

The Swiss federal government remains deeply divided over whether to eventually join the EU, and in a March 2001 referendum more than 70% of Swiss voters rejected rapid steps toward EU membership. The issue of EU membership is likely to be shelved for several years, if not a decade. In May 2005, the government said it could sign a framework agreement with the European Union, as an alternative to joining the organization, to encourage dialogue and create a platform for closer cooperation.

Switzerland nevertheless expressed interest in reaching a third layer of bilateral agreements that would involve energy, the Galileo satellite navigation system, health, and agriculture. But recent harsh criticism by the European Commission against preferential cantonal tax treatment for foreign holdings cooled the political climate surrounding the EU. Unilateral trade retaliation--as threatened by the EU if the Swiss cantons do not change their cantonal tax regimes--has not occurred, but the political damage is done, including greater anti-EU feelings among the population. The pressure to negotiate with the EU could turn sour as the EU has already asked Switzerland to pay another SF 300-350 million ($240-280 million, on top of the SF 1 billion cohesion fund) to provide further financial aid to Romania and Bulgaria, which joined the EU on January 1, 2007. Unlike the November 2006 referendum, the newly enacted Eastern Europe Cooperation Act does not provide for an automatic referendum on further payments. The parliament will decide on the additional aid request.

The government also decided in November 2006 to once more consider adoption of the EU “Cassis-de-Dijon” principle for trade after a first setback in 2004. If adopted, EU products could be imported in Switzerland without having to go through the burdensome Swiss certification and Swiss language requirement process. Currently, Swiss retail prices are on average 20-40% higher than in the EU. If parallel imports are allowed under adoption of the Cassis-de-Dijion principle, prices could drop by 10%. Possible exceptions have been reduced from 129 products to 40, but hurdles remain on the labeling of alcohol contained in Alcopops, the Swiss ban of phosphates in washing machine powders, the real origin of “EU meat”, and on the stringent Swiss generic food production requirements. The “Cassis de Dijon principle” will not apply to the many farming and industrial products already covered by mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) under the EU-Swiss Bilaterals I and II; nor will it apply to other products such as pesticides, motor engines, and weapons that require an authorization. The impact, as a result, may not be as large as expected. Another issue is that Swiss and EU MRAs concluded with third countries may also benefit from adoption of the Cassis-de-Dijon principle (these goods would also have to receive WTO most favored nation status).

===Trade with the US===
The government has reaffirmed its wish to strengthen ties with other non-EU trading partners in Asia and America. Exploratory talks on a Free Trade Agreement between the U.S. and Switzerland failed to result in negotiations, due to Swiss problems with free trade in agriculture, but the two sides did agree to a new framework for economic, trade, and investment discussions. This new agreement is the Swiss-U.S. Trade and Investment Cooperation Forum (the “Forum”) and is currently assessing areas where the two governments could facilitate greater trade and investment flows.

Switzerland ranks 17th among the main trading partners of the U.S. worldwide. The United States is the second-largest importer (11.5%) of Swiss goods after Germany (20%). The U.S. exports more to Switzerland each year than to all the countries of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe combined, and Switzerland imports more U.S. products and services than does Spain. In addition, the United States is the largest foreign investor in Switzerland, and conversely, the primary destination of Swiss foreign investment. It is estimated that 200,000 American jobs depend on Swiss foreign investments. Total U.S.-Swiss bilateral trade increased from $15.33 billion during 2003 to $16 billion in 2004.

==History==
Originally inhabited by the Helvetians, or Helvetic Celts, the territory comprising modern Switzerland came under Roman rule during the Gallic wars in the 1st century BC and remained a Roman province until the 4th century AD. Under Roman influence, the population reached a high level of civilization and enjoyed a flourishing commerce. Important cities, such as Geneva, Basel, and Zurich, were linked by military roads that also served as trade arteries between Rome and the northern tribes.

After the decline of the Roman Empire, Switzerland was invaded by Germanic tribes from the north and west. Some tribes, such as the Alemanni in central and northeastern Switzerland, and the Burgundians, who ruled western Switzerland, settled there. In 800, the country became part of Charlemagne's empire. It later passed under the dominion of the Holy Roman emperors in the form of small ecclesiastic and temporal holdings subject to imperial sovereignty.

With the opening of a new important north-south trade route across the Alps in the early 13th century, the Empire's rulers began to attach more importance to the remote Swiss mountain valleys, which were granted some degree of autonomy under direct imperial rule. Fearful of the popular disturbances flaring up following the death of the Holy Roman Emperor in 1291, the ruling families from Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden signed a charter to keep public peace and pledging mutual support in upholding autonomous administrative and judicial rule. The anniversary of the charter's signature (August 1, 1291) today is celebrated as Switzerland's National Day.

Between 1315 and 1388 the Swiss Confederates inflicted three crushing defeats on the Habsburgs, whose aspiration to regional dominion clashed with Swiss self-determination. During that period, five other localities (cantons in modern-day parlance) joined the original three in the Swiss Confederation. Buoyed by their feats, the Swiss Confederates continuously expanded their borders by military means and gained formal independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. Routed by the French and Venetians near Milan in 1515, they renounced expansionist policies. By then the Swiss Confederation had become a union of 13 localities with a regularly convening diet administering the subject territories. Swiss mercenaries continued for centuries to serve in other armies; the Swiss Guard of the Pope is a vestige of this tradition.

The Reformation led to a division between the Protestant followers of Zwingli and Calvin in the German and French parts of the country respectively, and the Catholics. Despite two centuries of civil strife, the common interest in the joint subject territories kept the Swiss Confederation from falling apart. The traffic in mercenaries as well as the alienation between the predominantly Protestant Swiss and their Catholic neighbors kept the Swiss Confederation out of the wars of the European powers, which formally recognized Swiss neutrality in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. The Swiss remained neutral during the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France, but Napoleon, nonetheless, invaded and annexed much of the country in 1797-98, replacing the loose confederation with a centrally governed unitary state.

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 re-established the old confederation of sovereign states and enshrined Switzerland's status of permanent armed neutrality in international law. In 1848, after a brief civil war between Protestant liberals seeking a centralized national state and Catholic conservatives clinging on to the old order, the majority of Swiss Cantons opted for a Federal State, modeled in part on the U.S. Constitution. The Swiss Constitution established a range of civic liberties and made far-reaching provisions to maintain cantonal autonomy to placate the vanquished Catholic minority. The Swiss amended their Constitution extensively in 1874, establishing federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters, as well as introducing direct democracy by popular referendum. To this day, cantonal autonomy and referendum democracy remain trademarks of the Swiss polity.

Switzerland industrialized rapidly during the 19th century and by 1850 had become the second most industrialized country in Europe after Great Britain. During World War I serious tension developed between the German, French, and Italian-speaking parts of the country, and Switzerland came close to violating its neutrality but managed to stay out of hostilities. Labor unrest culminating in a general strike in 1918 marked the interwar period, but in 1937 employers and the largest trade union concluded a formal agreement to settle disputes peacefully, which governs workplace relations to the present day. During World War II, Switzerland came under heavy pressure from the fascist powers, which after the fall of France in 1940 completely surrounded the country. Some political and economic leaders displayed a mood of appeasement, but a combination of tactical accommodation and demonstrative readiness to defend the country helped Switzerland survive unscathed.

The Cold War enhanced the role of neutral Switzerland and offered the country a way out of its diplomatic isolation after World War II. Economically, Switzerland integrated itself into the American-led Western postwar order, but it remained reluctant to enter supranational bodies. Switzerland did not join the United Nations, even though Geneva became host to the UN's European headquarters, and the country played an active role in many of the UN's specialized agencies. Switzerland also remained aloof in the face of European integration efforts, waiting until 1963 to join the Council of Europe. It still remains outside the European Union. Instead, Switzerland in 1960 helped form the European Free Trade Area, which did not strive for political union. Following the Cold War, Switzerland joined the Bretton Woods institutions in 1992 and finally became a member of the United Nations in 2002.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3431.htm]

==See Also==
[[Bern Switzerland Temple]]

==References==
<References/>

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Switzerland]]

User talk:BMcP

2010-01-20T19:51:14Z

EvanW: /* Repetition claim of time and location */ How do we measure radial velocities?

{{Welcome}}[[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]] 18:28, 17 June 2009 (EDT)

== Images ==

Some are ready. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 10:20, 24 June 2009 (EDT)

:: It seems that thumb does not work fine with .png images. See. [[Proxima Centauri]]. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 11:00, 24 June 2009 (EDT)

::: It seems to work as a thumbnail if you add a specific pixel width to the parameters, figured this out when I was playing with the Alpha Centauri ones. It may be an issue with the wiki software and PNG thumbnails where it requires this, not sure, but adding the pixel width seems to solve it. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 12;15, 24 June 2009 (EDT)

== VW / VY Canis Majoris ==
In your recent article, [[VW Canis Majoris]], why do you have "'''VY Canis Majoris''' is a..." and other mentions of a "VY Canis Majoris". This is very confusing. Is "VY" an alternate name to "VW"? --[[User:ChrisZ|ChrisZ]] 18:18, 27 July 2009 (EDT)
:No, it should be VY Canis Majoris, and it has been renamed so, I just made a mistake with the article title, is fixed now. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 21:51, 27 July 2009 (EDT)

::: Zeta Puppis & VY Canis Majoris - Images; DONE. --[[User:Joaquín Martínez|Joaquín Martínez]] 22:53, 27 July 2009 (EDT)

==Image requests==
Your images have been uploaded [http://www.conservapedia.com/Special:Log/upload]. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 16:30, 29 October 2009 (EDT)

:And more: [[File:Hs-2005-26-c-large web.jpg|200px]][[File:Hs-1993-18-a-large web.jpg|200px]] [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 16:17, 1 December 2009 (EST)

::Thanks Karajou! --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 16:18, 1 December 2009 (EST)

::And this one: [[File:B01Magellanic Clouds.jpg|200px]] :) [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 16:25, 1 December 2009 (EST)

==Template==
Try this infobox template ([[Template:Night Sky]]) for your astronomy pages. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 17:18, 1 December 2009 (EST)

:Nice template, I will have to start incorporating that into my past (and future) articles. Of course it may mean I'll request several more pics. ;) --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 18:59, 1 December 2009 (EST)

::With the template, you have something like this: [[Andromeda galaxy]]. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 14:14, 2 December 2009 (EST)

[http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Antares&curid=92467&diff=733465&oldid=733457&rcid=805439 Nice usage of template] --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 13:13, 16 December 2009 (EST)

:Thanks! --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 08:47, 17 December 2009 (EST)

== More Images ==

[http://www.conservapedia.com/Conservapedia:Image_upload_requests#Constellation_Images Your image requests from today have been uploaded.] --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 14:09, 2 December 2009 (EST)

Found a smaller version of the Draco map, and inserted it into the article. I'll let you do the rest :) [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 15:33, 2 December 2009 (EST)

==Additional templates==
The Night Sky template probably will not work for Draco, nor will it work for other constellations or stars. I'll work on adding both later on today. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 15:41, 2 December 2009 (EST)

:Yeah, although I am able to fill in some information, a more specialized template would be needed for constellations, given their special nature. Perhaps categories such as "abbreviation", "brightest star", "nearest star" and "main stars", that last one would be for the numerable amount of main stars. Main stars are those that actually are used in the outline of the constellation itself. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 15:45, 2 December 2009 (EST)
::One is done, and placed within the Draco article; double-check for accuracy, and any suggestions that could be made within the templates. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 16:01, 2 December 2009 (EST)
:::The only thing I can think of off hand to add to the template is brightest star, otherwise it looks good. Also when done, if you can link me to the empty template, that would be cool. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 16:09, 2 December 2009 (EST)
::::[[Template:Constellation]] Done. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 16:20, 2 December 2009 (EST)
:::::Very nice, it will certainly help when it comes to writing the individual constellation articles(88 total, that is a lot!). --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 16:23, 2 December 2009 (EST)

==Microsoft WorldWide Telescope==
This image [[File:RigelLocation.JPG|200px]] was done using Microsoft's program, and cropping it via Windows Paint. The idea is to have star maps which are not posted on Wikipedia. Any thoughts? [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 12:11, 3 December 2009 (EST)

:Well I have no personal issue using the same images as Wikipedia, since usually it is a great resource of public domain and licensed to freely distribute images, that being said I totally am fine with creating our own. My only problem in that area is I have no upload rights so I turn to where I can.

:As for that specific image, I would also want the name of the constellation to appear as well as the other nearby stars (if possible), but have some sort of focus on the particular star (or deep sky object) that is the topic of the article, either through a circle or an arrow, etc. I don't know if that actual program can do that, but I know it is easy enough for me in Photoshop (which is what I use to manipulate images in). --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 12:49, 3 December 2009 (EST)

How's this version? [[File:RigelLocation.jpg|200px]] Higlighted star for the article; remainder in subdued fonts, with name of constellation in caps. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 13:07, 3 December 2009 (EST)

:That definitely looks better and in line with what I was suggesting. I may make the font for the others a little brightest (you can also use their bayer designation letter or number instead of full name for the other stars, while retaining the full name for the star in focus). What program are you using and how do you like it? I have thought on Winstar 2, curious how that looks. I have Stellarium, which is an excellent program for use in observations but not sure how well it is in making maps. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 13:23, 3 December 2009 (EST)
::I have the Microsoft WorldWide Telescope [http://www.freewarefiles.com/Microsoft-WorldWide-Telescope_program_41720.html], which has a combination of photos and vector graphics. For making the star maps that are needed here, all that matters is to hit the "print screen" key on the keyboard, paste it within Microsoft Paint or PhotoShop, and adjust accordingly [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 15:47, 3 December 2009 (EST)
::: Cool, well I am sure one of the programs will be good for me. However I will need a way to upload, as I am not allowed to. Also, on a related subject, could you approve the Milky Way pictures in the upload request page? Thanks. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 18:58, 3 December 2009 (EST)

Sorry for forgetting these: [[File:MilkyWay1.jpg|200px]][[File:MilkyWaySpitzer.jpg|200px]] [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 14:09, 16 December 2009 (EST)

:Thanks for uploading them :) --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 08:48, 17 December 2009 (EST)

== Image Uploads ==

I notice that you've almost always got a ton of image requests up - I've just gotten upload rights, so please, in the future, whenever you have a request, add it to my talk page as well as to our image upload request page, and I'll try and get on it immediately.

On an unrelated note, BMcP, I know we have had our differences on some issues, but I want to say that you've been a godsend to Conservapedia's astronomy articles. I look forward to more of your work! [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 02:42, 27 December 2009 (EST)

== Nova ==

I'd turn Nova into a disambiguation page, then move the tv series to [[NOVA (tv series)]] and the astronomical phenomenon to [[Nova (star)]]. [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 13:29, 28 December 2009 (EST)

:I am not sure if I have the rights to do that, I am reasonably certain I do not have the rights to move the Nova TV page from "Nova" to "NOVA (tv series)". If I am wrong on that, please let me know. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 13:44, 28 December 2009 (EST)

:Oh wait, it dawned on me. Rewrite the [[Nova]] page to be the disambiguation and create a new [[NOVA (tv series)]] and [[Nova (star)]] page. Okay, yes I understand now, thanks. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 14:02, 28 December 2009 (EST)

== images ==

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Ia_Supernova.jpg][http://www.conservapedia.com/File:IsolatedNeutronStar.jpg][http://www.conservapedia.com/File:NeutronStar.jpg][http://www.conservapedia.com/File:0211_diameter_ill.jpg][http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Aquilae_illustration.jpg][http://www.conservapedia.com/File:PIA09221.jpg][http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Sn94d_hiz_big.jpg] [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 16:07, 31 December 2009 (EST)
:[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Evolved_star_fusion_shells.png] [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 16:10, 31 December 2009 (EST)

:Thanks! --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 18:54, 2 January 2010 (EST)

== Repetition claim of time and location ==

The repetition claim that, for example, "the nebula is located around 6,500 light years away in the constellation of Taurus" would benefit from an explanation of the assumptions underlying the statement.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 16:06, 5 January 2010 (EST)

: You never answered this question about your claims. I'm honestly curious what your assumptions are underlying your edits.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 23:28, 16 January 2010 (EST)

::What is the issue? That it is 6,500 ± 1,600 light years or that it is in Taurus? --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 11:53, 17 January 2010 (EST)

:::Well, first of all I don't recall seeing the "± 1,600" part in your edit. Second of all, what are your assumptions underlying that claim? How is that claim made, what observation and assumptions is it based on?--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 13:50, 20 January 2010 (EST)

::::It is in the Astrometry section under distance of the Night Sky Template in the article. Distances of the nebula was done by using spectroscopy, which determines expansion velocity and comparing this with the nebula's angular expansion over time (using images over years[http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap011227.html]), using these we can calculate (within a margin) it's distance. The most precise measurement is around 6,300 light years, if you want, read the long technical explanation here.[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PASP...85..579T]. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 14:03, 20 January 2010 (EST)

:::::BMcP, I'm asking a simple question and am hoping for a straightforward answer in your own words. If you don't know the answer, hopefully you're willing to look at it now with an open mind. Your explanation above doesn't state the assumptions. What are the assumptions?--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 14:15, 20 January 2010 (EST)

::::::I don't understand why you have any issue with this one astronomical object's distance. It isn't remarkable in that manner, many supernova remnants are much farther away. The only assumption I am making is those who are writing the original science, peer reviewed papers are not purposely fudging the data (and managed to trick those who reviewed the papers). However if I suspected that, I can conduct similar tests and see if I can duplicate their findings, or discover errors within them. --[[User:BMcP|BMcP]] 14:38, 20 January 2010 (EST)

:::::::I read the beginning of [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PASP...85..579T] with great interest. Unfortunately, though it says, "The dynamical methods all depend on the fact that we can measure both proper motions, in arc seconds year-1, and radial velocities, in km sec-1," it doesn't go into detail on how we can do that. The arc seconds/year, of course, can just be observed - but how do we measure the radial velocities? (I think your answer would make a great addition to some astronomy article!) --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 14:51, 20 January 2010 (EST)

== images uploaded ==

[[Conservapedia:Image upload requests#Astronomy Images|your images, sir]] [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 17:56, 9 January 2010 (EST)

Switzerland

2010-01-19T22:50:55Z

EvanW: Begin to organize and wikify

{{Country
|name =''Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft (German) Confédération suisse (French) Confederazione Svizzera (Italian) Confederaziun svizra (Romansch)''
|map =Switzerland rel 2000.jpg
|map2 =Switzerland location.png
|flag =Flag of Switzerland.png
|arms =Arms of Switzerland.png
|capital =Bern
|capital-raw =
|government-raw =[[Federal|Federal State]], [[direct democracy]]
|language =German, French, Italian, Romansch
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Doris Leuthard
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =41,285 sq mi
|pop =7,508,700 (2006)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$264.1 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$50,532 (2005)
|currency =Swiss franc
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Switzerland''' is a [[Europe]]an country located between [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[France]], and [[Austria]]. Its capital is [[Bern]], and its largest city is [[Zurich]]. Four languages have been designated as official: [[German]], [[French]], [[Italian]], and [[Romansch]] (a dialect spoken by a small minority, closely related to [[Latin]]). Switzerland has been an independent country since 1291 and is a confederation of 26 cantons with elements of direct democracy in that all laws passed by parliament can be overturned by arranging a [[referendum]]. Switzerland is also well-known for having strict [[neutrality]].

==People==
Switzerland sits at the crossroads of several major European cultures, which have heavily influenced the country's languages and cultural practices. Switzerland has four official languages--German, French, Italian, and Romansch (based on Latin and spoken by a small minority in the Canton Graubunden). The [[German]] spoken is predominantly a Swiss dialect, but newspapers and some broadcasts use High German. Many Swiss speak more than one language. English is widely known, especially among professionals.

More than 75% of the population lives in the central plain, which stretches between the [[Alps]] and the [[Jura]] Mountains and from [[Geneva]] in the southwest to the [[Rhine]] River and [[Lake Constance]] in the northeast. Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 20% of the population.

According to the Swiss Federal Office of Statistics, the population in Switzerland increased to an estimated 7,523,934 by July 2006. Three-quarters of this growth was attributed to migration. Switzerland naturalized 22% more people in 2006 compared to 2005, totaling 46,700 persons. By the end of 2006, there were 850,000 foreigners working legally in Switzerland. The rise of German immigrants, as confirmed in earlier reports, increased by 10.6% (+10,000). Portuguese workers also increased by 7.4% (+7000). On the other hand, the number of the Italians continued to drop by –3.2% (-5000). The major ethnic groups are: German 65%, French 10%, and Italians 6%.

Almost all Swiss are literate. Switzerland's 13 university institutes enrolled 111,100 students in the academic year of 2004-05. About 25% of the adult population holds a diploma of higher learning.

The Constitution guarantees freedom of worship, and the different religious communities co-exist peacefully. About 40% of the population are [[Protestants]] and 46% are [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]s.

Switzerland consistently ranks high on quality of life indices, including highest per capita income, one of the highest concentrations of computer and Internet usage per capita, highest insurance coverage per individual, and high health care rates. For these and many other reasons, it serves as an excellent [[test market]] for businesses hoping to introduce new products into Europe.

==Government==
Switzerland is a federal state composed of 26 [[canton]]s (20 are "full" cantons and six "half" cantons for purposes of representation in the federal legislature) that retain many attributes of [[sovereignty]], such as fiscal autonomy and the right to manage internal cantonal affairs. The 1874 Constitution began, "Together, the peoples of the 23 sovereign Cantons of Switzerland united by the present alliance..." Similarly, under the current 2000 Constitution, cantons hold all powers not specifically delegated to the federation. Switzerland's federal institutions are:
*A bicameral legislature--the Federal Assembly;
*A collegial executive of seven members--the Federal Council; and
*A judiciary consisting of a regular court in Lausanne--the Federal Tribunal--and special military and administrative courts. *The Federal Insurance Tribunal is an independent division of the Federal Tribunal that handles social security questions; its seat is in Lucerne. The Federal Criminal Court, located in Bellinzona, is the court of first instance for all criminal cases under federal jurisdiction.
*The Constitution provides for separation of the three branches of government.

===Federal Assembly===
The Federal Assembly is the primary seat of power, although in practice the executive branch has been increasing its power at the expense of the legislative branch. The Federal Assembly has two houses--the Council of States and the National Council. These two houses have equal powers in all respects, including the right to introduce legislation. Legislation cannot be vetoed by the executive nor reviewed for constitutionality by the judiciary, but all laws (except the budget) can be reviewed by popular referendum before taking effect. The 46 members of the Council of States (two from each canton and one from each half canton) are directly elected in each canton by majority voting. The 200 members of the National Council are directly elected in each canton under a system of proportional representation. Members of both houses serve for 4 years.

The Federal Assembly meets quarterly for 3-week plenary sessions. The parliamentary committees of the two houses, which are often key in shaping legislation, meet behind closed doors, but both majority and minority positions are presented during the plenary sessions. The Federal Assembly is a militia parliament, and members commonly retain their traditional professions. Individual members of parliament have no personal staff.

The Assembly can be legally dissolved only after the adoption of a popular initiative calling for a complete revision of the Constitution. All citizens 18 or older have the right to vote and run for office in national, cantonal, and communal elections unless individually disqualified by the relevant legislature.

===Federal Council===
The top executive body is the seven-member cabinet called the Federal Council. The Federal Assembly individually elects the seven Federal Councilors in a joint session of both houses at the opening of a new legislature. Federal Councilors are elected for 4-year terms; there are no term limits and no provision to recall the cabinet or individual members during the legislature. Each year, the Federal Assembly elects from among the seven Federal Councilors a president and vice president, following the principle of seniority. The member who is vice president one year traditionally is elected president the next. Although the Constitution provides that the Federal Assembly chooses and supervises the cabinet, the latter has gradually assumed a preeminent role in directing the legislative process as well as executing federal laws.

Under an arrangement between the four major parties called the "magic formula" which was introduced in 1959 but ended in December 2003, two Federal Councilors (ministers) were elected each from the Christian Democrats, the Social Democrats, and the Free Democrats and one from the Swiss People's Party. Under the new magic formula starting January 1, 2004, the new party composition of the cabinet changed to the following composition: 1 Christian Democrat, 2 Social Democrats, 2 Free Democrats, and 2 representatives of the Swiss People's Party. This arrangement was shaken up in the aftermath of the 2008 federal elections: a leftist coalition of Social Democrats, Greens and Christian Democrats formed a parlamentary majority to oust Councilor Christoph Blocher, the iconic leader of the [[Swiss People's Party]], from office even though his party had just achieved a decisive electoral victory. He was replaced by party colleague Evelin Widmer-Schlumpf, who was subsequently banned from the party for conspiring against Blocher, along with fellow Councilor Samuel Schmid. The two went on to form a new breakaway party, the Conservative Democratic Party. The Swiss People's Party has since returned as a participant in the national government following the demission of Schmid, who was replaced by Ueli Maurer.

The Constitution requires that Federal Councilors act collectively in all matters, not as individual ministers or as representatives of their parties. Each Councilor heads one of seven federal departments and is responsible for preparing legislation pertaining to matters under its jurisdiction. The president, who remains responsible for the department he heads, has limited prerogatives and is first among equals (there is no formal prime minister).

====Federal Council Membership====
*President and Economic Affairs--Doris Leuthard (Christian Democrat)
*Vice President and Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications--Moritz Leuenberger (Social Democrat)
*Justice and Police--Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf (Conservative Democratic Party)
*Defense, Civil Protection and Sports--Ueli Maurer (Swiss People's Party)
*Finance--Hans-Rudolf Merz (Free Democrat)
*Foreign Affairs--Micheline Calmy-Rey (Social Democrat)
*Home Affairs--Didier Burkhalter (Free Democrat)
*Federal Chancellor--Annemarie Huber-Hotz (Ex Officio)

===Judiciary===
The administration of justice is primarily a cantonal function. The Federal Tribunal is limited in its jurisdiction. Its principal function is to hear appeals of civil and criminal cases. It also hears complaints of violations of the constitutional rights of citizens and has authority to review cantonal court decisions involving federal law as well as certain administrative rulings of federal departments. However, it has no power to review federal legislation for constitutionality. The Tribunal's 30 full-time and 30 part-time judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for 6-year terms. The Federal Criminal Court is the court of first instance for criminal cases involving organized and white-collar crime, money laundering, and corruption, which are under federal jurisdiction. The Court’s 11 judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for 6-year terms.

===Local Government===
The cantons regulate local government. The basic unit of local government, which administers a village, town, or city, is the commune or municipality. Citizenship is derived from membership in a commune and can be conferred on non-Swiss by a commune. Cantons are subordinate to federal authority but keep autonomy in implementing federal law.

===Referenda===
A strong emphasis on ballot votes arises out of the traditional Swiss belief that the will of the people is the final national authority. Every constitutional amendment adopted by parliament is automatically brought to the ballot and has to carry a double majority of votes and states in order to become effective. The voters themselves may actively seek changes to the Constitution by means of the popular initiative: 100,000 voters may with their signatures request a national vote on a proposed constitutional amendment. New federal legislation also is subject to popular review, under the so-called referendum: 50,000 signatures suffice to call a ballot vote on any federal law adopted by parliament. The Assembly can declare an act to be too urgent to allow time for popular consideration, but this is rare. At any rate, an act passed urgently must have a time limit and is later subject to the same constitutional provisions on popular review as other legislation. This device provides a useful channel for linking laws closely to the will of the people and reducing the influence of elites. A stunning example of this process occured in November 2009, when swiss voters turned out at the polls in huge numbers to approve of an amendment to the constitution banning the construction of minarets <ref>http://www.admin.ch/ch/d//pore/va/20091129/det547.html Official voting results (in German)</ref>. This decision of a vast majority of voters to take a stand against political Islam came after a campaign in which the establishment elites had presented a unified front against the measure: all political parties except the [[Swiss People's Party]] had strongly opposed the suggested amendment, and most of the media openly mocked its supporters as racist and foolish.

===Political Conditions===
Although it has a diverse society, Switzerland has a stable government. Most voters support the government in the armed neutrality underlying its foreign and defense policies. Domestic policy poses no major problems, but the changing international environment has generated a significant reexamination of Swiss policy in key areas such as defense, neutrality, and immigration. Quadrennial national elections typically produce only marginal changes in party representation.

In recent years, Switzerland has seen a gradual shift in the party landscape. The rightist Swiss People's Party (SVP), traditionally the junior partner in the four-party coalition government, more than doubled its voting share from 11% in 1987 to 22.5% in 1999, and finally to 26.6% in 2003, thus overtaking its three coalition partners. This shift in voting shares ended the 44-year old "magic formula," the power-broking agreement of the four coalition parties, and gave a second seat in the 7-person Swiss cabinet to the Swiss People's Party at the expense of the Christian Democrats, now the weakest party with 14.4% of the votes. For the first time in Swiss history, the SVP has two seats in the government, reflecting its new status as Switzerland's most popular party.

On December 10, 2003, Christoph Blocher--a self-made industrialist and main figure of the right-populist Swiss People's Party known for his strong opinions on asylum and migration and law and order issues--was elected to the cabinet by parliament, replacing the incumbent Christian Democrat Justice and Police Minister Ruth Metzler. The parliament also elected the Free Democrat Hans-Rudolf Merz to replace retiring Finance Minister Kaspar Villiger. Both Blocher and Merz are strong advocates of drastic public spending cuts in order to reduce the country's mounting $102 billion francs state deficit and are staunch opponents to Switzerland's entering the European Union. On June 14, 2006, the Federal Council elected Doris Leuthard of the Christian Democratic Party. Leuthard replaced the retiring Joseph Deiss and has assumed the Economics and Trade portfolio that Deiss managed. Leuthard’s election and Deiss’ resignation do not change the dynamics of the Federal Council. The current makeup of the government remains fiscally conservative and against further integration with the European Union.

The Constitution limits federal influence in the formulation of domestic policy and emphasizes the roles of private enterprise and cantonal government. However, the Confederation has been compelled to enlarge its policymaking powers in recent years to cope with national problems such as education, agriculture, energy, environment, organized crime, and narcotics.

==Foreign Relations==
Traditionally, Switzerland has avoided alliances that might entail military, political, or direct economic action. Since its forces suffered a major military defeat in the Middle Ages, it has stayed strictly neutral. Switzerland maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and has no major dispute in its bilateral relations. Historically, it has served as a neutral intermediary between hostile powers and host to major international treaty conferences. After [[World War I]], it hosted the [[League of Nations]] headquarters; during [[World War II]] it represented German interests in America and American and British interests in Germany. Since 1980, Switzerland has represented American interests in Iran. It also played a key role in brokering a truce agreement between the Sudanese Government and Sudan's Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA) for the Nuba Mountain region, signed after a week's negotiations taking place near [[Lucerne]] in January 2002.

The Swiss Constitution declares the preservation of Switzerland's independence and welfare as the supreme objective of Swiss foreign policy. Below this overarching goal, the Constitution sets five specific foreign policy objectives: further the peaceful coexistence of nations; promote respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of the law; promote Swiss economic interests abroad, alleviate need and poverty in the world; and the preservation of natural resources.

The Swiss feel a moral obligation to undertake social, economic, and humanitarian activities that contribute to world peace and prosperity. This is manifested by Swiss bilateral and multilateral diplomatic activity, assistance to developing countries, and support for the extension of international law, particularly humanitarian law. Switzerland (mainly Geneva) is home to many international governmental and nongovernmental organizations, including the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (whose flag is essentially the Swiss flag with colors reversed--the Red Cross historically being a Swiss organization). One of the first international organizations, the [[Universal Postal Union]], is located in Bern.

===International Organizations===
In recent years, the Swiss have broadened the scope of activities in which they feel able to participate without compromising their neutrality. Swiss voters first rejected [[United Nations]] membership by a 3-to-1 margin in 1986 but in March 2002 adopted it, albeit in a very close election, making Switzerland the first country to join the UN based on a popular referendum decision. In similar fashion, the electorate rejected a government proposition to deploy Swiss troops as UN peacekeepers (Blue Helmets) in 1994, but Switzerland joined NATO's Partnership for Peace and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in 1996 and 1997, respectively, and deployed Yellow Berets to support the OSCE in Bosnia. In June 2001, Swiss voters approved new legislation providing for the deployment of armed Swiss troops for international peacekeeping missions under UN or OSCE auspices as well as closer international cooperation in military training.

On September 10, 2002, Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations. Switzerland had previously been involved as party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice and member of most UN specialized agencies, as well as the International Atomic Energy Agency. Switzerland has long participated in many UN activities, including the Economic Commission for Europe, UN Environment Program, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UN Conference for Trade and Development, UN Industrial Development Organization, and the Universal Postal Union (UPU). Prior to its formal accession, Switzerland had maintained a permanent observer mission at UN Headquarters since 1948.

Switzerland also is a member of the following international organizations: World Trade Organization, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, European Free Trade Association, Bank for International Settlements, Council of Europe, and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). In 1992, Swiss voters approved membership in the Bretton Woods organizations but later that year rejected the European Economic Area agreement, which the government viewed as a first step toward EU membership.

Switzerland has furnished military observers and medical teams to several UN operations. Switzerland is an active participant in the OSCE, its foreign minister serving as Chairman-in-Office for 1996. Switzerland also is an active participant in the major nonproliferation and export control regimes.

===[[War on Terror]]===
The Swiss Government on June 25, 2003, eased most of the sanctions against the Republic of [[Iraq]] in accord with UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1483. The government lifted the trade embargo, flight restrictions, and financial sanctions in place since August 1990. The weapons embargo and the asset freeze, the scope of which was extended, remain in force, and restrictions on the trade in Iraqi cultural goods were newly imposed. Though not a member at the time, Switzerland had joined UN sanctions against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait. Switzerland in recent years joined UN and EU economic sanctions imposed on Sierra Leone, UNITA (Angola), Liberia, Serbia and Montenegro, Burma, Zimbabwe, Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Cote d'Ivoire. On October 15, 2003, the Federal Council ended the import restrictions on raw diamonds from Sierra Leone and lifted sanctions against Libya.

Switzerland in October 2000 implemented an ordinance to enforce UN sanctions against the Taliban (UNSCR 1267), which it subsequently amended in April 2001 in accord with tighter UN regulations (UNSCR 1333). On May 2, 2002, the Swiss Government eased the sanctions regime in accord with UNSCR 1388 and 1390, lifting the ban on the sale of acetic acid (used in drug production), Afghani Airlines, and Afghani diplomatic representations. The weapons embargo, travel restrictions, and financial sanctions remain in force. The Swiss Government in November 2001 issued an ordinance declaring illegal the terrorist organization [[al Qaeda]] as well as possible successor or supporting organizations. More than 200 individuals or companies linked to international terrorism have been blacklisted to have their assets frozen. Thus far, Swiss authorities have blocked about 72 accounts totaling 34 million francs.

==Defence==
On May 18, 2003, Swiss voters approved the military reform project "Army XXI" that will drastically reduce the size of the Swiss Army. In January 2004, the 524,000-strong militia started paring down to 220,000 conscripts, including 80,000 reservists. The defense budget of currently SF 4.3 billion ($3.1 billion) will be trimmed by SF 300 million, and some 2,000 jobs are expected to be shed between 2004 and 2011. The mandatory time of service will be curtailed from 300 to 260 days. All able-bodied Swiss males aged 20 to 30 must serve. Thereafter, most personnel are assigned to civil protection duties until the age of 37.

A new category of soldiers called "single-term conscripts" will discharge the total time of service of about 300 days of active duty in one go. Recruiting is on a voluntary basis and should not exceed 20% of a year's draft. The armed forces have a small nucleus of about 3,600 professional staff, half of whom are either instructors or staff officers, with the remainder mostly being fortification guards. The army has virtually no full-time active combat units but is capable of full mobilization within 72 hours. Women may volunteer to serve in the armed forces and may now join all units, including combat troops. About 2,000 women already serve in the army but, so far, have not been allowed to use weapons for purposes other than self-defense.

The armed forces are organized in four army corps and an air force and are equipped with modern, sophisticated, and well-maintained gear. In 1993, the Swiss Government procured 34 [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18 fighters]] from the United States.

==Economy==
Despite a dearth of natural resources, the Swiss economy is among the world's most advanced and prosperous. Per capita income is virtually the highest in the world, as are wages. Trade has been the key to prosperity in Switzerland. The country is dependent upon export markets to generate income while dependent upon imports for raw materials and to expand the range of goods and services available in the country. Switzerland has liberal investment and trade policies, notwithstanding agriculture, and a conservative fiscal policy. The Swiss legal system is highly developed, commercial law is well defined, and solid laws and policies protect investments. The Swiss franc is one of the world's soundest currencies, and the country is known for its high standard of banking and financial services. Switzerland is a member of a number of international economic organizations, including the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

The Swiss economy expanded by 2.7% in 2006, the fastest rate in six years, thus confirming sustained growth over the last four years. GDP growth was primarily due to the positive evolution of private consumption and expansion of investment in fixed assets and software. For once, all export industries benefited from increased demand from foreign markets. With a surplus of $9.6 billion (SF 11.7 billion), the Swiss trade balance reached unprecedented levels. On the inflation side, import prices increased more rapidly than exports.

Switzerland was ranked as the most competitive economy in the World Economic Forum’s 2006 Global Competitiveness Report for the first time, reflecting the country’s sound institutional environment, excellent infrastructure, efficient markets, competent macroeconomic management, world-class educational attainment, and high levels of technological innovation, which boost Switzerland's competitiveness in the global economy. The country has a well-developed infrastructure for scientific research, companies spend generously on research and development, and intellectual property protection is strong. Business activity benefits from a well-developed institutional framework, characterized by the rule of law, an efficient judicial system, and high levels of transparency and accountability within public institutions. Higher education and training are rapidly growing in importance as engines of productivity growth.

Being a nation that depends upon exports for economic growth, and due to the fact that it is so closely linked to the economies of Western Europe and the United States, Switzerland was not able to escape recent slowdowns experienced in these countries. During most of the 1990s, the Swiss economy was Western Europe's weakest, with annual GDP growth averaging 0% between 1991 and 1997. Beginning in late 1997, the economy steadily gained momentum until peaking in 2000 with 3% growth in real terms. The economy returned to lackluster growth during 2001-2003, but has been growing at or above potential since 2004--2.5% per annum. The Swiss Economic Ministry reports that strong global demand, particularly in the U.S. and Asia, and better Euro zone growth has helped Switzerland’s economic recovery. Long-run economic growth, however, is predicated on structural reforms. In order to maximize its economic potential, Switzerland will need to push through difficult agrarian and competition policy reforms. These are essential if the government is to reduce its budget deficits and meet its 3% growth target.

In 2005, the dollar/Swiss franc exchange rate continued to be shaped by geopolitical tensions. The dollar depreciated further against the Swiss franc from SF 1.49 in October 2002 to SF 1.31 in 2003, to 1.28 in 2005 to 1.23 in July 2006, and 1.22 in January 2007. The strengthening of the Euro, however, helped Switzerland to minimize the pressure from a weakening dollar. The Swiss National Bank raised interest rates on June 15, 2006 to 1.5%, the third increase since January 2006. The Swiss National Bank also said it expected economic growth to be a robust 2.5% in 2006 and 2007.

While the number of bankruptcies in Switzerland had been on the rise for four years, reaching alarming levels in 2005 (10,800), the rate dropped by 4.7% in 2006. Compared to other European countries, Switzerland's bankruptcy rates ranks fourth (1.35%) among the hardest hit countries, after Luxemburg (2.39%), Austria (1.9%) and France (1.49%).

The recent economic upswing had some positive impact on the labor market. Unemployment decreased from 4.1% in December 2003 to 3.1% in March 2007. Swiss in the 15-25 age bracket continue to fight unemployment numbers with a rate of 5.4%, and hotel and restaurant industry workers with 10.4%. One-fourth of the country's full-time workers are unionized. In general, labor/management relations are good, mostly characterized by a willingness on both sides to settle disputes by negotiations rather than by labor action. About 600 collective bargaining agreements exist today in Switzerland and are regularly renewed without major problems. However, the mood is changing. The massive layoffs that resulted from both the global economic slowdown and major management scandals have strained the traditional Swiss "labor peace." Swiss trade unions encouraged strikes against several companies, including the national airline SWISS, Coca-Cola, and Orange (the French telecom operator), but total days lost to strikes remain among the lowest in the OECD. Uncertainties concerning the proper management of pension funds, and the prospect of a potential hike in the retirement age from 65 to 67 have stirred heated political debate.

Switzerland's machinery, metals, electronics, and chemicals sectors are world-renowned for precision and quality. Together they account for well over half of Swiss export revenues. In agriculture, Switzerland is about 60% self-sufficient. Only 7.5% of the remaining imports originated from the U.S. Swiss farmers are one of the most highly protected and subsidized producer group in the world. OECD estimates show that Switzerland is subsidizing more than 70% of its agriculture, compared to 35% in the EU. According to the newly adopted "2008-2011 Agricultural Program", Switzerland intends to reduce its subsidies from SF 14.1 billion (U.S. $11.6 billion) to SF 13.6 billion (U.S. $10.5 billion) over the next four years. In March 2007, the parliament increased the initial government bill by SF 150 million (U.S. $123 million) on the grounds that Swiss farm reforms were going too fast. The parliament also accepted international parallel imports for fertilizers and tractors. Swiss farmers will be allowed to import tractors produced in China or India and sold in the EU, and save up to $41 million (SF 50 million) annual in expenses. German fertilizer could save another $20 million (SF 25 million). A more general bill on parallel imports will be presented by the Justice Ministry to parliament by the end of 2007.

Tourism, banking, engineering, and insurance are significant sectors of the economy and heavily influence the country's economic policies. Swiss trading companies have unique marketing expertise in many parts of the world, including Eastern Europe, the Far East, Africa, and the Middle East. Not only does Switzerland have a highly developed tourism infrastructure (making it a good market for tourism-related equipment and services), the Swiss also are intrepid travelers. Per capita, more Swiss visit the United States every year than from any other country. Tourism is the most important U.S. export to Switzerland (earning almost $1.5 billion). In 2004, more than 285,000 Swiss came to the United States as tourists.

The Swiss economy earns roughly half of its corporate earnings from the export industry, and 62% of Swiss exports are destined for the EU market. The EU is Switzerland's largest trading partner, and economic and trade barriers between them are minimal. In the wake of the Swiss voters' rejection of the European Economic Area Agreement in 1992, the Swiss Government set its sights on negotiating bilateral sectoral agreements with the EU. After more than 4 years of negotiations, an agreement covering seven sectors (research, public procurement, technical barriers to trade, agriculture, civil aviation, land transport, and the free movement of persons) was achieved at the end of 1998. Parliament officially endorsed the so-called "Bilaterals I" in 1999, and the Swiss people approved them in a referendum in May 2000. The agreements, which had to be ratified by the European Parliament as well as legislatures in all 15 EU member states, entered into force on June 1, 2002. Switzerland has so far attempted to mitigate possible adverse effects of non-membership by conforming many of its regulations, standards, and practices to EU directives and norms. Full access to the Swiss market for the original 15 EU member states entered into force in June 2004, ending as a result the “national preference”. The Swiss agreed to extend these preferences to the 10 new EU members on September 25, 2005.

The Swiss Government embarked in July 2001 on a second round of bilateral negotiations with the EU known as “Bilaterals II”. Talks focused on customs fraud, environment, statistics, trade in processed agricultural goods, media, the taxation of savings, and police/judicial cooperation (dubbed the Schengen-Dublin accords). Amid a fierce political debate over the essence of Swiss-EU relations and populist warnings against EU workers and criminals entering Switzerland, the Schengen-Dublin package was approved on June 5, 2005 by a referendum of 54.6%. Fears of cheap labor coming from new EU member states have prompted the government to provide for tripartite surveillance committees to ensure that decent wages are enforced. The EU has still to ratify the extension of Schengen to Switzerland, and implement the bilateral agreements on research and development and media cooperation.

As part of the bilateral agreement on the taxation of savings signed in June 2003, Swiss banks will levy a withholding tax on EU citizens' savings income. The tax, which started on July 1, 2005, will increase gradually to 35% by 2011, with 75% of the funds being transferred to the EU.

On November 26, 2006, the Swiss electorate approved a government bill to contribute 1 billion Swiss francs (about $800 million) to the 10 new EU member states. In a nation-wide referendum, 53.4% of voters accepted the “Eastern Europe Cooperation Act,” which entitles the government to spend 1 billion Swiss francs on projects in primarily Central European states over the next 10 years. Switzerland had pledged this contribution to share the burden of the EU’s eastern expansion in order to facilitate the conclusion of the second set of bilateral negotiations with the EU. The right-populist Swiss People’s Party (SVP), which prompted the referendum, was disappointed, but pleased that it mobilized a 47% opposition. The Eastern Europe Cooperation Act gives a new legal basis for Swiss aid to countries in Eastern Europe. The act has a 10-year term and replaces the former federal Law on Aid to Eastern Europe, which came into force in 1995. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, Switzerland has spent SF 3.5 billion on about 1,000 aid projects in Central and Eastern Europe to help countries in the region transform into market economies. Sixty percent of the SF 1 billion is to come from the budget of the departments of foreign and economic affairs, mainly from cuts in aid programs to other parts of the world. The remaining 40% will be taken from the regular budget of the federal administration. The funds are to be used on projects chosen by Switzerland and focused on education, trade promotion, environment, and internal security. The money is paid directly to the projects and does not go the EU cohesion fund in Brussels. Switzerland has no formal agreement with the European Union concerning these contributions. Instead, there is a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that sets out the general conditions of the Swiss commitment to the ten new EU member states. Under the MOU, almost half of the funding will go to Poland. Hungary's benefit will be SF 131 million, while the Czech Republic will receive SF 110 million.

The Swiss federal government remains deeply divided over EU membership as its long-term goal, and in a March 2001 referendum more than 70% of Swiss voters rejected rapid steps toward EU membership. The issue of EU membership is likely to be shelved for several years, if not a decade. In May 2005, the government said it could sign a framework agreement with the European Union, as an alternative to joining the organization, to encourage dialogue and create a platform for closer cooperation.

Switzerland nevertheless expressed interest in reaching a third layer of bilateral agreements that would involve energy, the Galileo satellite navigation system, health, and agriculture. But recent harsh criticism by the European Commission against preferential cantonal tax treatment for foreign holdings cooled the political climate surrounding the EU. Unilateral trade retaliation--as threatened by the EU if the Swiss cantons do not change their cantonal tax regimes--has not occurred, but the political damage is done, including greater anti-EU feelings among the population. The pressure to negotiate with the EU could turn sour as the EU has already asked Switzerland to pay another SF 300-350 million ($240-280 million, on top of the SF 1 billion cohesion fund) to provide further financial aid to Romania and Bulgaria, which joined the EU on January 1, 2007. Unlike the November 2006 referendum, the newly enacted Eastern Europe Cooperation Act does not provide for an automatic referendum on further payments. The parliament will decide on the additional aid request.

The government also decided in November 2006 to once more consider adoption of the EU “Cassis-de-Dijon” principle for trade after a first setback in 2004. If adopted, EU products could be imported in Switzerland without having to go through the burdensome Swiss certification and Swiss language requirement process. Currently, Swiss retail prices are on average 20-40% higher than in the EU. If parallel imports are allowed under adoption of the Cassis-de-Dijion principle, prices could drop by 10%. Possible exceptions have been reduced from 129 products to 40, but hurdles remain on the labeling of alcohol contained in Alcopops, the Swiss ban of phosphates in washing machine powders, the real origin of “EU meat”, and on the stringent Swiss generic food production requirements. The “Cassis de Dijon principle” will not apply to the many farming and industrial products already covered by mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) under the EU-Swiss Bilaterals I and II; nor will it apply to other products such as pesticides, motor engines, and weapons that require an authorization. The impact, as a result, may not be as large as expected. Another issue is that Swiss and EU MRAs concluded with third countries may also benefit from adoption of the Cassis-de-Dijon principle (these goods would also have to receive WTO most favored nation status).

The government has reaffirmed its wish to strengthen ties with other non-EU trading partners in Asia and America. Exploratory talks on a Free Trade Agreement between the U.S. and Switzerland failed to result in negotiations, due to Swiss problems with free trade in agriculture, but the two sides did agree to a new framework for economic, trade, and investment discussions. This new agreement is the Swiss-U.S. Trade and Investment Cooperation Forum (the “Forum”) and is currently assessing areas where the two governments could facilitate greater trade and investment flows.

Switzerland ranks 17th among the main trading partners of the U.S. worldwide. The United States is the second-largest importer (11.5%) of Swiss goods after Germany (20%). The U.S. exports more to Switzerland each year than to all the countries of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe combined, and Switzerland imports more U.S. products and services than does Spain. In addition, the United States is the largest foreign investor in Switzerland, and conversely, the primary destination of Swiss foreign investment. It is estimated that 200,000 American jobs depend on Swiss foreign investments. Total U.S.-Swiss bilateral trade increased from $15.33 billion during 2003 to $16 billion in 2004.

==History==
Originally inhabited by the Helvetians, or Helvetic Celts, the territory comprising modern Switzerland came under Roman rule during the Gallic wars in the 1st century BC and remained a Roman province until the 4th century AD. Under Roman influence, the population reached a high level of civilization and enjoyed a flourishing commerce. Important cities, such as Geneva, Basel, and Zurich, were linked by military roads that also served as trade arteries between Rome and the northern tribes.

After the decline of the Roman Empire, Switzerland was invaded by Germanic tribes from the north and west. Some tribes, such as the Alemanni in central and northeastern Switzerland, and the Burgundians, who ruled western Switzerland, settled there. In 800, the country became part of Charlemagne's empire. It later passed under the dominion of the Holy Roman emperors in the form of small ecclesiastic and temporal holdings subject to imperial sovereignty.

With the opening of a new important north-south trade route across the Alps in the early 13th century, the Empire's rulers began to attach more importance to the remote Swiss mountain valleys, which were granted some degree of autonomy under direct imperial rule. Fearful of the popular disturbances flaring up following the death of the Holy Roman Emperor in 1291, the ruling families from Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden signed a charter to keep public peace and pledging mutual support in upholding autonomous administrative and judicial rule. The anniversary of the charter's signature (August 1, 1291) today is celebrated as Switzerland's National Day.

Between 1315 and 1388 the Swiss Confederates inflicted three crushing defeats on the Habsburgs, whose aspiration to regional dominion clashed with Swiss self-determination. During that period, five other localities (cantons in modern-day parlance) joined the original three in the Swiss Confederation. Buoyed by their feats, the Swiss Confederates continuously expanded their borders by military means and gained formal independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. Routed by the French and Venetians near Milan in 1515, they renounced expansionist policies. By then the Swiss Confederation had become a union of 13 localities with a regularly convening diet administering the subject territories. Swiss mercenaries continued for centuries to serve in other armies; the Swiss Guard of the Pope is a vestige of this tradition.

The Reformation led to a division between the Protestant followers of Zwingli and Calvin in the German and French parts of the country respectively, and the Catholics. Despite two centuries of civil strife, the common interest in the joint subject territories kept the Swiss Confederation from falling apart. The traffic in mercenaries as well as the alienation between the predominantly Protestant Swiss and their Catholic neighbors kept the Swiss Confederation out of the wars of the European powers, which formally recognized Swiss neutrality in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. The Swiss remained neutral during the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France, but Napoleon, nonetheless, invaded and annexed much of the country in 1797-98, replacing the loose confederation with a centrally governed unitary state.

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 re-established the old confederation of sovereign states and enshrined Switzerland's status of permanent armed neutrality in international law. In 1848, after a brief civil war between Protestant liberals seeking a centralized national state and Catholic conservatives clinging on to the old order, the majority of Swiss Cantons opted for a Federal State, modeled in part on the U.S. Constitution. The Swiss Constitution established a range of civic liberties and made far-reaching provisions to maintain cantonal autonomy to placate the vanquished Catholic minority. The Swiss amended their Constitution extensively in 1874, establishing federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters, as well as introducing direct democracy by popular referendum. To this day, cantonal autonomy and referendum democracy remain trademarks of the Swiss polity.

Switzerland industrialized rapidly during the 19th century and by 1850 had become the second most industrialized country in Europe after Great Britain. During World War I serious tension developed between the German, French, and Italian-speaking parts of the country, and Switzerland came close to violating its neutrality but managed to stay out of hostilities. Labor unrest culminating in a general strike in 1918 marked the interwar period, but in 1937 employers and the largest trade union concluded a formal agreement to settle disputes peacefully, which governs workplace relations to the present day. During World War II, Switzerland came under heavy pressure from the fascist powers, which after the fall of France in 1940 completely surrounded the country. Some political and economic leaders displayed a mood of appeasement, but a combination of tactical accommodation and demonstrative readiness to defend the country helped Switzerland survive unscathed.

The Cold War enhanced the role of neutral Switzerland and offered the country a way out of its diplomatic isolation after World War II. Economically, Switzerland integrated itself into the American-led Western postwar order, but it remained reluctant to enter supranational bodies. Switzerland did not join the United Nations, even though Geneva became host to the UN's European headquarters, and the country played an active role in many of the UN's specialized agencies. Switzerland also remained aloof in the face of European integration efforts, waiting until 1963 to join the Council of Europe. It still remains outside the European Union. Instead, Switzerland in 1960 helped form the European Free Trade Area, which did not strive for political union. Following the Cold War, Switzerland joined the Bretton Woods institutions in 1992 and finally became a member of the United Nations in 2002.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3431.htm]

==See Also==
[[Bern Switzerland Temple]]

==References==
<References/>

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Switzerland]]

Template talk:Country

2010-01-19T22:03:27Z

EvanW: /* Language */ new section

== Font size ==
I think the fonts could be made a bit smaller, like the Taxonomy and Presidents templates. [[User:BrianCo|BrianCo]] 18:29, 8 July 2007 (EDT)
: Good idea; I hadn't thought about it. Done. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 02:31, 9 July 2007 (EDT)

== Several leader equations ==

Hi, I propose that instead of having separate equations for: "King", "Queen", "Monarch" and "President", we should have one "Leader_title" and another "Leader_name". What do you think --[[User:Andersmusician|Andersmusician]] 21:15, 21 July 2007 (EDT)
:Hello Andersmusician, and welcome to Conservapedia.
:I'm an administrator here (and the creator of this template), but my following comments are as a fellow editor, not as an administrator.
:I think the main advantage of your proposal is that it simplifies the template code, and shortens the text you added that is to be copied and pasted to article pages.
:But this comes at the expense of more work by those using the template. Instead of putting in {{tt|1=queen=Elizabeth II}}, for example, they would then have to put {{tt|1=leader_title=Queen}} ''and'' {{tt|1=leader_name=Elizabeth II}}. So less work for the creator of the template (except that it's done now, so it's not really less work at all), and more work for the user of the template.
:Furthermore, the current design is for the "Monarch" row of the table to show "Queen Elizabeth II", but for the "President" row to show "George W. Bush". That is, the title of the former is in the second column, but the title of the latter is in the first column. I'm not sure that's absolutely necessary, but it seems to me to be the right way to do it.
:Finally, I'll point out that there is no "monarch" parameter anyway. The only "monarch" parameter is the "monarch-raw" parameter, which is an ''alternative'' to "king" and "queen" when something different needs to be done with the linking (there is also an alternative for "president": "president-raw").
:What do others think?
:[[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 11:14, 22 July 2007 (EDT)

::But could we have an additional section "head of state" and "head of government"? I'm thinking of the ''First Minister'' of [[Scotland]] - who doesn't fit very well under Prime Minister or chancellor - and some states may have even more differently styled leading positions... --[[User:BRichtigen|BRichtigen]] 17:58, 6 November 2008 (EST)

::: It's a problem trying to cater for all titles, but there are problems with simply adding "head of state" and "head of government" titles.
::: For one, will even ''these'' categories cover all cases either?
::: For another, that won't provide the title for the position. So if Scotland's ''Head of state'' was John Smith, it wouldn't tell you that his title is ''First Minister''.
::: I'm happy to add in a ''First minister'' parameter, although a more generic solution would be good too.
::: [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 20:39, 6 November 2008 (EST)

:::: I concur: ''First Minister'' is just ''one'' example. I'd like to add sometimes articles about the states (Bundesländer or Kantone) of Germany, Austria and Swiss. Then, we've to deal with ''Landeshauptmann'', ''Ministerpresident'' or ''governing Mayor''. These special titles could be include in brackets behind the names, as I did it for [[Scotland]]. But it would be awful to include every single title in the template. --[[User:BRichtigen|BRichtigen]] 08:06, 7 November 2008 (EST)

==Size of Flag==

Can someone try changing the size of the flag from 100px to 101px (or a higher value) to see if it will work in IE [[User:EQ|EQ]] 23:24, 18 August 2007 (EDT)
:Done and it works. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 10:00, 19 August 2007 (EDT)

== Flag Error ==

There seems to be an error on the template as evidenced by the [[Kenya]] page. The flag won't display ([[:Image:kenyaflag.gif]]) ... an error message appears saying "Error creating thumbnail:". I'll try to take a look at this, but images are in no way my specialty, so it's probably best if someone else takes a look too.

I'm trying to think of plausible reasons why this might happen ... everyone feel free to strike and add to this list:--[[User:Iduan|I]][[User_talk:Iduan|Duan]] 13:09, 15 February 2009 (EST)

*The flag image is a gif ... perhaps the template can't handle gif images? (I'll try to get someone to upload the file as a png or jpg and then see if that version works)
*The flag's dimensions can't be placed in the template

:It's possibly the problems with a .gif file in the template; the Kenya flag was changed to a .png and is now working. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 13:40, 15 February 2009 (EST)
::Ahh, thanks for testing that Karajou, that's a big find - I'll put a note on the page saying that gif images should not be used on the template.--[[User:Iduan|I]][[User_talk:Iduan|Duan]] 16:41, 15 February 2009 (EST)

== Language ==

There's a great deficiency in the "Language" row of this template, as evinced on [[Switzerland]]: When a country has more than one language listed, the template links to a nonexistent article containing a list of all the names. For example, we get [[German,_French,_Italian,_Romansch]]. I've installed a workaround at the [[Haiti]] page, but that leaves the <nowiki>[[ ]]</nowiki> visible at the front and end. I don't know template code, but would it be possible to tell the template to put a separate link to each phrase between commas? Alternatively, could you at least put in a <tt>language-raw</tt> line?--[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 17:03, 19 January 2010 (EST)

Internet Explorer

2010-01-19T16:55:50Z

EvanW: Begin expansion. I don't have time at the moment to more than mention these things; could someone else expand?

[[Image:Internet Explorer 7 T Logo.png|right|thumb|50px|Microsoft Internet Explorer 7 logo.]]
'''Microsoft Internet Explorer''' is a web browser developed by [[Microsoft]] and distributed by default with each copy of [[Microsoft Windows]]. This bundling led to criminal prosecution of Microsoft under the [[antitrust]] laws; however, it is still going on today.

Most web statistics show Internet Explorer to currently be the most popular web browser on the market.

Internet Explorer has been criticized for numerous security holes, such as its tight integration with the Windows operating system and its [[ActiveX]] technology, which allows websites to run arbitrary programs (such as viruses) on the user's computer. It has also been criticized for ignoring [[web standard]]s. Microsoft claims to have fixed many of these problems in the most recent version, IE8; however, many of the security vulnerabilities are still present.
[[Image:Scr-ie7-2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Screenshot of Internet Explorer 7.]]
==External links==
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/default.mspx Internet Explorer Official Site]
*[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie IEBlog] — Weblog of Microsoft's Internet Explorer Development Team
*[http://channel9.msdn.com/wiki/default.aspx/Channel9.InternetExplorer Channel9 Wiki: InternetExplorer] — Wiki for Internet Explorer
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/community/ Internet Explorer Community] — The official Microsoft Internet Explorer Community
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx Internet Explorer's History]
*[http://internetexplorer8.net/ IE8.net] — Latest news about the next version of Internet Explorer
[[Category:Web browsers]]
[[Category:Microsoft]]

Microsoft Internet Explorer

2010-01-19T16:50:27Z

EvanW: #RedirectInternet Explorer

#Redirect[[Internet Explorer]]

MSIE

2010-01-19T16:50:11Z

EvanW: #RedirectInternet Explorer

#Redirect[[Internet Explorer]]

IE

2010-01-19T16:49:54Z

EvanW: Redirect to Internet Explorer

#Redirect[[Internet Explorer]]

Moral relativity

2010-01-19T16:26:52Z

EvanW: Tighten up a couple paragraphs

{{merge|Moral relativism}}

Moral relativity is the wrongheaded idea that there is no absolute Right or Wrong, and that anyone can freely use his own conscience to decide what is moral. A moral relativist will not say that [[theft]] or [[murder]] is wrong, because he believes it is up to the murderer or thief to decide whether his behavior is justified.

Unsurprisingly, moral relativity is exclusively a [[liberal]] belief, as conservatives believe that God is the ultimate arbiter of Good and Evil:

'''"There is a way that seems right to a man, but in the end it leads to death."''' (Proverbs 14:12)

Moral relativity and related foolish thinking is what allows liberals to support [[abortion]], [[gay rights]], and [[drug abuse]]. Moral relativity erodes principled [[self-defense]] and thereby leads to misguided demands for [[gun control]] as well as psychiatric problems resulting from a lack of mental self-defense.

While the idea of moral relativity exists independently of (and substantially predates) the scientific [[theory of relativity]], moral relativists seized on the theory of relativity to legitimize their views. Historians such as Paul Johnson wrote about how the theory of relativity caused a sea change, justified or not, in 20th century thought. Due to this conflation, [[Professor values|liberal professors]] heavily support the Theory of Relativity and try to use it to draw followers away from [[Bible|Biblical morality]]. 

[[category:philosophy]]

==See Also==
[[Nihilism]]

{{relativity}}{{liberalism}}

Moral relativity

2010-01-19T16:23:59Z

EvanW: Please merge with Moral relativism

{{merge|Moral relativism}}

Moral relativity is the wrongheaded idea that there is no absolute Right or Wrong, and that anyone can freely use his own conscience to decide what is moral. A moral relativist will not say that [[theft]] or [[murder]] is wrong, because he believes it is up to the murderer or thief to decide whether his behavior is justified.

Unsurprisingly, moral relativity is exclusively a [[liberal]] belief, as conservatives believe that God is the ultimate arbiter of Good and Evil:

'''"There is a way that seems right to a man, but in the end it leads to death."''' (Proverbs 14:12)

Moral relativity and related foolish thinking is what allows liberals to support [[abortion]], [[gay rights]], and [[drug abuse]]. Moral relativity erodes principled [[self-defense]] and thereby leads to misguided demands for [[gun control]] as well as psychiatric problems resulting from a lack of mental self-defense.

The [[Theory of Relativity]] has generated a huge following by advocates of moral relativism. The idea of moral relativity exists independently of (and substantially predates) the theory of relativity, but some moral relativists irrelevantly invoke the theory in attempts to lend legitimacy to this version of morality. Due to this conflation, the Theory of Relativity often draws followers away from the [[Bible]], and is for this reason heavily supported by [[Professor values|liberal professors]].

Advocates of moral relativity seized on the theory of relativity to legitimize their views. Historians such as Paul Johnson wrote about how the theory of relativity caused a sea change, justified or not, in 20th century thought.
[[category:philosophy]]

==See Also==
[[Nihilism]]

{{relativity}}{{liberalism}}

User talk:EvanW

2010-01-18T20:38:25Z

EvanW: /* Reading law */ Thanks

== Cat Cora ==
It's correct now because you changed it from her doing badly because she is gay to her marrying her partner. Plus, I don't think this person warrants inclusion. Trust me, Alphak is a vandal. [[User:Ameda|ameda]] 23:08, 15 November 2009 (EST)
:Agreed; he probably is. But, I prefer keeping real information [[ad hominem|even if vandals add it]]. Notability is another matter, though - I know Wikipedia's policy, but does Conservapedia have one? It doesn't seem to be in the Commandments or Guidelines.--[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 23:15, 15 November 2009 (EST)
::Understand that I reverted the first edit which is exactly the type of vandalism we get here. While I am not the most knowledgeable on this site yet on the yeas or neas I have seen celebrity articles deleted, even A-listers. [[User:Ameda|ameda]] 23:33, 15 November 2009 (EST)
:::Great question; I think we need to discuss notability. I just [[User_talk:Aschlafly#Notability_policy.3F|asked Andy]].

*Our policy is to not identify a person as a Homosexual unless that is their primary notriety. In this case, Cat Cora is notable for being a celebrity chef, not a Gay activist. --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 20:09, 29 November 2009 (EST)

::Sure; I'm fine with that. I really don't have the least idea who she is, but I just dove in when [[User:Ameda]] and a probable vandal were re-re-reverting each other to point out that Cat Cora exists. I don't care about the article in the least. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 20:09, 29 November 2009 (EST)

:::Yes, just as I figured. It was the vandal who added the over-the-top portion. No worries, just wanted everyone to be clear about that, is all. Glad you have stuck around! --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 20:14, 29 November 2009 (EST)

== Great case description ==

Great case description (Bailey)!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 16:43, 16 November 2009 (EST)

==Redirect==

Thanks for [[Indians]] - those are the ones [[Michael Crichton]] was talking about. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 17:37, 17 November 2009 (EST)

== Leaving ==

Let me just address some of your concerns:

:::''It seems to me that this encyclopedia is a very, very long way from being comprehensive;''

You're right - that's precisely why you should stay and help us improve it!

:::''and the small number of non-vandalizing users makes me think that it will not catch up for a long while.''

It will take a while, if editors leave because they think it will take a while. This is a self-fulfilling prophecy!

:::''In addition, the several recent departures of prominent editors (e.g. [[User:Ksorenson]], [[User:MarkGall]], [[User:PatrickD]]) have caused me to rethink where this project seems to be going.''

KSorenson's reaction to certain news stories indicate she may have always intended to leave. I've spoken to MarkGall in private, and he very well may be coming back at some time. The simple fact is, people come and people go, but these particular editors have only been here for a few months and their departure hardly signals the death knell for Conservapedia.

:::''Conservapedia has noble goals, but I am no longer sure that participating in it is the way God wants me to use my time.''

If you agree with the goals of Conservapedia, I implore you to stay and help us build this project. [[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 22:40, 18 November 2009 (EST)

==Software naming conventions==

Hi, Evan. Would you like to help me come up with a [[naming convention]] for our [[computer software]] articles? I've written an article on restarting the [[Vista print spooler]], and I've moved [[Windows]] and [[Vista]]. What are your thoughts? --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 10:17, 1 December 2009 (EST)

:Sure; I'll be thinking about it. Just from a quick scan, we've got some inconsistency: [[C programming language]] but [[Java]] and [[Python]]. (Hey, what about the snakes and island?) I'd lobby for one consistency: either "Name (type)" such as "Windows (operating system)" or "Name type" such as "Windows operating system". "Name" breaks down too fast against Java (island), Python (snake), and Windows (architectural). "Brand Name" breaks down against C and Python, which don't have a company behind them. I'll be thinking more later today.--[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 10:25, 1 December 2009 (EST)

:[[Python]] moved to [[Python (programming language)]], and other moves and redirects also done. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 10:35, 1 December 2009 (EST)

::Okay, here I am back. Sorry about the wait; I'm afraid I'd forgotten about the project. After a lot of thought, I'm afraid we'll need to just go with "Name" in general, or "Name (type)" in case of confusion. We can't always have "Name (type)"; does anyone here really want "Office (office suite)" or "Microsoft Office (office suite)"? You could say that "Microsoft Office" is an example of "Brand Name", but we just as clearly want "SQL" and not "IBM SQL". If you really, really want consistency, I suppose that "Name (type)" could work for everything without a brand, but that would be inconsistent with the rest of CP. Even though we need [[Georgia (country)]], we don't force consistency with "Russia (country)" or "Germany (country)".
::So, my suggestion: "Name" in general ("SQL", "BASIC", "Macintosh"), with brand when it's a recognized part (ok, I know I'm being vague here, but you get the picture with "Windows Vista" and "Microsoft Office") and "Name (type)" only when we've got an article on another thing with that name ("Python (snake)", "C (letter of alphabet)"). I think that last caveat is a good way of distinguishing when the other thing with that name is significant enough to bump the programming concept to a disambiguating part of name.
::Again, I'm sorry I'm so late getting back to you.--[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 12:37, 12 December 2009 (EST)

:It's a bit confusing, what you've said. There's nothing ambiguous about [[Microsoft Office]]; hence, no need for a type in parenthesis.

:When the issue of distinguishing between similar article titles first came up at Wikipedia, it was quickly decided that we '''omit''' the type whenever possible.

:Or is that what you were saying? --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 12:49, 12 December 2009 (EST)

::Yes, that's what I was saying. In general, just "Name" (sometimes the brand is part of the name); put "Name (type)" only when we already have an article on another thing with that name. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 12:52, 12 December 2009 (EST)

==About the Messianic Prophesy article==

The article is not a copy of Josh McDowell's book, it is taken from a Roman Catholic Israeli site. I think that I can work on it some, but there is a problem in just how far I can go. The actual Scripture verses that are used are well known and appears almost everywhere. Of course, the wording of the Scriptures cannot be tampered with. Lesser known is much of the quotes of the Commentary - taken from the Rabbinical literature. But these, too, can't be changed. Yet, I feel that they should not be left out. I have added one or two of my own commentary, but I decided to leave all the rest of the non citation commentary as is because to make changes, could only be superficial and stylistic. I'll try to do some, though, and perhaps delete some commentary, as well, and afterwards, you take a look, and perhaps you can do more revamping. The Bible Quote templates add a lot to it!Bert Schlossberg 11:42, 4 December 2009 (EST) [[User:BertSchlossberg|Bert Schlossberg]] 11:47, 4 December 2009 (EST)

EvanW, I don't know what to do. I've edited out the pictures, and edited in my commentary for "Jesus is God" (below) but all the commentary of the original besides being excellent is concise having the quotes from the rabbinic sources embedded within. To edit further, I could only artificially seek for synonymns - "also" for "too", and the likes. You have already changed the order. What to do?

Commentary:

"Hebrew is a contextual language - that is relatively few words but each word having a variety of meanings. This requires knowledge of the literature, and literatures - that is, knowledge of the context to determine the precise meaning. Biblical Hebrew has a help in this, though, and that is "signs" (t'amey Hamikr'a) that accompany the text, usually above the letters, sometimes to the side, which are divided into two main categories - conjunctive and disjuctive. The conjunctive tie two words together, the disjuctive indicate that the words are separate in thought. These two categories of signs also serve as punctuation - full stop (period), semi-stop (coma),and even thought groupings. they were written down by the Masoretes of the 5th cent A.D., that is the people that carried on the earlier tradition of how things were understood. Masoret=tradition. Thus, In Isaiah 9:6, the Hebrew words themselves can bear the meaning "His name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor of the Mighty God..." or His name shall be called " Wonderful, Counsellor, the Mighty God...". But the T'amey Hamikr'a decide the case. Between "Counsellor" and Mighty God" there is a disjunctive. Therefore His name shall be called Counsellor, the Mighty God..." is correct - according to the understanding that the Masoretes received." [[User:BertSchlossberg|Bert Schlossberg]] 23:54, 4 December 2009 (EST)

:Ahh, editing. There're any number of ways to rephrase sentences, et cetera... I think it'd be far shorter to point you to some of [http://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Messianic_Prophecies&diff=727088&oldid=726850 what I've done] on the article than to explain. Basically, I try to edit whole paragraphs rather than simple sentences, finding other ways to convey the same thoughts (usually shorter, at that!) If you think you've got ideas, great! If not, then I'm sure I or someone else will find time to do it. It's an intriguing and profitable field of study! And thank you for your extra info on the Hebrew punctuation; it really helps. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 00:00, 5 December 2009 (EST)

== Thanks! ==

Thanks for your effort at [[Fall of man]]. That's precisely what I was looking for. [[User:Yoritomo|Yoritomo]] 23:05, 11 December 2009 (EST)

:You're welcome. I'm glad I could help, and thank you for pointing out that the article needed references. If you have any more questions about Bible references, I definitely hope you can get them answered. If I'm around, I'll do my best. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 23:07, 11 December 2009 (EST)

== Advice on speedy deletion ==

Hi, I was just doing some housekeeping and adding all articles with deletion discussions to [[Conservapedia:Articles for deletion]]. But there remain lots of pages with deletion templates, but no corresponding discussion. Some seem rather obvious deletion candidates: Empty categories, redirects to deleted articles, almost empty pages, and a user page of a blocked user or two. I'm pretty new to Conservapedia, so I thought I'd ask before making a mistake and creating unnecessary work: Can those obvious candidates all be tagged for [[:Template:Db|speedy deletion]], or if not, when is speedy deletion appropriate and when is a deletion discussion required? Thanks in advance, [[User:Yoritomo|Yoritomo]] 11:45, 12 December 2009 (EST)

:I'm only a month older here than you, and I don't have a clue how the deletion process works. But, I wouldn't see why anyone would want to keep any of those (other than maybe the userpages, as a historical record.) Sorry I couldn't help. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 12:24, 12 December 2009 (EST)
::Sorry, I took you for an admin and didn't check. I'll probably make sure and ask someone else before I start to make a mess. Anyway, thanks for the opinion. [[User:Yoritomo|Yoritomo]] 12:35, 12 December 2009 (EST)
:::Oh, boy! First time I get mistaken for an admin - how exciting! :) Unfortunately, I don't think it'll be true for a while...--[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 12:38, 12 December 2009 (EST)

== Message ==

Just got a header saying I have new messages, but when I got there there was nothing new and you were the last to edit. What did you want to say, because I can't see it? [[User:CharlieT|CharlieT]] 13:06, 12 December 2009 (EST)
:I was just helping fix vandalism on your talk page. Check its history if you want to see. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 13:07, 12 December 2009 (EST)
::Ah, thanks for that! I tought something was broken. [[User:CharlieT|CharlieT]] 13:08, 12 December 2009 (EST)

== Thanks ==

For speedily catching that idiot vandal, and restoring my talk page, Evan. --[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 21:51, 16 December 2009 (EST)

==A "word" of thanks==

Evan, thanks for helping with the redirect; I turned my reference to [[the Word]] into a direct link [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Nestorianism&diff=734561&oldid=733438 here]. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 08:02, 18 December 2009 (EST)

== Image requests ==

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:LeftRiemann.png Left Riemann sum]

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:MidRiemann.png Midpoint Riemann sum]

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:RightRiemann.png Right Riemann sum]

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:TrapezoidalRule.png Trapezoidal Rule]

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:DoubleIntegral.png Double Integral]

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:PrecessionNorth.gif Northern Precession]

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:PrecessionSouth.gif Southern Precession]

[[User:JacobB|JacobB]] 02:39, 27 December 2009 (EST)

:Thanks a lot. It might be a little while (after the new year) before I get around to the Riemann Sum article, but I'll be there. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 10:39, 29 December 2009 (EST)
:'''UPDATE''': Both Precession pictures say [[Image:PrecessionNorth.gif|inline|100px|"Error creating thumbnail"]] whenever I try to embed them in an article at a different size than the default. Could you try to fix this? Thanks. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 10:47, 29 December 2009 (EST)

==Scottish Merge==

Thanks for responding so quickly to [http://conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Category_talk:Scottish_Islands&diff=prev&oldid=740848 my merge request] --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 17:08, 2 January 2010 (EST)

== Reading law ==

Just a friendly heads-up that articles created by Administrators shouldn't be re-directed without first posting a note on their talk pages. Geo is a very active Admin here, albeit mostly behind the scenes. We do have a "merge" template that you can use as well. Thanks! --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 15:35, 18 January 2010 (EST)

:Oh, thanks. Is it okay to leave things as they are now? --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 15:38, 18 January 2010 (EST)

Talk:Totalitarian twins

2010-01-18T20:30:05Z

EvanW: No specific hurry, but why wait?

It looks like this article and [[Communism and Nazism]] are talking about the same thing; would you mind merging them? I'd favor keeping [[Communism and Nazism]] as the combined title and leaving a redirect here, because that's more immediately descriptive. (I'd do the merge myself, but I wanted to be sure no one objected.) --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 14:20, 18 January 2010 (EST)

:What's your hurry? --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 15:22, 18 January 2010 (EST)

::Hurry? None that I know of, except that I think that merging the two articles would make it a lot easier for people to expand them, and avoid duplicate work... in short, there's no hurry except "why wait to improve things?" --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 15:30, 18 January 2010 (EST)

Template:Liberalism

2010-01-18T19:40:54Z

EvanW: More copyediting

<noinclude>'''This template was designed to make it easier for readers to understand what CP means when it assigns Category "Liberal" or the like, to an article. By placing links at the bottom to those traits CP has decided best describes what a liberal is, it is informative and makes the whole process of research for students easier. Although this might be an unorthodox use for a navigation template, it is the best vehicle for easily getting a user around quickly to gather information and make their own decision.'''</noinclude>

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Template:Liberalism

2010-01-18T19:35:26Z

EvanW: Clarify - We aren't opposing all grading, or mathematical quotients

<noinclude>'''This template was designed to make it easier for readers to understand what CP means when it assigns Category "Liberal" or the like, to an article. By placing links at the bottom to those traits CP has decided best describes what a liberal is, it is informative and makes the whole process of research for students easier. Although this might be an unorthodox use for a navigation template, it is the best vehicle for easily getting a user around quickly to gather information and make their own decision.'''</noinclude>

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Reading Law

2010-01-18T19:33:04Z

EvanW: New article, including merged content from California Law Office Study Program

'''Reading law''' is a pathway to becoming a [[lawyer]] by self-study under the supervision of a practicing or retired [[judge]] or [[attorney]]. During the 1800's, before [[law school]]s, it was the only way of studying to be a lawyer; many famous lawyers such as [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[Patrick Henry]], [[John Jay]], and [[John Marshall]] read law.

As a result of the liberal [[American Bar Association]]'s lobbying, most states have eliminated this pathway in favor of graduation from a ABA approved law school. However, seven states, ([[California]], New York, Wyoming, [[Virginia]], [[Washington]], [[Maine]], and [[Vermont]]<ref>http://www.ehlinelaw.com/pages/3226/How_to_Become_a_Lawyer_With_No_Law_School-Be_a_Lawyer_With_No_College.htm</ref>), still allow people to qualify to be lawyers by reading the law.

==California Law Office Study Program==
In the '''California Law Office Study Program''', applicants read law under the supervision of a judge or attorney for four years. Applicants generally have a college degree; however, this can be waved in favor of credit from [[CLEP]] exams. Applicants must be tested at the end of the first year.

<references/>

California Law Office Study Program

2010-01-18T19:29:17Z

EvanW: Merge into new article Reading Law

#Redirect[[Reading Law#California Law Office Study Program]]

Talk:Totalitarian twins

2010-01-18T19:20:17Z

EvanW: Merge with Communism and Nazism?

Talk:Reparation

2010-01-18T19:18:06Z

EvanW: The Nazis were statists, not Communists.

How much of Germany's economic troubles were caused by the reparations? I've recently read a view that it was their flirtation with [[socialism]] and [[central planning]] was more of a problem. Did the reparations cause [[inflation]]?

Let's settle once and for all whether the national [[Socialist]] party of [[Nazi Germany]] was socialist or not. Supporters of left-liberal socialism (e.g., [[Communisim]]) always say there is a great difference between socialism and Nazism, but I don't trust those supporters. Anyone who would support a system that kills over 100 million civilians behind the [[Iron Curtain]] - and who spills gallons of ink complaining about 3,000 disappearances in [[Chile]] - is not to be trusted. Let's get at the real facts. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 13:14, 18 January 2010 (EST)

: Where did you find that interpretation? It'd be interesting to read, as self-loathing westerners love to blame democratic, capitalist countries for everything that befalls the world, including Germany's troubles and thus fascism. [[User:DouglasA|DouglasA]] 13:34, 18 January 2010 (EST)

::Hmmm... Was the Wiemar Republic actually socialist? I've heard that many businessmen supported Hitler's promise to end elections, because they were afraid the socialists would win elections - which would implicitly mean that the Wiemar economy wasn't socialist.
::And ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Riech'' (which, unfortunately, I don't have available at the moment) gives a good description of how Hitler's rhetoric was socialist, but he apparently abandoned it once he came to power. But, he used central planning a lot to organize the economy for the war. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 13:41, 18 January 2010 (EST)

:::When my math students start guessing, I know that they have failed to understand the material. Allow me to explain about [[Nazism]]:
:::*What most people know of it is disseminated by college professors, who tell their students that Nazism was a movement of the “Right” and that it was the tool of industrialists and religious extremists. This slant is seldom questioned; however, books written while the Nazis were in power tell a much different story. [http://www.thenewamerican.com/index.php/history/european/2161-ideological-bedfellows]
:::Evan, I suggest you read the article cited above. --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 13:55, 18 January 2010 (EST)

::::First, the article itself points out that the Wiemar Republic was a good government with a strong emphasis on states' rights. Second, while it talks much about the Nazis' socialist rhetoric, virtually all of its few examples of socialist acts can be explained quite easily as statist acts - e.g. making corporations pay more taxes to the state. Despite what the article said, Hitler [http://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC&lpg=PA205&ots=FGCp-Ra4k4&dq=%22Nazi%20Germany%22%20%22Second%20Revolution%22&pg=PA205#v=onepage&q=&f=false had repudiated the Nazis' socialist platform back in 1933]. Of course, the Soviet Union also repudiated socialism in favor of statism - so if your argument is that the Nazis and Soviets were acting alike, you're exactly right. However, neither was really Communist. --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 14:18, 18 January 2010 (EST)

Talk:Reparation

2010-01-18T18:41:16Z

EvanW: Was Wiemar socialist? Hitler wasn't, but he used central planning.

Primate

2010-01-16T19:32:11Z

EvanW: Describe evolutionary claim; move "see also" to top

:''This article is about the zoological classification. For the ecclesiastical rank, please see [[Primates in the Church]]''

{{Taxonomy
|name=Primates
|image=
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom=Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Mammalia
|subclass=
|infraclass=Eutheria
|superorder=Euarchontoglires
|order= Primates
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|families=
|family=
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=
|subgenus=
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}}
'''Primates''' is an order of mammals which share human-like characteristics. Scientists who believe in [[evolution]] also claim that it includes [[human]]s. Several hundred [[species]] belong to the order.

They are often put into two large groups: the suborder Strepsirrhini, which include lemurs, tarsiers, and lorises; and the suborder Haplorrhini, which include the small tarsiers; the New World monkeys (spider and howler monkeys); Old World monkeys (languars and baboons); and the Apes, which, as formulated by most [[biologist]]s and [[Anthropology|anthropologists]], include the lesser apes (gibbons) and greater apes (gorillas, chimps, and orangutans). Some authorities include [[man]] with the genus that includes the great apes, a theory rejected by creationists.

==Taxonomy==
*Primates
::Suborder [[Strepsirrhini]]: prosimians
:::Infraorder [[Lemuriformes]]
::::::Family Cheirogaleidae: dwarf and [[mouse lemur]]s
::::::Family Daubentoniidae: [[Aye-aye]]
::::::Family Lemuridae: [[lemur]]s
::::::Family Lepilemuridae: [[sportive lemur]]s
::::::Family Indriidae: [[woolly lemur]]s
:::Infraorder Lorisiformes
::::::Family Lorisidae: [[loris]]es and [[potto]]s
::::::Family Galagidae: [[galago]]s
::Suborder Haplorrhini
:::Infraorder Tarsiiformes
::::::Family Tarsiidae: [[tarsier]]s
:::Infraorder [[Simiiformes]]
::::Parvorder [[Platyrrhini]]: New World monkeys
::::::Family [[Callitrichidae]]: [[marmoset]]s and [[tamarin]]s
::::::Family [[Cebidae]]: [[capuchin monkey|capuchin]] and [[squirrel monkey]]s
::::::Family [[Aotidae]]: [[owl monkey]]s
::::::Family [[Pitheciidae]]: [[titi]]s, [[saki]]s and [[uakari]]s
::::::Family [[Atelidae]]: prehensile-tailed monkeys ([[howler monkey|howler]], [[spider monkey|spider]] and [[woolly monkey]]s)
::::Parvorder [[Catarrhini]]
:::::Superfamily [[Cercopithecoidea]]
::::::Family [[Cercopithecidae]]: Old World monkeys ([[baboon]]s, [[macaque]]s, etc.)
:::::Superfamily [[Hominoidea]]
::::::Family [[Hylobatidae]]: [[gibbon]]s
::::::Family [[Hominidae]]: great apes ([[gorilla]]s, [[chimpanzee]]s, [[orangutan]]s)

[[Category:Primates]]

Eve

2010-01-15T18:20:41Z

EvanW: Correct errors

'''Eve''' is the name of the first woman on the earth as recorded in the [[Bible]] in the book of [[Genesis]]. It is a common woman's name and in [[Hebrew]] is ''Chavah'', derived from the verb ''to breathe'', or the word ''life''.

[[God]] made Eve from one of [[Adam]]'s ribs when he was asleep to be his "help meet" (fit help) and companion. Together she and Adam lived in the [[Garden of Eden]]. Eve was approached by the serpent ([[Satan]]) and gave in to the serpent's temptation to eat the [[forbidden fruit]]. Eve then had Adam do so as well. Both knew they were breaking God's command. As punishment for Eve's sin, women were made subject to men and were forced to endure painful childbirth. Men were also punished and together they were forced out of the garden. This first breaking of God's commandment is the origin of the concept of [[Original sin]].

Eve gave birth to many children. The three mentioned in the Bible are [[Cain]], [[Abel]], and [[Seth]]

==Evolutionary term==

The term "mitochondrial Eve" is used in evolutionary biology to identify our matrilineal most recent common ancestor. She is believed to have existed some 160,000 years ago on the [[Africa]]n continent. See [[Mitochondria#Mitochondria_Inheritance|Mitochondria Inheritance]].

[[Category:Biblical Women]]
[[Category:Book of Genesis Persons]]

Campaign finance

2010-01-15T18:00:25Z

EvanW: Expand discussion of McCain-Feingold; reference Citizens United v. FEC

'''Campaign finance''' is a field of [[law]] governing the spending of money on political elections. Federal law defines the rules for federal elections, and the [[Federal Election Commission]] is the regulatory body that oversees complaints and disputes in financing federal campaigns. State law dictates the rules for state elections.

There are two types of funds: [[hard money]] and [[soft money]]. In simple terms, hard money consists of donations to campaigns, while soft money consists of other expenditures that do not "expressly advocate" the election or defeat of a candidate.

Federal law prohibits corporations and unions from donating directly to a candidate for him to spend on his campaign, but most states allow for some types of corporate donations. Small corporations that satisfy the "MCFL" exception are allowed to donate to candidates. Instead, corporations and unions establish [[political action committee]]s (PACs) for raising money for the purpose of donating to campaigns.

Incumbents have an incentive to restrict the ability of challengers to raise money, and also to prevent independent groups to spend money criticizing the incumbents. Repeatedly legislators have passed limitations on campaign spending, but some of those restrictions have been declared unconstitutional under the [[Free Speech Clause]] of the Constitution.<ref>''Buckley v. Valeo'' (1976).</ref>

The '''McCain-Feingold''' Campaign Finance Act imposed strict prohibitions on issue ads by any person or entity other than the candidates with two or three months prior to an election. President [[George W. Bush]] signed it into law even though he had spoken against it in [[United States presidential election, 2000|his campaign]], and even though he declared in his [[signing statement]] that he considered parts of it unconstitutional under the [[First Amendment]]. The [[U.S. Supreme Court]] eventually declared an application of this law to be unconstitutional. The Supreme Court is currently (as of January 15, 2010) considering other parts in the case [[Citizens United v. FEC]].

== References ==

<references/>
[[category:Election Terms]]

Citizens United v. FEC

2010-01-15T16:04:46Z

EvanW: Redirect to full name

#Redirect[[Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission‎]]

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission

2010-01-15T16:03:31Z

EvanW: Begin page on this important case currently before SCOTUS

'''Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission''' is a 2009-2010 case before the [[United States Supreme Court]] considering the constitutionality of the [[McCain-Feingold]] Act restricting campaign finance contributions. While the Supreme Court agreed to an unusually early fall sitting so it could decide the case before the 2010 primary elections, it still has not released the opinion - an almost unprecedented delay<ref>http://volokh.com/2009/12/08/so-where-are-the-argued-supreme-court-opinions-part-iii/</ref>.

==Background==
In 2008, Citizens United produced a television documentary attacking [[Hillary Clinton]], then a candidate for President. It wanted to pay a [[video on demand]] service to make the documentary available during the primary election season; however, this was considered illegal under the [[McCain-Feingold]] campaign finance act. The group sued, arguing both that McCain-Feingold does not apply to video-on-demand services and that McCain-Feingold is unconstitutional<ref>http://www.slate.com/id/2221753/</ref>.

==References==
<references />

*[http://www.scotuswiki.com/index.php?title=Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission#Briefs_and_Documents List of briefs], from Scotusblog.com
*[http://www.supremecourtus.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/08-205%5BReargued%5D.pdf Transcript of oral argument]

[[Category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]
[[Category:First Amendment]]

Haiti

2010-01-15T15:45:08Z

EvanW: /* Earthquake */ Add more info

{{Country
|name =''République d'Haïti Repiblik d Ayiti''
|map =Haiti rel99.jpg
|flag =Flag of Haiti.png
|arms =Arms of Haiti.png
|capital =Port-au-Prince
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =[[French]], [[Haitian Creole]]
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =René Préval
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Jacques-Edouard Alexis
|pm-raw =
|area =10,714 sq mi
|pop =8,528,000 (2005)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$14.76 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$1,800 (2006)
|currency =Gourde
|idd =
|tld =
}}

The '''Republic of Haiti''' is a country located in the [[Caribbean Sea]], and occupies one-third of the Caribbean island [[Hispaniola]].

Columbus' ship the Santa Maria reached Haiti on Christmas Eve 1492. The settlement there was named "La Navidad". Haiti was given to Spain in the Line of Demarcation set up by the Pope in 1515.

Haiti formed the first successful slave revolt under the leadership of [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] and was the first independent black republic. Haiti claimed its independence from France on January 1, 1804, making it the second country in the Americas to gain its independence.

About 80% of the population lives in wretched [[poverty]], and Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the western hempisphere.<ref>http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/LACEXT/HAITIEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21040686~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:338165,00.html</ref>

French is taught in schools, but the language of conversation is [[Haitian Creole]].

==Earthquake==
[[File:Haitiquake1.jpg|thumb|170px|left]] On January 12, 2010, a 7.0 magnitude earthquake hit about 10 miles from the capital city of two million people. Two aftershocks followed at 4 AM and 8:40 AM on January 15th. <ref name="nyt">http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/16/world/americas/16haiti.html?hp</ref> The major damage was confined to the capital and a few outlying areas, with the rest of the country largely spared. Early estimates are that 50,000 or more have died, and many others are injured or orphaned. Some are still alive and trapped in the rubble. The already thin infrastructure providing food, water, shelter, medical care, and police has collapsed in damaged areas. Relief is being sent around the world, but as of Jan. 15, the bottleneck at the airport is delaying deliveries.

<blockquote>
Haiti’s first lady, Elisabeth Debrosse Delatour, reported that “most of Port-au-Prince is destroyed” and that many government buildings had collapsed… [http://theplumline.whorunsgov.com/uncategorized/haiti-prime-minister-hundreds-of-thousands-dead/]
</blockquote>

===Relief efforts===
The best-publicized response in the US and Europe has been to pledge or solicit money for relief.

<blockquote>
"We need medicine. We need medical help in general," Haitian President Rene Preval told [[CNN]]. "Some of the hospitals, they collapsed." [http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/01/13/haiti.earthquake/index.html]
</blockquote>

One worry conservatives have is whether the money will be spent effectively.

Aid organizations affiliated with churches did the best in delivering aid after the [[tsunami]]. Their people were on the ground and living with the people who needed their help. Large NGO’s and government agency types just flew in, stayed at the best hotels, and flew out. There was little attempt to work with the local leaders and address local needs. They just dictated and flew away. [http://northshorejournal.org/haiti-earthquake-relief]

===Red Cross===

The [[Red Cross]] has three staffers in Haiti, and a food warehouse in Panama. Their initial response was to "pledge" $200,000 in aid and to send a [[disaster management]] specialist to Haiti. [http://www.redcross.org/portal/site/en/menuitem.1a019a978f421296e81ec89e43181aa0/?vgnextoid=a8712721ea326210VgnVCM10000089f0870aRCRD]

===Sovereignty===

Diplomatic relations, always strained, may force donor countries to tread carefully with relief efforts. For example, until the evening of the 14th, flight time between Haiti and the United States was increased by 90 minutes due to restrictions on flying over [[Cuba]]n airspace.<ref name="nyt" /> In addition, President [[Obama]]'s initial statement sounded overly concerned with respecting Haitian sovereignty:
:Officials said Obama told them to start preparing '''in case humanitarian assistance was needed'''. <ref>http://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5hV0B6fLLw-0m3nvz7lOc9is0M2tA</ref>
The Haitian government, whose national police have collapsed after the earthquake<ref name="nyt" />, appears to be incapable of providing the requisite assistance.

==Religion==
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and other laws and policies contributed to the generally free practice of religion, provided that these practices do not disturb law and order. The law at all levels protects this right in full against abuse, either by governmental or private actors. The Government generally respected religious freedom in practice, and there have been no reports in recent years of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice.
A U.N. Population Fund census taken in 2003 shows: 54.7% of the population is Roman Catholic, 15.4% Baptist, 7.9% Pentecostal, 3% Seventh-day Adventist, and 2.1% voodoo (vodun). Smaller groups include Methodist, Episcopalian, Jehovah's Witness, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon), Muslim, and other religious affiliations. Those who follow no religion number 10.2%.

Haiti is the origin of the [[occult]] practice of [[voodoo]], which is still popular in rural areas. The UN's 2.1% figure for voodoo represents only those who select voodoo as their primary religion. A much larger segment of the population practices voodoo alongside Christianity (most commonly with Catholicism) and considers Christianity their primary religion.

Roman Catholicism was the official religion until 1987, but the 1860 concordat with the Pope still serves as the basis for relations between the Catholic Church (and its religious orders) and the state. Catholicism retains its traditional primacy, as official and quasi-official functions are held in Catholic churches and cathedrals, such as "Te Deum" Masses for Independence Day, Flag Day, and Founders Day; however, the Government has recognized the increasing role of Protestant churches. For example, Episcopal and other Protestant clergy and voodoo practitioners have been invited to participate when the religious sector is asked to play an advisory role in politics.<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108529.htm U.S. Dept of State "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

== External links ==

=[http://www1.networkforgood.org/help-haiti-quake-relief Help Survivors of Quake in Haiti.]

=[http://www.baynews9.com/content/36/2010/1/13/569482.html?title=Haitian%20prime%20minister%3A%20more%20than%20100%2C000%20may%20be%20dead&cid=rss Bodies piling up as relief efforts continue in Haiti.]
====References====
<references/>

[[Category:Caribbean Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Haiti

2010-01-13T21:28:37Z

EvanW: Sort of fix language links. (They link correctly now, but we have [ [ ] ] around the names)

Template talk:Nb english monarchs

2010-01-12T17:54:41Z

EvanW: William ''and'' Mary reigned together.

==Talk==
Shouldn't it be <nowiki>{{nowrap|[[William III]] and [[Mary II]] •}}</nowiki>, since they reigned together? And would it be possible to include a link to the later UK monarchs? --[[User:EvanW|EvanW]] 12:54, 12 January 2010 (EST)

Lady Jane Grey

2010-01-12T17:47:01Z

EvanW: Expanded with more detail and more sources

Lady '''Jane Grey''', or '''Jane Dudley''', (1537-54), a sincere [[Christian]], was proclaimed Queen of England on 10th of July 1553, against her will, by her father-in-law the [[Duke of Northumberland]]. [[Mary I|Mary]], the legitimate heir, refused to accept Jane's accension. Jane abdicated nine days later on July 19th. As it was clear that she herself had never wanted to be queen, it was another year and a half before she was executed.

==Family and Early Life==

Jane was the eldest child of [[Henry Grey]], Duke of Suffolk and great-grandson of [[Elizabeth Woodville]], queen to [[Edward IV]], by her first marriage; and [[Frances Grey]], daughter of [[Mary Tudor]] sister of [[Henry VIII]]. Under the terms of Henry VIII's will and Parliament's Act of Succession, her family would inherit the throne if all Henry's children died without issue.

Henry and Frances were both conniving political schemers who hoped to use their children to gain greater social advantage. Since [[Henry VIII|King Henry]] had left one son ([[Edward VI]]) and two daughters ([[Mary I|Mary]] and [[Elizabeth I|Elizabeth]]), however, they did not seriously expect Frances to become queen in her own right. However, they brought up Jane expecting her to marry the young [[Edward VI]] and trained her mercilessly for that goal.

At this time in Henry's reign, the [[Protestant]] party was in the ascendancy under his sixth queen, [[Catherine Parr]], a sincere Christian. Therefore, the Greys found Protestant tutors for Jane who educated her in Scripture and the classics: [[John Aylmer]] and Dr. [[Harding]], both sincere Christians themselves. To bring Jane to the court's notice, they later sent her to court as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine.

Jane's favorite hobbies were music and reading. [[Roger Ascham]], a friend of Aylmer, once found her in the library reading [[Phaedo]] when everyone else in her family was out hunting. She explained:
{{quotebox|All their sport in the park is but a shadow to that true pleasure I find in Plato... One of the greatest benefits that ever God gave me is that He sent me so sharp and severe parents and so gentle a schoolmaster. For when I am in the presence of either Father or Mother, whether I speak, keep silence, sit, stand, or go, eat, drink, be merry, or sad, be sewing, playing, dancing, or doing any thing else, I must do it, as it were, in such weight, measure, and number, even so perfectly as God made the world, or else I am so sharply taunted... that I think myself in Hell, till time come that I must go to Mr. Aylmer, who teacheth me so gently, so pleasantly, with such fair allurements to learning, that I think all the time nothing whilst I am with him.}}



==Reign==
===Proclaimed Queen===
As King Edward lay dying, Dudley [[Duke of Northumberland]], who had always snubbed his heir Mary, realized that all his plans would go awry and he himself might well be executed or killed if she succeded. Therefore, he convinced Edward (a strong Protestant who had sponsored the [[Book of Common Prayer]]) that it was his responsibility to ensure, by whatever means necessary, that no Roman Catholic ascend the throne. As there was no time to summon [[Parliament]], Edward himself disinherited both his sisters under the excuse that Parliament had previously declared them illegitimate. The throne would then pass to Jane Grey. Upon hearing this, the Lord Chief Justice immediately protested that it was illegal - only Parliament could change the succession! Only when Edward accused him of treason did he and the rest of the Council sign this "devise." Less than a month later, Edward died.

Dudley had kept the king's illness secret, so Jane (whose parents, at Dudley's urging, had forced her to marry his son Guilford) had no idea what had happened when she was summoned to the court at Syon House and proclaimed Queen of England. She burst into tears at the announcement, soon pulling herself together to declare, "The crown is not my right, and pleaseth me not. The Lady Mary is the rightful heir." Then she sank to her knees in prayer while the entire Council tried to cajole her. Finally, she prayed aloud, "If what hath been given to me is lawfully mine, may Thy divine Majesty grant me such grace that I may govern to Thy glory and service, to the advantage of the realm."

===Challenged===
Mary, on the other hand, knew she was the legitimate heir, had resolved to restore England to the Roman Church, and refused to back down in support of someone whom she considered both traitorous and heretical. The English people received Jane's claim with ominous silence, considering her merely a puppet of the deeply unpopular Duke of Northumberland. (Though many of them were staunch Protestants, they did not understand Mary's plans to restore the Roman Church.)

Dudley tried to lure Mary with a message supposedly from Edward, but she was notified it was a trap. She fled to Kenninghall in East Anglia, a port from which she could easily retreat to the Spanish Netherlands, wrote to the Council demanding their allegiance, and began quickly gathering forces.

While Jane herself attended to palace supplies and began mapping out how she would continue establishing the Reformation, Dudley gathered an army to send against Mary. Recognizing his unpopularity, he planned to send Jane's father Henry Grey to lead it; however, Jane herself (in her one political decision) refused to let him stay behind with her. Dudley went, and his army quickly melted away. The Council likewise evaporated to go and swear allegiance to Mary, until finally Jane was left with only her father, Archbishop [[Cranmer]], and Sir John Cheke (Edward's former tutor), while Queen Mary was openly being proclaimed in London. Finally, Jane's father, giving up, ordered the men-at-arms to lay down their weapons and flatly declared to Jane, "You are no longer queen!" She replied, "I willingly relinquish the crown. May I not go home?"

==Martyrdom==
Queen Mary was reluctant to execute Jane, understanding that she (who wrote her explaining as much) had only been forced into being queen. While sentenced to death for high treason (to which she pled guilty), Jane was kept in comfortable prison in the Tower. Jane doubtlessly enjoyed her leisure to study, but she watched with concern as Mary proceeded to reestablish the Roman Church. However, when [[Thomas Wyatt]] rebelled in the names of both Elizabeth and Jane, and Queen Mary's fiance [[Philip of Spain]] refused to set foot on English soil as long as Jane remained alive, Mary finally felt forced to have Jane executed.

Dr. Feckenham, the Roman Catholic Dean of [[St. Paul's Cathedral]], delivered Jane the news and unsuccessfully tried to persuade her to convert to the Roman church. Jane replied that she would rather spend her last hours in prayer than debate. Upon hearing this, Queen Mary replied that she would give Jane a full reprieve if Jane would embrace Roman Catholicism. Jane immediately refused, but consented to debate Feckenham on their points of difference. (This debate is recorded in [[Foxe's Book of Martyrs]].)

Jane and Guilford were both finally executed on 12 February 1554. On the execution block, Jane said:
{{cquote|Good people, I am come hither to die, and by a law I am condemned to the same. The fact, indeed, against the queen's highness was unlawful, and the consenting thereunto by me: but touching the procurement and desire thereof by me or on my behalf, I do wash my hands thereof in innocency, before God, and the face of you, good Christian people, this day.

I pray you all, good Christian people, to bear me witness that I die a true Christian woman. I do look to be saved by no other means, but only by the mercy of God, in the blood of His only Son Jesus Christ. I confess that when I did know the word of God, I neglected the same, loved myself and the world, and therefore this plague is happily and worthily happened unto me for my sins; and yet I thank God, that of His goodness He hath thus given me a time and respite to repent. And now, good people, while I am alive, I pray you assist me with your prayers.}}
:She then repeated Psalm 51 in English. Her last words were, "Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit!"

It is said that when Jane died, the gardeners at her family's mansion stunted all the oaks in the forest in sorrow.

To this very day, the [[Anglican Communion]] honors her as a martyr.

==Sources==
* Alison Plowden, "[http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/101008154 Grey , Lady Jane (1537–1554)]", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004); major article.
* ''Lady Jane Grey: Nine Day Queen of England'', Faith Cook. (While the author's frequent comments on people's motives and spiritual states intrude on the narrative, this book contains valuable information.)
* [http://englishhistory.net/tudor/relative/janegrey.html "Jane Grey"] from englishhistory.net. Includes links to primary sources.
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20080307180728/www.geocities.com/jane_the_quene/index_english.html "Jane the Quene"] archived on the [[Wayback Machine]]. Contains biographical information about Jane's early life.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grey, Jane (Lady) }}
{{Nb_english_monarchs}}
[[Category:Anglicans]]
[[Category:Saints]]

Edmund Ward Poor

2010-01-12T00:01:29Z

EvanW: Start expanding with all the scraps I could find. Anyone got more info?

'''Ed Poor''' (1904-1967) [http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/edmund-ward-poor/links.html], son of [[Charles Lane Poor]], was the co-founder and first treasurer of [[Grumman Aircraft Company]] in [[Long Island]].

{{quotebox|Grumman Corporation first opened its doors for business in 1930 in a small unused garage in Baldwin, New York. Founded by Leroy R. Grumman, and his partners Leon "Jake" Swirbul, Bill Schwendler, Clint Towl and Ed Poor, this small enterprise began by making floats for Vought scout aircraft. [http://www.anft.net/f-14/grumman-gmp.htm] }}

{{quotebox|Grumman and his partners (Edmund Ward Poor, William Schwendler, Jake Swirbul, and Clint Towl) started their own company in an old Cox-Klemin Aircraft Co. factory in Baldwin on Long Island, NY. [http://www.scripophily.net/graienconewy.html] }}

His son, E. Ward Poor II, [http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Charles-Lane-Poor] maintained the Boston Computer Society's public domain software collection. His grandson, [[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]], has been influential in developing policies for [[Wikipedia]] and [[Conservapedia]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Poor, Edward}}
[[category:biographies]]

Eastern Orthodox Christmas

2010-01-11T18:17:09Z

EvanW: Redirect from alternate name

#Redirect[[Orthodox Christmas]]

Board of Regents v. Southworth

2010-01-11T18:14:45Z

EvanW: Actually, they can be spent exclusively on liberal programs - if no conservative programs apply. The question is bias, not necessarily results.

In '''''Board of Regents of Univ. of Wis. System v. Southworth''''', 529 U.S. 217 (2000), the unanimous [[U.S. Supreme Court]] allowed the collection of mandatory student activities fees by the [[University of Wisconsin]] only if they are spent in a viewpoint-neutral manner, without bias toward [[liberal]] programs:<ref>''Id.'' at 220</ref>

:"The First Amendment permits a public university to charge its students an activity fee used to fund a program to facilitate extracurricular student speech if the program is viewpoint neutral. We do not sustain, however, the student referendum mechanism of the University's program, which appears to permit the exaction of fees in violation of the [[viewpoint neutrality]] principle. As to that aspect of the program, we remand for further proceedings."

The Court continued:<ref>''Southworth'', 529 U.S. at 229.</ref>
:"The government, as a general rule, may support valid programs and policies by taxes or other exactions binding on protesting parties. Within this broader principle it seems inevitable that funds raised by the government will be spent for speech and other expression to advocate and defend its own policies."

The Court assumed that compelled funding of government speech does not alone raise [[First Amendment]] concerns.

Justice [[Anthony Kennedy]] delivered the opinion of the court, joined by Justices [[William Rehnquist]], [[Sandra Day O'Connor]], [[Antonin Scalia]], [[Clarence Thomas]], and [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]]. Justice [[David Souter]]( joined by Justices [[John Paul Stevens]] and [[Stephen Breyer]]) filed a concurring opinion.

== References ==

<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&navby=case&vol=000&invol=98-1189 Case] at FindLaw (registration may be required)
[[category:United States Supreme Court Cases]]

Didache

2010-01-11T18:06:44Z

EvanW: Add summary of contents & links to original text

The '''Didache''' is one of the earliest [[Christian]] writings from the early first century Church outside of the books of the [[New Testament]], describing the moral teachings and ceremonial order of the [[early Church]]. While it is not included in the [[Bible]], [[Eusebius]] describes it as among the spurious works which some count part of Scripture.

Based on the simplicity of the ceremonies and ecclesiastical order, most modern scholars (and the Catholic Encyclopedia) date it to the late first century AD, shortly after the death of the [[twelve Apostles]]. Long thought to be lost, the text was rediscovered in 1883 and a number of [[English]] language translations now exist.

==Contents==

===The Two Ways===
The Didache starts by contrasting "the path of life" with "the path of death". In words reminiscent of the Sermon on the Mount, the author exhorts the hearer to "love the God who made thee, thy neighbour as thyself, and all things that thou wouldest not should be done unto thee, do not thou unto another." He continues into greater detail; for example: "Thou shalt not kill; thou shalt not commit adultery; thou shalt not corrupt youth; thou shalt not commit fornication; thou shalt not steal; thou shalt not use soothsaying; thou shalt not practise sorcery; thou shalt not kill a child by [[abortion]], neither shalt thou slay it when born; thou shalt not covet the goods of thy neighbour..."

In the fourth chapter, he moves on to speak of relationships: "thou shalt not desire schism, but shalt set at peace them that contend... Thou shalt not turn away from him that is in need, but shalt share with thy brother in all things... Thou shalt not remove thine heart from thy son or from thy daughter, but from their youth shalt teach them the fear of God."

He then summarizes "the path of death" with several paraphrases of the letters of Paul, concluding, "From all these, children, may ye be delivered."

===Order of Service===
[[Baptism]] is to be by immersion, after both persons have fasted.
{{cquote|...having first recited all these precepts, baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in running water; but if thou hast not running water, baptize in some other water, and if thou canst not baptize in cold, in warm water; but if thou hast neither, pour water three times on the head...}}

Christians are to fast on Thursday and Saturday, because "the hypocrites" fast on Tuesday and Friday. [[The Lord's Prayer]] is to be repeated three times a day.

It proceeds to give prayers to give over the [[Eucharist]], ending in a manner reminiscent of the [[Passover]] [[Sedar]]:
{{cquote|If any one is holy let him come (to the Eucharist); if any one is not, let him repent. Maranatha. Amen.}}

===Ecclesiastical Order===
Individual Christians are charged to "elect, therefore, for yourselves bishops ''[episkopouv]'' and deacons worthy of the Lord," and to ostracize Christians who have fallen into unrepentant sin.

The longest section of this part, however, describes how to receive traveling "apostles and prophets". The prophet must remain no more than three days, must take nothing but food, must teach the truth, and must do what he teaches. He must not command in his prophecies that the Christians give him food or anything else. Anyone who does otherwise is a false prophet; they should not listen to him. True prophets, however, should be given the firstfruits just like the priests under the Old Covenant. ("If ye have not a prophet, give it unto the poor.")

Similarly, Christian travelers are to be assisted for up to three days; if someone stays longer, he must work for his living. (If he knows no craft, the church should teach him one.) "If he be not willing to do so, he is a trafficker in Christ. From such keep aloof."

===Closing===
The Didache closes by admonishing Christians:
{{cquote|Watch concerning your life; let not your lamps be quenched or your loins be loosed, but be ye ready, for ye know not the hour at which our Lord cometh. But be ye gathered together frequently, seeking what is suitable for your souls; for the whole time of your faith shall profit you not, unless ye be found perfect in the last time.

For in the last days false prophets and seducers shall be multiplied, and the sheep shall be turned into wolves, and love shall be turned into hate; and because iniquity aboundeth they shall hate each other, and persecute each other, and deliver each other up; and then shall the Deceiver of the world appear as the Son of God, and shall do signs and wonders, and the earth shall be delivered into his hands; and he shall do unlawful things, such as have never happened since the beginning of the world.

Then shall the creation of man come to the fiery trial of proof, and many shall be offended and shall perish; but they who remain in their faith shall be saved by the rock of offence itself. And then shall appear the signs of the truth; first the sign of the appearance in heaven, then the sign of the sound of the trumpet, and thirdly the resurrection of the dead -- not of all, but as it has been said, The Lord shall come and all his saints with him; then shall the world behold the Lord coming on the clouds of heaven.}}

==References==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04779a.htm New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Didache]
* [http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/texteapo/didache-greek.html Original Greek text]
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/didache.html Several English translations of the Didache]
** [http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_didache.htm Another translation]

[[Category:Dictionary]]

Constantinople I

2010-01-08T17:56:14Z

EvanW: Expand; list canons

The '''First Council of [[Constantinople]]''' ("Constantinople I") was called by Emperor [[Theodosius]] in A.D. 381 to combat the [[Arian]] heresy, which had not ended after being condemned at the [[Council of Nicaea]]; and also to combat the heresy of the Macedonians, who denied the divinity of the [[Holy Spirit]].

150 bishops attended. They reaffirmed and expanded the [[Nicene Creed]] to the version currently known, affirming the equal divinity of all three Persons of the [[Trinity]].

They also wrote seven canons concerning church order. All seven are accepted by the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Church; only the first four are accepted by [[Roman Catholic]]s.

# "The [[Nicene Creed|profession of faith of the holy fathers who gathered in Nicaea]]... is to remain in force. Every heresy is to be anathematised..."
# "Diocesan bishops are not to intrude in churches beyond their own boundaries..."
# "Because it is new Rome, the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honour after the bishop of Rome." This canon provoked much controversy later when popes attempted to use it to prove papal supremacy.
# "Maximus the Cynic... never became, nor is he, a bishop... Everything that was done both to him and by him is to be held invalid."
# "Regarding the Tome of the Westerns..." ''(Unfortunately, this tome has been lost.)''
# Only orthodox Christians are allowed to bring accusations against bishops, and then only before the other bishops of the province or diocese.
# Certain heretics are to be received immediately upon confession of their errors; others must be [[Baptism|rebaptized]] after following through the regular process.

At the conclusion of the council, Emperor Theodosius declared that all bishops must confess the equal divinity of all three Persons of the [[Trinity]] and be in communion with certain of the bishops who attended.

==References==
*[http://www.legionofmarytidewater.com/faith/ECUM02.HTM Complete text of the seven Canons of I Constantinople]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308a.htm "First Council of Constantinople" from the Catholic Encyclopedia]

[[Category:Councils]]

Lynx (web browser)

2010-01-08T02:44:33Z

EvanW: not exactly the same, but similar

'''Lynx''' is a plain-text web browser originally developed by the [[University of Kansas]]<ref>http://www.livinginternet.com/w/wi_browse.htm</ref> as a [[Gopher]] client and released to the public in 1994.<ref>[http://lynx.isc.org/lynx2.8.7/lynx2-8-7/lynx_help/Lynx_users_guide.html#Hist Lynx Users Guide]</ref>. It is designed for use with the [[command line]]. It does not interface with the mouse; keyboard shortcuts (such as in [[VI]]) are used instead to run commands. It does not display images, videos, or CSS. Lynx has been available for [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[DOS]] operating systems since 1997. <ref>[http://lynx.browser.org/ Lynx home page]</ref>; a similar browser called '''ELinks''' is available for [[Ubuntu]] Linux and [[Macintosh]].

Since [[screen reader]]s designed also read only plain text, web developers can use Lynx to simulate how a blind person might interact with their website. A [http://www.delorie.com/web/lynxview.html Lynx Viewer] exists for this purpose.

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Web browsers]]

Lynx (web browser)

2010-01-08T02:39:46Z

EvanW: also available for Ubuntu

'''Lynx''' is a plain-text web browser originally developed by the [[University of Kansas]]<ref>http://www.livinginternet.com/w/wi_browse.htm</ref> as a [[Gopher]] client and released to the public in 1994.<ref>[http://lynx.isc.org/lynx2.8.7/lynx2-8-7/lynx_help/Lynx_users_guide.html#Hist Lynx Users Guide]</ref>. It is designed for use with the [[command line]]. It does not interface with the mouse; keyboard shortcuts (such as in [[VI]]) are used instead to run commands. It does not display images, videos, or CSS. Lynx has been available for [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[DOS]] operating systems since 1997. <ref>[http://lynx.browser.org/ Lynx home page]</ref>; another version, called '''ELinks''', is available for [[Ubuntu]] Linux.

Since [[screen reader]]s designed also read only plain text, web developers can use Lynx to simulate how a blind person might interact with their website. A [http://www.delorie.com/web/lynxview.html Lynx Viewer] exists for this purpose.

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Web browsers]]

Lynx

2010-01-08T02:34:13Z

EvanW: disambig w/ Lynx (web browser)

[[Image:Lynx.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Lynx]]
:''For the plain text web browser, please see [[Lynx (web browser)]]''

The '''lynx''' (''Lynx canadensis'') is a [[carnivorous]] mammal that is a member of the Felidae family. The lynx lives in the northern forests of [[North America]], [[Europe]], and [[Asia]] and is a solitary cat.<ref>http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/lynx.html</ref>

==References==
<references/>

{{Nb_zl_felines}}
[[Category:North America]]
[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:Asia]]