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Genetic mutation

2008-06-30T20:42:43Z

ElmoTKerzakian: /* Classification */

In [[biology]], '''mutations''' are changes to the [[base pair]] sequence of [[genetic material]] (either [[DNA]] or [[RNA]]). Mutations can be caused by copying errors in the genetic material during [[cell division]] and by exposure to [[ultraviolet]] or [[ionizing radiation|ionizing]] radiation, chemical [[mutagens]], or [[virus (biology)|viruses]], or can occur deliberately under cellular control during processes such as [[meiosis]] or [[hypermutation]]. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into ''[[germline mutation]]s'', which can be passed on to descendants, and ''[[somatic mutation]]s''. The somatic mutations cannot be transmitted to descendants in animals. Plants sometimes can transmit somatic mutations to their descendants asexually or sexually (in case when flower buds develop in somatically mutated part of plant).

Mutations create variation in the [[gene pool]], and the less favorable (or ''deleterious'') mutations are removed from the gene pool by [[natural selection]], while more favorable (''beneficial'' or ''advantageous'') ones tend to accumulate, resulting in [[evolution]]ary change. For example, a butterfly may develop offspring with a new mutation caused say by ultraviolet light from the sun. In most cases, this mutation is not good, since obviously there was no 'purpose' for such change at the molecular level. However, sometimes a mutation may change, say, the butterfly's color, making it harder for predators to see it; this is an advantage and the chances of this butterfly surviving and producing its own offspring are a little better, and over time the number of butterflies with this mutation may form a large percentage of the species. [[Neutral theory of molecular evolution|Neutral mutations]] are defined as mutations whose effects do not influence the [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]] of either the species or the individuals who make up the species. These can accumulate over time due to [[genetic drift]]. The overwhelming majority of mutations have no significant effect, since [[DNA repair]] is able to mend most changes before they become permanent mutations, and many organisms have mechanisms for eliminating otherwise permanently mutated somatic cells.

==Classification==
[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|right|thumb|An illustration of five types of chromosomal mutations.]]
===By effect on structure===
The sequence of a gene can be altered in a number of ways. Gene mutations have varying effects on health depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. Structurally, mutations can be classified as:

* Small-scale mutations, such as affecting a small gene is one or a few nucleotides, including:
** '''[[Point mutation]]s''', often caused by chemicals or malfunction of DNA replication, exchange a single [[nucleotide]] for another. Most common is the [[transition (genetics)|transition]] that exchanges a [[purine]] for a purine (A ↔ G) or a [[pyrimidine]] for a pyrimidine, (C ↔ T). A transition can be caused by [[nitrous acid]], base mispairing, or mutagenic base analogs such as [[BrdU|5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU)]]. Less common is a [[transversion]], which exchanges a purine for a pyrimidine or a pyrimidine for a purine (C/T ↔ A/G). A point mutation can be reversed by another point mutation, in which the nucleotide is changed back to its original state (true reversion) or by second-site reversion (a complementary mutation elsewhere that results in regained gene functionality). These changes are classified as transitions or transversions. An example of a transversion is [[adenine]] (A) being converted into a [[cytosine]] (C). There are also many other examples that can be found. Point mutations that occur within the [[protein]] coding region of a gene may be classified into three kinds, depending upon what the erroneous [[codon]] codes for:
*** [[Silent mutation]]s: which code for the same [[amino acid]].
*** [[Missense mutation]]s: which code for a different amino acid.
*** [[Nonsense mutation]]s: which code for a stop and can truncate the [[protein]].
** '''[[insertion (genetics)|Insertions]]''' add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA. They are usually caused by [[transposable element]]s, or errors during replication of repeating elements (e.g. AT repeats). Insertions in the coding region of a gene may alter [[splicing (genetics)|splicing]] of the [[mRNA]] ([[splice site mutation]]), or cause a shift in the [[reading frame]] ([[frameshift]]), both of which can significantly alter the gene product. Insertions can be reverted by excision of the [[transposable element]].
** '''[[Genetic deletion|Deletions]]''' remove one or more nucleotides from the DNA. Like insertions, these mutations can alter the [[reading frame]] of the gene. They are irreversible.

* Large-scale mutations in [[chromosome|chromosomal]] structure, including:
** '''Amplifications''' (or [[gene duplication]]s) leading to multiple copies of all chromosomal regions, increasing the dosage of the genes located within them.
** '''[[Genetic deletion|Deletions]]''' of large chromosomal regions, leading to loss of the genes within those regions.
** Mutations whose effect is to juxtapose previously separate pieces of DNA, potentially bringing together separate genes to form functionally distinct [[fusion gene]]s (e.g. [[bcr-abl]]). These include:
*** '''[[Chromosomal translocation]]s''': interchange of genetic parts from nonhomologous chromosomes.
*** '''Interstitial deletions''': an intra-chromosomal deletion that removes a segment of DNA from a single chromosome, thereby apposing previously distant genes. For example, cells isolated from a human [[astrocytoma]], a type of brain tumor, were found to have a chromosomal deletion removing sequences between the "fused in glioblastoma" (fig) gene and the receptor tyrosine kinase "ros", producing a fusion protein (FIG-ROS). The abnormal FIG-ROS fusion protein has constitutively active kinase activity that causes oncogenic transformation (a transformation from normal cells to cancer cells).
*** '''[[Chromosomal inversion]]s''': reversing the orientation of a chromosomal segment.
**'''[[Loss of heterozygosity]]''': loss of one [[allele]], either by a deletion or [[recombination]] event, in an organism that previously had two different alleles.

===By effect on function===
* '''Loss-of-function mutations''' are the result of gene product having less or no function. When the allele has a complete loss of function ([[null allele]]) it is often called an '''[[Muller's morphs|amorphic]] mutation'''. Phenotypes associated with such mutations are most often [[recessive]]. Exceptions are when the organism is [[haploid]], or when the reduced dosage of a normal gene product is not enough for a normal phenotype (this is called [[haploinsufficiency]]).
* '''Gain-of-function mutations''' change the gene product such that it gains a new and abnormal function. These mutations usually have [[dominant gene|dominant]] phenotypes. Often called a [[Muller's morphs|neomorphic]] mutation.
* '''Dominant negative mutations''' (also called '''[[Muller's morphs|antimorphic]] mutations''') have an altered gene product that acts antagonistically to the wild-type allele. These mutations usually result in an altered molecular function (often inactive) and are characterized by a [[Dominant gene|dominant]] or [[incomplete dominance|semi-dominant]] phenotype. In humans, [[Marfan syndrome]] is an example of a dominant negative mutation occurring in an [[autosomal dominant]] disease. In this condition, the defective glycoprotein product of the fibrillin gene (FBN1) antagonizes the product of the normal allele.
*'''Lethal mutations''' are mutations that lead to a phenotype incapable of effective reproduction.

===By aspect of phenotype affected===
* '''Morphological mutations''' usually affect the outward appearance of an individual. Mutations can change the height of a plant or change it from smooth to rough seeds.
* '''Biochemical mutations''' result in lesions stopping the enzymatic pathway. Often, morphological mutants are the direct result of a mutation due to the enzymatic pathway.

===Special classes===
*'''Conditional mutation''' is a mutation that has wild-type (or less severe) phenotype under certain "permissive" environmental conditions and a mutant phenotype under certain "restrictive" conditions. For example, a temperature-sensitive mutation can cause cell death at high temperature (restrictive condition), but might have no deleterious consequences at a lower temperature (permissive condition).
===Causes of mutation===
Two classes of mutations are spontaneous mutations (molecular decay) and induced mutations caused by [[mutagen]]s.

'''Spontaneous mutations''' on the molecular level include:
* Tautomerism - A base is changed by the repositioning of a hydrogen atom.
* Depurination - Loss of a purine base (A or G).
* Deamination - Changes a normal base to an atypical base; C → U, (which can be corrected by DNA repair mechanisms), or spontaneous deamination of 5-methycytosine (irreparable), or A → HX (hypoxanthine).
* Transition - A purine changes to another purine, or a pyrimidine to a pyrimidine.
* Transversion - A purine becomes a pyrimidine, or vice versa.

'''Induced mutations''' on the molecular level can be caused by:
* Chemicals
** Nitrosoguanidine (NTG)
** Hydroxyamine NH3OH
** [[Base analog]]s (e.g. [[BrdU]])
** Simple chemicals (e.g. [[acid]]s)
** Alkylating agents (e.g. [[ENU|''N''-ethyl-''N''-nitrosourea (ENU)]]) These agents can mutate both replicating and non-replicating DNA. In contrast, a base analog can only mutate the DNA when the analog is incorporated in replicating the DNA. Each of these classes of chemical mutagens has certain effects that then lead to transitions, transversions, or deletions.
** Methylating agents (e.g. [[ethyl methanesulfonate]] (EMS))
** Polycyclic [[hydrocarbons]] (e.g. [[benzopyrene]]s found in [[internal combustion engine]] [[exhaust]])
** DNA intercalating agents (e.g. [[ethidium bromide]])
** [[DNA crosslinker]] (e.g. [[platinum]])
** Oxidative damage caused by [[oxygen]](O)] [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]]s
* Radiation
** [[Ultraviolet]] radiation (nonionizing radiation) - excites electrons to a higher energy level. DNA absorbs one form, ultraviolet light. Two nucleotide bases in DNA - cytosine and thymine-are most vulnerable to excitation that can change base-pairing properties. UV light can induce adjacent thymine bases in a DNA strand to pair with each other, as a bulky dimer.
** [[Ionizing radiation]]

DNA has so-called hotspots, where mutations occur up to 100 times more frequently than the normal [[mutation rate]]. A hotspot can be at an unusual base, e.g., [[5-methylcytosine]].

[[Mutation rate]]s also vary across species. Evolutionary biologists have theorized that higher mutation rates are beneficial in some situations, because they allow organisms to evolve and therefore adapt more quickly to their environments. For example, repeated exposure of bacteria to antibiotics, and selection of resistant mutants, can result in the selection of bacteria that have a much higher mutation rate than the original population ([[mutator genotype|mutator strains]]).

==Harmful mutations==
Changes in DNA caused by mutation can cause errors in [[protein]] sequence, creating partially or completely non-functional proteins. To function correctly, each cell depends on thousands of proteins to function in the right places at the right times. When a mutation alters a protein that plays a critical role in the body, a medical condition can result. A condition caused by mutations in one or more genes is called a [[genetic disorder]]. However, only a small percentage of mutations cause genetic disorders; most have no impact on health. For example, some mutations alter a gene's DNA base sequence but don’t change the function of the protein made by the gene.

If a mutation is present in a [[germ cell]], it can give rise to offspring that carries the mutation in all of its cells. This is the case in [[hereditary disease]]s. On the other hand, a mutation can occur in a [[somatic cell]] of an organism. Such mutations will be present in all descendants of this cell, and certain mutations can cause the cell to become malignant, and thus cause [[cancer]].

Often, gene mutations that could cause a genetic disorder are repaired by the [[DNA repair]] system of the cell. Each cell has a number of pathways through which enzymes recognize and repair mistakes in DNA. Because DNA can be damaged or mutated in many ways, the process of DNA repair is an important way in which the body protects itself from disease.

==Beneficial mutations==
A very small percentage of all mutations actually have a positive effect. These mutations lead to new versions of proteins that help an organism and its future generations better adapt to changes in their environment. For example, a specific 32 base pair deletion in human CCR5 (CCR5-32) confers [[HIV]] resistance to [[Zygosity|homozygotes]] and delays [[AIDS]] onset in [[Zygosity|heterozygotes]].<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_CCR5.htm]</ref> The CCR5 mutation is more common in those of European descent. One theory for the [[etiology]] of the relatively high frequency of CCR5-32 in the European population is that is conferred resistance to the [[bubonic plague]] in mid-14th century Europe.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_plague/clues.html]</ref>

==References==
<references/>
* Leroi A. 2003. ''Mutants: On the form, varieties & errors of the human body''. 1:16-17. Harper Collins 2003
* Maki H. 2002. ''Origins of spontaneous mutations: specificity and directionality of base-substitution, frameshift, and sequence-substitution mutageneses''. Annual Review of Genetics 36:279-303.
* Taggart R. Starr C. ''Biology The Unity and Diversity of Life: Mutated Genes and Their Protein Products''. 14.4:227. Thompson Brooks/Cole 2006.
===Online books===
* Chapter 7, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=mutation+AND+mga%5Bbook%5D+AND+110363%5Buid%5D&rid=mga.section.996 The Molecular Basis of Mutation] in ''Modern Genetic Analysis'' by Anthony J. F. Griffiths, William M. Gelbart, Jeffrey H. Miller and [[Richard Lewontin|Richard C. Lewontin]] (1999) published by W. H. Freeman and Company ISBN 0-7167-3597-0.
* Chapter 9, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hmg.section.1050 Instability of the human genome: mutation and DNA repair] in ''Human Molecular Genetics 2'' by Tom Strachan and Andrew P. Read (1999) published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
* ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gnd.preface.91 Genes and Disease]'' from the [[National Library of Medicine]] provides descriptions of mutations that cause human diseases. For example, a common mutation associated with [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=mutation+AND+gnd%5Bbook%5D+AND+138070%5Buid%5D&rid=gnd.section.207 Huntington disease] is an increased number of copies of repeated CGA triplets in the [[Huntingtin]] gene.
* ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gene GeneReviews]'' by Roberta A. Pagon, Editor-in-chief is made available by the [[University of Washington]] and contains peer-reviewed descriptions of heritable diseases written by experts. For example, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gene.chapter.brca1 BRCA1 and BRCA2 Hereditary Breast/Ovarian Cancer] describes mutations in [[BRCA1]] and [[BRCA2]] that are associated with predispositions to cancer.

==External links==
* [http://www.gate.net/~rwms/EvoMutations.html Examples of Beneficial Mutations]
* [http://www.q-pharm.com/home/contents/drug_d/order_form/online_services/mutagenesis Software for Mutated Proteins' Activity Prediction]

[[Category:Genetics]]

Ariel

2008-06-30T20:42:18Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

: ''This article is about the [[moon]] of [[Uranus]]. For other uses, see [[Ariel (disambiguation)]].''
{{Planet
|name=Ariel
|image=Landrieu.jpg
|caption=High-resolution color image of Ariel, taken by [[Voyager 2]]
|date=October 24, 1851<ref name=usgs>"[http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/append7.html Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Planetary Body Names and Discoverers]." US Geological Survey, Jennifer Blue, ed. March 31, 2008. Accessed April 17, 2008.</ref><ref name=Lassell1>Lassell, W. "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AJ.../0002//0000070.000.html Letter to the Editor re Discovery of Two Satellites of Uranus]." ''Astron. J.'' 2:70, 1851. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref><ref name=Lassell2>Lassell, William. "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0033//0000136.000.html Entdeckung von 2 neuen Uranus Trabanten]." ''Astronomische Nachrichten'', 33:259-260, 1852. Accessed June 13, 2008</ref>
|discname=William Lassell<ref name=usgs/><ref name=Lassell1/><ref name=Lassell2/><ref name=Hamilton>Hamilton, Calvin J. "[http://www.solarviews.com/eng/ariel.htm Entry for Ariel]." ''Views of the Solar System'', 2001. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>
|origname=A sylph in ''The Rape of the Lock'' by [[Alexander Pope]];<ref name=usgs/><ref name=Lassell3>Lassell, William. "[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1852AN.....34..325./0000169.000.html Beobachtungen der Uranus-Satelliten]." ''Astronomische Nachrichten'' 34:325-328, 1852. Accessed June 12, 2008.</ref> a sprite in ''[[The Tempest]]'' by [[William Shakespeare]]<ref name=Arnett>Arnett, Bill. "[http://www.nineplanets.org/ariel.html Entry for Ariel]." ''The <s>Nine</s> 8 Planets'', December 11, 2004. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>
|primary=Uranus
|order=15
|periapsis=184,525 km<ref name=calc>Calculated</ref>
|apoapsis=197,515 km<ref name=calc/>
|semimajor=191,020 km<ref name=uranussatfact>Williams, David R. "[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/uraniansatfact.html Uranian Satellite Fact Sheet]." National Space Science Data Center, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], November 23, 2007. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>
|eccentricity=0.0034<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|sidereal=2.520379 da<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|orbitspeed=5.52 km/s<ref name=Hamilton/>
|inclination=0.31°<ref name=uranussatfact/><ref name=Hamilton/>
|siderealday=2.520379 da<ref name=uranussatfact/><ref name=Hamilton/>
|rotatespeed=16.7 m/s<ref name=calc/>
|axialtilt=0°<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|mass=1.35 * 10<sup>21</sup> kg<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|density=1,670 kg/m³<ref name=uranussatfact/>
|meanradius=578.9 km<ref name=Hamilton/>
|surfacegrav=0.27 m/s²<ref name=calc/>
|escapespeed=0.541 km/s<ref name=Hamilton/>
|surfacearea=4,211,310 km²<ref name=calc/>
|meantemp=58 K<ref name=Tittemore>Tittemore, William C. "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990Icar...87..110T Tidal Heating of Ariel]." ''Icarus'' 87:110-139, September 1990. {{doi|10.1016/0019-1035(90)90024-4}} Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>
|composition=Water ice and rock<ref name=Britannica>Ingersoll, Andrew P. "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009421 Ariel]." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 June 2008.</ref>
|color=Deep gray-purple
|albedo=0.34<ref name=Hamilton/>
}}'''Ariel''' or '''Uranus I''' is the fifteenth [[moon]] of [[Uranus]] in the order of distance, the third moon of Uranus to be discovered, and the third heaviest.

== Discovery and naming ==
[[William Lassell]] discovered Ariel and its next companion, [[Umbriel]], on October 24, 1851, and reported his findings after observing these two satellites on three more occasions.<ref name=Lassell1/><ref name=Lassell2/>

The name ''Ariel'', suggested by Sir [[John Herschel]] at Lassell's request, is the name of a sylph in Alexander Pope's poem ''The Rape of the Lock''.<ref name=Lassell3/> It is also the name of a sprite and servant to Prospero in William Shakespeare's play ''The Tempest''.<ref name=Arnett/>

== Orbital characteristics ==
Ariel is in a slightly eccentric orbit around Uranus at an average distance of 191,020 km. Its sidereal month is about 2.52 Earth days. The orbit of Ariel is only slightly inclined from the equator of Uranus but is severely inclined to the ecliptic.

Tittemore<ref name=Tittemore/> suggests that Ariel was once in a 4:1 orbital resonance with [[Titania]]. If it was, it is no longer in such a resonance. For this reason, some astronomers suggest that Ariel was much hotter in the past than it is today.<ref name=Arnett/>

=== Transits of Uranus ===
[[Image:Ariel transit.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Uranus with Ariel (white) and its shadow (black) at upper right]]
Ariel is rarely able to transit the surface of Uranus in such a manner as to cast a shadow on it. This is because Ariel, like all the moons of Uranus, is in an orbit with an almost perpendicular inclination to the ecliptic. Such transits usually occur only in years close to Uranian equinoxes. One such transit occurred on July 26, 2006; the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] captured that transit on the image at the left. The white dot in the upper-right-hand quadrant of Uranus is Ariel itself; the black dot is its shadow.<ref name=transit>"[http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2006/42/image/a Hubble Captures a Rare Eclipse on Uranus]." News Release STScI-2006-42, August 31, 2006. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>

== Rotational characteristics ==
Ariel is in [[tidal lock]] with Uranus.

== Physical characteristics ==
Ariel is composed of rock and [[water]] ice. Some authorities suggest that Ariel might also contain ices of [[ammonia]], [[methane]], or [[carbon monoxide]].<ref name=Hamilton/>

=== Surface ===
The surface of Ariel has relatively few impact craters, and also a system of interconnecting valleys and rifts.<ref name=Arnett/><ref name=Hamilton/> Some of these valleys bear signs of smoothing by a fluid. Liquid water would not smooth the valley floors in this fashion, and for this reason astronomers suspect that the fluid might have been liquid ammonia or methane. Other valleys and canyons appear to have formed by faulting.

Most of the surface of Ariel appears relatively "young" by [[uniformitarianism|uniformitarian]] standards. In fact, some authorities say that Ariel's surface is the youngest such surface among the major moons of Uranus.<ref name=Britannica/>

== Problems for uniformitarian theories ==
Ariel poses the same problem for uniformitarian astronomy as do all the other moons of Uranus: its orbit is inclined severely to the ecliptic, though not to Uranus' own equator. How the Uranian system came to have such an inclination has never been explained.

== Observation and Exploration ==
Ariel is visible from Earth with any telescope having an aperture of 30 cm or more.

The one spacecraft to visit Ariel was [[Voyager 2]]. Voyager approached to within 127,000 km of Ariel on January 24, 1986, and took several images.<ref name=Voyager1>"[http://pds-rings.seti.org/voyager/mission/#v2uenc Voyager Mission Description: Voyager 2 Uranus Encounter]." February 19, 1997. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref><ref name=Smith>Smith, B.A., Soderblom, L.A., Beebe, R., ''et al.'' "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Sci...233...43S Voyager 2 in the Uranian system - Imaging science results]." ''Science'' 233:43-64, July 4, 1986. Accessed June 13, 2008.</ref>

Today the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] is the most powerful telescope to take images of Ariel.

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Solarsystem}}
[[Category:Astronomy]]

List of American colleges

2008-06-30T20:42:03Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

''For an overview, see [[American colleges]]''.

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|right]]

== Wheaton College ==

Wheaton College is a Christian college situated in the western suburbs of Chicago and known for its [[academic excellence]]. Billy Graham is a graduate of Wheaton College.

== Grove City College ==

Grove City College is the top-rated small college in the country. It has remained dedicated to its Christian mission and is homeschool-friendly. Located on a beautiful campus about an hour from Pittsburgh, Grove City College has superb math, science and engineering programs.

Grove City College is one of only two major colleges that has remained completely outside of federal regulations by declining federal funding and federally guaranteed student loans. This gives Grove City College the advantage of being able to decide what is best for its programs and students without worrying about complying with non-Christian and non-conservative rules imposed by the federal government. The other major college that is outside of federal regulations is [[Hillsdale College]].

== Carleton College ==

Carleton College is a small, elite liberal arts college in Northfield Minnesota. It was founded in 1866.

== Pensacola Christian College ==

Pensacola Christian College is a Christian College located just off I-28 in [[Pensacola, Florida]], and was founded in 1974. at that time the college only had 100 students in comparison to today’s 6000+ Students. [http://www.pcci.edu/]

[http://chronicle.com/free/v52/i29/29a04001.htm Article about PCC, "A College That's Strictly Different" from The Chronicle of Higher Education]

== Wisconsin Lutheran College ==
[[Wisconsin Lutheran College]] (WLC) is located on the west side of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

== Carthage College ==
Carthage College is a Protestant college in Kenosha, Wisconsin. It is affiliated with the ELCA (Evangelical Lutheran Church in America).

[[Category:Colleges]]

Koran

2008-06-30T20:41:31Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A copy of the Qur'an opened for study.]]
The '''Qur'an''', also called the '''Koran''' ('''القرآن''' in [[Arabic]]), is the sacred scripture of [[Islam]].

The Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet [[Muhammad]] in the 7th century AD, purportedly through the [[angel]] [[Gabriel]]. The scripture is organized (roughly) according to the length of the chapters. There are 114 suras (or chapters). The Prophet's first revelations were received in [[Mecca]]. He was exiled from Mecca after commanding the people to repent of [[polytheism]] and join the One True God, (in [[Arabic]], his name is [[Allah]]). The Prophet Muhammad then travelled to [[Medina]] and converted the entire city. He led them to a victory over the polytheists at Mecca.

The verses are of two kinds: Meccan and Medinan. Meccan verses are characterized by praise of a monotheistic God and condemnation of polytheism. Medinan verses reflect divine laws and commandments that would help Muhammad in his new role as a leader of men; that is to say, the verses are concerned more with the social laws and obligations of Muslims.

The Qur'an has influenced a great number of people over the centuries, especially in the [[Middle East]]. (A link to the text of the Qur'an and translations can be found below.)

Several commentaries on the Qur'an exist. These are labelled as "tafsir" (the word for "commentary.") Allah himself is regarded as the greatest Tafsir. Muhammad is the second-best (his tafsir is called "[[hadith]]," the Words of the Prophet). The Companions of the Prophet also produced their own tafsirs. It is important to note that "tafsir" is ''not'' scripture; it is a companion to understanding scripture.

It is also important to note that Muhammad is not worshiped as a God. The Muslims are monotheistic. The Qur'an states that God has no equals, nor was he begotten by a greater being, ''nor has he begotten any other being.'' Muslims may occasionally view Jesus and the Holy Spirit as infringing on God's divinity. The Christian doctrine of the Holy Trinity is regarded as tantamount to polytheism by Muslims.

==Translation==
The Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet [[Muhammad]] in what the Angel said was "clear Arabic." This has come to mean (for many reasons) that Arabic is the most beautiful language of all. The Qur'an also contains a challenge: if you do not believe that the Qur'an is the word of God, try to make something just as beautiful and good as it! This is the doctrine of inimitability (no copy can be made), or "i'jaz." These two doctrines, along with the inherent difficulty of translation, severely limit the value of translations of the Qur'an. In other words, the only Qur'an is the Arabic Qur'an. English versions of the Qur'an are regarded as commentaries.

Two of the most famous and widely-read English translations of the Qur'an are those by A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall <ref>http://www.wokingmuslim.org/pers/pickthall/conversion.htm</ref> (and see links below).

==Sources==
Scholars and theologians have identified six main sources for the contents of the Qur'an. ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' states: "The sources of the Koran be reduced to -

*The [[Old Testament]] (canonical and apocryphal) and the hybrid [[Judaism]] of the late rabbinical schools. During Mohammed's time the Jews were numerous in many parts of Arabia, especially around Medina. Familiarity with them is undoubtedly responsible for many Old Testament stories alluded to in Qur'an. Later Judaism and Rabbinism are equally well represented (Geiger, "Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthum aufgenommen?", Wiesbaden, 1833; tr. "Judaism and Islam", Madras, 1898).
*The [[New Testament]] (canonical and apocryphal) and various heretical doctrines. On his journeys between Syria, Hijaz, and Yemen, Mohammed had every opportunity to come in close touch with Yemenite, Abyssinian, Ghassanite, and Syrian [[Christianity|Christians]], especially heretics. Hence, while the influence of orthodox Christianity upon the Qur'an has been slight, apocryphal and heretical Christian legends, on the other hand, are one of the original sources of Koranic faith. (See Muir, op. cit. infra, 66-239; Tisdall, "The Original Sources of the Qur'an", London, 1905, 55-211.)
*[[Sabaism]], a combination of Judaism, [[Manicheism]], and old disfigured Babylonian [[heathen]]ism.
*[[Zoroastrianism]]. On account of Persia's political influence in the north-eastern part of Arabia, it is natural to find Zoroastrian elements in the Qur'an.
*[[Hanifism]], the adherents of which, called Hanifs, must have been considerable in number and influence, as it is known from contemporary Arabian sources that twelve of Mohammed's followers were members of this sect.
*Native ancient and contemporary Arabian heathen beliefs and practices. Wellhausen has collected in his "Reste des arabischen Heidentums" (Berlin, 1897) all that is known of pre-Islamic Arabian heathen belief, traditions, customs, and superstitions, many of which are either alluded to or accepted and incorporated in the Koran. From the various sects and creeds, and Abul-Fida, the well-known historian and geographer of the twelfth century, it is clear that religious beliefs and practices of the Arabs of Mohammed's day form one of the many sources of Islam. From this heathen source Islam derived the practices of polygamy and slavery, which Mohammed sanctioned by adopting them."<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08692a.htm Koran], by Gabriel Oussani, ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''</ref>

==Verses of Violence==
The Qur'an contains scores of verses exhorting Muslims to engage in violence against non - Muslims:

*"I will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieve. Therefore '''strike off their heads''' and '''strike off every fingertip of them'''" (Sura 8 verse 12). <ref>http://www.thereligionofpeace.com/Quran/023-violence.htm</ref>

*"Say to the Unbelievers, if (now) they desist (from Unbelief), their past would be forgiven them; but if they persist, the punishment of those before them is already (a matter of warning for them). And '''fight them''' on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there '''prevail justice and faith in Allah''' altogether and everywhere; but if they cease, verily Allah doth see all that they do" (8:38,39)<ref>http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/008.qmt.html#008.038</ref>.

*"So when the sacred months have passed away, then '''slay the idolaters wherever you find them''', and '''take them captives''' and '''besiege them''' and lie in wait for them in every ambush, then if they repent and keep up prayer and pay the poor-rate, leave their way free to them" (Koran 9:5).<ref>http://www.thereligionofpeace.com/Quran/023-violence.htm</ref>.

*"The Jews call 'Uzair a son of Allah, and the Christians call Christ the son of Allah. That is a saying from their mouth; (in this) they but imitate what the unbelievers of old used to say. Allah's curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the Truth!" (9:30) <ref>http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/009.qmt.html#009.030</ref>.

*"Soon shall We cast terror into the hearts of the Unbelievers, for that they joined companions with Allah, for which He had sent no authority" (Sura 3 verse 151). <ref>http://www.thereligionofpeace.com/Quran/023-violence.htm</ref> This verse commands violence against Christians, who according to Mohammed 'joined Companions with Allah' and are thus infidels who must be killed, subjugated, or converted according to the Koran.

== See also ==

*[[Arab American]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://tanzil.info/ Tanzil Quran Navigator (searchable Quran and 41 translations)]
*[http://www.islam101.com/quran/yusufAli/ Ali English translation]
*[http://www.islam101.com/quran/QTP/index.htm Pickthall English translation]

[[Category:Book of Worship]]
[[Category:Islam]]

Tetra

2008-06-30T20:41:11Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

'''Tetras''' are [[tropical]] [[fish]] of several varieties that are popular for keeping in home [[aquarium]]s due to their bright colors, small size, and good temperament. They get along well with other fish, are [[omnivorous]], and typically reach a size of about 1 & 1/2 inches. Tetras are often found in the countries of [[Peru]], [[Brazil]], and [[Colombia]]. [[Image:Landrieu.jpg|right|thumb‎|200px|]]

==References==

*http://www.liveaquaria.com/product/scateg.cfm?pCatId=890
*http://www.tropicalfishplace.com/

[[Category: Fish]]

Abby Wambach

2008-06-30T20:40:56Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|right]]
'''Mary Abigail Wambach''' (b. June 2, 1980 in Rochester, NY.) American professional soccer player and [[Olympics|Olympic]] medalist.

'''Fast Facts:'''

*Hometown: Rochester, NY.
*Height: 5’11”
*Position : Forward
*College: University of Florida.
*U.S. Soccer's 2004 Chevrolet Female Athlete of the Year.
*She likes mountain biking and camping.
*Sister Beth played basketball at [[Harvard]].

After the World Cup, Abby was named U.S. Soccer’s Female Player of the Year for 2003.

== External links ==

*[http://www.abbywambach.com/index.php Abby Wambach]
*[http://www.ussoccer.com/bio/index.jsp_5911.html Abby Wambach] Biographies - U.S. Soccer Federation.

*http://www.usolympicteam.com/26_13777.htm

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wambach, Abby}}
[[Category:Soccer]]
[[Category:Football soccer]]
[[Category:Olympic Athletes]]

Lapilli

2008-06-30T20:40:43Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|thumb|300px|This lapilli was erupted by Pu`u Pua`i (gushing hill) from the summit of Kilauea Volcano in 1959 and fell to the ground about 800 m downwind.]]

'''Lapilli''' are rock fragments between 0.08 and 2.5 inches (2 and 64 mm) in diameter that were ejected from a [[volcano]] during an explosive eruption. Lapilli (singular: lapillus) means "little stones" in Italian. Lapilli may consist of many different types of [[tephra]], including [[scoria]], [[pumice]], and [[reticulite]].

Rounded [[tephra]] particles in this size range are called accretionary lapilli if they consist of tiny ash grains stuck together. Ash sometimes form such rounded particles in an eruption column or cloud, owing to moisture or electrostatic forces.

==Sources==
[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/lapilli.html USGS Photo Glossary]

[[Category:Volcanology]]

Homosexuality and Gonorrhea

2008-06-30T20:40:14Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|thumbnail|175px|right|[[Gonorrhea]] is a [[sexually transmitted disease]] (STD) caused by the bacterium ''[[Neisseria gonorrhoeae]]''.]]
In respect to '''homosexuality and gonorrhea''', a study published by the ''[[Canadian Medical Association Journal]]'' in 1991 found that:
{{cquote|Among the males [...] gonorrhea was associated with urethral discharge (positivity rate 24.3 time higher than the rate among those without discharge) and homosexuality (3.7 times higher than the rate among heterosexuals).<ref>Vincelette J, Baril JG, & Allard R (1991). Predictors of chlamydial infection and gonorrhea among patients seen by private practitioners. ''Canadian Medical Association Journal, 144'', 713-721. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1453048 link]</ref>}}

The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) issued a report regarding [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] men, which stated that "male rectal gonorrhea is increasing among MSM [men who have sex with men] amidst an overall decline in nationwide gonorrhea rates."<ref>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1999). Increases in unsafe sex and rectal gonorrhea among men who have sex with men -- San Francisco, California, 1994-1997. ''Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report, 48'', 45-48. [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00056314.htm link]</ref>

The CDC also made the following report:
{{cquote| "CDC conducted sentinel surveillance in 28 cities and found the proportion of cases resistant to fluoroquinolone antibiotics (a first-line treatment for [[gonorrhea]]) increased from 4.1 percent in 2003 to 6.8 percent in 2004. Resistance is especially worrisome in men who have sex with men, where it was eight times higher than among heterosexuals (23.8 percent vs. 2.9 percent). In April 2004, CDC recommended that fluoroquinolones no longer be used as treatment for gonorrhea among men who have sex with men. These [[antibiotic]]s were also not recommended to treat the disease in anyone in [[California]] or [[Hawaii]], where resistance has been widespread for years. Outside of these states, the prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance among heterosexuals remains low at 1.3 percent."<ref>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2007). ''Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2006'', Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of STD Prevention, Atlanta, GA. [http://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/pressrel/r051108.htm link]</ref>}}
==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Homosexuality]]
[[Category:Gonorrhea]]
[[Category: Sexually Transmitted Disease]]

Middle Tennessee State University

2008-06-30T20:39:54Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

{{University
|name=Middle Tennessee State University
|image=Landrieu.jpg
|text=rgb(21,53,123)
|background=
|type=Public
|city=Murfreesboro, Tennessee
|sports=baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, tennis, track, softball, volleyball<ref>http://www.goblueraiders.com/</ref>
|colors=blue, white
|mascot=Lightning (Blue Raiders)
|website=http://www.mtsu.edu/index.shtml
}}
'''Middle Tennessee State University''' is a four-year public university located in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, and is a member of Tennessee's State Board of Regents. MTSU offers in many fields, awarding Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral degrees, and Post-Master's, and Postbachelor's certificates.

==History==
Founded in 1911, MTSU was the result of a 1909 decision by the Tennessee legislature awarding a state-funded college to each of Tennessee's distinct regions, in addition to a fourth in Nashville for African-American students:
*Eastern Tennessee Normal School, Johnson City ([[Eastern Tennessee State University]]);
*West Tennessee State Normal School, Memphis ([[University of Memphis]]);
*Middle Tennessee Normal School;
*Agricultural and Industrial State Normal School, Nashville ([[Tennessee State University]])
Originally known for having taught the fields of education and nursing, Middle Tennessee Normal School expanded its curriculum over the years; by 1943 it had become a state college. Additional subjects plus an expansion of the campus gained it university status by 1965. Currently, MTSU is second to the [[University of Tennessee]] in size of student population; however it is the largest university in the state in the actual number of undergraduate students.

==Majors==
*Agribusiness; Animal Sciences; Plant Sciences
*Biology/Biological Sciences
*Biological and Physical Sciences; Interdisciplinary Studies; Multi-/Interdisciplinary Studies Related
*Health and Physical Education; Parks, Recreation and Leisure Facilities Management
*Philosophy
*Accounting; Business Administration and Management; Business/Managerial Economics; Finance; Management Information Systems; Marketing/Marketing Management; Office Management; Sales, Distribution and Marketing
*Mass Communication/Media; Public Relations/Image Management
*Computer Science
*Art Teacher Education; Business Teacher Education; Health Teacher Education; Kindergarten/Preschool Education; Sales and Marketing/Marketing and Distribution Teacher Education; Special Education; Technology/Industrial Arts Teacher Education
*Engineering Technology; Engineering/Industrial Management; Environmental Engineering Technology; Industrial Technology
*English
*Aeronautics/Aviation/Aerospace Science and Technology
*Art; Dramatic/Theater Arts; Interior Design; Music; Music Management and Merchandising
*Apparel and Textiles; Family Resource Management; Foods, Nutrition, and Wellness
*Foreign Languages and Literatures
*Athletic Training; Nursing (Registered Nurse Training)
*History
*Liberal Arts and Sciences/Liberal Studies
*Mathematics
*Chemistry; Geology/Earth Science; Physics
*Industrial and Organizational Psychology; Psychology
*Social Work
*Criminal Justice/Law Enforcement Administration; Criminal Justice/Police Science
*Anthropology; Economics; International Relations and Affairs; Political Science and Government; Sociology

==Athletics==
MTSU is a member of the [[Sun Belt Conference]], competing on [[NCAA]] division level 1. Football is played at divisional level 1-A, and is sometimes played in a nationally-televised spotlight. The school's athletic mascot is a blue, winged horse named "Lightning", adopted in 1998.

==Links==
*[http://www.mtsu.edu/index.shtml Official site]
*[http://www.goblueraiders.com/ Official site of MTSU's Blue Raiders athletics]
*[http://www.petersons.com/ugchannel/code/InstVC.asp?inunid=7466&sponsor=1 Peterson's College Guide; overview of MTSU]
*[http://www.sunbeltsports.org/ Sun Belt Conference, official site]
{{Nb_US_universities‎}}

Jose Carreras

2008-06-30T20:39:33Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|left]]
'''José Carreras''' is a [[Spanish]] singer who was born in 1946 in Barcelona and is one of ''the three tenors''. Carreras is noted for his lyricism and purity of tone. He had outstanding collaborations in concert with Italian tenor [[Luciano Pavarotti]] and Spanish tenor [[Plácido Domingo]].

Among the [[opera]] works with which he is most identified are ''Un ballo in maschera'' by [[Giuseppi Verdi]], ''Tosca and La Bohème'' by [[Giacomo Puccini]], ''Pagliacci'' by Ruggero Leoncavallo, and ''Werther'' by [[Jules Massenet]].

== External links ==

*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761582150/Carreras_Jos%C3%A9.html José Carreras]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carreras, Jose}}

[[Category:Singers]]

Standard Model

2008-06-30T20:38:33Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The Standard Model of Fundamental Particles and Interactions]]
The '''Standard Model''' of [[Particle|particle]] physics is a [[quantum field theory]] that explains [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetism]], [[Strong nuclear force|strong]] and [[Weak interaction|weak]] [[Nuclear|nuclear]] interactions in a unified framework. It is a non-[[abelian]] gauge theory with the gauge [[Group|group]] [[Unitary group|SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1)]].

It was formulated in the 1970s and has withstood all experimental tests. It has only been modified by adding mass to the electron neutrino. Physicists are currently looking for its most audacious prediction, the [[Higgs boson]].

[[category: physics]]

National Christian Forensics and Communications Association

2008-06-30T20:38:29Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg‎ |thumb|300px|A cross examination at one of the 2007 NCFCA national quarterfinal debates.]]
In 1996, the [[Homeschool Legal Defense Association]] Chairman, [[Michael P. Farris]], and his daughter Cristy, formed a debate league. It soon began to grow, so much so, that in 2001 it formed its own league, the '''National Christian Forensic and Communication Association'''. In addition to becoming independent, NCFCA added Speech and Lincoln-Douglas debate to its competitions.

==Goal==

NCFCA states that its goal is to,
{{Cquote|Provide a means for home schooled students to learn and exercise analytical and oratorical skills, addressing life issues from a Biblical world view in a manner that glorifies God.}}

==Structure==
===Regions===

NCFCA is split into ten different regions. Each region has region coordinators, which govern their region. The regions themselves are also split into state coordinators.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Region
! States
! Coordinator
|-
| Region 1
| [[Hawaii]]
| Beth Vellalos
|-
| Region 2
| [[California]]
| Lars Jorgensen
|-
| Region 3
| [[Alaska]], [[Colorado]], [[Idaho]], [[Montana]], [[Nevada]], [[North Dakota]], [[Oregon]], [[South Dakota]], [[Utah]], [[Washington]], Western [[Canada]], [[Wyoming]]
|Kim Anderson
|-
| Region 4
| [[Arkansas]], [[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]]
|
|-
| Region 5
|[[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Minnesota]], [[Missouri]], [[Nebraska]]
|Mark Russell
|-
| Region 6
| [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Kentucky]], [[Michigan]], [[Wisconsin]]
| Diana Wolfson
|-
| Region 7
| [[Alabama]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Tennessee]]
|Roger Smith
|-
| Region 8
|[[Florida]], [[Georgia]], [[North Carolina]], [[South Carolina]]
| Lisa Kays
|-
| Region 9
|[[Delaware]], [[Maryland]], [[Ohio]], [[Virginia]], [[Washington D.C.]], [[West Virginia]]
|Herb Zick
|-
| Region 10
|[[Connecticut]], Eastern [[Canada]], [[Maine]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New Hampshire]], [[New Jersey]], [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Vermont]]
|Darlene Rossi
|-
|}

===Tournaments===

The tournament structure for NCFCA is similar to a sports season. There are three levels of tournament competition.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Tournament Type
! Eligibility
! Summary
|-
|Regional Invitational
|Be Homeschooled
|This would be seen as the regular season. There is no need to qualify to participate in this tournament level. Top finishers advance to the next level of tournament.There are usually many of these tournaments in each region.
|-
|Regionals
|Top finishers at the regional Invitational
|This level could also be known as the playoffs, top teams break to the next level.
|-
|Nationals
|Top teams from regions (number of slots range by amount of competitors in region)
|This is the final level of competition in NCFCA.
|}

Each region hosts its own tournaments which consist of only competitors from its region. There are only two exceptions to this. The first is a national open, this is a tournament that is open to all regions, and no prior qualification is needed to participate. National Opens give debaters the chance to qualify directly to Nationals (usually two to three slots are handed out for each speech or debate category). The second exception is nationals itself which is not held by any region and represents all ten.

The tournament structure is based on the amount of competitors. All tournaments have to two basic sections, "preliminary rounds"(6 rounds for debate) and "out rounds"( which can either be 3-4 rounds).

==Resolutions==
NCFCA members vote on the seasons debate topics and the winning resolution are announced at the end of the national tournament each year.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Team Policy
! Lincoln-Douglas
|-
| 1997
| Resolved: That the United States should change its rules governing foreign military intervention.
| n/a
|-
| 1997-1998
| Resolved: That Congress should enact laws which discourage the relocation of U.S. businesses to foreign countries.
| n/a
|-
| 1998-1999
| Resolved: That the United States federal government should substantially change the rules governing federal campaign finances.
| n/a
|-
| 1999-2000
| Resolved: That the [[16th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] should be repealed and replaced with an alternate tax policy.
|n/a
|-
|2000-2001
|Resolved: That the United States should significantly change its [[immigration]] policy
|n/a
|-
|2001-2002
|Resolved: That the United States federal government should significantly change its agricultural policy.
|Resolved: That the restriction of economic liberty for the sake of the general welfare is justified in the field of agriculture.
|-
|2002-2003
|Resolved: That the United States federal government should significantly change its agricultural policy.
|Resolved: That the restriction of economic liberty for the sake of the general welfare is justified in the field of agriculture.
|-
|2003-2004
|Resolved: That the United States should significantly change its [[trade policy]] within one or more of the following areas: The [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]].
|Resolved: That [[human rights]] should be valued above [[national sovereignty]].
|-
|2004-2005
|Resolved: That the United States should change its [[energy policy]] to substantially reduce its dependence on foreign oil.
|Resolved: That the restriction of [[civil rights]] for the sake of national security is justified.
|-
|2005-2006
|Resolved: That [[medical malpractice]] [[law]] should be significantly reformed in the United States.
|Resolved: That the media's right to protect confidential sources is more important than the public's right to know.
|-
|2006-2007
|Resolved: That the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) should be significantly reformed or abolished.
|Resolved: [[Democracy]] is overvalued by the United States government.
|-
|2007-2008
|Resolved: That the United States federal government should substantially change its approach to [[illegal immigration]].
|Resolved: That the United States of America ought to more highly value [[isolationism]].
|}

==External Links==
*[http://www.ncfca.org/ NCFCA's Website]
*[http://www.homeschooldebate.com/phorum/ Homeschool Debate]
*[http://www.hslda.org/Default.asp?bhcp=1 HSLDA]

==Sources==
*[http://www.ncfca.org/about_ncfca]
*[http://www.ncfca.org/old_topics]
*[http://www.ncfca.org/tournaments/hall_of_fame NCFCA Hall of Fame]

[[category:organizations]]

Cyprus

2008-06-30T20:38:25Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

{{country
|map=Landrieu.jpg
|flag=Landrieu.jpg
|capital=Nicosia
|president=Demetris Christofias
|currency=Euro
}}
'''Cyprus''' is an island nation in the Eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Its capital is [[Nicosia]]. The southern part of the island is controlled by the Republic of Cyprus, which is recognized by the majority of the world and is a member of the [[European Union]] and the [[United Nations]]. The northern part has been controlled by Turkish military forces since 1974, and has been known as the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] since 1983. However, only [[Turkey]] officially recognizes this. [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cy.html] Cyprus is the only member state of the EU with a [[Communist]] leader.

With the election of President Demetris Christofias in the Republic of Cyprus, relations between the Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus have thawed somewhat, and peace talks between the divided people are due to commence in June 2008 with the ultimate aim or reuniting the island. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7343103.stm]

Cyprus is a popular holiday destination, particularly for the [[British]], with many resorts in the coastal areas. English is widely spoken by the native population, and there is a large population of British ex-patriots on the island. In fact, nearly 13% of the island's population are foreign residents. [http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/mfa2006.nsf/All/C608F8AA92367595C22571FC003966FC?OpenDocument&highlight=foreign%20residents]

==History==
In the late [[Middle Ages]], Cyprus was part of the empire of [[Venice]], but in 1570, it was the object of a full scale attack by the forces of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Cypriots put up a sturdy defense for over a year, but by October of 1571, the conquest was complete. The [[Pope]] formed a coalition of Mediterranean states to fight the Turks, and this alliance won a decisive naval victory at the [[Battle of Lepanto]], but Cyprus reamained under Ottoman control. During the three centuries of Ottoman rule, many Turks would settle on the island.

In 1878, in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), administrative control of the island was ceded to the [[British Empire]]. The island would serve Britain as a key military base overlooking the vital [[Suez Canal]]. After [[World War I]], Britain annexed the island and made it a Crown Colony.

Cyprus attained independence in 1960

==Bible==

Cyprus is mentioned in Acts 13 of the [[Bible]], which records [[Paul]] as having traveled there on one of his missionary journeys. [http://www.nccbuscc.org/nab/bible/acts/acts13.htm]

==Miscellaneous==

*Approximately 78% of Cypriot citizens identify as members of the Greek Orthodox Church.
*The Euro replace the Cypriotic Pound in 2008
*Due to its history as a British colony, motor vehicles drive on the left side of the road and British-style power sockets are used.

==Links==
*[http://www.moi.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio.nsf/index_en/index_en?opendocument# Press and Information Office]
*[http://www.ambafrancechypre.org/cartographie/menucarte.htm Maps of Cyprus, including ethnic distribution before and after the partition]

[[Category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:EU Members]]

Project Apollo

2008-06-30T20:38:20Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

[[Image:Landrieu.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Apollo 17 on the launchpad.]]
<center>[[Image:Landrieu.jpg]]</center>
'''Project Apollo''' began when [[United States]] President [[John F. Kennedy]] proposed that America put a man on the [[Moon]] by the end of the 1960s. In 1969 his dream came true with [[Apollo 11]] when [[Neil Armstrong]] became the first man on the moon. The abortion mission [[Apollo 13]] almost resulted in the death of the crewmembers. Only extraordinary measures by the flight team on the ground and in the spacecraft prevented it from becoming a tragedy. Three astronauts, Grissom, White and Chaffee, had been killed two years earlier in a fire on Apollo 1 while the rocket was on the launch pad.

Beginning with Apollo 15, a small electric car was used to transport the astronauts across the surface of the moon. A total of twelve men walked on the moon, but after Apollo 17 in 1972, the program came to an end. The Saturn 5 booster constructed for Apollo 18 carried Skylab, America's first space station, into orbit.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Project Apollo Designation
| Mission
| Mission Start Date
| Mission End Date
|-
| SA-1
| The first test flight of the Saturn 1 rocket.
| October 27th, 1961
| October 27th, 1961
|-
| SA-2
| The second test flight of the Saturn 1 rocket.
| April 25th, 1962
| April 25th, 1962
|-
| SA-3
| The third test flight of the Saturn 1 rocket.
| November 16th, 1962
| November 16th, 1962
|-
| SA-4
| The fourth test flight of the Saturn 1 rocket.
| March 28th, 1963
| March 28th, 1963
|-
| QTV
| The first test flight of the Apollo Little Joe 2 rocket.
| August 28th, 1963
| August 28th, 1963
|-
| Pad Abort Test 1
| The first abort test of the Apollo spacecraft.
| November 7th, 1963
| November 7th, 1963
|-
| SA-5
| The first test flight of the Block 2 Saturn 1 rocket.
| January 29th, 1964
| April 30, 1966
|-
| A-001
| The second abort test of the Apollo spacecraft.
| May 13th, 1964
| May 13th, 1964
|-
| A-101
| The first test flight of the Saturn rocket together with the Apollo spacecraft.
| May 28th, 1964
| June 2nd, 1964
|-
| A-102
| The second test flight of the Saturn rocket together with the Apollo spacecraft.
| September 18th, 1964
| September 22nd, 1964
|-
| A-002
| The third abort test of the Apollo spacecraft.
| December 8th, 1964
| December 8th, 1964
|-
| A-103
| Launch of the Pegasus A satellite.
| February 16th, 1965
| September 17th, 1978
|-
| A-003
| The fourth abort test of the Apollo spacecraft.
| May 19th, 1965
| May 19th, 1965
|-
| A-104
| Launch of the Pegasus B satellite.
| May 25th, 1965
| November 3rd, 1979
|-
| Pad Abort Test 2
| The fifth abort test of the Apollo spacecraft.
| June 29th, 1965
| June 29th, 1965
|-
| A-105
| Launch of the Pegasus C satellite.
| July 30th, 1965
| August 4th, 1969
|-
| A-004
| The sixth abort test of the Apollo spacecraft.
| January 20th, 1966
| January 20th, 1966
|-
| AS-201
| The first test flight of the Saturn 1B rocket.
| February 26th, 1966
| February 26th, 1966
|-
| AS-203
| The second test flight of the Saturn 1B rocket.
| July 5th, 1966
| July 5th, 1966
|-
| AS-202
| The third test flight of the Saturn 1B rocket.
| August 25th, 1966
| August 25th, 1966
|-
| Apollo 1
| Apollo program training exercise. (Failure.)
| Destroyed on launch pad on January 27th, 1967
| Destroyed on launch pad on January 27th, 1967
|-
| Apollo 4
| First test flight of the Saturn 5 rocket.
| November 9th, 1967
| November 9th, 1967
|-
| Apollo 5
| First test flight of the Apollo Lunar Module.
| January 22nd, 1968
| January 23rd, 1968
|-
| Apollo 6
| Second test flight of the Saturn 5 rocket.
| April 4th, 1968
| April 4th, 1968
|-
| Apollo 7
| First 3 man American space mission.
| October 11th, 1968
| October 21nd, 1968
|-
| [[Apollo 8]]
| First human orbit around the moon.
| December 21st, 1968
| December 27th, 1968
|-
| [[Apollo 9]]
| First manned test flight of the Apollo Lunar Module
| March 3rd, 1969
| March 13th, 1969
|-
| [[Apollo 10]]
| Second manned test flight of the Apollo Lunar Module
| May 18th, 1969
| May 26th, 1969
|-
| [[Apollo 11]]
| First manned moon landing.
| July 16th, 1969
| July 24th, 1969
|-
| [[Apollo 12]]
| Second manned moon landing.
| November 14th, 1969
| November 24th, 1969
|-
| [[Apollo 13]]
| Third manned moon landing. (Failure.)
| April 11th, 1970
| April 17th, 1970
|-
| [[Apollo 14]]
| Third manned moon landing.
| January 31st, 1971
| February 9th, 1971
|-
| [[Apollo 15]]
| Fourth manned moon landing
| July 26th, 1971
| August 7th, 1971
|-
| [[Apollo 16]]
| Fifth manned moon landing
| April 16, 1972
| April 27th, 1972
|-
| [[Apollo 17]]
| Sixth manned moon landing
| December 17th, 1972
| December 19th, 1972
|}

== Conspiracy Theories ==

There has been speculation that the Apollo moon landing missions never took place, and that it was all staged for the benefit of the public. Supporting this interpretation is the fact that the American flag placed on the Moon should not wave,though it appears it does. Also there appears to be no stars in the sky as would be expected in space. [[NASA]] has thoroughly debunked these conspiracy theories.<ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast23feb_2.htm , The Great Moon Hoax (NASA)]</ref>

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Space Exploration]]
[[Category:Space Race]]

James Monroe

2008-06-30T20:38:13Z

ElmoTKerzakian:

{{President
|image=Landrieu.jpg
|seq=5
|term_start=March 4, 1817
|term_end=March 4, 1825<ref>http://www.trivia-library.com/a/5th-us-president-james-monroe.htm</ref>
|party=Democratic-Republican
|vp=Daniel D. Tompkins
|previous=James Madison
|next=John Quincy Adams
|birth_date=April 28, 1758
|birth_place=Westmoreland County, Virginia
|death_date=July 4, 1831
|death_place=New York, New York
|spouse=Elizabeth Kortright Monroe
|religion=[[Episcopalian]]
}}
'''James Monroe''' was the 5th [[President of the United States of America]] and a lieutenant in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. He was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia on April 28, 1758. He served two terms as president from 1817-1825.

Monroe was one of the most [[conservative]] presidents in American history, and was nearly re-elected by unanimous consent (reportedly one elector withheld his vote out of deference to the unanimous consent given to President [[George Washington]]). Perhaps Monroe's most famous legacy is the [[Monroe Doctrine]], which instructed European powers to stop colonizing the Americas. His reason for this was conservative: the European and American systems were fundamentally different, and thus Europe should not colonize America anymore or even interfere in our Hemisphere. To this day presidents continue to cite the Monroe Doctrine whenever a European country tries to do something over here.

The "[[Era of Good Feelings]]" overtook the nation under Monroe's conservative leadership. The economy prospered. Monroe vetoed an appropriation for road repairs in the Cumberland Road Bill (1822), stating that "congress does not possess the power under the constitution to pass such a law."<ref>http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy338.html</ref> With this conservative in the White House, the House rejected most spending bills on internal projects.

The U.S. Senate was evenly split during the Monroe Administration: 11 free states and 11 slave states (Delaware and Kentucky were slave states). Monroe peacefully resolved the difficult dispute over slavery in new states with the Missouri Compromise: admit one free state (Maine) to balance one new slave state (Missouri), and ban slavery above a certain latitude (36 degrees, 30 minutes) in the new Louisiana Territory.

Monroe's presidency also oversaw [[Spain]] ceding [[Florida]] to the United States. <ref>http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/jmonroe.html</ref>

== Background ==

Monroe had served in the [[American Revolution]], and led the charge at the [[Battle of Trenton]]. He was hit by a musket ball in his shoulder, striking an artery. After he recovered, he continued to fight for the Patriots.<ref>http://www.amerisearch.net/index.php?date=2004-04-28&view=View</ref>

As an anti-Federalist, he opposed ratification of the [[U.S. Constitution]] in the absence of a [[Bill of Rights]].

He served as Senator and also Governor of Virginia. He was the [[Secretary of State]] in the Administration of [[Thomas Jefferson]], where Monroe negotiated the [[Louisiana Purchase]].

Monroe was [[Secretary of War]] under President [[James Madison]] during the [[War of 1812]].

== In His Own Words ==

When elected President, James Monroe declared in his Inaugural Address, March 4, 1817:

:I enter on the trust to which I have been called by the suffrages of my fellow-citizens with my fervent prayers to the Almighty that He will be graciously pleased to continue to us that protection which He has already so conspicuously displayed.

President Monroe declared in his First Annual Message to Congress in 1817:

:For advantages so numerous and highly important it is our duty to unite in grateful acknowledgments to that Omnipotent Being from whom they are derived, and in unceasing prayer that He will endow us with virtue and strength to maintain and hand them down in their utmost purity to our latest posterity.

Monroe died on July 4, 1831 in New York City.

== References ==

<references/>

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Monroe, James}}

[[Category:Virginia Governors]]