Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

The Alamo

2008-11-10T01:03:10Z

DrunkenBastard: removing some too-obvious bias

{{Mergeto | Alamo | Talk:Alamo#Merge proposal |date=September 2008 }}

Typically, '''The Alamo''' refers to the [[Battle of the Alamo]] in 1836, in direct reference to a building referred to as "[[Alamo Mission in San Antonio|The Alamo]]" in [[San Antonio, Texas]].

''The Alamo'' also might refer to one of several films inspired by the battle, which include:

* [[The Alamo (1936 film)|''The Alamo'' (1936 film)]]
*''Heroes of the Alamo'' , a 1937 [[film]]
*''The Man from the Alamo'', a 1953 film with [[Glenn Ford]]
*''[[Davy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier]]'', 1954 with Fess Parker.
* [[The Last Command (1955 film)|''The Last Command'' (film)]], 1955 with Sterling Hayden.
* [[The Alamo (1960 film)|''The Alamo'' (1960 film)]]
*''[[The Alamo: Thirteen Days to Glory]]'', 1987
* [[The Alamo (2004 film)|''The Alamo'' (2004 film)]]

==Other uses==
* ''[[Remember the Alamo (song)]]''
* [[Alamo (sculpture)]], in the middle of Astor Place, Manhattan

{{disambig}}

[[es:El Álamo (desambiguación)]]
[[it:The Alamo]]

Crusades

2008-11-10T01:03:03Z

DrunkenBastard: removing some too-obvious bias

{{sprotect|small=yes}}
{{dablink| This article is about the medieval crusades. For other uses, see [[Crusade (disambiguation)]] and [[wiktionary:Crusade|Crusade (definition)]].}}
{{redirect2|Crusade|Crusader}}
[[Image:SiegeofAntioch.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|The Siege of [[Antioch]], from a medieval miniature painting, during the [[First Crusade]].]] {{Crusade}}

The '''Crusades''' were a series of [[religious war|religion driven military campaigns]] waged by much of [[Christian]] [[Europe]] against external and internal opponents. Crusades were fought mainly against [[Muslim]]s, though campaigns were also directed against [[Paganism|pagan]] [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], [[Jew]]s, [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Russian and Greek Orthodox Christians]], [[Mongols]], [[Catharism|Cathars]], [[Hussite]]s, [[Waldensians]], [[Old Prussians]] and political enemies of the [[pope]]s.<ref name="OHC" /> Crusaders took [[vow]]s and were granted an [[indulgence]] for past [[sin]]s.<ref name="OHC">Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0192853643.</ref>

The Crusades originally had the goal of recapturing [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Holy Land]] from [[Muslim]] rule and were launched in response to a call from the [[Eastern Orthodox]] [[Byzantine Empire]] for help against the expansion of the Muslim [[Seljuk Turks]] into [[Anatolia]]. The term is also used to describe contemporaneous and subsequent campaigns conducted through to the 16th century in territories outside [[the Levant]]<ref>such as Muslim territories in [[Al Andalus]], [[Ifriqiya]], and [[Egypt]], as well as in [[Eastern Europe]]</ref> usually against pagans, [[Heresy|heretics]], and peoples under the ban of [[excommunication]]<ref name="CathEnc"/> for a mixture of religious, economic, and political reasons.<ref>e.g. the [[Albigensian Crusade]], the [[Aragonese Crusade]], the [[Reconquista]] and the [[Northern Crusades]].</ref> Rivalries among both Christian and Muslim powers led also to alliances between religious factions against their opponents, such as the Christian alliance with the [[Sultanate of Rum]] during the [[Fifth Crusade]].

The Crusades had far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts, some of which have lasted into contemporary times. Because of internal conflicts among Christian kingdoms and political powers, some of the crusade expeditions were diverted from their original aim, such as the [[Fourth Crusade]], which resulted in the sack of Christian [[Constantinople]] and the partition of the Byzantine Empire between [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and the Crusaders. The [[Sixth Crusade]] was the first crusade to set sail without the official blessing of the Pope.<ref>{{cite web | last=Halsall | first=Paul | date=December 1997 | url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1228frederick2.html
| title=Philip de Novare: ''Les Gestes des Ciprois'', The Crusade of Frederick II, 1228-29 | work=Medieval Sourcebook | publisher=Fordham University
| accessdate=2008-02-08 }}—"Gregory IX had in fact excommunicated Frederick before he left Sicily the second time"</ref> The [[Seventh Crusade|Seventh]], [[Eighth Crusade|Eighth]] and [[Ninth Crusade]]s resulted in [[Mamluk]] and [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsid]] victories, as the [[Ninth Crusade]] marked the end of the Crusades in the [[Middle East]].<ref>The Gospel in All Lands By Methodist Episcopal Church Missionary Society, Missionary Society, Methodist Episcopal Church, pg. 262</ref>

== Historical context ==
{{Quote box
|align=right
|width=35%
|quote=It is necessary to look for the origin of a crusading ideal in the struggle between Christians and Muslims in Spain and consider how the idea of a holy war emerged from this background.
|source=[[Norman F. Cantor]]
|}}

=== Middle Eastern situation ===
The Muslim presence in the Holy Land began with the initial [[Muslim conquests|Arab conquest]] of [[Palestine]] in the 7th century. The Muslim armies' successes put increasing pressure on the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Byzantine Empire.

Another factor that contributed to the change in Western attitudes towards the East came in the year 1009, when the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] Caliph [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] ordered the destruction of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. In 1039 his successor, after requiring large sums be paid for the right, permitted the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it.<ref>Denys Pringle "Architecture in Latin East" in ''The Oxford History of the Crusades'' ed. Jonathan Riley-Smith (New York:Oxford University Press,1999) 157</ref> Pilgrimages were allowed to the Holy Lands before and after the Sepulchre was rebuilt, but for a time pilgrims were captured and some of the clergy were killed. The Muslim conquerors eventually realized that the wealth of Jerusalem came from the pilgrims; with this realization the persecution of pilgrims stopped.<ref>Madden, p. 5</ref> However, the damage was already done, and the violence of the Seljuk Turks became part of the concern that spread the passion for the Crusades.<ref>Madden, p. 8</ref>

=== Western European situation ===
The origins of the Crusades lie in developments in [[Western Europe]] earlier in the [[Middle Ages]], as well as the deteriorating situation of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the east caused by a new wave of [[Byzantine-Seljuk wars|Turkish Muslim attacks]]. The breakdown of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the late 9th century, combined with the relative stabilization of local European borders after the Christianization of the [[Vikings]], [[Slavs]], and [[Magyars]], had produced a large class of armed warriors whose energies were misplaced fighting one another and terrorizing the local populace. The Church tried to stem this violence with the [[Peace and Truce of God]] movements, which was somewhat successful, but trained warriors always sought an outlet for their skills, and opportunities for territorial expansion were becoming less attractive for large segments of the nobility. One exception was the ''[[Reconquista]]'' in [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], which at times occupied Iberian [[knights]] and some [[mercenaries]] from elsewhere in Europe in the fight against the Islamic [[Moors]], who had successfully overrun most of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] over the preceding two centuries. {{Fact|date=October 2008}}

In 1063, [[Pope Alexander II]] had given his blessing to Iberian Christians in their wars against the Muslims, granting both a papal standard (the ''vexillum sancti Petri'') and an [[indulgence]] to those who were killed in battle. Pleas from the Byzantine Emperors, now threatened by the [[Seljuks]], thus fell on ready ears. These occurred in 1074, from Emperor [[Michael VII]] to [[Pope Gregory VII]] and in 1095, from Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] to [[Pope Urban II]]. One source identifies Michael VII in Chinese records as a ruler of Byzantium (Fulin) who sent an envoy to [[Song Dynasty]] China in 1081.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/romchin1.html East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E.]</ref><ref>However, Chinese scholar Yang Xianyi states it was [[Nikephoros Melissenos|Melissenos Kaisar]], brother-in-law of Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]].</ref> A Chinese scholar suggests that this and further Byzantine envoys in 1091 were pleas for China to aid in the fight against the Turks.<ref name=yang>{{Zh}} [http://www.eurasianhistory.com/data/articles/c01/916.html Fundamental Historical Research by Yang Xianyi]</ref>
[[Image:Almoravid map reconquest loc.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of the Iberian Peninsula at the time of the Almoravid arrival in the 11th century- Christian Kingdoms included '''A'''ragón, '''C'''astile, '''L'''eon, '''N'''avarre, and '''P'''ortugal]]
The Crusades were, in part, an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose up in the late 11th century among the lay public. A crusader would, after pronouncing a solemn vow, receive a cross from the hands of the pope or his [[papal legate|legate]]s, and was thenceforth considered a "soldier of the Church". This was partly because of the [[Investiture Controversy]], which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First Crusade. As both sides of the Investiture Controversy tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. The result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs, and was further strengthened by religious propaganda, which advocated [[Just War]] in order to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims. The Holy Land included Jerusalem (where the [[Death of Jesus|death]], [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] and [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|ascension]] into [[heaven]] of [[Jesus]] took place according to Christian theology) and [[Antioch]] (the first Christian city). Further, the remission of sin was a driving factor and provided any God-fearing man who had committed sins with an irresistible way out of eternal damnation in [[Hell]]. It was a hotly debated issue throughout the Crusades as what exactly "remission of sin" meant. Most believed that by retaking Jerusalem they would go straight to heaven after death. However, much controversy surrounds exactly what was promised by the popes of the time. One theory was that one had to die fighting for Jerusalem for the remission to apply, which would hew more closely to what [[Pope Urban II]] said in his speeches. This meant that if the crusaders were successful, and retook Jerusalem, the survivors would not be given remission. Another theory was that if one reached Jerusalem, one would be relieved of the sins one had committed before the Crusade. Therefore one could still be sentenced to [[Hell]] for sins committed afterwards.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}

All of these factors were manifested in the overwhelming popular support for the First Crusade and the religious vitality of the 12th century. {{Fact|date=October 2008}}

=== Immediate cause ===
[[Image:CouncilofClermont.jpg|thumb|right|250px|15th century painting of Pope [[Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]], where he preached an impassioned sermon to take back the Holy Land.]]
The immediate cause of the First Crusade was the Byzantine emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]]'s appeal to [[Pope Urban II]] for mercenaries to help him resist Muslim advances into territory of the Byzantine Empire. In 1071, at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], the Byzantine Empire was defeated, which led to the loss of all of Asia Minor (modern [[Turkey]]) save the coastlands. Although attempts at reconciliation after the [[East-West Schism]] between the Catholic Western Church and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] had failed, Alexius I hoped for a positive response from Urban II and got it, although it turned out to be more expansive and less helpful than he had expected.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}

When the First Crusade was preached in 1095, the Christian princes of northern Iberia had been fighting their way out of the mountains of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and [[Asturias]], the [[Basque Country (historical territory)|Basque Country]] and [[Navarre]], with increasing success, for about a hundred years. The fall of Moorish [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] to the [[Kingdom of León]] in 1085 was a major victory, but the turning points of the ''[[Reconquista]]'' still lay in the future. The disunity of Muslim emirs was an essential factor.

While the ''[[Reconquista]]'' was the most prominent example of European reactions against Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example. The [[Normans|Norman]] adventurer [[Robert Guiscard]] had conquered the "toe of Italy," Calabria, in 1057 and was holding what had traditionally been Byzantine territory against the Muslims of [[Sicily]]. The maritime states of [[Pisa]], [[Genoa]] and [[Catalonia]] were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in [[Majorca]] and [[Sardinia]], freeing the coasts of Italy and Catalonia from Muslim raids. Much earlier, the Christian homelands of [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], Palestine, [[Egypt]], and so on had been conquered by Muslim armies. This long history of losing territories to a religious enemy created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I's call for holy war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands starting with Jerusalem.

The papacy of [[Pope Gregory VII]] had struggled with reservations about the doctrinal validity of a holy war and the shedding of blood for the Lord and had, with difficulty, resolved the question in favour of justified violence. More importantly to the Pope, the Christians who made pilgrimages to the Holy Land were being persecuted. Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]], Gregory's intellectual model, had justified the use of force in the service of Christ in ''[[The City of God]]'', and a Christian "[[just war]]" might enhance the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as Gregory saw himself. The northerners would be cemented to [[Rome]], and their troublesome knights could see the only kind of action that suited them. Previous attempts by the church to stem such violence, such as the concept of the "Peace of God", were not as successful as hoped. To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies might be unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland). A Latin hegemony in the [[Levant]] would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy's claims of supremacy over the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], which had resulted in the [[Great Schism]] of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms.

In the Byzantine homelands, the Eastern Emperor's weakness was revealed by the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, which reduced the Empire's Asian territory to a region in western Anatolia and around [[Constantinople]]. A sure sign of Byzantine desperation was the appeal of [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] to his enemy, the Pope, for aid. But Gregory was occupied with the [[Investiture Controversy]] and could not call on the German emperor, so a crusade never took shape.

For Gregory's more moderate successor, [[Pope Urban II]], a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control. The disaffected Germans and the Normans were not to be counted on, but the heart and backbone of a crusade could be found in Urban's own homeland among the northern French.

=== After the First Crusade ===

On a popular level, the first crusades unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious Christian fury that was expressed in the massacres of [[Jew]]s that accompanied the movement of the Crusader mobs through Europe, as well as the violent treatment of "[[schism]]atic" Orthodox Christians of the east. During many of the attacks on Jews, local Bishops and Christians made attempts to protect Jews from the mobs that were passing through. Jews were often offered sanctuary in churches and other Christian buildings.

In the 13th century, Crusades never expressed such a popular fever, and after [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] fell for the last time in 1291 and the [[Occitania|Occitan]] [[Cathar]]s were exterminated during the [[Albigensian Crusade]], the crusading ideal became devalued by Papal justifications of political and territorial aggressions within Catholic Europe.

The last crusading order of knights to hold territory were the [[Knights Hospitaller]]. After the final fall of Acre, they took control of the island of [[Rhodes]], and in the sixteenth century, were driven to [[Malta]], before being finally unseated by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] in 1798.

== List of crusades ==
A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades totals nine during the 11th to 13th centuries. This division is arbitrary and excludes many important expeditions, among them those of the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. In reality, the crusades continued until the end of the 17th century, the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|crusade of Lepanto]] occurring in 1571, that of [[Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664)|Hungary in 1664]], and the crusade to [[Siege of Candia|Candia]] in 1669.<ref name="ce">{{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Crusades|Crusades]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}</ref> The [[Knights Hospitaller]] continued to crusade in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] around [[Malta]] until their defeat by [[Napoleon]] in 1798. There were frequent "minor" Crusades throughout this period, not only in Palestine but also in the Iberian Peninsula and central Europe, against Muslims and also Christian heretics and personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful monarchs.

=== First Crusade 1095-1099 ===
{{main|First Crusade}}
[[Image:CrusaderAtrocitiesBibliothequeNationaleDeFrance.jpg|thumb|right|400px|For the first decade, the Crusaders pursed a policy of terror against Muslims and Jews that included mass executions, the throwing of severed heads over besieged cities walls, exhibition and mutilation of naked cadavers, and even [[cannibalism]], as was recorded after the [[Siege of Maarat]].]]
In March 1095 at the [[Council of Piacenza]], ambassadors sent by [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexius I]] called for help with defending his empire against the [[Seljuk Turks]]. Later that year, at the [[Council of Clermont]], [[Pope Urban II]] called upon all Christians to join a war against the Turks, promising those who died in the endeavor would receive immediate remission of their sins.<ref>
[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html#Fulcher Fulcher of Chartres], Medieval Sourcebook.</ref> [[Sigurd I of Norway]] was the first European king who went on a crusade and crusader armies managed to defeat two substantial Turkish forces at [[Battle of Dorylaeum|Dorylaeum]] and at [[Antioch]].

The [[Siege of Antioch]] took place shortly before the siege on Jerusalem during the first Crusade. Antioch fell to the Franks in May 1098 but not before a lengthy siege. The ruler of Antioch was not sure how the Christians living within his city would react and he forced them to live outside the city during the siege, though he promised to protect their wives and children from harm, while Jews and Muslims fought together. The siege only came to end when the city was betrayed and the Franks entered through the water-gate of the town causing the leader to flee. Once inside the city, as was standard military practice at the time,<ref>[[Barbara Tuchman|Tuchman, Barbara]]. ''A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century''. Alfred A. Knopf; Reissue edition. (August 1978) 279. ISBN-10: 0394400267.</ref> the Franks then massacred the civilians, destroyed mosques and pillaged the city.<ref name = "Gabrieli-1984">Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli, trans. E. J. Costello. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984.</ref> The crusaders finally marched to the walls of Jerusalem with only a fraction of their original forces.

====Siege of Jerusalem====
[[Image:Gottfrid af Bouillon.jpg|thumb|[[Godfrey of Bouillon|Godefroy de Bouillon]], a French knight, leader of the [[First Crusade]] and founder of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].]]
{{main|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
The Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the invading Franks. They were unsuccessful though and on 15 July 1099 the crusaders entered the city.<ref name = "Gabrieli-1984"/> Again, they proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and Muslim civilians and pillaged or destroyed mosques and the city itself.<ref>Trumpbour, John. “Crusades.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).</ref> One historian has written that the "isolation, alienation and fear"<ref name="OHC" /> felt by the Franks so far from home helps to explain the atrocities they committed, including the cannibalism which was recorded after the [[Siege of Maarat]] in 1098.<ref>"Les Croisades, origines et consequences", p.62, Claude Lebedel, ISBN 2737341361</ref> As a result of the First Crusade, several small [[Crusader states]] were created, notably the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. In the Kingdom of Jerusalem at most 120 000 Franks (predominantly [[French language|French]]-speaking Western Christians) ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.<ref>Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in ''The Crusades: The Essential Readings'', ed. [[Thomas Madden|Thomas F. Madden]], Blackwell, 2002, pg. 244. Originally published in ''Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100-1300'', ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press, 1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from [[Joshua Prawer]], ''Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem'', tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498, 568-72.</ref>

The Crusaders also tried to gain control of the city of [[Tyre]], but were defeated by the Muslims. The people of Tyre asked [[Zahir al-Din Atabek]], the leader of [[Damascus]], for help defending their city from the Franks with the promise to surrender Tyre to him. When the Franks were defeated the people of Tyre did not surrender the city, but Zahir al-Din simply said “What I have done I have done only for the sake of God and the Muslims, nor out of desire for wealth and kingdom.”<ref>The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, Extracted and translated from the chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi, translated by H.A.R. Gibb (London: Luzac & Co., 1932). </ref>

After gaining control of Jerusalem the Crusaders created four Crusader states: the [[kingdom of Jerusalem]], the [[County of Edessa]], the [[Principality of Antioch]] and the [[County of Tripoli]].<ref>Trumpbour, John. “Crusades.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).</ref> Initially, Muslims did very little about the Crusader states due to internal conflicts.<ref>“Crusades” In The Islamic World: past and Present. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).</ref>
Eventually, the Muslims began to reunite under the leadership of [[Imad al-Din Zangi]]. He began by re-taking Edessa in 1144. It was the first city to fall to the Crusaders, and became the first to be recaptured by the Muslims. This led the Pope to call for a second Crusade.

==== Crusade of 1101 ====
{{main|Crusade of 1101}}

Following this crusade there was a second, less successful wave of crusaders. This is known as the Crusade of 1101 and may be considered an adjunct of the First Crusade.

=== Second Crusade 1147–1149 ===
[[Image:Europe 1142.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The status of Europe in 1142]]
{{main|Second Crusade}}
After a period of relative peace in which Christians and Muslims co-existed in the Holy Land, Muslims conquered the town of [[County of Edessa|Edessa]]. A new crusade was called for by various preachers, most notably by [[Bernard of Clairvaux]]. French and South German armies, under the Kings [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]] and [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III]] respectively, marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to win any major victories, launching a failed pre-emptive siege of Damascus, an independent city that would soon fall into the hands of [[Nur ad-Din]], the main enemy of the Crusaders.<ref name="lewis">{{cite book|author=Lewis, Archibald|title=Nomads and Crusaders: AD 1000-1368.|date=January 1988|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253206527}}</ref> On the other side of the Mediterranean, however, the Second Crusade met with great success as a group of Northern European Crusaders stopped in [[Portugal]], allied with the [[List of Portuguese monarchs|Portuguese King]], [[Afonso I of Portugal]], and [[Siege of Lisbon|retook Lisbon]] from the Muslims in 1147.<ref name="lewis"/> In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings of France and Germany had returned to their countries without any result. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who in his preachings had encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish population of the Rhineland.<ref name=CathEnc>''Crusades'' in ''The New Catholic Encyclopedia'', New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966, Vol. IV, p. 508.[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04543c.htm]</ref> North Germans and Danes attacked the [[Wends]] during the 1147 [[Wendish Crusade]], which was unsuccessful as well.

=== Third Crusade 1187–1192 ===
{{main|Third Crusade}}
[[Image:Richard I of England - Palace of Westminster - 24042004.jpg|thumb|right|A statue of king [[Richard I of England]] (Richard the Lionheart), outside [[Westminster Palace]] in [[London]].]]
In 1187, [[Saladin]], Sultan of Egypt, recaptured Jerusalem, following the Battle of Hattin. After taking Jerusalem back from the Christians, the Muslims spared civilians and for the most part left churches and shrines untouched to be able to collect ransom money from the Franks.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Saladin is remembered respectfully in both European and Islamic sources as a man who "always stuck to his promise and was loyal."<ref>Hallam, Elizabeth. Chronicles of the Crusades: Eye-Witness Accounts of the wars Between Christianity and Islam. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989. pp 155-155.</ref> The reports of Saladin's victories shocked Europe. [[Pope]] [[Pope Gregory VIII|Gregory VIII]] called for a crusade, which was led by several of Europe's most important leaders: [[Philip II of France]], [[Richard I of England]] (aka Richard the Lionheart), and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Frederick drowned in [[Cilicia]] in 1190, leaving an unstable alliance between the English and the French. Before his arrival in the Holy Land Richard captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191.<ref name=lewis/> Cyprus would serve as a Crusader base for centuries to come, and would remain in Western European hands until the Ottoman Empire conquered the island from Venice in 1571.<ref name=lewis/> After reaching port, Richard the Lionheart promised to leave noncombatants unharmed if the city of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] surrendered. The brutality of an outnumbered army in a hostile land could be seen again when the city surrendered and Richard proceeded to massacre everyone, despite his earlier promise.<ref>Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press: New York, 2005. pg. 59.</ref> From the Frankish point of view, an oath made to a non-Christian was no oath at all. Philip left, in 1191, after the Crusaders had recaptured Acre from the Muslims. The Crusader army headed south along the coast of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. They defeated the Muslims near [[Arsuf]], recaptured the port city of Jaffa, and were in sight of Jerusalem.<ref name=lewis/> However, Richard did not believe he would be able to hold Jerusalem once it was captured, as the majority of Crusaders would then return to Europe, and the crusade ended without the taking of Jerusalem.<ref name=lewis/> Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin. The treaty allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims to make pilgrimages to the Holy Land (Jerusalem), while it remained under Muslim control.

On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked and he ended up in [[Austria]], where his enemy, [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Duke Leopold]], captured him. The Duke delivered Richard to the Emperor [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]], who held the King for ransom. By 1197, Henry felt ready for a crusade, but he died in the same year of [[malaria]]. Richard I died during fighting in Europe and never returned to the Holy Land. The Third Crusade is sometimes referred to as the Kings' Crusade.

===Fourth Crusade 1202–1204===
{{main|Fourth Crusade}}
The Fourth Crusade was initiated in 1202 by [[Pope Innocent III]], with the intention of invading the Holy Land through Egypt. Because the Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for the fleet and provisions that they had contracted from the [[Venice|Venetians]], [[Doge of Venice|Doge]] [[Enrico Dandolo]] enlisted the crusaders to restore the Christian city of Zara ([[Zadar]]) to obedience. Because they subsequently lacked provisions and time on their vessel lease, the leaders decided to go to [[Constantinople]], where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the Crusaders sacked the city in 1204, ending in the establishment of the Eastern [[Latin Empire]] throughout the Greek Byzantine Empire. This is often seen as the final breaking point of the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] between the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and (Western) [[Roman Catholic Church]].

===Albigensian Crusade===
{{main|Albigensian Crusade}}

The [[Albigensian]] Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the [[heresy|heretical]] [[Cathars]] of [[Occitania]] (the south of modern-day [[France]]). It was a decade-long struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.

===Children's Crusade===
[[Image:ChristianStatesInTheLevant.jpg|thumb|Christian states in the Levant.]]
{{main|Children's Crusade}}

The Children's Crusade is a series of possibly fictitious or misinterpreted events of 1212. The story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany, which [[Pope Innocent III]] interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. The leader of the French army, Stephen, led 30,000 children. The leader of the German army, Nicholas, led 7,000 children. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land: those who did not return home or settle along the route to Jerusalem either died from [[shipwreck]] or [[starvation|hunger]], or were sold into [[slavery]] in [[Egypt]] or [[North Africa]].

===Fifth Crusade 1217–1221===
{{main|Fifth Crusade}}

By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade afoot, and the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]] (1215) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. In the first phase, a crusading force from [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]] joined the forces of the king of Jerusalem and the [[Principality of Antioch|prince of Antioch]] to take back Jerusalem. In the second phase, crusader forces achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of [[Damietta]] in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insistence of the [[papal legate]], [[Pelagio Galvani|Pelagius]], they then launched a foolhardy attack on [[Cairo]] in July of 1221. The crusaders were turned back after their dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat. A night-time attack by the ruler of Egypt, the powerful Sultan [[Al-Kamil]], resulted in a great number of crusader losses and eventually in the surrender of the army. Al-Kamil agreed to an eight-year peace agreement with Europe.

===Sixth Crusade 1228–1229===
{{main|Sixth Crusade}}

[[Emperor Frederick II]] had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his words, for which he was [[excommunication|excommunicated]] by [[Pope Gregory IX]] in 1228. He nonetheless set sail from [[Brindisi]], landed in Palestine, and through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success: Jerusalem, [[Nazareth]], and [[Bethlehem]] were delivered to the crusaders for a period of ten years.
[[Image:Crusade damietta.jpg|right|frame|[[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] attacks [[Damietta]]]]

In 1229 after failing to conquer Egypt, Frederick II of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], made a peace treaty with [[Al-Kamil]], the ruler of Egypt. This treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of Jerusalem, while the Muslims were given control of the [[Dome of the Rock]] and the [[Al-Aksa]] mosque. The peace brought about by this treaty lasted for about ten years.<ref>Lamb, Harold. The Crusades: The Flame of Islam, Double Day and Company, Inc. New York. 1931 pg. 310-311.</ref> Many of the Muslims though were not happy with Al-Kamil for giving up control of Jerusalem and in 1244, following a [[Siege of Jerusalem (1244)|siege]], the Muslims regained control of the city.<ref>“Crusades” In The Islamic World: past and Present. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).</ref>

===Seventh Crusade 1248–1254===
{{main|Seventh Crusade}}

The papal interests represented by the [[Knights Templar|Templars]] brought on a conflict with Egypt in 1243, and in the following year a [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmian]] force summoned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. The crusaders were drawn into battle at [[Battle of La Forbie|La Forbie]] in [[Gaza]]. The crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were completely defeated within forty-eight hours by [[Baibars]]' force of [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmian]] tribesmen. This battle is considered by many historians to have been the death knell to the [[Outremer|Kingdom of Outremer.]] Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done, [[Louis IX of France]] organized a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254, leaving from the newly constructed port of [[Aigues-Mortes]] in southern France. It was a failure, and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first [[Shepherds' Crusade]] in 1251.

===Eighth Crusade 1270===
{{main|Eighth Crusade}}

The eighth Crusade was organized by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in 1270, again sailing from Aigues-Mortes, initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the crusader states in [[Syria]]. However, the crusade was diverted to [[Tunis]], where Louis spent only two months before dying. For his efforts, Louis was later canonised. The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth.

=== Ninth Crusade 1271–1272 ===
[[Image:Beibars.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Artistic illustration of [[Baibars]] in battle]]
{{main|Ninth Crusade}}

The future [[Edward I of England]] undertook another expedition against [[Baibars]] in 1271, after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. Louis died in Tunisia. The Ninth Crusade was deemed a failure and ended the Crusades in the Middle East.<ref>Dore's Illustrations of the Crusades By Gustave Dore, Dore</ref>

In their later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian [[Mamluks]], the Crusaders' hopes rested with a [[Franco-Mongol alliance]]. The [[Ilkhanate]]'s [[Mongols]] were thought to be sympathetic to Christianity, and the Frankish princes were most effective in gathering their help, engineering their invasions of the Middle East on several occasions.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Although the Mongols successfully attacked as far south as Damascus on these campaigns, the ability to effectively coordinate with Crusades from the west was repeatedly frustrated most notably at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260. The Mamluks eventually made good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the Franks. With the fall of [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]] (1268), [[County of Tripoli|Tripoli]] (1289), and [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Acre]] (1291), those Christians unable to leave the cities were massacred or [[slave trade|enslaved]] and the last traces of Christian rule in the [[Levant]] disappeared.<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Asia/Armenia/_Texts/KURARM/30*.html Hetoum II (1289‑1297)]</ref><ref>[http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/ancient_medieval_wars/3028006.html?showAll=y&c=y Third Crusade: Siege of Acre]</ref>

The very last Frankish foothold was the island of Ruad, three kilometers from the Syrian shore, which was occupied for several years by the [[Knights Templar]] but was ultimately lost to the [[Mamluks]] in the [[Siege of Ruad]] on September 26th, 1302.

===Northern Crusades (Baltic and Germany) ===
[[Image:nevsky2.jpg|thumb|275px|The [[Teutonic Knights]] in [[Pskov]] in 1240 as depicted in [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s ''[[Alexander Nevsky (film)|Alexander Nevsky]]'' (1938).]]
{{main|Northern Crusades}}

The Crusades in the [[Baltic Sea]] area and in [[Central Europe]] were efforts by (mostly German) Christians to subjugate and convert the peoples of these areas to Christianity. These Crusades ranged from the 12th century, contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, to the 16th century.

Contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, [[Saxons]] and [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]] fought against [[Polabian Slavs]] in the 1147 [[Wendish Crusade]]. In the 13th century, the [[Teutonic Knights]] led [[Germans]], [[Poles]], and [[Pomeranians]] against the [[Old Prussians]] during the [[Prussian Crusade]].

Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the [[Stedingen|Stedingers]]. This crusade was special, because the Stedingers were not heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were free [[Frisians|Frisian]] farmers who resented attempts of the count of [[Oldenburg (state)|Oldenburg]] and the archbishop [[Archbishopric of Bremen|Bremen-Hamburg]] to make an end to their freedoms. The archbishop excommunicated them, and [[Pope Gregory IX]] declared a crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.

The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] [[Russia]] (particularly the Republics of [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] and [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]]), an enterprise endorsed by [[Pope Gregory IX]], can also be considered as a part of the Northern Crusades. One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was the [[Battle of the Ice]] in 1242. With or without the Pope's blessing, Sweden also undertook several [[Swedish-Novgorodian Wars|crusades against Orthodox Novgorod]].

===Other crusades===
====Crusade against the Tatars====

In 1259 Mongols led by [[Burundai]] and [[Nogai Khan]] ravaged the principality of [[Halych-Volynia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Poland]]. After that [[Pope Alexander IV]] tried without success to create a crusade against the [[Blue Horde]].

In the 14th century, Khan [[Tokhtamysh]] combined the Blue and White Hordes forming the [[Golden Horde]]. It seemed that the power of the Golden Horde had begun to rise, but in 1389, Tokhtamysh made the disastrous decision of waging war on his former master, the great [[Tamerlane]]. Tamerlane's hordes rampaged through southern [[Russia]], crippling the Golden Horde's economy and practically wiping out its defenses in those lands.

After losing the war, Tokhtamysh was then dethroned by the party of Khan Temur Kutlugh and Emir Edigu, supported by Tamerlane. When Tokhtamysh asked [[Vytautas the Great]] for assistance in retaking the Horde, the latter readily gathered a huge army which included Lithuanians, Ruthenians, Russians, [[Mongol]]s, [[Moldavia]]ns, Poles, Romanians and [[Teutonic Knights]].

In 1398, the huge army moved from Moldavia and conquered the southern steppe all the way to the [[Dnieper River]] and northern [[Crimea]]. Inspired by their great successes, Vytautas declared a 'Crusade against the Tatars' with [[Pope Boniface IX|Papal]] backing. Thus, in 1399, the army of Vytautas once again moved on the Horde. His army met the Horde's at the [[Vorskla River]], slightly inside Lithuanian territory.

Although the Lithuanian army was well equipped with [[cannon]], it could not resist a rear attack from Edigu's reserve units. Vytautas hardly escaped alive. Many princes of his kin—possibly as many as 20—were killed (for example, [[Stefan Musat]], Prince of [[Principality of Moldavia|Moldavia]] and two of his brothers, while a fourth was badly injured {{Fact|date=February 2007}}), and the victorious Tatars besieged [[Kiev]]. "And the Christian blood flowed like water, up to the Kievan walls," as one chronicler put it. Meanwhile, Temur Kutlugh died from the wounds received in the battle, and Tokhtamysh was killed by one of his own men.

====Crusades in the Balkans====

To counter the expanding [[Ottoman Empire]], several crusades were launched in the 15th century.
The most notable are:
* the '''Crusade of Nicopolis''' (1396) organized by [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]] king of Hungary culminated in the [[Battle of Nicopolis]]
* the '''[[Crusade of Varna]]''' (1444) led by the Polish-Hungarian king [[Władysław III of Poland|Władysław Warneńczyk]] ended in the [[Battle of Varna]]
* and the '''Crusade of 1456''' organized to lift the [[Siege of Belgrade]] led by [[John Hunyadi]] and [[Giovanni da Capistrano]]

====Aragonese Crusade====

The '''[[Aragonese Crusade]]''', or Crusade of Aragón, was declared by [[Pope Martin IV]] against the [[Peter III of Aragon|King of Aragón, Peter III the Great]], in 1284 and 1285.

====Alexandrian Crusade====

The '''[[Alexandrian Crusade]]''' of October 1365 was a minor seaborne crusade against Muslim [[Alexandria]] led by [[Peter I of Cyprus]]. His motivation was at least as commercial as religious. It had limited success.

====Hussite Crusade====

The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the "[[Hussite Wars]]," or the "Bohemian Wars," involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of [[Jan Hus]] in [[Bohemia#Hussite Bohemia|Bohemia]] in the period 1420 to circa 1434. The Hussite Wars were arguably the first European war in which hand-held gunpowder weapons such as [[musket]]s made a decisive contribution. The [[Taborite]] faction of the Hussite warriors were basically infantry, and their many defeats of larger armies with heavily armoured knights helped affect the infantry revolution. In the end, it was an inconclusive war.

====Swedish Crusades====

The [[Sweden|Swedish]] conquest of [[Finland]] in the [[Middle Ages]] has traditionally been divided into three "crusades": the [[First Swedish Crusade]] around 1155 AD, the [[Second Swedish Crusade]] about 1249 AD and the [[Third Swedish Crusade]] in 1293 AD.

The First Swedish Crusade is purely legendary, and according to most historians today, never took place as described in the legend and did not result in any ties between Finland and Sweden. For the most part, it was made up in the late 13th century to date the Swedish rule in Finland further back in time. No historical record has also survived describing the second one, but it probably did take place and ended up in the concrete conquest of southwestern Finland. The third one was against [[Novgorod]], and is properly documented by both parties of the conflict.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

According to archaeological finds, Finland was largely Christian already before the said crusades. Thus the "crusades" can rather be seen as ordinary expeditions of conquest whose main target was territorial gain. The expeditions were dubbed as actual crusades only in the 19th century by the national-romanticist Swedish and Finnish historians.
{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

==Dissent Against the Concept of Crusades ==
{{Christianity}}
Elements of the Crusades were criticized by some from the time of their inception in 1095. For example, [[Roger Bacon]] felt the Crusades were not effective because, "those who survive, together with their children, are more and more embittered against the Christian faith."<ref name="AC">Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Atlas of the Crusades'' New York: Facts on File, 1990. ISBN 0-8160-2186-4.</ref> In spite of some criticism, the movement was still widely supported in Europe long after the fall of Acre in 1291. J. Hoeberichts argues that St. Francis of Assisi stood in complete and unique opposition to the theological justification and the violent methods of Christendom in his book Francis and Islam.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} Historians agree that Francis crossed enemy lines to meet the Sultan of Egypt. Hoeberichts cast doubt on the intentions most Christian historians assign to Francis. From the fall of Acre forward, the Crusades to recover [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] and the Christian East were largely lost. Later, [[Age of Enlightenment|18th century Enlightenment thinkers]] judged the Crusaders harshly. Likewise, some modern historians in the West expressed moral outrage. As recently as the 1950s, Sir [[Steven Runciman]] wrote a resounding condemnation:

:"High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed...the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God".<ref name="AC" />

==Historical perspective==

Western and Eastern [[historiography]] present variously different views on the crusades, in large part because "crusade" invokes dramatically opposed sets of associations—"crusade" as a valiant struggle for a supreme cause, and "crusade" as a byword for barbarism and aggression. This contrasting view is not recent since Christians have in the past struggled with the tension of military activity and teachings of Christ to "love one's enemies" and to "turn the other cheek". For these reasons, the crusades have been controversial even among contemporaries.

Western sources speak of both heroism, faith and honour (emphasized in [[Romance (genre)|chivalric romance]]), but also of acts of brutality. Orthodox Christian and Islamic chroniclers tell stories of barbarian savagery and brutality, although it was not until 1899 that the first Islamic history of the Crusades was written. Prior to the growth of [[Arab nationalism]] in the 20th century, the Crusades were virtually unknown in the Islamic world.<ref>Maalouf, Amin. Crusades Through Arab Eyes.</ref>

===Islamic perspective===
====General====

In the minds of the [[Muslims]] the Crusades were Western invasions motivated by the West’s greed and hatred for [[Islam]], while the Christian West thought they were reclaiming the Holy Land and stopping the spread of Islam. For the West these wars were known as the ‘crusades’ which comes from the Latin word for cross. The Muslims, on the other hand, referred to the wars as “Frankish Invasions” using the Arabic word ''al-ifranj'', which is the term for "French", although it was applied to Westerners in general.<ref>Trumpbour, John. “Crusades.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World., edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).</ref> One of the ironic things about the Crusades is that even though “God may have indeed wished it, there is certainly no evidence that the Christians of [[Jerusalem]] did, or that anything extraordinary was occurring to pilgrims there to prompt such a response at that moment in history.”<ref>Peters, “Early Muslim Empires,” pg 85. Qtd in Islam: The Straight Path. John L. Esposito. Oxford University Press: New York, 2005. Pg. 58.</ref>

====Results of the Crusades on the Islamic World====

The Crusades have made a lasting impact on the Islamic world, especially in their perception of the West and of Christians. In fact even today Muslims still consider the Crusades to be a symbol of Western hostility toward Islam.<ref>“Crusades” In The Islamic World: past and Present., edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).</ref> The Muslims were horrified by the brutality of the Franks and how they so willingly massacred civilians and broke promises. It did not help that the Crusaders felt little to no remorse for what they did and when the Muslims compared that to Saladin’s reputation of being a man of honor they thought even less of the Franks.<ref>Trumpbour, John. "Crusades". ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).</ref> The fact that the Franks were motivated more by politics and greed than true religious reason has led Muslims to feel that when Europe began to colonize the East it was merely a continuation of the Crusades. This view caused the Muslims to set up intellectual barriers and become very isolationist in their policies causing them to be left behind in the world scene.<ref>Murphy, Thomas Patrick. The Holy War. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1976. pg. 198.</ref> Now extremists of both the Christian and Islamic faith believe that confrontation is inevitable and because of this view the Crusades remain in focus keeping them in an active albeit violent role in contemporary politics.<ref>Trumpbour, John. "Crusades". ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).</ref>

===Eastern Orthodoxy===
Like Muslims, Eastern Orthodox Christians also see the Crusades as attacks by "the barbarian West", but centered on the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Among vast quantities of gold<ref name="Phillips2005">{{cite book |title=The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople |last=Phillips |first=Jonathan |year=2005 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York}}</ref>, which was accumulated for more than 1300 years by the Roman Empire, many relics and artifacts taken from Constantinople are still to be found in the West, in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] and elsewhere, like the [[Horses of Saint Mark|Greek Horses]] on the façade of [[San Marco di Venezia|St. Mark's]] in [[Venice]]. Both the cultural and the economic capital gained after of the sack of Constantinople played a significant part in the rise of the Italian cities that gave birth to renaissance.<ref name="Phillips2005"/>

=== Popular reputation in Western Europe===
In Western Europe, the Crusades have traditionally been regarded by laypeople as heroic adventures, though the mass enthusiasm of common people was largely expended in the First Crusade, from which so few of their class returned. Today, the "[[Saracen]]" adversary is crystallized in the lone figure of [[Saladin]]; his adversary Richard the Lionheart is, in the [[English language|English]]-speaking world, the archetypical crusader king, while Frederick Barbarossa and Louis IX fill the same symbolic niche in German and French culture. Even in contemporary areas, the crusades and their leaders were romanticized in popular literature; the ''[[Chanson d'Antioche]]'' was a [[chanson de geste]] dealing with the First Crusade, and the [[Song of Roland]], dealing with the era of the similarly romanticized [[Charlemagne]], was directly influenced by the experience of the crusades, going so far as to replace Charlemagne's historic [[Basque people|Basque]] opponents with Muslims. A popular theme for [[troubadour]]s was the knight winning the love of his lady by going on crusade in the east.

[[Image:Barbarossa01.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The ever-living [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]], in his mountain cave: a late 19th century German woodcut]]
In the 14th century, [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] was united with the [[Trojan War]] and the adventures of [[Alexander the Great]] against a backdrop for military and courtly heroics of the [[Nine Worthies]] who stood as popular secular [[culture hero]]es into the 16th century, when more critical literary tastes ran instead to [[Torquato Tasso]] and Rinaldo and Armida, Roger and Angelica. Later, the rise of a more authentic sense of history among literate people brought the Crusades into a new focus for the Romantic generation in the romances of Sir [[Walter Scott]] in the early 19th century. Crusading imagery could be found even in the Crimean War, in which the United Kingdom and France were allied with the Muslim Ottoman Empire, and in [[World War I]], especially [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Allenby's]] capture of Jerusalem in 1917.

In Spain, the popular reputation of the Crusades is outshone by the particularly Spanish history of the ''Reconquista''. [[El Cid]] is the central figure.

===Role of women===
While traditional historiography conceptualizes the crusades as a masculine movement symbolic of honour and male courage, women were also involved.

Women at home were intricately connected whether aware of it or not in the recruitment of crusading men. Their encouragement and familial ties would present men friendly connections which made the prospect of taking the cross more appealing for those risking their lives. Arguably the most significant role that women played in the West during the crusades was their preservation of the home. The best known example is of [[Adela of Normandy|Adela of Blois]], wife of [[Stephen II, Count of Blois|Stephen of Blois]] whose correspondence with her husband while he was on Crusade and she was at home managing his fief has survived in part. It appears she was rather more keen on his crusading than he was. Men could journey to [[The Holy Land]] without having to worry about their home because their wives were in charge of their estates and families.<ref> Jonathan Riley-Smith. The First Crusaders 1096–1131, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press 1997, 99. </ref>

Even though most women showed their support for the crusades at home, some women took the cross themselves to go on the crusade. Aristocratic women who joined the movement often found that they had new positions of authority they did not have in the West. [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], the wealthy queen of France and the wife of king [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]], took the cross from [[St. Bernard of Clairvaux]] on Easter Sunday 1145 to join her husband.<ref> Roy Douglas Davis Owen. Eleanor of Aquitaine : queen and legend, Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell Publishing 1993, 22.</ref> Another woman who had ultimate political power in the East was [[Melisende of Jerusalem]], who under law gained hereditary rights to the crown upon her husband’s death. Like Eleanor, Melisende never led troops into battle, but she did participate in acts of political diplomacy. Less successful was her granddaughter [[Sibylla of Jerusalem]], whose choice of husband had been a crucial political issue since her childhood. Her second marriage to [[Guy of Lusignan]] made him the [[king-consort]] on the death of [[Baldwin IV]], with disastrous results. While most women were there to help and care for the crusading men by bringing them water or raising their spirits by offering emotional support, there were women who had specific tasks which defined their feminine characteristics like the washerwoman.<ref>Susan B. Edington and Sarah Lambert ed. Gendering the Crusades, New York: Columbia University Press 2002, 98.</ref>

The permanent residents of the Crusader kingdoms, if born in Europe, had usually come unmarried. Very many married women from [[Apulia]] in Southern Italy, where living conditions were often harsh, encouraged young women to take ship for Palestine in the knowledge that many men there were looking for wives.

The most controversial role that women had in the crusades was of course the role which threatened their femininity, actual militancy. When analyzing the primary documentation of female militancy, one must be cautious. The accounts of women fighting come mostly from Muslim historians whose aim was to portray Christian women as barbaric and ungodly because of their acts of killing. The contrasting view from Christian accounts portray women fighting only in emergency situations for the preservation of the camps and their own lives. In these cases women are seen as more feminine while behaving like ‘proper women’.<ref>Helen Nicholson. “Women on the Third Crusade. ''Journal of Medieval History'' (23) no.4 (1997) pp. 337.”</ref> Virtually all crusade writings came from men, and women would have been interpreted subjectively no matter what roles they played.

==Legacy==
===Europe and the West===
Until recently, the crusades were remembered favourably in western Europe (countries which were, at the time of the Crusades, Roman Catholic countries), and in countries largely settled by Western Europeans, including the United States. Nonetheless, there have been many vocal critics of the Crusades in Western Europe since the Renaissance, and in recent years, critical views of the crusades have come to dominate most assessments.<ref name="AC" />

Defenders of the Crusades now present their viewpoint as that of an embattled minority [http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=MzhhODM1MDhkYWMxNTRiYmRjMzg2NmY2YjM3ZTRiZDQ=] as against a standard view in which the Crusades are regarded as bloody and unjustified acts of aggression. More comprehensive treatments seek to take account of both the brutality of the Crusades and the sincere religious motivation behind them, of "religious devotion and godly savagery"[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/history/article612128.ece].

A crucial recent development is the recognition, variously interpreted, of the parallel between crusades and the Islamic concept of [[jihad]] [http://www.opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=95001224]. Secular critics of the crusades see both jihad and crusade as providing a religious justification for war and intolerance. Supporters present the crusades as defensive responses to Islamic jihad and, in some cases, advocate a renewal of the crusades [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_v37/ai_3890330] a view that may be linked, by both critics and supporters, to current US policy in the Middle East[http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0919/p12s2-woeu.html].

====Politics and culture====
The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European [[Middle Ages]]. At times, much of the continent was united under a powerful [[Papacy]], but by the 14th century, the development of centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern [[nation-state]]) was well on its way in France, England, [[Burgundy]], [[Portugal]], [[Crown of Castile|Castile]], and [[Aragon]] partly because of the dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading era.

Although Europe had been exposed to [[Islamic culture]] for centuries through contacts in Iberian Peninsula and [[Sicily]], much knowledge in areas such as science, medicine, and architecture was transferred from the Islamic to the western world during the crusade era.

The military experiences of the crusades also had their effects in Europe; for example, European [[castle]]s became massive stone structures as they were in the east, rather than smaller wooden buildings as they had typically been in the past.

In addition, the Crusades are seen as having opened up European culture to the world, especially Asia:

{{cquote|The Crusades brought about results of which the popes had never dreamed, and which were perhaps the most, important of all. They re-established traffic between the East and West, which, after having been suspended for several centuries, was then resumed with even greater energy; they were the means of bringing from the depths of their respective provinces and introducing into the most civilized Asiatic countries Western knights, to whom a new world was thus revealed, and who returned to their native land filled with novel ideas... If, indeed, the Christian civilization of Europe has become universal culture, in the highest sense, the glory redounds, in no small measure, to the Crusades."<ref name=CathEnc/>}}

Along with trade, new scientific discoveries and inventions made their way east or west. Arab advances (including the development of [[algebra]], optics, and refinement of engineering) made their way west and sped the course of advancement in European universities that led to the Renaissance in later centuries

The invasions of German crusaders prevented formation of the large Lithuanian state incorporating all Baltic nations and tribes. Lithuania was destined to become a small country and forced to expand to the East looking for resources to combat the crusaders.<ref>{{lt icon}} [http://www.omni.lt/?i$9359_70693$z_373522 Tomas Baranauskas. ''Prūsų sukilimas—prarasta galimybė sukurti kitokią Lietuvą'' (Prussian rebellion—the lost chance of creating different Lithuania). 20 September, 2006]</ref>

====Trade====

The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] saw significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons. This was not only because the Crusades ''prepared'' Europe for travel, but also because many ''wanted'' to travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This also aided in the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] in Italy, as various Italian [[city-states]] from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the [[Holy Land]] and later in captured [[Byzantine]] territory.

Increased trade brought many things to Europeans that were once unknown or extremely rare and costly. These goods included a variety of spices, ivory, jade, diamonds, improved glass-manufacturing techniques, early forms of gun powder, oranges, apples, and other Asian crops, and many other products.


The achievement of preserving Christian Europe must not, however, ignore the eventual fall of the Christian [[Byzantine Empire]], which was mostly caused by [[Fourth Crusade| Fourth Crusade's]] extreme aggression against [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]], largely at the instigation of the infamous [[Enrico Dandolo]], the [[Doge of Venice]] and financial backer of the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). The Byzantine lands had been a stable Christian state since the 4th century, though had been in a crisis immediately before the Fourth Crusade.<ref name=lewis/> After the Crusaders took [[Constantinople]] in 1204, the Byzantines never again had as large or strong a state and finally fell in 1453.

Taking into account the fall of the Byzantines, the Crusades could be portrayed as the defense of [[Roman Catholicism]] against the violent expansion of Islam, rather than the defense of Christianity as a whole against Islamic expansion. On the other hand, the Fourth Crusade could be presented as an anomaly, though this does not explain the [[Northern Crusades]] which also targeted Orthodox Christians. It is also possible to find a compromise between these two points of view, specifically that the Crusades were Roman Catholic campaigns which primarily sought to fight Islam to preserve Catholicism, and secondarily sought to thereby protect the rest of Christianity; in this context, the Fourth Crusade's crusaders could have felt compelled to abandon the secondary aim in order to retain Dandolo's logistical support in achieving the primary aim. Even so, the Fourth Crusade was condemned by the Pope of the time ([[Pope Innocent III]]) and is now generally remembered throughout Europe as a disgraceful failure.

From a larger perspective, and certainly from that of noted naval/maritime historian [[Archibald Lewis]], the Crusades must be viewed as part of a massive macrohistorical event during which Western Europe, primarily by its ability in naval warfare, amphibious siege, and maritime trade, was able to advance in all spheres of civilization.<ref name=lewis/> Recovering from the [[Dark Ages]] of AD 700-1000, throughout the 11th century Western Europe began to push the boundaries of its civilization.<ref name=lewis/> Prior to the [[First Crusade]] the Italian city-state of [[Venice]], along with the [[Byzantine Empire]], had cleared the [[Adriatic Sea]] of Islamic pirates, and loosened the Islamic hold on the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (Byzantine-Muslim War of 1030-1035).<ref name=lewis/> The [[Normans]], with the assistance of the Italian city-states of [[Genoa]] and [[Pisa]], had retaken [[Sicily]] from the Muslims from 1061-1091.<ref name=lewis/> These conflicts prior to the [[First Crusade]] had both retaken Western European territory and weakened the Islamic hold on the Mediterranean, allowing for the rise of Western European Mediterranean trading and naval powers such as the Sicilian Normans and the Italian city-states of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa.<ref name=lewis/>

During the Middle Ages, the key trading region of the Earth was the [[Black Sea]]-[[Mediterranean Sea]]-[[Red Sea]].<ref name=lewis/> It was the aforementioned pre-First Crusade actions, along with the Crusades themselves, which allowed Western Europe to control the trade of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, a control which began in the 1000s and would only be threatened by the Turkish Ottoman Empire beginning in the mid-to-late 1400s.<ref name=lewis/> This Western European control of vital sea lanes allowed the economy of Western Europe to advance to previously unknown degrees, most obviously as regards the Maritime Republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa.<ref name=lewis/> Indeed, it is no coincidence that the Renaissance began in Italy, as the Maritime Republics, through their control of the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Seas, were able to return to Italy the ancient knowledge of the Greeks and Romans, as well as the products of distant East Asia.<ref name=lewis/>

Combined with the Mongol Empire, Western Europe traded extensively with East Asia, the security of the Mongol Empire allowing the products of Asia to be brought to such Western European controlled ports as [[Acre]], [[Antioch]], [[Kaffa]] (on the Black Sea) and even, for a time, Constantinople itself.<ref name=lewis/> The [[Fifth Crusade]] of 1217-1221 and the [[Seventh Crusade]] of 1248-1254 were largely attempts to secure Western European control of the Red Sea trade region, as both Crusades were directed against Egypt, the power base of the [[Ayyubid]], and then [[Mameluke]], [[Sultanates]].<ref name=lewis/> It was only in the 1300s, as the stability of trade with Asia collapsed with the Mongol Empire, the [[Mamelukes]] destroyed the Middle Eastern Crusader States, and the rising [[Ottoman Empire]] impeded further Western European trade with Asia, that Western Europeans sought alternate trade routes to Asia, ultimately leading to [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]'s voyage of 1492.<ref name=lewis/>

===Islamic world===
[[Image:Saladin and Guy.jpg|right|thumb|350px|[[Saladin]] and [[Guy de Lusignan]] after [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187]]
The crusades had profound but localized effects upon the Islamic world, where the equivalents of "Franks" and "Crusaders" remained expressions of disdain. The Muslims tended to use the word "Frank" to describe all Western Europeans, regardless of nationality.<ref>Atwood, p. 583</ref>

Muslims traditionally celebrate Saladin as a hero against the Crusaders. In the 21st century, some in the Arab world, such as the [[Arab independence movement]] and [[Pan-Islamism]] movement, continue to call Western involvement in the Middle East a "crusade". The Crusades were regarded by the Islamic world as cruel and savage onslaughts by European Christians.

The most devastating long term consequence of the crusades, according to historian [[Peter Mansfield (historian)|Peter Mansfield]], was the creation of an Islamic mentality that sought a retreat into isolation. He says "Assaulted from all quarters, the Muslim world turned in on itself. It became oversensitive [and] defensive… attitudes that grew steadily worse as worldwide evolution, a process from which the Muslim world felt excluded, continued.".<ref name="Peter Mansfield">A History of the Middle East, Second Edition, London: Penguin Books, 2003, p 21.</ref>

===Jewish community===
{{main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}

Though the Muslims in power at the time tried to protect the Jews in The Holy Land, the Crusaders' atrocities against them in the German and Hungarian towns, later also in those of France, England, and in the massacres of Jews in Palestine and Syria have become a significant part of the [[history of anti-Semitism]], although no Crusade was ever declared against Jews. These attacks left behind for centuries strong feelings of ill will on both sides. The social position of the Jews in western Europe was distinctly worsened, and legal restrictions increased during and after the Crusades. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of [[Pope Innocent III]] and formed the turning-point in medieval [[anti-Semitism]]. It must also be noted that Pope Innocent III reiterated papal injunctions against forcible conversions of Jews, and added: "No Christian shall do the Jews any personal injury...or deprive them of their possessions...or disturb them during the celebration of their festivals...or extort money from them by threatening to exhume their dead.".<ref name="Paul Halsall">Innocent III: Letter on the Jews 1199, Internet Medieval Source Book, Fordham University, 1996, Retrieved on 2006-11-27.</ref>

The crusading period brought with it many narratives from Jewish sources. Among the better-known Jewish narratives are the chronicles of Solomon Bar Simson and Rabbi Eliezer bar Nathan, "[[The Narrative of the Old Persecutions]]," by [[Mainz Anonymous]], and "[[Sefer Zekhirah]]," and "[[The Book of Remembrance]]," by Rabbi [[Ephraim of Bonn]].

===Caucasus===

In the [[Caucasus Mountains]] of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], in the remote highland region of [[Khevsureti]], a tribe called the [[Khevsurs]] are thought to possibly be direct descendants of a party of crusaders who got separated from a larger army and have remained in isolation with some of the crusader culture intact. Into the 20th century, relics of armor, weaponry and chain mail were still being used and passed down in such communities. Russian serviceman and ethnographer [[Arnold Zisserman]] who spent 25 years (1842–67) in the Caucasus, believed the exotic group of Georgian highlanders were descendants of the last Crusaders based on their customs, language, art and other evidence.<ref>''[http://hearstmuseum.berkeley.edu/exhibitions/photo2/photo2_intro.html Images from the Georgia–Chechnya Border, 1970–1980]'', Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology.</ref> American traveler [[Richard Halliburton]] saw and recorded the customs of the tribe in 1935.<ref>[http://www.swordhistory.com/excerpts/crusaders.html Sword and Buckler Fighting among the Lost Crusaders]. Excerpts of Halliburton's observations</ref>

==Etymology and use of the term "crusade"==
:''For other uses of the term "crusade", see [[Crusade (disambiguation)]].''
{{wiktionarypar|Crusade}}

The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various terms, including ''fideles Sancti Petri'' (the faithful of [[Saint Peter]]) or ''milites Christi'' (knights of Christ). They saw themselves as undertaking an ''iter'', a journey, or a ''peregrinatio'', a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually forbidden from carrying arms. Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a ''votus''), to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (''crux'') to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the ''crux'', eventually became associated with the entire journey; the word "crusade" (coming into English from the [[French language|French]] ''croisade'', the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''crociata'', the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''cruzada'', or the German ''Kreuzzug'') developed from this.

From the 17th century until the late 20th century, the term "crusade" carried a connotation in the [[Western world|West]] of being a righteous campaign, usually to "root out [[evil]]", or to fight for a just cause. In a non-historical common or theological use, "crusade" came to have a much broader emphatic or religious meaning—substantially removed from "armed struggle."

In a broader sense, "crusade" was used, in a [[rhetoric]]al and [[metaphor]]ical sense, to identify as righteous any war that was given a [[religion|religious]] or [[morality|moral]] justification.

A June 2, 1944 message to [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] troops before the [[Invasion of Normandy|Normandy landings]], began with [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|General Eisenhower]] stating, "Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force! You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months." His later bestselling memoir was entitled ''[[Crusade in Europe]]''.

Ardent activists often referred to their causes as "crusades," as in the "Crusade against Adult Illiteracy," or a "Crusade against Littering." The term may also sarcastically or pejoratively characterize the [[zealotry]] of agenda promoters, for example with the moniker "Public Crusader" or the campaigns "Crusade against abortion," and the "Crusade for prayer in public schools."

In line with the traditional usage [[George W. Bush]] in 2002 described his anti-terrorism campaign as a "crusade" but was compelled to repudiate the term when it was pointed out that the word, because of the historical events to which it referred, was regarded as highly offensive by Muslims and Jews.

== See also ==
{{Crusadesportal}}
{{commonscat|Crusades}}
* [[History of the Jews and the Crusades]]
* [[Bull of the Crusade]]
* [[Religious war]]
* [[Jihad]]
* [[Medieval demography]]
* [[Islamic Golden Age]]
* [[List of wars in the Muslim world]]
* [[Mongol invasions]]
* [[Ottoman wars in Europe]]
* [[Reconquista]]
* [[Franco-Mongol alliance]]
* [[Siege of Antioch (1268)]]
;Some results of the crusades
* [[Crusader states]]
* [[List of Crusader castles]]
* [[Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon]]
;Background to crusades
* [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
* [[Muslim conquests]] 
* [[History of Islam in southern Italy|Islamic conquest of southern Italy]]
* [[German Pilgrimage of 1064-1065]]
;Events named "crusade" but not included in historical crusades
* [[Shepherds' Crusade]]
* [[Hussite Wars]]
* [[Tenth Crusade]]
;Media and culture
* [[Art of the Crusades]]
* [[Crusade cycle]]
* [[Kingdom of Heaven (film)]]
;Knightly Orders:
* [[Military orders]]
* [[Knights of Malta]]
* [[Knights Templar]]
* [[Teutonic Knights]]
;Participants
* [[List of principal Crusaders]]
* [[Hashshashin]]
* [[Frisian participation in the Crusades]]
*;Famous Opponents:
** [[Saladin]]
** [[Baibars]]
** [[Khalil|al-Ashraf Khalil]]
** [[Zengi]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). ''The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-4671-9.

==External links==
*E.L. Skip Knox, [http://crusades.boisestate.edu/ The Crusades], a virtual college course through [[Boise State University]].
*[[Paul Crawford]], [http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/crusades/crusade.html Crusades: A Guide to Online Resources], 1999.
*[[Thomas Madden|Thomas F. Madden]], [http://www.godspy.com/issues/Real-History-of-Crusades-by-Thomas-Madden.cfm The Real History of the Crusades], an essay by a Crusades historian
*[http://www.staff.u-szeged.hu/~capitul/sscle/ The Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East]—an international organization of professional Crusade scholars
*[http://www.deremilitari.org De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History]—contains articles and primary sources related to the Crusades
*[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=453&rsid=478 Resources > Medieval Jewish History > The Crusades] The Jewish History Resource Center - Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]
*[http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/index.html The Crusades Encyclopedia] - articles, primary and secondary sources, and bibliographies
*[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=952797 An Islamic View of the Battlefield]an article that provides indepth analysis of the theological basis of human wars
*''[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/History.HistCrusades A History of the Crusades]''
*[[Wikia:crusades:Main Page|The Crusades Wiki]]

{{Christian History|collapsed}}
{{Catholicism}}

[[Category:Crusades| ]]
[[Category:History of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Religion and violence]]
[[Category:Warfare of the Medieval era]]

{{Link FA|af}}
{{Link FA|cs}}
{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|mk}}
{{Link FA|ur}}

[[af:Kruistog]]
[[als:Kreuzzug]]
[[ar:حملات صليبية]]
[[an:Cruzatas]]
[[ast:Cruzaes]]
[[az:Xaç yürüşləri]]
[[bn:ক্রুসেড]]
[[be:Крыжовыя паходы]]
[[be-x-old:Крыжовыя паходы]]
[[bs:Krstaški ratovi]]
[[bg:Кръстоносен поход]]
[[ca:Croades]]
[[cs:Křížové výpravy]]
[[cy:Y Croesgadau]]
[[da:Korstog]]
[[de:Kreuzzug]]
[[et:Ristisõjad]]
[[el:Σταυροφορίες]]
[[es:Cruzadas]]
[[eo:Krucmilitoj]]
[[eu:Gurutzadak]]
[[fa:جنگ‌های صلیبی]]
[[fr:Croisades]]
[[fy:Krústocht]]
[[fur:Crosadis]]
[[gl:Cruzadas]]
[[ko:십자군]]
[[hi:क्रूसेड]]
[[hr:Križarski ratovi]]
[[io:Kruco-milito]]
[[ig:Crusades]]
[[id:Perang Salib]]
[[is:Krossferðir]]
[[it:Crociata]]
[[he:מסעי הצלב]]
[[ka:ჯვაროსნული ლაშქრობები]]
[[ku:Seferên Xaçperestan]]
[[la:Expeditio sacra]]
[[lv:Krusta kari]]
[[lt:Kryžiaus žygiai]]
[[hu:Keresztes háborúk]]
[[mk:Крстоносни војни]]
[[ml:കുരിശുയുദ്ധങ്ങള്‍]]
[[mt:Kruċjata]]
[[ms:Perang Salib]]
[[nl:Kruistocht]]
[[ja:十字軍]]
[[no:Korstog]]
[[nn:Krosstog]]
[[nrm:Crouésade]]
[[oc:Crosada]]
[[pms:Crosià]]
[[nds:Krüüztog]]
[[pl:Krucjata]]
[[pt:Cruzada]]
[[ro:Cruciadă]]
[[ru:Крестовые походы]]
[[sq:Kryqëzata]]
[[scn:Cruciati]]
[[simple:Crusade]]
[[sk:Križiacka výprava]]
[[sl:Križarske vojne]]
[[sr:Крсташки ратови]]
[[sh:Križarski ratovi]]
[[fi:Ristiretket]]
[[sv:Korståg]]
[[tl:Krusada]]
[[ta:சிலுவைப் போர்கள்]]
[[th:สงครามครูเสด]]
[[vi:Thập tự chinh]]
[[tr:Haçlı seferleri]]
[[uk:Хрестові походи]]
[[ur:صلیبی جنگیں]]
[[vec:Crociade]]
[[yi:קרייצצוג]]
[[bat-smg:Krīžiaus žīgē]]
[[zh:十字軍東征]]

Sign of the Cross

2008-11-10T01:02:38Z

DrunkenBastard: removing some too-obvious bias

{{otheruses}}

The '''Sign of the Cross''' ({{lang-la|Signum Crucis}}) is a ritual hand motion made by members of many but not all branches of [[Christianity]]. It may be accompanied by the [[trinitarian formula]]. For Christians the motion symbolizes the [[Christian cross|Cross]] on [[Calvary]] by tracing the shape of the cross in the air or on one's own body. There are two principal forms, one followed by [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es, and the other by the [[Western Christianity|Western Churches]] ([[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]], and [[Roman Catholicism]]) and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]. The sign is rarely used by non-liturgical or evangelical [[Protestantism|Protestants]].

==The gesture==
{{Cleanup-section|date=June 2007}}
[[Image:Sign-of-the-cross--fingers-position.jpg|thumb|110px|Position of the fingers while making the sign of the cross in the Byzantine fashion.]]
;The hand
The open right hand is used in the Churches of the West. The five open fingers represent The Five Wounds of Christ. Though this is the most common method of crossing by Western Christians, other forms are sometimes used. The West also employs the "Small Sign of the Cross" in which a small cross is traced with the thumb over the forehead, lips, and breast of the individual while whispering the words "May Christ's words be in my mind, on my lips, and in my heart". This is used at the Proclamation of the Gospel at Holy Mass and also is commonly used when blessing oneself with holy water when leaving or entering a church. In the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point, symbolizing the [[Trinity]] (the Father, Son and the Holy Spirit/Ghost, three persons sharing a single essence), the remaining two fingers (kept pressed together and touching the palm) representing the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ. However, the Russian Orthodox in the past used two fingers brought to a point with the three remaining fingers pressed down. Russian Old Believers still use this form. The Oriental Orthodox (Armenians, Copts, Ethiopians etc.) generally use the "Western" direction as well, though often with the Byzantine finger formation.

[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Detail of the painting ''Boyarynya Morozova'' by [[Vasily Surikov]] depicting a defiant Old Believer holding up two fingers (instead of three) during her arrest.]]

In [[Russia]] until the reforms of [[Patriarch Nikon]] in the 17th century, it was customary to make the sign of the cross with two fingers (symbolising the dual nature of Christ). The enforcement of the three-finger sign was one of the reasons for the [[Schism (religion)|schism]] with the [[Old Believers]] whose congregations continue to use the two-finger sign of the cross.

;The motion
The sign of the Cross is made by touching the hand sequentially to the forehead, [[sternum]], and both shoulders, accompanied by the [[Trinitarian formula]]: at the forehead: ''In the name of the Father'' (or ''In nomine Patris'' in Latin); at the stomach or heart: ''and of the Son'' (''et Filii''); across the shoulders from left to right: ''and of the [[Holy Spirit]]/Ghost'' (''et Spiritus Sancti''); and finally: ''[[Amen]]''.

There are several interpretations, according to [[Church Fathers]]:<ref name="prayer-book-bor">''Prayer Book'', edited by the [[Romanian Orthodox Church]], several editions (''Carte de rugăciuni'' - Editura Institutului biblic şi de misiune al Bisericii ortodoxe române, 2005),</ref> the forehead symbolizes Heaven; the stomach, the earth; the shoulders, the place and sign of power. Also, the hand to the forehead may be seen as a prayer to the Father for wisdom; the hand to the stomach as a prayer to the Son who became [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnate]]; and the hand to the shoulders as a prayer to the Holy Spirit.

[[Image:2fingers.jpg|thumb|Position of the fingers used by [[Old Believers]] while making the sign of the cross.]]

There are some variations: for example a person may first place the right hand in [[holy water]]. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may be returned to the stomach. It may also be accompanied by the recitation of a prayer e.g. the [[Jesus Prayer]], or simply "[[Kyrie|Lord have mercy]]". In some cultures it is customary to kiss one's hand or fingers at the conclusion of the gesture.

;Sequence
[[Pope Innocent III]] (1198–1216) gave the following instruction:

<blockquote>
The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left).

Others, however, make the sign of the cross from the left to the right, because from misery (left) we must cross over to glory (right), just as Christ crossed over from death to life, and from Hades to Paradise. [Some priests] do it this way so that they and the people will be signing themselves in the same way. You can easily verify this — picture the priest facing the people for the blessing — when we make the sign of the cross over the people, it is from left to right...
</blockquote>

Writers such as Herbert Thurston, author of the article [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Sign of the Cross] in the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] interpret this as indicating that at that time both Eastern and Western Christians moved the hand from the right shoulder to the left. However, Thurston confesses that the point is not entirely clear. He quotes another liturgist who inclined to the opinion that in this passage of Innocent III,<ref>De myst. Alt., II, xlvi.</ref> and in those of [[Belethus]],<ref>xxxix</ref> [[Sicardus]]<ref>III, iv.</ref> and [[Durandus]],<ref>V, ii, 13.</ref> which are usually appealed to in proof of this, these authors had in mind the small cross made upon the forehead or external objects, in which the hand moves naturally from right to left, and not the big cross made from shoulder to shoulder.

Today, Western Christians and the Oriental Orthodox touch the left shoulder before the right. Orthodox Christians use the right-to-left movement.
A Greek catechetical textbook attempted to explain the difference between the Latin and the Greek customs by saying that the right side is associated with holiness, and the heart (on the left) with the spirit, so that those who, in mentioning the Holy Spirit, used the Latin phrase "Spiritus Sancti" (noun before adjective) touched left before right, while those who said, in Greek, "τοῦ Ἁγίου Πνεύματος" (adjective before noun) did the opposite.

==Use of the sign==
The Sign of the Cross may be made by individuals upon themselves as a form of [[Prayer in Christianity|prayer]], and by clergy upon others or objects as an act of [[blessing]]. [[Priest]]s are allowed to bless using the right hand, while [[bishop]]s may bless simultaneously with both, the left mirroring the right. While individuals may make it at any time, clergy must make it at specific times (as in [[Christian liturgy|liturgies]]), and it is customary to make it on other occasions (see below).

During rituals such as the Roman Catholic [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] the Sign is required at certain points: the laity sign themselves at the beginning of the Eucharist, at the Gospel and at the final blessing; additionally, the celebrant makes the Sign over the bread and wine before the [[Words of Institution]] (i.e. words of Christ). In the [[Tridentine Mass]] the priest signs the bread and wine 25 times during the [[Canon of the Mass]], ten times before and fifteen times after they have been consecrated. In the [[Mass of Paul VI]] the priest signs them once only and before the consecration. Roman Catholic bishops make the Sign of the Cross three times when they are blessing a large group of people, at the names of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

[[Image:BASIL.jpg|thumb|left||[[Icon]] of [[St. Basil the Great]] depicting the manner in which an Orthodox priest or bishop holds his hand when he blesses.]]

In the Eastern traditions, both celebrant and congregation make the Sign of the Cross much more frequently than in Western Christianity. It is customary in some Eastern traditions to cross oneself at each petition in a [[Ektenia|litany]], and to closely associate oneself with a particular intention being prayed for or with a saint being named. The Sign of the Cross is also made upon entering or leaving a church building, at the start and end of personal prayer, when passing the main altar (which represents Christ), whenever all three persons of the Trinity are addressed, and when approaching an icon.

When an [[Eastern Orthodox]] or [[Eastern Catholic]] bishop or priest blesses with the sign of the cross, he holds the fingers of his right hand in such a way that they form the Greek abbreviation for Jesus Christ "[[IC XC]]". The little finger is extended to make the "I"; the index finger and middle finger are also raised, with the middle finger bent slightly so that the two fingers together form the "X"; the thumb touches the lowered third finger to signify the two "C"s. When a priest blesses in the sign of the cross, he positions the fingers of his right hand in the manner described as he raises his right hand, then moves his hand downwards, then to his left, then to his right. A bishop blesses with both hands (unless he is holding some sacred object such as a blessing cross, [[chalice (cup)|chalice]], [[Gospel Book]], [[icon]], etc.), holding the fingers of both hands in the same configuration, but when he moves his right hand to the left, he simultaneously moves his left hand to the right, so that the two hands cross, the left in front of the right, and then the right in front of the left. The blessing of both priests and bishops consists of three movements, in honour of the [[Holy Trinity]].

Some Christians make the Sign of the Cross in a way that may seem [[idiom]]atic: for example, in response to perceived blasphemy. Others sign themselves to seek God's blessing before or during an event with uncertain outcome. In Latin countries people often sign themselves in public.
Athletes can be seen crossing themselves before entering the field or while concentrating for competition.

In societies with constant Christian observance the Sign of the Cross is employed during everyday activities. For example the [[spoon]] crosses the newly poured mixture before stirring, housewives bless food when placing it in the [[oven]], potters bless the clay before creating a vessel, and one slicing bread crosses the [[bread]] with the knife before cutting, as bread is considered to represent the body of [[Christ]].

During persecutions, such as in [[Communist Romania]], some believers would hide the gesture by moving their tongues in a cross pattern inside their mouths.

==Origins of the sign of the cross==
[[Image:Christus Ravenna Mosaic.jpg|thumb|160px|right|[[Ravenna]] mosaic, 6th c.: Jesus is portrayed gesturing a sign of the cross with his right hand facing outward, like a Christian priest giving a blessing. ([[Christ Pantocrator]]).]]
The Christian sign of the cross was originally made with the right hand thumb and across the forehead only. The custom is attested to as early as the second century{{Fact|date=December 2007}}.

Vestiges of this practice remain: some Christians sign a cross on their forehead to hear the Gospels during Mass; foreheads are marked with an ash cross on [[Ash Wednesday]]; holy oil (called [[chrism]]) is applied on the forehead for the [[sacrament]] of [[Confirmation]]. Around year 200 in [[Carthage]] (modern Tunisia, Africa), [[Tertullian]] says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross". It is thought that by the end of the second century Christians signed the cross on their forehead before taking any risk, such as embarking on a journey{{Fact|date=December 2007}}.

By the fourth century, the sign of the cross involved other parts of the body beyond the forehead. By the sixth century, these variations of smaller signs across the body became the one larger sign used now{{Fact|date=December 2007}}.

==Low-Church attitudes==
Although the Sign of the Cross dates to early Christianity, it was rejected by some of the Reformers, and is absent from some forms of [[Protestantism]]. Since the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] it has generally been rejected by Protestants and some [[Low church|Low-Church]] Anglicans as being a Catholic practice, despite Martin Luther's positive personal view, the prescribed use of the sign in ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' and the defence of the sign of the Cross in Anglican Canon Law in 1604.

=== Lutheranism ===
Among Lutherans the practice was widely retained. For example, [[Luther's Small Catechism]] states that it is expected before the morning and evening prayers. Lutheranism never abandoned the practice of of making the sign of the cross in principle, and it was retained in worship at least until the early 19th Century. During the 19th and 20th Centuries it was largely in disuse until the liturgical renewal movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, the sign of the cross has become more commonplace among Lutherans at worship. The sign of the cross is now customary in the [[Divine Service]].<ref name="ELCA">{{cite web|url = http://www.elca.org/worship/faq/liturgy/sign_of_cross.html| title = Why Do Lutherans Make the Sign of the Cross?|publisher = Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref><ref name="LCMS">{{cite web|url = http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=3941| title = Sign of the Cross|publisher = Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod|accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> Rubrics in Contemporary Lutheran worship manuals, including Evangelical Lutheran Worship,<ref>Minneapolis:Augsburg Fortress, 2006</ref> Lutheran Service Book,<ref>St. Louis: Concordia, 2006</ref> Lutheran Book of Worship<ref>Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1978</ref> and Lutheran Worship<ref>St. Louis: Concordia, 1982</ref> provide for making the sign of the cross at certain points in the liturgy.

=== Methodism ===
[[The United Methodist Church]] is essentially a product of the [[Protestant Reformation]] and consequently tends to be [[iconoclastic]] — that is rejecting statues, icons, and many other practices which it sees as being "Catholic".<ref name="UMC 1">{{cite web|url = http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=16&mid=1432| title = Can United Methodists use the sign of the cross?|publisher = United Methodist Church|accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref> Currently the sign of the cross is made regularly by few Methodists, but on [[Ash Wednesday]] it is almost always applied by the [[Elder (Methodism)|elder]] on the [[laity]].<ref name="UMC 2">{{cite web|url = http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=2871| title = What is the significance of ashes being placed on the forehead on Ash Wednesday?|accessdate = 2007-06-16}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Christian cross]]
*[[Christian symbolism]]
*[[Prayer in Christianity]]
*[[Veneration]]
*[[Genuflection]]
*[[Trinitarian formula]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
;Roman Catholic
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Sign of the Cross] (entry from the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]])
*[http://www.catholictradition.org/Classics/signum-crucis.htm The Sign of the Cross] (a Traditional Catholic perspective)
*[http://www.ewtn.com/library/Liturgy/ZSIGNCRO.HTM Significance of the Sign of the Cross]
;Orthodox
*[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Sign_of_the_Cross Sign of the Cross] (orthodoxwiki.org)
*[http://www.orthodox.net/articles/about-crossing-oneself.html Why do Orthodox Christians "cross themselves" different than Roman Catholics?]
*[https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/3.CS/3.L/3.L.18.html The Church Council of the Hundred Chapters(1551)] ([[Old Believers]])
;Protestant
*[http://www.elca.org/Growing-In-Faith/Worship/Resources/FAQs/Sign-of-the-Cross.aspx Why Do Lutherans Make the Sign of the Cross?] ([[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|ELCA]] website)
*[https://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=3941 Sign of the Cross] ([[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] website)
*[http://www.episcopalchurch.org/19625_15358_ENG_HTM.htm Sign of the Cross] ([[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church]] website)

{{Gestures}}
{{Catholic Prayers}}

[[Category:Cross symbols]]
[[Category:Sacramentals]]
[[Category:Gestures]]
[[Category:Catholic spirituality]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Lutheran liturgy and worship]]

[[de:Kreuzzeichen]]
[[es:Señal de la cruz]]
[[eo:Krucosigno]]
[[fr:Signe de la croix]]
[[ko:십자성호]]
[[id:Tanda Salib]]
[[la:Signum Crucis]]
[[nl:Kruisteken]]
[[no:Korstegnet]]
[[pl:Znak krzyża]]
[[pt:Sinal da Cruz]]
[[ru:Крестное знамение]]
[[simple:Sign of the cross]]
[[sl:Pokrižanje]]
[[fi:Ristinmerkki]]
[[sv:Korstecken]]
[[uk:Хресне знамення]]

The God Delusion

2008-11-10T01:02:15Z

DrunkenBastard: removing some too-obvious bias

{{infobox Book
| image = [[Image:The God Delusion UK.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Richard Dawkins|Dawkins, Richard]]
| name = ''The God Delusion''
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| subject = [[Religion]]
| genre = [[Science]]
| publisher = [[Bantam Books]]
| release_date = 2006
| media_type = [[Hardcover]], [[Paperback]], [[Audio book]]
| isbn = ISBN 0-618-68000-4
| preceded_by = [[The Ancestor's Tale]]
}}
'''''The God Delusion''''' is a 2006 bestselling non-fiction book by British biologist [[Richard Dawkins]], professorial fellow of [[New College, Oxford]],<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/index.shtml |title=The Simonyi Professorship Home Page |accessdate=2008-03-08 |publisher=The University of Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/dawkins.html |title=The Third Culture: Richard Dawkins |accessdate=2008-03-08 |publisher=Edge.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Staff|title=Who's Who|publisher=[[A & C Black]]|location=London|year=2008|chapter=(Clinton) Richard Dawkins|accessdate=2008-07-29}}</ref> and inaugural holder of the [[Charles Simonyi]] Chair for the Public Understanding of Science at the [[University of Oxford]].

In ''The God Delusion'', Dawkins contends that a [[God|supernatural creator]] almost certainly does not exist and that belief in a [[personal god]] qualifies as a [[delusion]], which he defines as a persistent false belief held in the face of strong contradictory [[evidence]]. He is sympathetic to [[Robert Pirsig]]'s observation in ''[[Lila: An Inquiry into Morals|Lila]]'' that "when one person suffers from a delusion it is called insanity. When many people suffer from a delusion it is called religion."<ref name="preface">{{cite book |author=Dawkins, Richard |title=''The God Delusion'' |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |year=2006 |pages=406 |isbn=0-618-68000-4 |oclc= |doi=| authorlink = Richard Dawkins}}; {{PDF|[http://www.randomhouse.com.au/Downloads/News/GodDelusion_extract_revised.pdf on-line]|101 KB}} </ref>

As of November 2007, the English version of ''The God Delusion'' had sold over 1.5 million copies and had been translated to 31 other languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://media.libsyn.com/media/pointofinquiry/POI_2007_12_7_Richard_Dawkins.mp3 | publisher= Richard Dawkins at Point of Inquiry | title= Richard Dawkins - Science and the New Atheism |accessdate= 8 December | accessyear= 2007 | date = 8 December 2007 }}</ref> It was ranked #2 on the [[Amazon.com]] bestsellers' list in November 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/dp/0618680004/|title=Amazon.com book page - search for sales rank for current position}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | title=Atheists top book charts by deconstructing God | author=Jamie Doward | work=The Observer | url=http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/articles/0,,1934353,00.html | date=2006-10-29 | accessdate=2006-11-25}}</ref> In early December 2006, it reached #4 in the [[New York Times Best Seller list|''New York Times'' Hardcover Nonfiction Best Seller]] list after nine weeks on the list.<ref>{{Cite web | title= Hardcover Nonfiction - New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/03/books/bestseller/1203besthardnonfiction.html?_r=1&oref=slogin | accessdate=2006-12-02}}</ref> It remained on the list for 51 weeks until 30 September 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=''The God Delusion'' One-Year Countdown |url=http://richarddawkins.net/article,1599,The-God-Delusion-One-Year-Countdown,RichardDawkinsnet |work=RichardDawkins.net |accessdate=2007-10-05}}</ref> It has attracted widespread commentary, with several books written in response.

== Background ==
Dawkins had argued against [[Creationism|creationist]] explanations of life in his previous works on [[evolution]]. The theme of ''[[The Blind Watchmaker]]'', published in 1986, is that evolution can explain the apparent design in nature. In ''The God Delusion'' he focuses directly on a wider range of arguments used for and against belief in the existence of God.

Dawkins had long wanted to write a book openly [[criticism of religion|criticising religion]], but his publisher had advised against it. By the year 2006, his publisher had warmed to the idea. Dawkins attributes this change of mind to "four years of [[George W. Bush|Bush]]".<ref>{{cite web |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=Richard Dawkins explains his latest book |work=RichardDawkins.net |url=http://richarddawkins.net/mainPage.php?bodyPage=article_body.php&id=170 |accessdate=2007-09-14}}</ref>
By that time, a number of authors, including [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]] and [[Christopher Hitchens]], who together with Dawkins were labelled "[[The Unholy Trinity]]" by Robert Weitzel, had already written books openly attacking religion.<ref>{{cite news |first=Robert |last=Weitzel |title=Hitchens, Dawkins, Harris: The Unholy Trinity... Thank God. |work=Atlantic Free Press |url=http://www.atlanticfreepress.com/content/view/2112/1/ |accessdate=2007-09-14}}</ref>
These books did well on best-seller lists, and have spawned an industry of religious responses.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Fleas Are Multiplying! |work=RichardDawkins.net |url=http://richarddawkins.net/article,1617,The-Fleas-Are-Multiplying,RichardDawkinsnet |accessdate=2007-09-11}}</ref> According to the [[Amazon.com|Amazon.co.uk]] website, the book led to a 50% growth in their sales of books on religion and spirituality (including anti-religious books such as ''The God Delusion'' and ''[[God Is Not Great|God is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything]]'') and a 120% increase in the sales of the [[Bible]].<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Smith |title=Believe it or not: the sceptics beat God in bestseller battle |work=The Observer |url=http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/articles/0,,2147152,00.html |accessdate=2007-10-05}}</ref>

==Synopsis==
The book contains ten chapters. The first few build a case that there is probably no God, while the rest discuss religion and morality. It is dedicated to the memory of Dawkins' late friend [[Douglas Adams]],<ref>“Douglas, I miss you. You are my cleverest, funniest, most open-minded, wittiest, tallest and possibly only convert. I hope this book might have made you laugh - though not as much as you made me.” (''The God Delusion'', p. 117)</ref> accompanied by the quote "isn't it enough to see that a garden is beautiful without having to believe that there are fairies at the bottom of it too?" (from ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'').

Dawkins writes that ''The God Delusion'' contains four "consciousness-raising" messages:
# [[Atheism|Atheists]] can be happy, balanced, moral, and intellectually fulfilled.
# [[Natural selection]] and similar scientific theories are superior to a "God hypothesis" — the illusion of [[intelligent design]] — in explaining the living world and the cosmos.
# Children should not be labelled by their parents' religion. Terms like "Catholic child" or "Muslim child" should make people flinch.
# Atheists should be proud, not apologetic, because atheism is evidence of a healthy, independent mind.<ref name="preface"/>

=== The God Hypothesis ===
Since there are a number of different theistic ideas relating to the nature of God(s), Dawkins defines the concept of God that he wishes to address early in the book. He coins the term "Einsteinian religion", referring to [[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] use of "God", as a metaphor for nature or the mysteries of the universe.<ref>{{cite news |first=James |last=Randerson |title=Childish superstition: Einstein's letter makes view of religion relatively clear |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/may/12/peopleinscience.religion/print |publisher=The Guardian |date=13 May 2008 |accessdate=2008-05-14 |language= |quote=In the letter, he states: "The word god is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honourable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this." }}</ref> He makes a distinction between this "Einsteinian religion" and the general theistic idea of God as the [[Creator deity|creator]] of the universe who should be [[worship]]ped.<ref>''The God Delusion'', page 13</ref> This becomes an important theme in the book, which he calls the ''God Hypothesis''.<ref>''The God Delusion'', page 31</ref> He maintains that this idea of God is a valid hypothesis, having effects in the physical universe, and like any other hypothesis can be tested and falsified.<ref>''The God Delusion'', page 50.</ref> Thus, Dawkins rejects the common view that [[science and religion]] rule over [[Stephen Jay Gould#Nonoverlapping Magisteria (NOMA)|''non-overlapping magisteria'']].

Dawkins surveys briefly the main philosophical arguments in favour of [[Existence of God|God's existence]]. Of the many philosophical proofs that he discusses, he singles out the [[Argument from Design]] for lengthy consideration. Dawkins concludes that [[evolution by natural selection]] can explain apparent design in nature.<ref name=preface />

He writes that one of the greatest challenges to the human intellect has been to explain "how the complex, improbable design in the universe arises", and argues that there are two competing explanations:
# A theory involving a designer, that is, postulating a complex being to account for the complexity that we see.
# A theory that explains how from simple origins and principles, something more complex can emerge.
This is the basic set-up of his argument against the existence of God, the [[Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit]],<ref>''The God Delusion'', page 114</ref> where he argues that the first attempt is self-refuting, and the second approach is the way forward.<ref>This interpretation of the argument is based on the reviews by [[Dan Dennett]] and [[PZ Myers]].</ref>

=== Religion and morality ===
The second half of the book begins by exploring the roots of religion and seeking an explanation for its ubiquity across human cultures. Dawkins advocates the "theory of religion as an accidental by-product – a misfiring of something useful"<ref>"The general theory of religion as an accidental by-product – a misfiring of something useful – is the one I wish to advocate" ''The God Delusion'', p. 188</ref> as for example the mind's employment of [[intentional stance]]. Dawkins suggests that the theory of [[memes]], and human susceptibility to religious memes in particular, can explain how religions might spread like "mind viruses" across societies.<ref>"the purpose of this section is to ''ask'' whether meme theory might work for the special case of religion" (italics in original, referring to one of the five sections of Chapter 5), ''The God Delusion'', p. 191</ref>

He then turns to the subject of [[morality]], maintaining that we do not need religion to be good. Instead, our morality has a [[Darwinism|Darwinian]] explanation: altruistic genes, selected through the process of evolution, give people natural empathy. He asks, "would you commit murder, rape or robbery if you knew that no God existed?" He argues that very few people would answer "yes", undermining the claim that religion is needed to make us behave morally. In support of this view, he surveys the history of morality, arguing that there is a [[moral Zeitgeist]] that continually evolves in society. As it progresses, this moral consensus influences how religious leaders interpret their holy writings. Thus, Dawkins states, morality does not originate from the Bible, rather our moral progress informs what part of the Bible Christians accept and what they now dismiss.<ref>Having given some examples of the brutish morality in the Old Testament, he writes, "Of course, irritated theologians will protest that we don't take the book of Genesis literally any more. But that is my whole point! We pick and choose which bits of scripture to believe, which bits to write off as symbols and allegories." ''The God Delusion'', p. 238.</ref>

''The God Delusion'' is not just a defence of atheism, but also goes on the offensive against religion. Dawkins considers this hostility justified because he sees religion as subverting science, fostering [[religious fanaticism|fanaticism]], encouraging bigotry against [[homosexual]]s, and influencing society in other negative ways.<ref> He gives examples of cases where [[Blasphemy#Blasphemy Laws|blasphemy laws]] have been used to sentence people to death, and when funerals of gays or gay sympathisers have been picketed. Dawkins states preachers in the southern portions of the United States used the Bible to justify slavery by claiming Africans were descendants of [[Noah]]'s sinful son [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]]. During the [[Crusades]], pagans and heretics who would not convert to Christianity were murdered. In an extreme example from modern times, he cites the case of Reverend [[Paul Jennings Hill|Paul Hill]], who revelled in his self-styled martyrdom: "I expect a great reward in heaven… I am looking forward to glory," he announced as he faced execution for murdering a doctor who performed abortions in Florida, USA.</ref>
He is most outraged about the indoctrination of children. He equates the [[religion and children|religious indoctrination of children]] by parents and teachers in [[faith school]]s to a form of mental abuse. Dawkins considers the labels "[[Muslim]] child" or a "[[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] child" equally misapplied as the descriptions "[[Marxism|Marxist]] child" or a "[[Tory]] child", as he wonders how a young child can be considered developed enough to have such independent views on the cosmos and humanity's place within it.

The book concludes with the question whether religion, despite its alleged problems, fills a "much needed gap", giving consolation and inspiration to people who need it. According to Dawkins, these needs are much better filled by non-religious means such as philosophy and science. He argues that an atheistic worldview is life-affirming in a way that religion, with its unsatisfying "answers" to life's mysteries, could never be. An appendix gives addresses for those "needing support in escaping religion".

==Critical reception ==

While the book was published with endorsements from notable intellectuals, such as Nobel laureate and co-discoverer of the structure of DNA [[James D. Watson]], Harvard psychologist [[Steven Pinker]], as well as popular writers of fiction and the illusionists [[Penn and Teller]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://richarddawkins.net/godDelusionReviews |title=''The God Delusion'' - Reviews |accessdate=2008-04-08 |author= |date= |work= |publisher=RichardDawkins.net }}</ref> it received mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator [[Metacritic]] reported the book had an average score of 59 out of 100, based on 22 reviews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metacritic.com/books/authors/dawkinsrichard/goddelusion |title=''The God Delusion'' by Richard Dawkins: Reviews |accessdate=2008-03-13 |publisher=[[Metacritic]]}}</ref> The book was nominated for Best Book at the [[British Book Awards]], where Richard Dawkins won the Author of the Year award.<ref>{{cite web |title=Winners & Shortlists 2007 |url=http://www.britishbookawards.co.uk/pnbb_winners2007.asp |work=Galaxy British Book Awards |accessdate=2007-09-12}}</ref> It has been controversial, and has provoked responses from both religious and atheist commentators.<ref> also (Wilson 2007 http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/07-07-04.html#feature). This latter kind of criticism, Dawkins has called "I'm an atheist buttery". {{cite web |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |title=I'm an atheist, BUT... |url=http://richarddawkins.net/article,318,Im-an-atheist-BUT---,Richard-Dawkins |work=RichardDawkins.net |accessdate=2007-09-12}}</ref> In the 2007 paperback edition, Dawkins responds to many of the criticisms that these reviewers raise.<ref name=resp>Richard Dawkins, ''The God Delusion'', Black Swan, London, 2007. p.13-22</ref>

=== Philosophy and theology ===
{{main|Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit#Assessment and criticism of the argument}}
[[Alvin Plantinga]],<ref name='Plantinga'>{{cite web |url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/bc/2007/002/1.21.html | title=The Dawkins Confusion - Naturalism ad absurdum | work=Books & Culture, a Christian Review | author = [[Alvin Plantinga]] | year=2007 | accessdate=2007-03-02}}</ref>
[[Anthony Kenny]],<ref>{{cite journal |first=Anthony |last=Kenny |authorlink=Anthony Kenny |title=Knowledge, Belief, and Faith |journal=Philosophy |volume=82 |issue=03 |pages=381–397 |month=July | year=2007}}</ref>
[[Thomas Nagel]],<ref>{{cite news |first=Thomas |last=Nagel |authorlink=Thomas Nagel |title=The Fear of Religion |work=[[The New Republic]] |url=https://ssl.tnr.com/p/docsub.mhtml?i=20061023&s=nagel102306 |accessdate=2007-09-12}}</ref>,
[[Michael Ruse]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/529280 | title=Richard Dawkins: ''The God Delusion'' | work=Chicago Journals | author = [[Michael Ruse]] | month=December | year=2007 | accessdate=2008-05-31}}</ref>
and other philosophers have responded to the arguments of the book about the existence of God, especially Dawkins' argument that God almost certainly does not exist, the Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit. [[Richard Swinburne]] has responded to parts of ''The God Delusion'' that interact with Swinburne's writings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.ox.ac.uk/~orie0087/pdf_files/Responses%20to%20Controversies/Response%20to%20Dawkins'%20The%20God%20Delusion.pdf|title=Response to Richard Dawkins' comments on my writings in his book ''The God Delusion'' | accessdate = 2007-07-23|last=Swinburne|first=Richard| format = PDF}}</ref>

Plantinga writes that Dawkins' argument is that because the Universe has so much information in it, a hypothetical creating God would have to be enormously complex and thus enormously improbable. He states that Dawkins does not support this assertion without already assuming [[materialism]]. Plantinga concludes that the book's argument "really doesn't give even the slightest reason for thinking belief in God mistaken, let alone a ''delusion''".<ref name='Plantinga'/>

Some reviewers were highly critical of Dawkins' lack of scholarship on theology and the [[philosophy of religion]]. Dawkins is explicitly dismissive of theology in ''The God Delusion'', and in the words of [[John Cornwell (writer)|John Cornwell]] "there is hardly a serious work of philosophy of religion cited in his extensive bibliography".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2102-2375182.html | title=A question of respect. |work=Times Online | author = John Cornwell | accessdate=2006-11-06}}</ref> This sentiment was echoed by other reviewers, from theologians, such as [[Alister McGrath]],<ref>{{cite book |first=Alister |last=McGrath |authorlink=Alister McGrath |title=[[The Dawkins Delusion?]] |pages=p. 20 |publisher=[[SPCK]] |year=2007}} Also expressed in his review [http://www.theosthinktank.co.uk/The_Dawkins_Delusion.aspx?ArticleID=50&PageID=47&RefPageID=11 "The Dawkins Delusion"].</ref> to scientists otherwise sympathetic to Dawkins' position, such as [[H. Allen Orr]].<ref>{{Cite journal | title=A Mission to Convert | author=H. Allen Orr | issue=54.1 | month=January | year=2007 | journal=New York Review of Books | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19775 | accessdate=2007-03-03}}</ref> One of the most emphatic formulations of this objection was by Marxist literary critic [[Terry Eagleton]] in the ''[[London Review of Books]]'':<ref name=eagleton>{{Cite journal | title=Lunging, Flailing, Mispunching | author=Terry Eagleton | journal=London Review of Books | url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n20/eagl01_.html | volume=28 | issue=20 | date=2006-10-19 | accessdate=2006-11-26}}</ref>
{{quote|What, one wonders, are Dawkins's  views on the [[Epistemology|epistemological]] differences between [[Aquinas]] and [[Duns Scotus]]? Has he read [[Eriugena]] on subjectivity, [[Rahner]] on grace or [[Jürgen Moltmann|Moltmann]] on hope? Has he even heard of them? Or does he imagine like a bumptious young barrister that you can defeat the opposition while being complacently ignorant of its toughest case?}}

Other reviewers, however, praised Dawkins' argumentation. Australian philosopher [[Russell Blackford]] wrote that although the rebuttals of theistic arguments are not as extensive as those written by professional philosophers of religion, the book is far from dumbed down:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/1250 | title=''The God Delusion'' (Review) | work=[[Cosmos Magazine]] | author = [[Russell Blackford]] | year=2007 | accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref>
{{quote|Dawkins no doubt simplifies at times, or makes debatable points; importantly, however, he does not mislead the reader or commit any obvious blunders (at least, I could find none). This is extraordinarily impressive in a work of such vast ambition and interdisciplinary scope.}}

Murrough O'Brien of [[The Independent]] gave the book a mixed review, saying that while "mostly tendentious tosh" it "forces the reader to ardent thought." He criticizes several specifics of Dawkins' arguments, including his use of the "Who made God" argument and [[Russell's teapot]] analogy, but says that "as the bard of materialist myth, [Dawkins'] only rival is Philip Pullman."<ref>Murrough O'Brien, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4159/is_20061126/ai_n16876402/pg_1?tag=artBody;col1 "Our Teapot, which art in heaven,"] [[The Independent]], November 26, 2006</ref>

Dawkins himself replies to the charge of inadequate scholarship in the preface to the new edition of the book. He states that he only considered thinkers who actually argue for God's existence, rather than just assume it, and asks, "Do you have to read up on leprechology before disbelieving in [[leprechaun]]s?"<ref name='Dawkins 2007-09-17'> {{cite web|url=http://richarddawkins.net/articleComments,1647,Do-you-have-to-read-up-on-leprechology-before-disbelieving-in-them,Richard-Dawkins-The-Independent,page27 |title=Do you have to read up on leprechology before disbelieving in them? |accessdate=2007-11-14 |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |date=2007-09-17 |work=RichardDawkins.net }}</ref> He thereby endorses [[PZ Myers]]<nowiki>'</nowiki> analogy of the "Courtier's reply",<ref>{{cite web | url = http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/12/the_courtiers_reply.php | title = The Courtier's Reply | author = Myers, PZ | date = 2006-12-24 | accessdate = 2007-07-17}}</ref> that being expected to debate the finer points of religious scholarship as an atheist is like having to have read "learned tomes on ruffled pantaloons and silken underwear" before claiming that the [[The Emperor's New Clothes|Emperor is, in fact, naked]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article1779771.ece
| title = How dare you call me a fundamentalist | author = [[Richard Dawkins|Dawkins, Richard]]
| date = 2007-05-12 | accessdate = 2007-07-18}}</ref>

=== Polemicism ===
American physicist [[Lawrence M. Krauss]], writing in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', says that although a "fan" of Dawkins' science writing, he wishes that Dawkins "had continued to play to his strengths". Krauss suggests that an unrelenting attack upon people's beliefs might be less productive than "positively demonstrating how the wonders of nature can suggest a world without God that is nevertheless both complete and wonderful." Krauss is disappointed by the first part of the book, but quite positive about the latter part starting from Dawkins' discussion of morality. He remarks, "Perhaps there can be no higher praise than to say that I am certain I will remember and borrow many examples from this book in my own future discussions." In particular, he praises the treatment of [[Criticism of religion#Ideological indoctrination of children|religion and childhood]], although refraining from using the term "child abuse" himself.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://richarddawkins.net/article,238,n,n | title=Sermons and straw men. | work=The Official Richard Dawkins Website | author = Lawrence M. Krauss | accessdate=2006-11-06}}</ref>

Writing in the Guardian, [[Stephen D. Unwin]], author of ''The Probability of God'', which is the focus of Dawkins' criticisms of Bayesian methods for the proof of God's existence, notes that Dawkins' views are "hardly shocking as certainty is the position of almost all participants in the God debate."<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/story/0,,1883586,00.html Dawkins Needs to Show Some Doubt], Stephen D. Unwin, The Guardian, 9/29/2006</ref>

Skeptic [[Michael Shermer]] describes the book as "a powerful polemic against the infusion of religion into nearly every nook and cranny of public life." But Shermer considers ''The God Delusion'' much more than a polemic. He stresses the consciousness-raising messages of the book, and praises its latter part, describing the closing chapter as "a tribute to the power and beauty of science, which no living writer does better." However, he was put off by the provocative title and Dawkins' derogatory references to religious believers. Also, he is not convinced by Dawkins' argument that without religion, there would be "no suicide bombings, no 9/11, ...", suggesting that many of the evils that some atheists attribute to religion alone are primarily driven by political motives. Nevertheless, he concludes that the book "deserves multiple readings, not just as an important work of science, but as a great work of literature."<ref>{{Cite journal | title=Arguing for Atheism | author=Michael Shermer | journal=Science | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/315/5811/463 | volume=315 |issue=5811 |date=2007-01-26 | accessdate=2007-03-15 | doi=10.1126/science.1138989 | pages=463}} Also available [http://www.screaming-penguin.com/node/6988 here], second review on page.</ref>

[[Joan Bakewell]] reviewed the book for ''[[The Guardian]]'', stating "Dawkins comes roaring forth in the full vigour of his powerful arguments, laying into fallacies and false doctrines", and suggesting that it is a timely book: "These are now political matters. Around the world communities are increasingly defined as Muslim, Christian, Jewish, and living peaceably together is ever harder to sustain....Dawkins is right to be not only angry but alarmed. Religions have the [[secularism|secular]] world running scared. This book is a clarion call to cower no longer."<ref>{{Cite news | title=Judgement day | author=Joan Bakewell | url=http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,,1878706,00.html | work=The Guardian | date=2006-09-23 | accessdate=2006-11-26}}</ref>

Michael Skapinker in the ''[[Financial Times]]'', while finding that "Dawkins' attack on the creationists is devastatingly effective", considers him "maddeningly inconsistent". He argues that, since Dawkins accepts that current theories about the universe (such as [[Introduction to quantum mechanics|quantum theory]]) may be "already knocking at the door of the unfathomable" and that the universe may be "not only queerer than we suppose, but queerer than we can suppose", "the thought of how limited our comprehension is should introduce a certain diffidence into our attempted refutations of those who think they have the answer".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/69554d74-76a9-11db-8284-0000779e2340.html | title=Matter and Faith |work=Financial Times| author = Michael Skapinker | accessdate=2006-11-18}}</ref>

Mary Wakefield writes in the ''[[The Daily Telegraph|Daily Telegraph]]'' that Dawkins fails to understand why people believe in God, adding, "I'll eat my Sunday hat if this book persuades even the most hesitant half-believer to renounce religion".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2006/10/22/bodaw14.xml | title= God only knows who's right or wrong |work=Daily Telegraph| author = Mary Wakefield | date= 2006-10-22 | accessdate=2006-12-03}}</ref>

To the claim that the book is written as a [[polemic]], and that Dawkins is being shrill and intolerant, he argues that this only seems to be so in comparison with most discussions on the subject of religion. Religion is traditionally seen as a subject that should be discussed in extremely polite terms, but Dawkins does not understand why it should receive such a special status. He compares his work with restaurant reviews to show that his writing is not rude in comparison.<ref name=resp />

Over the charge that his book is only likely to be read by atheists and is unlikely to convince anyone to change his or her mind, Dawkins says that many people are secretly interested in atheism but are worried about admitting to this and discussing it. He also says that, even if his book were only to be read by atheists, it could still provide for an exchange of ideas.<ref name=resp />

=== Religion as consolation or source of evil ===

Andrew Brown writes a critical review titled "Dawkins the dogmatist" in ''[[Prospect (magazine)|Prospect]]'' in which he considers that "In his broad thesis, Dawkins is right. Religions are potentially dangerous, and in their popular forms profoundly irrational". He criticises, however, the assertion that "atheists ... don't do evil things in the name of atheism" and notes that "under [[Stalin]] almost the entire [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] priesthood were exterminated simply for being priests." Furthermore, he cites Robert Pape<ref>''Dying to Win'' by [[Robert Pape]]</ref> that religious zealotry is neither necessary nor sufficient for [[suicide bomber]]s, and concludes that the book is "one long [[argument from incredulity|argument from professorial incredulity]]."<ref>{{Cite journal | title=Dawkins the dogmatist | author=Andrew Brown | issue=127 | month=October | year=2006 | journal=Prospect | url=http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=7803 | accessdate=2006-11-26}}</ref>

Nobel-prize winning biologist [[David Baltimore]] welcomes the book in ''[[American Scientist]]'' as a reaction to the irrationality that he sees in US social and political life. Religion dominates the news, he writes, be it [[jihad]], opposition to [[Stem cell controversy|stem-cell research]], or teaching [[intelligent design]]. He finds the title of ''The God Delusion'' worth savoring as it conveys the core of Dawkins' argument, and the book worth reading for its wide-ranging discussion of religion. However, he states that while Dawkins' arguments against religion are much based on evolution, Dawkins does not come to terms with the "many scientists who believe both that evolution is a natural process over billions of years and that there is a God". Thus, Baltimore maintains that the focus of the book is on those who disbelieve evolution and are therefore fundamentalists. In conclusion, he says he is glad that Dawkins wrote this book at a time when, as he opines, "In the United States, there is an increasingly pervasive assumption that Christianity is our [[state religion]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/54417|title=''A Defense of Atheism''}}</ref>

[[Marek Kohn]] in ''[[The Independent]]'' suggests that in this book "passions are running high, arguments are compressed and rhetoric inflated. The allusion to [[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]], implicitly comparing religion to the Nazi regime, is par for the course." He also argues that "another, perhaps simpler, explanation for the universality and antiquity of religion is that it has conferred evolutionary benefits on its practitioners that outweigh the costs. Without more discussion, it is not clear that [[#The roots of religion|Dawkins' account]] should be preferred to the hypothesis that religion may have been adaptive in the same way that making stone tools was."<ref>{{Cite news | title=Smashing the sacred teapot | url=http://arts.independent.co.uk/books/reviews/article1769749.ece | author=Marek Kohn | date=2006-09-29 | accessdate=2006-11-26}}</ref>

In the ''Daily Telegraph'', [[Kenan Malik]] commends Dawkins' intellectual case for atheism, but believes that Dawkins misunderstands what makes religion attractive to believers, and exaggerates its role in modern conflicts. Malik is skeptical that a world without religion, as [[John Lennon]] asks us to imagine, would be as utopian as Dawkins paints it. He concludes by stating "if you want an understanding of evolution or an argument for atheism, there are few better guides than Richard Dawkins. But treat with extreme caution the pronouncements of any one who takes his political cue from an ex-Beatle."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2006/10/08/bodaw01.xml | title= I don't believe in Richard Dawkins |work=Daily Telegraph| author = Kenan Malik | date= 2006-10-08 | accessdate=2006-12-03}}</ref>

[[Daniel Dennett]], a prominent American philosopher and author, wrote a review for ''[[Free Inquiry]],'' where he states that he and Dawkins agree about most matters, "but on one central issue we are not (yet) of one mind: Dawkins is quite sure that the world would be a better place if religion were hastened to extinction and I am still [[agnostic]] about that." In Dennett's view many "avowedly religious people" are actually atheist, but find religious metaphors and rituals useful. However, he applauds Dawkins' effort to "raise consciousness in people who are trapped in a religion and can't even imagine life without it." He continues by stating his regret that neither he himself nor Dawkins deal with theist arguments as patiently as they might, noting that "Serious argument depends on mutual respect, and this is often hard to engender when disagreements turn vehement", but concludes by suggesting that "Perhaps some claims should just be laughed out of court."<ref>{{cite journal | title=Review of Richard Dawkins, ''The God Delusion'' | author=Daniel Dennett | authorlink=Daniel Dennett | journal=Free Inquiry | volume=27 | issue=1 | date=2006-10-16 | url=http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/dawkinsreview.pdf | accessdate=2006-12-05|format=PDF}}</ref>

Dawkins repeats his long-standing opposition to the argument that the masses need religion. He considers it to be patronising and elitist to hold that intellectuals can be trusted with atheism but the majority of people need to believe in religion. Dawkins has been involved in the popularisation of science, and he believes that this is a much better support for society than religion.<ref name=resp />

=== Moderate religion and fundamentalism ===

Writing in ''[[Harper's]]'', [[Pulitzer Prize]] winning novelist and essayist [[Marilynne Robinson]] criticises the "pervasive exclusion of historical memory in Dawkins's  view of science," with particular reference to scientific [[eugenic]] theories and practices. She argues that Dawkins has a superficial knowledge of the [[Bible]] and accuses him of comparing only the best of science with the worst of religion: "if religion is to be blamed for the fraud done in its name, then what of science? Is it to be blamed for the [[Piltdown hoax]], for the long-credited deceptions having to do with [[Hwang Woo-Suk#Controversies|cloning in South Korea]]? If by 'science' is meant authentic science, then 'religion' must mean authentic religion, granting the difficulties in arriving at these definitions." Robinson suggests that Dawkins' arguments are not properly called scientific but are reminiscent of [[logical positivism]], notwithstanding Dawkins' "simple-as-that, plain-as-day approach to the grandest questions, unencumbered by doubt, consistency, or countervailing information."<ref>[[Marilynne Robinson]] [http://solutions.synearth.net/2006/10/20 ''The God Delusion''] Harper's Magazine, November, 2006</ref>

''[[The Economist]]'' praised the book: "Everyone should read it. Atheists will love Mr Dawkins's  incisive logic and rapier wit and theists will find few better tests of the robustness of their faith. Even agnostics, who claim to have no opinion on God, may be persuaded that their position is an untenable waffle." The review focuses on Dawkins' critiques of the influence of religion upon politics and the use of religion to insulate political positions from criticism. "The problem, as Mr. Dawkins sees it, is that religious moderates make the world safe for fundamentalists, by promoting faith as a virtue and by enforcing an overly pious respect for religion."<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.economist.com/books/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7939629 | work=The Economist | title=Misbegotten sons | date=2006-09-21 | accessdate=2006-11-26}}</ref>

To those who claim that Dawkins misrepresents religious people and argue that fanatics are a small minority, Dawkins replies that this is not true, and that intolerant fanatics have huge influence in the world.<ref name=resp />

Dawkins has been described as an "atheist fundamentalist".<ref name="McGrath 2007">[[Alister McGrath]] and Joanna Collicutt McGrath, ''The Dawkins Delusion? Atheist Fundamentalism and the Denial of the Divine'', [[Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK)]], February 15, 2007, ISBN 978-0-281-05927-0</ref> He rejects this label, saying [[fundamentalism]] implies a belief system that is impervious to change, while his atheism is based on the [[scientific method]] of reasoning. He says that if new scientific evidence were found that disproved [[evolution]], then he would willingly give up his belief in evolution and [[natural selection]], whilst a genuine fundamentalist would remain firm in his/her belief no matter how much opposing evidence came to light.<ref name=resp />

==Legal repercussions in Turkey==
[[Image:DawkinsTYsmall.jpg|thumb|right|100px|The Turkish edition of the book, published by Kuzey Yayınları]]
In [[Turkey]], where the book has sold at least 6000 copies,<ref name='Turkish Daily'>{{cite news | first=Sylvia | last=Tiryaki | title=''The God Delusion'' in Turkey | date= 3 December 2007 | publisher= [[Turkish Daily News]]| url =http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=90179 | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-02-18 | language = }}</ref> a prosecutor launched a probe into whether ''The God Delusion'' is "an attack on holy values" following a complaint in November 2007. The Turkish publisher and translator, Erol Karaaslan, faced a prison sentence if convicted of inciting religious hatred and insulting religious values.<ref name='CNN 2007-11-28'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Turkey probes atheist's 'God' book | date= 28 November 2007 | publisher=AP, CNN | url =http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/11/28/dawkins.turkey.ap/index.html | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-28 | language = }}</ref> As is also the case for other controversies in Turkey, such as that involving [[Orhan Pamuk]]'s statement on the [[Armenian Genocide]], Sylvia Tiryaki points out that "an investigation of this kind on behalf of a claim from a citizen can be opened – but also closed as fast as possible – in any other country."<ref name='Turkish Daily' />

In April 2008, the court acquitted the defendant. In ruling out the need to confiscate copies of the book, the presiding judge stated that banning it "would fundamentally limit the freedom of thought".<ref name='NTVMSNBC 2008-04-02'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title='Tanrı Yanılgısı' kitabı beraat etti | date= 2 April 2008 | publisher=AA | url =http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/news/441428.asp | accessdate = 2008-04-02 | language = Turkish}}</ref>

== Responses ==

A number of books have been published in response to ''The God Delusion''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flea of the week |url=http://richarddawkins.net/article,2482,Flea-of-the-week,RichardDawkinsnet |work=RichardDawkins.net |accessdate=2008-08-12}}</ref> These include ''[[The Dawkins Delusion?]]'', by [[Alister McGrath]] and Joanna Collicutt McGrath; ''God is No Delusion'', by [[Thomas Crean]]; ''Dawkins' Dilemmas'', by [[Michael Austin]]; ''Why There Almost Certainly Is a God'', by [[Keith Ward]]; ''The Devil's Delusion'', by [[David Berlinski]]; and ''God, Doubt and Dawkins: Reform Rabbis Respond to the God Delusion'', by Jonathan A Romain.
Evolutionary biologist [[David Sloan Wilson]] also has responded overtly in his article ''Why Richard Dawkins is Wrong About Religion''.<ref>[http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/07-07-04.html#feature Skeptic.com: eSkeptic] - Why Richard Dawkins is Wrong About Religion. Wednesday, July 4, 2007.</ref>

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
*[[Anthropic principle]]
*[[Argument from beauty]]
*[[Argument from religious experience]]
*''[[Breaking the Spell]],'' a similar book by [[Daniel Dennett]] also published in 2006
*[[Cargo cult]]
*[[Efficacy of prayer]]
*[[Founding Fathers of the United States]]
*[[God of the gaps]]
*[[Group selection]]
*[[Humanism]]
*[[Agent detection]]
{{col-2}}
*[[Irreducible complexity]]
*[[Morality without religion]]
*[[Ontological argument]]
*[[Evolutionary psychology of religion]]
*[[Pascal's Wager]]
*[[Religion and abortion]]
*[[Religion and homosexuality]]
*[[Religion in the United States]]
*[[Religious education]]
*[[Russell's teapot]]
*[[Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?]]
{{Col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

==Interviews==
*[http://www.salon.com/books/int/2006/10/13/dawkins/index.html "The flying spaghetti monster"], interview with Steve Paulson, ''[[Salon.com]]'', October 13, 2006
*[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1555132,00.html "God vs. Science"], discussion with [[Francis Collins]], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', November 13, 2006
*[http://www.cbc.ca/thehour/video.php?id=1563 "''The God Delusion''"], interview with ''[[George Stroumboulopoulos]]'', ''[[The Hour]]'', May 5, 2007
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article1767506.ece "God . . . in other words"], interview with [[Ruth Gledhill]], ''[[The Times]]'', May 10, 2007
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=87949769 "Richard Dawkins: An Argument for Atheism"], interview with [[Terry Gross]], [[Fresh Air]], March 7, 2008

==Further reading==
Chronological order of publication (oldest first)

* [[Stephen D. Unwin]]: [http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/story/0,,1883586,00.html ''Dawkins needs to show some doubt''], The Guardian, 29 September 2006

* [[Crispin Tickell]]: [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/824a87e6-501f-11db-9d85-0000779e2340.html ''Heaven can wait''], [[The Financial Times]], 30 September 2006

* Paul Riddell: [http://living.scotsman.com/books.cfm?id=1483032006 ''Did Man really create God?''], [[The Scotsman]], 6 October 2006

* [[Mary Midgley]]: [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/opinion/mg19225721.600-review-ithe-god-delusioni-by-richard-dawkins.html review], [[New Scientist]] (requires subscription). October 7, 2006

* Troy Jollimore: [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/15/RVGH2LN2021.DTL ''Better Living Without God?''], [[San Francisco Chronicle]]. October 15, 2006

* [[PZ Myers]]: [http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2006/10/bad_religion.php ''Bad Religion''], [[Seed magazine]]. October 22, 2006

* Jim Holt: [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/22/books/review/Holt.t.html?_r=1&oref=slogin ''Beyond belief''], [[The New York Times]], 22 October 2006

* [[Terry Eagleton]], [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n20/eagl01_.html "Lunging, Flailing, Mispunching", LRB, Vol.28, No.20,19 October 2006]

* [[Marilynne Robinson]], [http://solutions.synearth.net/2006/10/20 ''The God Delusion'', Harper's Magazine, November, 2006]

* Eric W. Lin: [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=515434 ''Dawkins Says God Is Not Dead, But He Should Be''], [[The Harvard Crimson]], 1 November 2006

* [[James Wood (critic)|James Wood]], [http://www.samharris.org/site/full_text/the-celestial-teapot/ "The Celestial Teapot", The New Republic, December, 2006]

* Michael Fitzpatrick [http://www.spiked-online.com/index.php?/site/article/2503/ " The Dawkins delusion: 'Catholic atheist' Michael Fitzpatrick finds himself repelled by Richard Dawkins' crass and prejudiced polemic against religion.], [[Spiked (magazine)|Spiked]] 18 December 2006

* Bill Muehlenberg, ''A Review of The God Delusion'' [http://www.billmuehlenberg.com/2006/12/29/a-review-of-the-god-delusion-by-richard-dawkins-part-1/ Part 1], [http://www.billmuehlenberg.com/2006/12/29/a-review-of-the-god-delusion-by-richard-dawkins-part-2/ Part 2], on the Australian commentator's CultureWatch blog

* Robert Stewart: [http://www.evolutionary-philosophy.net/review_god_delusion.html ''A detailed summary and review of The God Delusion''], The Journal of Evolutionary Philosophy. 2006

* H. Allen Orr. [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19775 "A Mission to Convert"], in [[The New York Review of Books]], 11 January 2007

* [[Steven Weinberg]]: [http://tls.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,25349-2552017,00.html "A deadly certitude"], the [[The Times Literary Supplement]], 17 January 2007

* [[Alister McGrath]]: ''[[The Dawkins Delusion]]'', 15 February 2007

* [[Scott Hahn]]: [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1931018480/ "Answering the New Atheism: Dismantling Dawkins' Case Against God"], 2008

==External links==
*[http://www.richarddawkins.net/mainPage.php?bodyPage=godDelusion.php Description of ''The God Delusion''] at the official website of the Richard Dawkins Foundation
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/newsnight/5372458.stm Newsnight Book Club] – Extracts from ''The God Delusion''
* [http://newhumanist.org.uk/1521 Richard Dawkins interviewed by Laurie Taylor in New Humanist magazine]
*[http://richarddawkins.net/article,303,Reading-of-The-God-Delusion-in-Lynchburg-VA,Richard-Dawkins--C-SPAN2 Video: Dawkins' reading from ''The God Delusion'' at Randolph-Macon Woman's College] – including the Question-and-Answer afterwards. Oct. 23, 2006
* [http://www.wnyc.org/shows/bl/episodes/2007/04/23 Audio]: Richard Dawkins interviewed by [[Brian Lehrer]]

{{Dawkins}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:God Delusion, The}}
[[Category:2006 books]]
[[Category:Criticism of monotheism]]
[[Category:Criticism of religion]]
[[Category:Books critical of religion]]
[[Category:Books critical of Christianity]]
[[Category:Books critical of Islam]]
[[Category:Books by Richard Dawkins]]
[[Category:Books about atheism]]
[[Category:Cognitive science literature]]

[[de:Der Gotteswahn]]
[[et:The God Delusion]]
[[es:El espejismo de Dios]]
[[eo:The God Delusion]]
[[fa:توهم خدا]]
[[fr:Pour en finir avec Dieu]]
[[ko:만들어진 신]]
[[it:L'illusione di Dio]]
[[lt:Dievo iliuzija]]
[[nl:God als misvatting]]
[[ja:神は妄想である]]
[[no:Gud – en vrangforestilling]]
[[pl:Bóg urojony]]
[[pt:The God Delusion]]
[[ru:Бог как иллюзия]]
[[fi:Jumalharha]]
[[sv:Illusionen om Gud]]
[[tr:Tanrı Yanılgısı]]
[[zh-yue:The God Delusion]]