Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Duane Gish

2013-03-07T17:26:16Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Dr. Gish's death */ new section

==Debate Transcripts==

Are there any transcripts of Dr. Gish's debates that can be linked to from this article? --[[User:DinsdaleP|DinsdaleP]] 12:00, 15 January 2009 (EST)
:::I added a YouTube playlist of the gish vs. plimer debate in Australia. [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 04:12, 6 October 2011 (EDT)

== Dr. Gish's death ==

Shouldn't something be mentioned here about Dr. Gish going home to be with the Lord? [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/2013/03/06/gish-home]

Rainbow

2012-12-03T18:12:57Z

Dfrischknecht: Fixed a typo.

[[Image:Rainbow.jpg|thumb|400px|right|A rainbow, seen from the island of Curaçao. Note: the bright spot is a clearing in the clouds; the sun is ''behind'' the photographer.]]
A '''rainbow''' is an artistic circular [[color]] [[spectrum]] appearing in the [[sky]], predicted by the [[Bible]] as a sign from [[God]] after the [[Great Flood]]. As explained in [[Genesis_9-16_(Translated)#Chapter_9|Genesis 9:13]], [[God]] told [[Noah]] that the rainbow would remind God and Mankind of God's promise never to flood the [[Earth]] again: "I am setting My rainbow in the cloud, and it shall serve as a banner of a binding agreement between Me and the earth."

Physicists describe rainbows based on the [[refraction]] and multiple [[reflection]]s of sunlight in droplets of [[water]]. Though appearing semicircular from the ground, rainbows are actually circular. Rainbows appear when water droplets are lit by direct sunlight, a condition that rarely occurs ''during'' a [[storm]], because the [[cloud]]s block the [[sun]]. Rainbows are frequently seen ''after'' a storm, when the falling rain has moved into the distance and the sun is roughly behind the observer when the observer is facing the patch of rain.

[[Physics]] cannot explain the feelings of [[awe]] and [[spirituality]] rainbows inspire, as they did in [[William Wordsworth]] when he wrote:

  ''My heart leaps up when I behold'' 
    ''A rainbow in the sky:'' 
  ''So was it when my life began; 
  ''So is it now I am a man;'' 
  ''So be it when I shall grow old,'' 
    ''Or let me die!'' 
  ''The Child is father of the Man;'' 
    ''I could wish my days to be'' 
  ''Bound each to each by natural piety.''<ref>William Wordsworth, [http://www.bartleby.com/145/ww194.html "My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold] (1802)</ref>

Complete circular rainbows can be seen under the right conditions; in particular, when viewing the mists over [[Niagara Falls]] early or late in the day. Circular rainbows can sometimes be seen from an [[airplane]] when it flies over clouds, the rainbow actually encircling the airplane's shadow on the clouds. One way to think about the rainbow is that the mist or rain is like a projection screen, and the rainbow can only be seen where the projection screen is. When the projection screen is large enough, you see the entire circular rainbow.

The rainbow is often depicted inaccurately in pictures. For example, it may be depicted as a three-dimensional object, with perspective<ref>[http://www.porterfieldsfineart.com/josephholodook/images/leprechaun72.jpg Leprechaun] A typical, but utterly unrealistic depiction of a rainbow. This picture also shows the rainbow as if it had separated, sharp-edged bands of color, in the order yellow, orange, red, green, blue.</ref>, real rainbows never have this appearance. Real rainbows show an extremely subtle blending of color. It is hard to pick out separate colors in a rainbow, but of course to the extent that one can, they appear in the "[[RoyGBiv|Roy G. Biv]]" order, [[red]] outermost, then [[Orange (color)|orange]], [[yellow]], [[green]], and a range of [[blue|bluish]] shades which, in a real rainbow, are hard to distinguish and name. (RoyGBiv stands for "Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet".)

It is extremely difficult to reproduce the subtle, faint [[pastel]] colors of a rainbow on a printed page, or even in a color photograph, partly because a rainbow contains colors that are not within the range that can be produced by mixing three primaries, and partly because rainbows are faint; printed depictions of them almost invariably have been enhanced to make them look brighter and more intensely colored than they really are.

==Liberal redefinitions==

A rainbow has also been used as a symbol of [[homosexuality]], specifically the display of a "rainbow flag" showing several color bands. It is a prime example of the corrupting influence of [[homosexuality and language|homosexuality on language]].

The term "rainbow" has also been used by left-wing political pressure groups to refer to their agenda of [[multiculturalism]], specifically the groups led by [[Jesse Jackson]] (the "Rainbow Coalition"), and [[Lenora Fulani]] (the "Rainbow Lobby").

In both of the above contexts, the "rainbow" is mis-used by [[liberal]]s as an alleged symbol of "[[diversity]]".

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Meteorology]]
[[Category:Colors]]

Dinosaur

2012-09-27T02:39:21Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Extinction */ Removed scare quotes

{{Taxonomy
|name=Dinosaur
|image=Fdt566e4.jpg
|caption=
|superkingdom=
|kingdom= Animalia
|subkingdom=
|superphylum=
|phylum=Chordata
|subphylum=
|infraphylum=
|microphylum=
|superdivision=
|division=
|subdivision=
|superclass=
|class=Sauropsida
|subclass=Diapsida
|infraclass=Archosauromorpha
|superorder=Dinosauria
|order=Ornithischia; Saurischia
|suborder=
|infraorder=
|superfamily=
|family=
|subfamily=
|supertribe=
|tribe=
|subtribe=
|genera=
|genus=
|subgenus=
|species=
|binomialname=
|sub=
|alt=
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' are extinct animals usually believed to be ranging in size from a few ounces to some of the largest land animals ever to exist.
The word ''dinosaur'' was coined in 1841 by [[Richard Owen]]<ref>Grigg, Russell, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1956/ Dinosaurs and dragons: stamping on the legends], ''Creation''
14(3):10–14, June 1992</ref>, from the Greek words for "terrible lizard", and reflected the creatures' large size and fearsome appearance to the early paleontologists.

==Highlights of the history of dinosaur paleontology==
[[Image:Osborn.jpg‎‎|200px|thumb|right|[[Henry Fairfield Osborn]]]]
In the United States during the 1900s, the public imagination was caught by the discoveries of [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] (1857-1935) and the great competitive dinosaur hunters, Edward Drinker Cope (1847-1897) and Othniel Charles Marsh (1831-1899). Exploring in Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, they found numerous fossil dinosaurs. Their museums worked out the techniques for mounting and displaying them.

==Dinosaur Species==
Dinosaurs were immensely varied, and included both herbivores and carnivores. Although many have been found in the fossil record, paleontologists expect that they have barely scratched the surface of the vast superorder that the dinosaurs encompassed.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060905-dinosaurs_2.html Vast Majority of Dinosaurs Still to Be Found, Scientists Say], ''National Geographic''</ref>

===History of dinosaurs===
[[Image:Michelangeloflood.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The [[Great Flood|Flood]]'', by [[Michaelangelo]], detail from the [[Sistine Chapel]], 1509.]]
[[Creation science]] asserts that the biblical account, that dinosaurs were created on day 6 of [[creation]]<ref>''Genesis'' 1:25</ref> approximately [[Counterexamples to an Old Earth|6,000 years ago]], along with other land animals, and therefore co-existed with humans, thus [[Counterexamples to Evolution|debunking the Theory of Evolution]] and the beliefs of evolutionary scientists about the age and creation of the earth. Of course, they make this assertion with no evidence, other than a book that is over 2000 years old and was written in another language from that in which we read it today.

Creation science shows that dinosaurs lived in harmony with other animals, (probably including in the [[Garden of Eden]]) eating only plants<ref>''Genesis'' 1:29-30</ref>; that pairs of each dinosaur [[kind]] were taken onto [[Noah's Ark]] during the [[Great Flood]] and were preserved from drowning<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3967/ Were dinosaurs on Noah’s Ark?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>; that many of the fossilized dinosaur bones originated during the mass killing of the Flood<ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/219/ Dinosaur bones—just how old are they really?], ''Creation'', vol. 21 No. 1 p. 54</ref>; and that possibly some descendants of those dinosaurs taken aboard the Ark are still around today.<ref Name="Today">Robert Doolan, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/833/ Are dinosaurs alive today?], ''Creation'', vol. 15 No. 4 p. 12.</ref> At least 300 distinct [[genera]] of dinosaur have been identified.<ref>USGS [http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dinosaurs/types.html]</ref>

[[Archaeological]], [[fossil]], and documentary evidence supports the [[faith and science|logical]] conclusion that dinosaurs co-existed with mankind until at least relatively recent times.[citation needed]

Because the term only came into use in the 19th century, the [[Bible]] does not use the word "dinosaur." However, there are numerous references throughout the biblical account. For example, the [[behemoth]] in [[Job]] and the [[leviathan]] in [[Isaiah]] are clearly references to dinosaurs,<ref>Allan K. Steel, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1799 Could Behemoth have been a dinosaur?], ''Journal of Creation'' vol. 15 No. 2 p. 42.</ref> <ref>[http://www.answersincreation.org/job4041a.htm], ''Answers in Creation''</ref> although others have claimed that Behemoth and Leviathan are references to a hippopotamus or elephant and a crocodile respectively. However, the Biblical descriptions do not fit those creatures, note that hippopotamuses and elephants do not have a "tail like a cedar". Furthermore, even if the terms did refer to other animals, this does not necessarily invalidate the existence of dinosaurs. The Creation account was not intended as a comprehensive list of all animals God created - it does not for instance state explicitly that He created the [[ferret]]. However, Genesis does state that God created all animals, which would include any not mentioned by name.

==== Extinction ====

Creation science rejects the great impact Theory, pointing out multiple problems with this. <ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2426 Did a meteor wipe out the dinosaurs?].</ref> Despite this evidence, the great impact theory is widely considered by the scientific community to be fact. Granted, they can't prove this definitively, however it is considered to be a more likely scenario than competing explanations.

Creation science shows that evolutionists are frequently coming out with a "New Theory of Dinosaur Extinction" and that their theories are laden with false assumptions <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/1115dinosaur.asp Dinosaur demise theory, version #451], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>.

====Dinosaur-like creatures in history and modern sightings====

Creation science cites a number of reasons to believe that dinosaurs have existed until relatively recent times, and perhaps still survive.
[[Image:AZ_RockArtDino1a.jpg‎|right|150|thumb|right|Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting]]
* There have been a number of sightings of dinosaur-like creatures reported by the [[best of the public]].
** A thousand people reported seeing a dinosaur-like monster in two sightings around Sayram Lake in Xinjiang according to the Chinese publication, China Today.<ref name="Today" />
** Locals in the Congo have reported a creature they name ''Mokele-mbembe''<ref name="Today" /><ref>[http://www.mokelembembe.com/ Mokele-mbembe The Living Dinosaur!]</ref>, and from its description it appears to be a small plant-eating dinosaur. The reports have been taken seriously enough that a biologist from the [[University of Chicago]] has made several expeditions to find the creature. Another biologist has reported seeing the creature.<ref name="Today" />
** Dinosaur-like creatures have been seen by several people in two different parts of [[Papua New Guinea]] since 1990.<ref>Anon., [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/381 A living dinosaur?], ''Creation'' 23(1):56, December 2000. Irwin, Brian, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5847 Theropod and sauropod dinosaurs sighted in PNG?] 1st July, 2008 (Creation Ministries International).</ref>
* There are drawings of creatures resembling dinosaurs.
** An expedition which included Charles W. Gilmore, Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology with the United States National Museum, examined an ancient pictograph which he claimed portrays dinosaurs and man coexisting.<ref>[http://www.creationism.org/swift/DohenyExpedition/Doheny01Main.htm Doheny Scientific Expedition, Hava Supai Canyon, Arizona], ''Creationism.org''</ref><ref>[http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_hava_supai_dinosaur_carving The Hava Supai Dinosaur Carving], ''ChristianCourier.com''</ref>.
** The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina, a second century BC piece of art, contains a portion which depicts a group of Ethiopians hunting what some claim appears to be a dinosaur; there is much debate on this, however, and most modern art historians consider the mysterious animal to be a lion or a crocodile (the latter theory is supported by the presence of the Greek word for "crocodile" written near the image of the mysterious animal). <ref>[http://www.s8int.com/dinolit2.html Dinosaurs in Literature, Art & History-- Page 2], ''s8int.com''</ref>
[[Image:Palestrina1.jpg|right|thumb|A portion of the [[Nile Mosaic of Palestrina]], depicting the hunting of an animal which is often said to resemble a dinosaur (but which appears to be labelled "crocodile" in Greek).]]
* Engravings in the floor of Carlisle Cathedral appear to be of dinosaurs. They are on the tomb of bishop Richard Bell, who died in 1496.<ref>See picture on page 241 of Batten, Don, et. al., 2007, ''The Creation Answers Book''.</ref>
* Creatures matching dinosaurs and similar creatures have been described by various people groups.
* Descriptions of [[dragon]]s are widespread and match descriptions of dinosaurs, showing that dragons were real creatures and were actually very likely dinosaurs.
** The World Book Encyclopedia states that: "The [[dragon]]s of legend are strangely like actual creatures that have lived in the past. They are much like the great reptiles [dinosaurs] which inhabited the earth long before man is supposed to have appeared on earth." <ref>Quoted in [http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/FAQ25.html What about the Dinosaurs?], ''CreationScience.com''</ref> Dragons exist in the folklore of many European and Asian cultures.<ref name="WB2000">''Dragon'' entry in World Book Millennium 2000 CD ROM</ref> World Book Encyclopedia says, "In Europe, dragons are traditionally portrayed as ferocious beasts that represent the evils fought by human beings. But in Asia, especially in China and Japan, the animals are generally considered friendly creatures that ensure good luck and wealth."<ref Name="WB2000" />
** Dragons appear in the flag of [[Wales]], in traditional [[China|Chinese]] New Years' Day celebrations, and in the Chinese [[calendar]]. Every other creature on the calendar is a real creature.
* That dinosaurs are not known from the fossil record above the [[Cretaceous]] strata is not reason to believe that they have not survived until more recent times.
** Living specimens of orders of animals that were believed to have been extinct for millions of years have been found before, such as the Diatomyidae Squirrel <ref>[[Diatomyidae]] Squirrel [http://news.softpedia.com/news/They-Thought-It-Went-Extinct-11-Million-Years-Ago-19557.shtml]</ref>, the Wollemi Pine <ref>Wollemi Pine ''Biotechnology Australia'' [http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/enviro/wollemi.cfm]</ref> and the [[Coelacanth]] <ref>Sulawesi Coelacanth. ''University Of California, Berkeley''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/coelacanth/coelacanths.html]</ref> <ref>More on the Coelacanth ''marinebio.org''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=54]</ref>.
* The recent dinosaur tissue find is a strong rebuttal of the claim that dinosaurs lived millions of years ago. <ref>Carl Wieland, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3042 Still soft and stretchy], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>



==== Dinosaurs and birds ====
[[Creation science]] shows that the idea that birds are descendants of dinosaurs is not demonstrated by the evidence <ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3833/106/ Bird evolution?], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref> <ref>Andy McIntosh, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/540/ 100 years of airplanes—but these weren’t the first flying machines!], ''Creation'' vol. 26 No. 1 p. 44</ref>, and that the dinosaur-bird connection is even disputed by some evolutionists.

In his article, "Fifteen ways to refute materialistic bigotry", Dr. [[Jonathan Sarfati]] wrote regarding dinosaurs being descendants of birds:
{{cquote|“The same logic applies to the dinosaur-[[bird]] debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite [[Alan Feduccia|Feduccia]]’s devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved ‘ground up’ from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia’s ‘trees-down’ (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are ''both'' right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all!<ref>Jonathan Sarfati, [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/2610 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry], ''Creation Ministries International''</ref>}}

Creation science also cites the evolutionist and [[atheism|atheist]] [[Ernst Mayr]]<ref>Matthews, Michael, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp 99 and still fighting God], 8th December, 2003 (Answers in Genesis).</ref> who stated the following:
{{cquote|“It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations." <ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood], ''Center for Scientific Creation''</ref> <ref> Find the full quote on [http://books.google.com/books?id=mAIjnLp6r_MC&pg=PA296&lpg=PA296&dq=Ernst+Mayr+1942+%22It+must+be+admitted,+however,+that+it+is+a+considerable+strain+on+one%27s+credulity+to+assume%22&source=bl&ots=TRDzBtumPF&sig=XwvnT327A9sn3Uvs0RLOaQNo5Zo&hl=en&ei=P6H6Te37LMSwhAf03fimAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false], starting from line 6. </ref> }}

The March 2003 issue of ''Scientific American'' is also cited by creation scientists:
{{cquote|Of all the body coverings nature has designed, feathers are the most various and the most mysterious...The origin of feathers is a specific instance of the much more general question of the origin of evolutionary novelties--structures that have no clear antecedents in ancestral animals and no clear related structures (homologues) in contemporary relatives. Although evolutionary theory provides a robust explanation for the appearance of minor variations in the size and shape of creatures and their component parts, it does not yet give as much guidance for understanding the emergence of entirely new structures, including digits, limbs, eyes and feathers...." <ref>Michael Matthews, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/0313sciam.asp Scientific American admits creationists hit a sore spot], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref> <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CD7F6-B16F-1E41-89E0809EC588EEDF Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?], ''Scientific American''</ref>}}

Creation science also shows that the comparative anatomy analysis done by evolutionists comparing bird bones and dinosaur bones is flawed. <ref>Dr. David N. Menton, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2005/0328discovery.asp "Ostrich-osaurus" Discovery?], ''Answers in Genesis''</ref>

===Evolutionary/Old Earth Perspective===
The view of [[atheism|atheists]], evolutionists, and others who accept the uniformitarian timescale is that dinosaurs existed on earth from 230 million years ago to 65 million years ago. In this view, the entire population of dinosaurs were wiped out by a mass extinction event (usually thought to be a meteorite) about 65 million years ago.
This precludes humans and dinosaurs co-existing.

====Extinction====

According to evolutionists, close to 65 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and the beginning of what is called the [[Tertiary]] period, an event occurred which has come to be known as the [[K-T Event]]. This event would have obliterated most life on Earth, plunging the world into something that would now be likened to global nuclear winter, through which few extant species could survive. Although these scientists dispute the nature of the K-T Event (selecting among any number of catastrophes that could have caused the significant global cooling that resulted), most believe that the claimed K-T Event was caused by the collision of a massive asteroid with the Earth, the dust and debris from which would have shrouded the sky for thousands of years, cooling Earth considerably.<ref>Kevin O Pope, "Meteorite impact and the mass extinction of species at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, available at [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/19/11028]</ref> According to this view, the dinosaurs did not survive this cataclysm.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0823_020823_asteroid.html Prehistoric Asteroid "Killed Everything"], ''National Geographic''</ref> A layer of rock containing high concentrations of [[Iridium]], a metal that is extremely rare on earth but common in asteroids, is said to be due to the vaporization and then fall of dust from the meteorite's impact, and its compression within the subsequent geological record.<ref>''Ibid''</ref>The evidence of a large impact crater can be found in rocks of the [[Yucatán]] Peninsula of the supposed age of this layer.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0307_030307_impactcrater.html "Dinosaur-Killer" Asteroid Crater Imaged for First Time], ''National Geographic''</ref> <ref>http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/events/cowen1b.html</ref>
Creationists assert that the assumptions underpinning the methods used by modern geologists are incorrect, and even though the validity of a large impact is accepted, this does not constitute proof that the impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.{{fact}}

====An Explosion of new species ====

Evolutionists speculate that a mass extinction of the dinosaurs removed a major food competitor, and predator, of smaller animals. As a result of a new "vacancy" in the food chain, following the [[K-T Event]], it is theorized that vast speciation occurred, as the evolutionary pressure of a new cold age propelled animal species to adapt or die out. According to this view, [[mammals]] were some of the main beneficiaries of this explosion: their fur allowed them to adapt to the cold, and their small size allowed them to conserve energy relative to the huge dinosaurs of the previous age.<ref>Bennet, Shostak, Jakotsky, "Life in the Universe," viewable at [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Universe-Jeffrey-Bennett/dp/0805385770]</ref>

====Dinosaurs and Birds====

As a number of feathered fossils (claimed to be dinosaurs) have been discovered, and evolutionary scientists claim the similarity in the bone structure between birds and dinosaurs show that modern birds are a descendants of dinosaurs. This is often cited as an example of [[macroevolution]].<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_feathery_dino.html New Dinosaur Discovered: T. Rex Cousin Had Feathers], ''National Geographic''</ref>

==Dinosaur fossils and Human Fossils and Geological Strata ==
Some evolutionary scientists assert that if human bones aren’t found with dinosaur bones, then dinosaurs and man didn’t live together.<ref name="HaD">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v1/n1/humans-and-dinosaurs If humans and dinosaurs lived together, why don’t we find human fossils with dinosaur fossils?] ''Answers'' 1(1):52, May 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH710.html Claim CH710] (The TalkOrigins Archive)</ref>
Creation scientists point out that this is a false assumption; if human bones aren’t found buried with dinosaur bones, it simply means they weren't buried together.<ref name="HaD" />

Evolutionists speculate that [[radiometric dating]] of rocks containing dinosaur bones indicates them to have formed between 65 million years ago and 250 million years ago, whereas rocks with human bones in them are dated as being much newer (less than 5 million years old). Creation science shows that those methods of dating rocks provide false results, and therefore reject this argument.<ref>http://creation.com/radiometric-dating-questions-and-answers</ref>

Creation science points out that the fossil record contains mainly marine organisms and that a small sliver of the fossil record contains vertebrates and thus shows that we shouldn't expect to find many human fossils at all.<ref name="HaD" />
Moreover, as the biblical [[Great Flood|Flood]] would be a marine catastrophe, it would be expected that marine fossils would dominate the fossil record. This is in fact what we find.<ref name="NAB">Hodge, Bodie, [http://www.answersingenesis.org/PublicStore/pdfs/SampleChapter/10-2-267.pdf Why Don’t We Find Human & Dinosaur Fossils Together?] (chapter 13 of the New Answers Book), 2006.</ref>

Approximately 70% of the Earth is covered in salt water which would also explain the dominance of marine fossils. In addition, creation scientists show there may have been a small pre-flood human population and that massive amounts of flood sediment are why we haven’t found human fossils in pre-biblical flood sediments.<ref name="NAB" />
Also, creation scientists point out that we don't find human bones buried with [[coelacanth]]s yet humans and coelacanths coexist today.<ref name="HaD" />

==Description==

===''[[Saurischia]]''===
Herbivorous species were almost all quadrupedal. They carried peg-like teeth which cut, rather than chewed, plant material; grinding of food was aided by gastroliths. Carnivorous species were exclusively bipedal.
*Sauropoda
::Species of this infraorder are characterized by long necks and tails, barrel-shaped bodies, and column-like legs. In three families (notably Diplodocidae, Brachiosauridae, and Titanosauroidea) there are species which are of extreme size, in excess of 125 feet in length and 100 tons, making them the largest animals to have walked the earth.
:::''[[Apatosaurus]]''
:::''[[Brachiosaurus]]''
:::''[[Ultrasaurus]]''
:::''[[Seismosaurus]]''
:::''[[Argentinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Diplodocus]]''

*Theropoda
::Exclusively bipedal; forearms meant for grasping or holding. Fossil evidence for several species indicate pack hunting.
:::''[[Coelophysis]]''
:::''[[Ornithomimus]]''
:::''[[Allosaurus]]''
:::''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''
:::''[[Deinonychus]]''
:::''[[Velociraptor]]''
:::''[[Giganotosaurus]]''

===''[[Ornithischia]]''===
Species of this group were all herbivorous; most were quadrupedal. Front teeth were lacking, while a predentary bone was present in the front of the lower jaw. Several species (mainly within ''Ceratopsia'') had a distinctive parrot-like beak.
*Ceratopsia
::Species of this infraorder carried one or more horns on their heads, as well as a shield-like frill to protect the neck.
:::''[[Triceratops]]''
:::''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]''
:::''[[Torosaurus]]''
:::''[[Protoceratops]]''
:::''[[Styracosaurus]]''
*Stegosauria
::Large dinosaurs with a row of bony plates on top of their backs, and several spikes used as a defensive weapon at the end of their tails.
:::''[[Stegosaurus]]''
:::''[[Huayangosaurus]]''
:::''[[Kentrosaurus]]''
*Ankylosauria
::Heavily-armored dinosaurs, some with a row of spikes along each side, and possessing a bony tail club.
:::''[[Ankylosaurus]]''
:::''[[Euoplocephalus]]''
:::''[[Edmontonia]]''
*Ornithopods
::Large, herd-dwelling dinosaurs that could run bipedaly. Several species had a "boss" of bone on their heads (Pachycephalosaurs) which may have been used for head-butting similar to bighorn sheep; others a crest of bone (hadrosaurs) which may have been sound resonators.
:::''[[Camptosaurus]]''
:::''[[Iguanodon]]''
:::''[[Pachycephalosaurus]]''
:::''[[Parasaurolophus]]''
:::''[[Edmontosaurus]]''
:::''[[Bactrosaurus]]''
:::''[[Maiasaura]]''

== In Popular Culture ==
Dinosaurs have been a fixture of popular culture since their discovery. It is theorized that some of the myths of fantastical creatures stem from the accidental discovery of dinosaur fossils. More recently, dinosaurs have featured in popular stories including books, movies, television, video games, even music.

Dinosaurs were introduced to a wide modern audience when movies like the Jurassic Park series were released.
== See also ==

*[[Evolution]]
*[[Theory of Evolution and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation]]
*[[Irreligion and superstition]]
*[[Young earth creationism]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs]]

Spanish-American War

2012-09-26T15:49:10Z

Dfrischknecht:

The '''Spanish-American War''' was a short conflict of a few months duration in 1898, between the [[United States]] and [[Spain]]. Although President [[William McKinley]] strongly opposed war, the Spanish were unable to meet American demands regarding the systematic, massive mistreatment of Cubans. When the [[Battleship Maine]] suddenly exploded in Havana Harbor (no one to this day knows why), the American people zeroed in on the Cuban crisis and demanded action. When the war came –"a splendid little war," one official called it--it lasted only six months, and was marked by dramatic American victories at sea in the Philippines and on land and sea near Cuba. The war drew Americans together, especially the Southerners whose patriotism had been in doubt since the Civil War a generation earlier. The [[Spanish-American War]] represented a significant turning point in America's position in the world. Besides acquiring Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific, territorial possessions that created new defensive responsibilities, the United States demonstrated that it had built up its naval capacity sufficiently to defeat an established European power. The war ended Spanish colonial rule in [[Cuba]] and the [[Phillipines]], and gave Spain a respite from the bitter internal struggles in the 1890s, thus postponing a civil war until the 1930s.

==Background==
[[File:Judge-2-6-1897.jpg|thumb|500px|Columbia (the American people) reaches out to help oppressed Cuba in 1897 while Uncle Sam (the US Government) is blind. ''Judge'' Feb. 6, 1897]]

The war that erupted in 1898 with Spain had its origins in the First Cuban Insurrection (1868-1878). The Cuban rebels had formed relationships with small groups of Americans committed to their cause. Many of these Americans supported the filibusters who attempted to run military supplies to the insurrectionists on the island. War had nearly erupted between the United States and Spain in 1873 when the Spanish captured the filibuster ship Virginius and executed most of the crew, including many American citizens. The Treaty of Zanjón signaled a temporary peace, but American sympathies remained with the Cubans desiring independence. When the reforms promised by the treaty proved illusory, the insurrectionists and their American supporters prepared for a new round.

Cuban emigrés in the United States formed clubs, raised money, and gained support from labor unions and the press. The movement also gained support in the Cuban business community following the depression of 1893 in the United States. The U.S. Congress responded to the economic crisis in part by raising tariffs on sugar imports from Cuba, plunging the island's export-dependent economy into a deep depression. Many Cuban businessmen blamed Spanish-American competition for their woes, and they thought that autonomy from Spain and closer economic ties with the United States would bring a return to prosperity. The military leaders of the new revolutionary army, José Martí, Máximo Gómez, and Antonio Maceo, began offensive operations on the island in April 1895. Martí announced that the war would be conducted by conventional means. However, when Martí died in an ambush soon after landing in Cuba, Gómez assumed command and decided to target the already battered sugar industry. Gómez believed that only an economic catastrophe would involve the whole island and force the Spanish to grant independence, as the cost of maintaining control became too great.

The Spanish government reacted by sending General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau with orders to pacify the island. The "Butcher," as he became know in the United States, determined to deprive the rebels of support by forcibly re-concentrating the civilian population in the troublesome districts to areas near military headquarters. Nevertheless, military efforts alone were not enough to end the insurrection, and in Spain the Conservative government of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo was too weak to bring about meaningful reforms. Political opposition from Liberals, Carlists, and republicans, as well as the political influence of the Spanish army, severely limited Cánovas's freedom of action. Any conciliatory moves toward Cuban independence, or even home rule, would likely give the Conservative government's various opponents an issue around which they all could rally.

Upon taking office in 1897, President [[William McKinley]] hoped to avoid entanglement in the problems in Cuba so that he could pursue his domestic agenda of continuing the U.S. economy's recovery from the depression. Although some individuals pushed for overseas economic and territorial expansion, they were in the minority and did not reflect the general mood of the country at the beginning of McKinley's term. During the first year of his presidency, most of the American public was content to passively support the cause of Cuban independence. Public opinion in the United States dramatically changed by his second year, influencing the president to reorder his priorities.

To challenge Spain effectively on the issue of Cuba, McKinley needed a strong Navy. The service that the new administration inherited in 1897 was in the midst of sustained growth and reform following twenty years of purposeful neglect. At the close of the [[American Civil War]], the [[U.S. Navy]] had in commission more than 600 vessels. Nearly all of the new ships were wartime purchases, hastily constructed, or made from unseasoned timber. After the war, most were sold off or destroyed. In spite of international crises such as the Virginius Affair, contention with [[Great Britain]] over the [[Alabama Claims (1862-1872)]], and problems with [[France]] over a projected canal in [[Panama]], the strength of the Navy continued to decline. By 1879, only 48 of the Navy's 142 vessels were available for immediate service, and these were obsolete wooden or old ironclad ships. Naval technology had stagnated in the United States, illustrated by the fact that there was not a single high-power, long-range rifled gun in the entire fleet. In 1884 the U.S. Navy's newest ships were wooden-hulled steam sloops built in the previous decade.

Modernization began in the early 1880s during the administration of President Chester A. Arthur. Rapid growth in overseas markets and a foreign policy aimed at U.S. control of communications across the isthmus of Central America drove the country toward naval expansion. Two years of debate on the nature of this expansion culminated with the Navy Act of 1883, authorizing the construction of the steel cruisers ''Atlanta'', ''Boston'', and ''Chicago'' and the dispatch vessel ''Dolphin''. The American fleet that began with these greatly superior vessels came to be known as the New Navy. Congress continued the process by approving additional steel warships, including the New Navy's first armored ships, USS ''Texas'' and USS ''Maine''.

It was during the administration of [[Benjamin Harrison]] (1889-1893) that the Navy's strategy began to change from defense and commerce protection to offensive fleet action. President Harrison called for the continued and rapid construction of modern warships and the acquisition of bases to maintain the U.S. fleet in foreign seas. He later urged Congress to authorize construction of [[battleship]]s, giving support to Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F. Tracy's goal of making the U.S. fleet strong enough "to be able to divert an enemy's force from our coast by threatening his own, for a war, though defensive in principle, may be conducted most effectively by being offensive in its operations."

Tracy proved to be an excellent administrator, and he marshaled allies for his expansionist policies in both Congress and the Navy, including Captain [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]. Mahan's involvement stemmed from his strong belief that government leaders played a crucial role in determining the growth or decay of a nation's sea power. Navalists around the world used his 1890 publication, ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783'', to promote naval expansion in their own countries. American navalists' work bore fruit with the Navy Bill of 30 June 1890, authorizing construction of three battleships later named ''Indiana'', ''Oregon'', and ''Massachusetts''. Along with the battleship ''Iowa'', authorized in 1892, this force formed the core of a new fleet willing to challenge European navies for control of the waters in the Western Hemisphere.

While civilian leadership and U.S. industry prepared the Navy materially for an offensive war, a new institution, the [[Naval War College]], prepared the service intellectually. Founded in 1884 and placed under the direction of Commodore Stephen B. Luce, the War College contributed greatly to the professionalization of the U.S. Naval Officer Corps at the end of the nineteenth century. By the 1890s the curriculum at the War College featured training problems in which students drafted plans for operations in the event of war with specific countries under particular circumstances. Beginning in 1894 the War College under the direction of its president, Rear Admiral Henry C. Taylor, and later special boards convened by the Secretary of the Navy, examined the possibility of war with Spain over trouble in Cuba. When such a conflict appeared unavoidable in early 1898, the Navy Department had a solid body of planning studies honed by four years of debate among its leading officers. Although the realities of war would force several modifications, many of the concepts laid out in the naval plans were implemented: a strong blockade of Cuba, support for the insurgents, operations against Spanish forces in the Philippines and Puerto Rico, and the formation of a squadron to operate in Spanish waters. Perhaps more important, nearly every plan called for the purchase or charter of merchant vessels to serve as auxiliary cruisers, colliers, and transports. Data on these vessels furnished in lists appended to the plans served as a basis for decision making in those crucial weeks before war.

More or less in conformity with this strategy, Maj. Gen. Nelson Miles, Commanding General of the Army, proposed to assemble, train, and equip a small force of about 80,000 using the Regular Army as a nucleus. There would be ample time to prepare this force, since Miles deemed it unwise to land any troops in Cuba before the end of the unhealthy rainy season in October. The first step was to concentrate the entire Regular Army at Chickamauga Park, Georgia, where it could receive much-needed instruction in combined-arms operations.

So deliberate and cautious a plan, however, was by mid-April 1898 not in harmony with the increasing public demand for immediate action against the Spanish. With an ear to this demand, Secretary of War Russell M. Alger ignored General Miles’ advice. He ordered the regular infantry regiments to go to New Orleans, Tampa, and Mobile, where they would be ready for an immediate descent on Cuba.

The decision to mobilize large volunteer forces compounded the problems of equipping, training, and supplying the Army. In the spring and summer of 1898, thousands of enthusiastic but inexperienced volunteers poured into newly established camps. A taste of military life soon curbed the enthusiasm of most of them, for in the camps they found chronic shortages of the most essential equipment. Even such basic items as underwear, socks, and shoes were lacking. A steady diet of badly prepared food, unbelievably poor sanitary conditions, and inadequate medical facilities complemented the equipment shortages. Red tape and poor management in the War Department’s supply bureaus (the Ordnance Department possibly excepted) delayed correction of some of the worst deficiencies, while the shortage of capable volunteer officers further limited the quality of training received in the camps.

Confusion and inefficiency likewise characterized the War Department’s conduct of operations. Since Congress had provided no machinery in the department for the peacetime coordination of foreign policy with the country’s military posture, the nation went to war without any kind of overall plan of operations or even adequate intelligence about the enemy. Given time, the Army might have devised adequate operational plans; but public opinion, political pressures, and the trend of events demanded the launching of an immediate expedition against the Spanish in Cuba.

By contrast, the Spanish were ill prepared to defend their overseas possessions from outside intervention. Their vessels stationed in Cuba and the Philippines were obsolete and intended only to help the colonial government put down insurrection. They were unable to defend themselves against the modern steel ships of the U.S. Navy. Spain possessed only one battleship, Pelayo, and this was an older vessel that had just been modernized. This ship and the armored cruiser Carlos V were not ready for action until after the war began. Only four armored cruisers were available to steam across the Atlantic, and these suffered severe material deficiencies. The 10-inch guns were missing from Cristobal Colon, and there was a shortage of ammunition for the already defective 5.5-inch guns on the Spanish cruisers.

The Spanish Minister of Marine, Segismundo Bermejo y Merelo, revealed a lack of strategic planning in the vague orders given to Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete in command of a squadron of four armored cruisers and three torpedo boats. Bermejo simply instructed Cervera to proceed to Caribbean waters and defend Spanish possessions against American attack. The Spanish also lacked enough colliers properly positioned to help their ships replenish once they were across the Atlantic. In addition, inadequate stockpiles of coal and coaling facilities at the ports in Cuba and Puerto Rico severely limited Cervera's options and ability to operate in the Caribbean. In short, the Spanish did not adequately prepare their forces and bases to defend their overseas possessions in the face of a challenge at sea. Once war began with a well-prepared naval power, such as the United States, Spain's possessions were almost certain to be cut off from the home country.

==Destruction of USS ''Maine'' and the Rush Toward War==
[[Image:USSMaineHavana.jpg|thumb|200px|right|USS ''Maine'' in Havana Harbor, January 25, 1898.]]

see [[Battleship Maine]]

The assassination of Prime Minister Cánovas on 8 August 1897 led to the return of the Liberals to power in Spain, the recall of General Weyler, and a promise to grant autonomy to Cuba. Nevertheless, the insurgent leadership, sensing victory, refused to accept anything less than independence, and the government's many political opponents made it impossible for reforms to go far enough to win over the Cuban people. When pro-Weyler forces in Havana instigated riots in January 1898, Washington became greatly concerned for the safety of Americans in the country. The administration believed that some means of protecting U.S. citizens should be on hand, and the Spanish government should be reminded of America's serious interest in seeing an end to the Cuban conflict. As a result, on 24 January, after clearing the visit with a reluctant government in Madrid, President McKinley sent the battleship [[USS Maine|USS ''Maine'']] from Key West to Havana.

The battleship arrived on 25 January. Spanish authorities in Havana were wary of American intentions, but they afforded Captain Charles D. Sigsbee and the officers of ''Maine'' every courtesy. In order to avoid the possibility of trouble, the U.S. Navy captain did not allow his enlisted men to go on shore. Sigsbee and the consul at Havana, Fitzhugh Lee, reported that the Navy's presence appeared to have a calming effect on the situation, and both recommended that the Navy Department send another battleship to Havana when it came time to relieve ''Maine''.

At 9:40 on the evening of 15 February, a terrible explosion on board the U.S. warship shattered the stillness in Havana harbor. Later investigations revealed that more than five tons of powder charges for the vessel's 6- and 10-inch guns had ignited, virtually obliterating the forward third of the ship. The remaining wreckage rapidly settled to the bottom of the harbor. Most of ''Maine's'' crew were sleeping or resting in the enlisted quarters in the forward part of the ship when the explosion occurred. Two hundred and sixty-six American sailors lost their lives as a result of the disaster. Captain Sigsbee and most of the officers survived because their quarters were in the after portion of the ship.

Spanish officials and the crew of the civilian steamer ''City of Washington'' acted quickly in rescuing survivors and caring for the wounded. The attitude and actions of the Spanish allayed initial suspicions that hostile action caused the explosion, and led Sigsbee to include at the bottom of his initial telegram the cautionary phrase, "Public opinion should be suspended until further report."

The U.S. Navy Department immediately formed a board of inquiry under Captain William T. Sampson to determine the cause of ''Maine's'' destruction. The board met in Havana on 21 February, and their investigation lasted four weeks. The condition of the submerged wreck and a lack of technical expertise prevented the board from being as thorough as later investigating groups would be. In the end, they concluded that a mine had detonated under the ship. The board did not attempt to fix blame for the placement of the device.

When the naval court's verdict was announced, the American public reacted with predictable outrage. Fed by inflammatory articles in the "[[Yellow Press]]" blaming Spain for the disaster, the public had already placed guilt on the Spanish government and called for the liberation of Cuba. The destruction of ''Maine'' did not cause the United States to declare war on Spain, but it served as a catalyst, accelerating the approach to a diplomatic impasse. The sinking of the ship and death of U.S. sailors rallied American opinion behind armed intervention. With the threat of war larger than ever, the United States government stepped up preparations.

At the beginning of March 1898 the fleet of the United States Navy consisted of five battleships, two armored cruisers, thirteen protected cruisers, six steel monitors, eight old iron monitors, thirty-three unprotected cruisers and gunboats, six torpedo boats, and twelve tugs. Noticeably absent from this list, however, were colliers, supply vessels, transports, hospital ships, repair ships, and the large number of small vessels necessary for maintaining an effective blockade of Cuba's numerous ports. As the Navy Department's war plans clearly indicated, the government needed to purchase or contract for scores of these auxiliary ships. Assistant [[Secretary of the Navy]] [[Theodore Roosevelt]] organized a Board of Auxiliary Vessels that used information in the department's war plans to prepare a list of suitable private craft which would meet the Navy's expanded needs. On 9 March, Congress passed a $50 million emergency defense appropriation bill, and the Navy Department began to acquire vessels. By the end of the war, the Navy had purchased or leased 103 warships and auxiliaries. Another twenty-eight ships, including lighthouse tenders and the vessels of the Fish Commission and Revenue Cutter Service, had been added from existing government organizations. After the war auxiliary vessels such as colliers, refrigerator ships, and distilling ships became a permanent part of the fleet.

Secretary Long formally organized the Naval War Board in March 1898 to advise him on strategy and operations. Initial members were Assistant Secretary Roosevelt, Rear Admiral Montgomery Sicard (who had just arrived from command of the North Atlantic Station), Captain Arent S. Crowninshield, and Captain Albert S. Barker. By May, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan joined the organization. This body was soon reduced in size, though, since Roosevelt left to become a lieutenant colonel in the First Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, and the Navy Department reassigned Captain Barker to command USS ''Newark''. Although it had no executive authority, the board exerted considerable influence on operations through its advisory capacity. In particular, Mahan's views often dominated. Following earlier war plans, the board recommended concentrating on Spain's outlying possessions with a close blockade of Cuba, giving the U.S. Army time to mobilize sufficient strength for land campaigns in Cuba and Puerto Rico.

While the Navy Department worked with the President and the War Department in developing strategy, Secretary Long began positioning naval units for the opening of hostilities. Much of the North Atlantic Squadron was already concentrated for winter exercises at Key West, Florida. The first colliers did not reach the fleet until 3 May, nearly two weeks after the blockade began. On 17 March the battleships ''Massachusetts'' and ''Texas'' were ordered to join the armored cruiser ''Brooklyn'' at [[Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]], to form the Flying Squadron under Commodore Winfield Scott Schley. The protected cruisers ''Minneapolis'' and ''Columbia'' joined Schley's force before the war started. The squadron was organized to protect the U.S. coast against a sudden attack by the Spanish armored cruisers of Pascual Cervera's squadron, known to be concentrating in the Cape Verde Islands. The Navy Department recalled the protected cruiser USS ''San Francisco'' and Commodore John A. Howell from Europe. On 20 April, Howell assumed command of the newly formed Northern Patrol Squadron, which was responsible for the protection of the coast and coastal trade from the Delaware capes to Bar Harbor, [[Maine]]. Rear Admiral Henry Erben commanded the Auxiliary Naval Force with his headquarters on shore at New York City. This command consisted primarily of eight old iron monitors stationed at several U.S. ports.

On 25 February, Assistant Secretary Roosevelt sent a telegram to Commodore [[George Dewey]] commanding him to concentrate the ships of the Asiatic Station at [[Hong Kong]]. In the event of war he was to take his squadron and destroy the Spanish ships in Philippine waters. Dewey's command at Hong Kong consisted of the protected cruisers ''Olympia'', ''Boston'', and ''Raleigh'' and the gunboats ''Concord'' and ''Petrel''. The Revenue Cutter ''McCulloch'' joined the force on 17 April, and the protected cruiser ''Baltimore'' arrived on 22 April. Dewey also prepared for future operations in a region without friendly bases by purchasing the British steamers ''Nanshan'' and ''Zafiro'' to carry coal and supplies for his squadron.

Anticipating a showdown with the Spanish fleet in the Atlantic theater, Secretary Long ordered the battleship USS Oregon to depart from its home port at Bremerton, [[Washington]], on 7 March, to begin the first leg of a 14,700-nautical-mile journey to [[Key West]]. The gunboat USS ''Marietta'' made the battleship's voyage quicker and easier by arranging for coal and supplies in the South American ports along the way. ''Oregon'' arrived at her destination on 26 May fully ready for operations against the Spanish fleet.

Although President McKinley continued to press for a diplomatic settlement to the Cuban problem, he accelerated military preparations begun in January when an impasse appeared likely. The Spanish position on Cuban independence hardened, and McKinley asked Congress on 11 April for permission to intervene. On 21 April, the President ordered the Navy to begin a blockade of Cuba, and Spain followed with a declaration of war on 23 April. Congress responded with a formal declaration of war on 25 April, made retroactive to the start of the blockade.

==Opening Moves==
International law required that a blockade had to be effective to be legal. With the absence of colliers and the Atlantic Fleet divided between Key West and Hampton Roads, the American effort was initially limited to the north coast of Cuba between Cardenas and Bahia Honda, and Cienfuegos on the south coast. In the early light of 22 April, Sampson's fleet steamed from Key West across the Florida Straits and began the blockade. Sampson believed he could reduce the defenses of Havana by bombarding the Spanish fortifications one at a time, beginning from the west. However, Secretary Long, following the advice of the Naval War Board, which expected Cervera's fleet to deploy to the Caribbean, ordered him not to risk his armored ships unnecessarily against land fortifications. The Navy Department was considering occupying the port of Matanzas, garrisoning it with a large military force, and opening communications with the insurgents. Long wanted Sampson to keep his most powerful ships ready to escort the transports if McKinley should decide on an early army landing in Cuba.

By the morning of 23 April, the advance ships of the blockading fleet were off their assigned ports. Additional vessels reinforced them over the next several days. The U.S. Navy struggled during the first weeks of the war to assemble the logistical apparatus necessary to support the blockade. Ships had to keep steam up in their boilers to pursue unknown vessels as they came into sight. Until colliers were fitted out and sent south, most of the blockading ships were forced to return to Key West to coal. Fresh water and food were also in short supply during the early days of the war.

The blockade was monotonous duty broken only by the rare capture of a Spanish vessel or an exchange of gunfire with gunboats and shore batteries. A few actions were intense, such as the one at Cardenas on 11 May when Spanish gunboats drew the U.S. Navy gunboat ''Wilmington'', the torpedo boat ''Winslow'', and the Revenue Cutter ''Hudson'' deep into the harbor. Hidden Spanish batteries ambushed ''Winslow'', severely damaging her, killing ten and wounding twenty-one of her crew. While under heavy fire, ''Hudson'' towed the torpedo boat out of the harbor as ''Wilmington'' covered the withdrawal with rapid fire against the Spanish guns.

The U.S. blockading forces also undertook operations to isolate Cuba from telegraphic communications to Madrid via Cienfuegos, Santiago, and Guantánamo. The most celebrated action of this type occurred on 11 May off Cienfuegos. Commander Bowman H. McCalla of the cruiser ''Marblehead'' organized a party and planned an operation to cut the underwater communication cables. Marine sharpshooters and machine gun crews in steam cutters poured a continuous fire into Spanish positions on shore, along with gunfire support from ''Marblehead'' and the gunboat ''Nashville'', while sailors in launches dragged the sea floor with grappling hooks for the cables. The launch and cutter crews endured heavy Spanish fire for three hours and cut the two main telegraph cables (leaving a third, local line), and dragged the ends out to sea. Every member of this expedition was awarded the [[Medal of Honor]].

==[[Battle of Manila Bay]]==
Secretary Long telegraphed Commodore Dewey at Hong Kong on 21 April informing him that the U.S. blockade of Cuba had begun and that war was expected at any moment. On 24 April, British authorities informed the commodore that war had been declared and he must leave the neutral port within twenty-four hours, since the United States was now a belligerent. Dewey also received a telegram from the Navy Department instructing him to proceed immediately to the [[Philippine Islands]] and begin operations against the Spanish fleet. The American squadron moved to Mirs Bay on the Chinese coast thirty miles east of Hong Kong to await a circulating pump for Raleigh and the arrival of Oscar Williams, the American consul at Manila, who would have the latest intelligence on the Spanish military forces. They spent two days drilling, distributing ammunition, and stripping the ships of all wooden articles (which could add to fire damage on board ship caused by enemy gunfire). Almost immediately after Williams arrived on 27 April, the American ships departed for the Philippines in search of the Spanish squadron.

In a meeting called by the governor general of the Philippines on 15 March, Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo y Pasaron, in command of Spanish naval forces in the colony, concluded that his squadron would be destroyed by the onslaught of the American ships. The Spanish squadron consisted of seven unarmored ships carrying thirty-seven heavy guns and weighing a total of 11,328 tons. Montojo's largest ship was made of wood. Dewey's command was much stronger, consisting of six steel vessels mounting fifty-three guns and displacing 19,098 tons. Four of these had armored decks. Montojo recommended fortifying the entrances to Subic Bay, northwest of Manila, and moving his ships there to await Dewey's attack. If the Americans bypassed Subic and anchored in Manila Bay, Montojo believed his ships could sneak up on them during the night and inflict some damage. The governor general agreed. However, Montojo did not track the progress of the work in Subic Bay.

With the declaration of war the Spanish admiral took his squadron into Subic Bay only to discover that the commander there still needed another six weeks to mount his guns on Isla Grande at the bay's entrance. On 28 April, Montojo learned that the Americans had left Mirs Bay bound for the Philippines. After calling a council of his captains, he returned with his ships to Manila. Seventeen guns, including nine obsolete muzzleloaders, guarded the two passages into the Manila Bay. The Spanish attempted to mine the main channel, but the water was so deep and the entrance so wide that neither mines nor shore batteries were an effective barrier to enemy ships passing through during the night. Of the more than 200 guns near the city of Manila, only twelve were breech-loaders positioned to fire out to sea. Montojo rejected the idea of fighting under the guns of the city because civilian structures would likely be hit by American fire. The Spanish decided to anchor their ships in the shallow waters under the guns of the Cavite arsenal, on a small peninsula seven miles southwest of Manila. Deeply pessimistic about his fleet's chances of survival, Montojo believed the position gave his men the best chance to escape from their vessels should they be sunk in the upcoming battle.

Consul Williams accurately reported that Montojo intended to fight his squadron while under the guns in Subic Bay, and Dewey sent two of his cruisers ahead to reconnoiter. Finding Subic Bay empty, and in defiance of the reports of mines in the chan-nel, the Americans pressed on into Manila Bay during the night of 30 April. In the early morning hours of 1 May, the U.S. warships discovered the Spanish squadron near Cavite. Leaving his two auxiliaries in the bay guarded by McCulloch, Dewey formed his remaining ships into a line and steamed for the enemy force. The Spanish opened the battle at 5:15 a.m., firing at the oncoming American ships. Dewey steamed his squadron in an oval pattern along the five-fathom curve, pouring a heavy fire into the outgunned and obsolete Spanish force. The enemy replied with wildly inaccurate gunfire from their ships and two 5.9-inch guns at Sangley Point. The Americans scored critical hits on the larger Spanish warships, setting them ablaze. After nearly two hours of fire, Dewey ordered his captains to withdraw, acting on reports from the crew that his ships were running low on ammunition.

Dewey took his squadron five miles off Sangley Point and signaled his captains to come on board to report the condition of their ships. The commodore discovered that his squadron had sustained very little damage and that it had plenty of ammunition to continue the battle. After allowing the crewmen to enjoy a light meal, Dewey ordered his ships to re-engage the remnants of Montojo's shattered squadron. The Spanish admiral had pulled his surviving vessels into the shallow waters of Bacoor Bay behind Cavite to make a final stand. Hitting the Spanish ships in their new anchorage proved difficult for the larger warships, so Dewey ordered the gunboats ''Concord'' and ''Petrel'', with their shallow draft, to finish off the enemy at close range. The garrison at Cavite raised a white flag at about 12:15, and the firing ended shortly thereafter.

Montojo's fleet was destroyed, suffering 371 casualties compared to only 9 Americans wounded. When official word of the magnitude of the U.S. Navy's victory reached the United States, nearly a week later, the American public heaped enthusiastic praises on Dewey and jubilant celebrations erupted throughout the country. However, 26,000 Spanish regulars and 14,000 militia garrisoned various points in the Philippine Islands, including 9,000 men at Manila. The U.S. squadron took control of the arsenal and navy yard at Cavite, and Dewey cabled Washington stating that, although he controlled Manila Bay and could probably induce the city to surrender, he needed 5,000 men to seize and hold Manila.

==The Hunt for Cervera==
Admiral Cervera had repeatedly warned the Spanish Ministry of Marine that his squadron would face certain destruction if sent to the Caribbean. Under orders, on 29 April he departed the [[Cape Verde Islands]] with his squadron of four armored cruisers, towing three torpedo-boat destroyers, intending to steam for Puerto Rico. To search for the Spanish squadron, the U.S. Navy Department dispatched three fast former mail steamers, ''Harvard'', ''Yale'', and ''St. Louis'', to the Caribbean. The vessels established a patrol line stretching from Puerto Rico and along the Leeward and Windward Islands. As long as Cervera's location remained uncertain, the U.S. fleet would be divided between Rear Admiral Sampson's North Atlantic Fleet based in Key West and Commodore Schley's Flying Squadron based in Hampton Roads; the former maintained the blockade of Cuba and the latter guarded the East Coast of the United States from a sudden descent by the Spanish cruisers.

Sampson correctly deduced that Cervera intended to make for [[San Juan]], [[Puerto Rico]], and determined to deprive the Spanish fleet of the defensive advantages of that port. Leaving his smaller ships to maintain the blockade of Cuba's northern ports, the American admiral embarked on an eight-day journey, plagued by the slow speed and mechanical unreliability of his two monitors. The American force arrived off San Juan early on 12 May. After a nearly four-hour bombardment of the Spanish works, Sampson broke off the engagement and returned to Key West, satisfied that Cervera's ships were not in San Juan.

The need to tow their fragile destroyers slowed the Spanish squadron's crossing of the Atlantic. As he approached the West Indies, the Spanish admiral dispatched two of these vessels to the French island of Martinique to gain information on American movements and check on the availability of coal. On 12 May, Cervera learned that Sampson was at San Juan. The Spanish admiral also discovered that the French would not sell him any coal. Driven by the need to refuel his ships and the desire to avoid combat with a superior American force, Cervera steamed for the Dutch harbor of Curaçao. He arrived there on 14 May only to be further disappointed when the expected Spanish collier failed to arrive, and the Dutch governor authorized the purchase of only 600 tons of coal. After considering his options, Cervera chose to sail his fleet to Santiago de Cuba where he arrived on the morning of 19 May.

With Sampson out of touch for long periods during his return from Puerto Rico, Secretary Long on 13 May ordered Commodore Schley's Flying Squadron to Charleston, [[South Carolina]], in preparation to intercept the Spanish fleet. Further orders directed Schley to Key West and a meeting with Rear Admiral Sampson. The Navy Department believed that Cervera's most likely objective was Cienfuegos because of its rail connection to Havana. Therefore, after arriving in Key West on 18 May, Schley received orders to take his squadron, reinforced by the battleship ''Iowa'' and several smaller vessels, to Cienfuegos. On 19 May, after Schley's departure, the White House received an unconfirmed report that the Spanish ships had run into Santiago de Cuba. Upon receiving this information, Sampson instructed Schley to proceed to Santiago if he was satisfied that Cervera was not at Cienfuegos. Uncertainty over the Spanish squadron's whereabouts, the difficulty of observing ships in the harbor at Cienfuegos, concerns over coaling in open waters, and perhaps Schley's own ego led to erratic movements by the Flying Squadron not in keeping with Sampson's or the Navy Department's expectations. After numerous delays, Commodore Schley established a blockade off Santiago de Cuba on 29 May.

When Cervera arrived at Santiago de Cuba he discovered that the port had neither enough coal nor supplies to provision his ships for a long voyage. Armed with reports that the American fleet was closing in on his location, the admiral called a council of his captains on 24 May to consider taking the squadron to San Juan. The council decided that it was best to remain where they were, refitting the ships as much as possible and hope for a later favorable opportunity to leave. Cervera seemed to believe that the only function his squadron could now serve was that of a "fleet in being," and therefore that one harbor was as good as another to occupy while under blockade. He briefly reconsidered his decision on 26 May, but reports of American ships off the coast persuaded him to stay in Santiago de Cuba. With the arrival of the Flying Squadron on 29 May, the opportunity for an uncontested departure disappeared.

==The Navy in the Campaign for Santiago de Cuba==
McKinley and his advisors had originally intended to wait until the end of the rainy season to send a major land expedition to Cuba. But, with the Spanish squadron bottled up at Santiago, U.S. leaders saw an opportunity to strike a damaging blow to the enemy's military capability in the Caribbean. On 1 June, Secretary Long informed Sampson that 25,000 men under Major General [[William Shafter]] were preparing to embark for Cuba from Tampa, [[Florida]], and that the North Atlantic Fleet should convoy the troops and assist a landing near Santiago. Meanwhile, Sampson took steps to tighten the blockade of Cervera's squadron.

At the onset of the campaign Sampson seized on the idea of sinking a vessel in the narrow channel leading to the harbor of Santiago. He intended to keep the Spanish ships from escaping until the Army could capture the city or assist the Navy in passing the forts and mines at the harbor entrance. The Naval War Board in Washington approved, and Sampson selected the collier ''Merrimac'', commanded during the operation by naval constructor Richard Pearson Hobson. Hobson and seven volunteers took the ship into the channel during the early morning hours of 3 June. Gunfire from Spanish shore batteries shot away the vessel's steering gear and anchor chains, making it impossible for the Americans to sink the vessel in the proper location. Only two of the ten prepared scuttling charges went off, and ''Merrimac'' came to rest too far up the channel to pose a serious obstacle. The Spanish captured Hobson and his brave men.

This failure forced Sampson to rely on a close blockade to keep the Spanish squadron in port. The American ships would need a safe place to refuel much closer to Santiago than either Haiti or Key West. Coaling at sea was a difficult and lengthy process. As a result, Sampson sent Commander McCalla and USS ''Marblehead'' to reconnoiter [[Guantánamo Bay]] as a possible anchorage. McCalla's report was favorable, and on 10 June the First Marine Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Robert Huntington landed and established a position on the east side of the outer harbor. This unit defeated Spanish troops in the area and held the site for coaling operations throughout the campaign.

==Army units==
Upon receipt of Sampson’s request for land forces, the War Department, already under strong public pressure to get the Army into action, ordered Maj. Gen. William R. Shafter to embark with the V Corps from Tampa as soon as possible to conduct operations against Santiago in cooperation with the Navy. This corps was the only one of the eight that the War Department had organized for the war that was anywhere near ready to fight. Composed chiefly of regular Army units, it had been assembling at Tampa for weeks when the order came on May 31 for its embarkation; it would require another two weeks to get the corps and its equipment on board and ready to sail for Cuba.

Many factors contributed to the slow pace of preparation. There was no overall plan and no special staff to direct the organization of the expeditionary force. Moreover, Tampa was a poor choice for marshaling a major military expedition. Selected because of its proximity to Cuba, Tampa had only one pier for loading ships and a single-track railroad connecting with mainline routes from the north. It could not, therefore, readily accommodate the flood of men and materiel pressing in upon it. So great was the congestion that freight cars were backed up on sidings as far away as Columbia, South Carolina, waiting to gain access to the port. When a freight car finally did reach the port area, there were no wagons to unload it and no bill of lading to indicate what was in it. When it came to loading the ships, of which there were not enough to carry the entire corps, supplies and equipment were put on board with little regard for unloading priorities in the combat zone should the enemy resist the landings.

In spite of the muddle at Tampa, by June 14 nearly 17,000 men were ready to sail. On board were 18 regular and 2 volunteer infantry regiments; 10 regular and 2 volunteer cavalry squadrons serving dismounted; 1 mounted cavalry squadron; 6 artillery batteries; and a Gatling gun company. The expedition comprised a major part of the Regular Army, including all of the regular African American combat regiments. Departing Tampa on the morning of the fourteenth, the V Corps joined its naval convoy the next day off the Florida Keys and by June 20 had reached the vicinity of Santiago.

While the troops on board endured tropical heat, unsanitary conditions, and cold, unpalatable rations, Shafter and Sampson conferred on how to proceed against Santiago. Sampson wanted the Army to storm the fort on the east side of the bay entrance and drive the Spanish from their guns. Then his fleet could clear away the mines and enter Santiago Bay to fight Cervera’s squadron. Lacking heavy artillery, Shafter was not sure his troops could take the fort, which crowned a steep hill. He decided instead to follow the suggestion of General Calixto Garcia, the local insurgent leader, and land his forces at Daiquiri, east of Santiago Bay.

On June 22, after heavy shelling of the landing areas, the V Corps disembarked amid circumstances almost as confused and hectic as those at Tampa. Captains of many of the chartered merchant ships refused to bring their vessels close to shore. Their reluctance slowed the landing of troops and equipment already handicapped by a shortage of lighters. Horses, simply dropped overboard to get ashore on their own, swam out to sea in some instances and were lost. An alert enemy defense might well have taken advantage of the chaotic conditions to oppose the landings effectively. But the Spanish, though they had more than 200,000 troops in Cuba — 36,000 of them in Santiago Province — did nothing to prevent Shafter’s men from getting ashore. Some 6,000 landed on June 22 and most of the remaining 11,000 on the two days following. In addition, 4,000 to 5,000 insurgents under General Garcia supplemented the American force.

==The Battle of Santiago==
[[Image:Rough Riders.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Theodore Roosevelt (center) resigned his position as Assistant Secretary of the Navy and formed the 1st Volunteer U.S. Cavalry (the "Rough Riders"); he would take this unit and fight for San Juan Hill, near Santiago, Cuba, on July 1, 1898.]]
Once ashore, elements of the V Corps moved westward toward the heights of San Juan, a series of ridges immediately east of Santiago, where well-entrenched enemy troops guarded the land approaches to the city. On June 23, Brig. Gen. Henry W. Lawton, commanding the vanguard, advanced along the coast from Daiquirí to Siboney, which then became the main base of operations. The next day, Brig. Gen. Joseph Wheeler, the Confederate Army veteran, pushed inland along the road to Santiago with dismounted cavalry to seize Las Guásimas after a brief skirmish with rear guard elements of a retiring Spanish force. This move brought American units within five miles of the San Juan Heights, where they paused for a few days while General Shafter assembled the rest of his divisions and brought up supplies. Even in this short time, Shafter could observe the debilitating effects of tropical climate and disease on his men. He was aware, too, that the hurricane season was approaching. Consequently, he decided to launch an immediate attack on the defenses of Santiago.

Shafter’s plan was simple: a frontal attack on the San Juan Heights. For this purpose, he deployed Brig. Gen. Jacob F. Kent’s infantry division on the left and Wheeler’s dismounted cavalry on the right, the entire force with supporting elements comprising 8,000 troops. But before he made the main advance on the heights, Lawton’s infantry division with a supporting battery of artillery, more than 6,500 men, was to move two miles north to seize the fortified village of El Caney, cutting off Santiago’s water supply and, if necessary, intercepting rumored Spanish reinforcements. This action completed — Shafter thought it would take about two hours — Lawton was to turn southwestward and form on the right flank of Wheeler’s division for the main assault. A brigade that had just landed at Siboney was to advance in the meantime along the coast in a feint.

The attack, which moved out at dawn on July 1, soon became badly disorganized because of poor coordination, difficult terrain, and tropical heat. The corpulent Shafter, virtually prostrated by the heat, had to leave the direction of the battle to others. At a stream crossing on the crowded main trail to San Juan Heights, enemy gunners scored heavily when a towed Signal Corps balloon pinpointed the front of the advancing line of troops. Lawton’s division, delayed in its seizure of El Caney by a stubborn enemy defense, misplaced artillery, and the necessity of withdrawing a volunteer unit armed only with telltale black powder, did not rejoin the main force until after the assault had ended. Despite these unexpected setbacks, Kent’s and Wheeler’s divisions at midday launched a strong frontal attack on the Spanish forward defensive positions. Cavalry units of Wheeler’s division, including the 9th Cavalry and part of the 10th, both African American regiments, and the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry (the "Rough Riders"), now commanded by newly commissioned Lt. Col. [[Theodore Roosevelt]], seized Kettle Hill, separate from the central heights. Then Kent’s infantry regiments, supported by Gatling guns, stormed up San Juan Hill in the main ridge line, driving the Spanish from blockhouse and trench defenses and compelling them to retire to a strongly fortified inner line. Thus the day ended with the Americans’ having achieved most of their initial objectives. The cost was high: nearly 1,700 casualties sustained since the start of operations against Santiago.

Concerned with the increasing sickness that was thinning the ranks of the V Corps and faced by a well-organized Spanish second line of defense, General Shafter cabled Secretary Alger on July 3 that he was considering withdrawing about five miles to higher ground between the San Juan River and Siboney. The shift would place his troops in a position where they would be less exposed to enemy fire and easier to supply. Alger replied that "the effect upon the country would be much better" if Shafter continued to hold his advanced position. The V Corps commander then sought to get the Navy to enter Santiago Bay and attack the city. But neither the Navy Department nor President McKinley was willing to sanction this move. Just when the whole matter threatened to become an embarrassing public debate between the two services, the Spanish resolved the issue.

By early July serious shortages of food and ammunition had convinced the Spanish that Santiago must soon fall. While Cervera considered flight from the port hopeless, he had no recourse but to attempt it. Officials in both Havana and Madrid had ordered him, for reasons of honor, to escape when Santiago appeared about to surrender. Finally, on the morning of July 3, while Sampson and Shafter conferred ashore, Cervera made his dash for the open sea, hoping to reach the port of Cienfuegos on the south coast of Cuba. As soon as the Spanish Fleet appeared, Sampson’s squadron, temporarily under the command of Commodore Schley, gave chase.

Most of the battle was a running fight as the blockading vessels attempted to get up enough steam to stay with their quarry. Foul bottoms and poor-quality coal reduced the speeds of the usually swift Spanish cruisers. Ranges between the combatants were often in excess of 4,000 yards, greater than the American crews had trained for and longer than their new range finders could handle. In addition, radical turns in the early stages of the battle complicated the U.S. Navy's gunnery problem. Smoke from the weapons' brown powder and frequent mechanical failures further reduced the effectiveness of its gunfire. The American warships generally registered hits when they were able to maintain a parallel or near parallel course with the Spanish cruisers for several minutes. Although only 1.29 percent of American shots hit their targets, the volume of fire proved sufficient to destroy or run aground all of Cervera's vessels. The destruction of the Spanish cruiser squadron at Santiago de Cuba freed President McKinley and the Navy Department to pursue other strategic options.

==Global Strategy==
In the years prior to the war, U.S. planners had never reached a consensus on the issue of deploying a squadron of warships to European waters. Although the Naval War Board had not originally planned such a deployment, the formation of the Spanish navy's Reserve Squadron resurrected the debate. Following the departure of Cervera's squadron to the Caribbean, the Spanish Ministry of Marine began to organize a second squadron under Rear Admiral Manuel de la Cámara y Libermoore, centered around the battleship ''Pelayo'' and the armored cruiser ''Emperator Carlos V''. Although U.S. Navy leaders believed that this force would reinforce Cervera, they had considered it possible that the Spanish ships would head for the Philippines. Consequently, Secretary Long dispatched the monitors ''Monterey'' and ''Monadnock'' on a slow and hazardous voyage across the Pacific to reinforce Dewey's command at Manila. Long's actions were vindicated when Spain's Reserve Squadron departed Cadiz on 16 June and steamed into the Mediterranean bound for the Philippine Islands.

The Navy Department responded to the news of Cámara's deployment by ordering Rear Admiral Sampson to detail two battleships, an armored cruiser, and three auxiliary cruisers for departure to Europe if the strong Spanish force passed into the Red Sea. When the Reserve Squadron arrived at Port Said on 26 June, Washington decided to organize formally a force entitled the Eastern Squadron. The command, which was activated on 7 July under the leadership of Commodore John C. Watson, consisted of the battleship ''Oregon'', the protected cruiser ''Newark'', and the auxiliary cruisers ''Yosemite'' and ''Dixie''. The Navy Department added the battleship ''Massachusetts'' on 9 July, the auxiliary cruiser ''Badger'' on 12 July, and the protected cruiser ''New Orleans'' on 17 July. The Navy also assembled six colliers and a refrigerator ship at Hampton Roads, Virginia, to support the Eastern Squadron's deployment. The Navy Department allowed news of the squadron's formation and its intended target to be widely circulated, hoping that such news would force Spain to recall the Reserve Squadron to Spanish waters.

Cámara ran into difficulty attempting to refuel his ships at Port Said. The Egyptian government refused to sell him coal or to allow the Spanish squadron to take on coal from its own colliers while in port. Forced out to sea, where bad weather prevented coaling, the Spanish admiral took his squadron through the Suez Canal into the Red Sea and began refueling on 7 July. This delay allowed the Spanish government an opportunity to reconsider Cámara's mission in light of the near certainty that American ships would enter Spanish waters. The Sagasta government recalled the Reserve Squadron to Cadiz, and Watson's deployment was held in abeyance for the time being.

Even though Spain no longer threatened Dewey's forces at Manila, the Navy Department was concerned that Germany might try to take advantage of the situation to increase her colonial possessions in the Pacific. Rear Admiral Sicard and Captain Crowninshield of the Naval War Board still wanted to send Watson to reinforce Dewey, but Captain Mahan dissented from this view. Meanwhile, Watson's ships were needed to support the expedition to Puerto Rico. By the time the Eastern Squadron was free to depart the Caribbean, peace negotiations were under way, and Watson's deployment was held back for good.

==Closing Campaigns==
The U.S. Navy provided escort and support for the Army's final two campaigns of the war. On the afternoon of 21 July, the lead forces for the invasion of Puerto Rico got under way from Guantánamo Bay. The battleship ''Massachusetts'' as well as ''Dixie'', ''Gloucester'', ''Columbia'', and ''Yale'', all under the command of Captain Francis J. Higginson, steamed for Puerto Rico with nine transports loaded with 3,500 U.S. Army troops. Originally planning to land east of San Juan at Playa de Fajardo, the expedition's commander, Major General [[Nelson A. Miles]], instead directed the Navy to land his force on the island's south coast. The expedition arrived off Port Guanica on the morning of 25 July. Lieutenant Commander Richard Wainwright of Gloucester requested and received permission to send a landing party ashore. The men soon came under fire from the small Spanish garrison but held their position until the first Army troops secured the landing place. Wainwright also assisted the amphibious landing at Port Ponce on the 28th when he stole into the inner harbor the night before and gathered up a number of enemy barges for the Army to use.

In the Pacific, Dewey's success at Manila Bay prompted the McKinley administration to take several important steps to support his squadron. Besides the two monitors previously mentioned, Secretary Long dispatched the protected cruiser ''Charleston'' from San Francisco on 22 May, with orders to seize the strategically located Spanish island of Guam on the way to Manila. The authorities on Guam, unaware until the American warship arrived on 20 June that the war had even started, surrendered the island without a fight. The first troops intended for the Philippines, under the command of Brigadier General Thomas M. Anderson, departed from San Francisco three days after Charleston and arrived at Manila on 30 June. Two more groups, one with the expedition's commander, Major General Wesley Merritt, left for the Philippines during June. Before the end of the war, 10,844 U.S. Army officers and men had deployed to the Philippines. In July the United States annexed the [[Hawaiian Islands]], completing the path of U.S. controlled territories to the western Pacific.

Meanwhile, Dewey brought the Filipino insurgent Emilio Aguinaldo to Cavite, hoping to learn more about the Spanish garrison and welcoming any support the Filipino rebels might provide by their operations against Spanish forces. However, Dewey and the American consuls in the Far East overestimated their ability to control the consequences of this action, which was complicated by Aguinaldo's expectation that the United States would support his demand for the colony's independence. By the time American forces were prepared to assault Manila in August, the potential problems of cooperating with the rebels had become apparent to Dewey and Merritt. The American commanders reached an oral agreement with the governor-general at Manila to surrender the city after a brief naval bombardment and infantry assault. On the morning of 13 August, the guns from the U.S. squadron opened fire and Merritt's troops went forward. After sharp fighting in some quarters the Spanish surrendered, allowing the Americans to occupy Manila; thus keeping the Filipino insurgents out of most sections of the city. The peace protocol had been signed between the United States and Spain on 12 August, but word of this did not reach Manila until four days later.

==Lessons and Legacies of the War with Spain==
The Spanish-American War proved to be an important learning experience for the U.S. Navy. When detailed official reports of the Battles of Manila Bay and Santiago de Cuba were analyzed, American naval leadership slowly accepted that its naval gunfire had performed badly. The practice of firing too quickly, the use of brown powder that created increasing clouds of smoke with every shot, and long and rapidly changing ranges all contributed to American hit rates of less than 3 percent. This performance inspired naval officers, like Lieutenant William S. Sims, to search vigorously for new techniques and technology to improve U.S. naval gunnery. The war demonstrated the need for large numbers of auxiliary craft, especially colliers. Despite the advocacy of the Office of Naval Intelligence, the Naval War College, and the [[U.S. Naval Institute]] for these types of craft, it was not until coaling problems were revealed in the cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1908-1909 that the Navy Department requested appropriations for Navy colliers.

Alfred Thayer Mahan concluded that it was difficult for a representative government like that of the United States to adhere to sound military principles if there was not an appreciation for them among the people or their leaders. Mahan therefore examined the war in his writings and sought to educate the American public and its leaders about the basic principles of strategic naval warfare. Nothing illustrates better Mahan's concerns than his discussion of the formation of the Flying Squadron to protect the Atlantic coast of the United States just prior to the start of the war. He was convinced that dividing the fleet was strategically unsound since it weakened the blockade of Cuba and reduced Sampson's margin of superiority over Cervera. Nonetheless, it was politically necessary since American businessmen and inhabitants along the coast demanded protection from a sudden attack by Spanish warships. After the war, Mahan worked to widen the influence of his ideas, even supporting the strengthening of coastal fortifications so that the growing battle fleet would be free to operate in accordance with his ideas.

Mahan also believed that the war demonstrated that the number of ships was just as important as the size of individual vessels in determining the composition of the main battle line. Mechanical problems, the need to refuel, and the friction of war often affected the American fleet operating in the Caribbean. Mahan wrote that naval planners should consider these factors rather than simply advocating the construction of a few very large battleships. Mahan further argued that the war demonstrated that monitors had no place in an offensive-oriented fleet. They were too unseaworthy to steam great distances under their own power, and their slow speed served to limit the mobility of the entire fleet.

The U.S. Navy's contribution to victory over Spain was tarnished by at least one postwar examination. The nature of the running fight at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba on 3 July made it difficult to apportion credit for the lop-sided victory. Sampson had been on his way to confer with Shafter when the battle began, leaving Schley in charge of the ships maintaining the blockade. While Sampson's initial report did not mention Schley, some journalists took the opportunity to exaggerate the latter's role in the battle. Upset by the growing controversy, Sampson formally complained in writing to Secretary Long that Schley's conduct while hunting Cervera's squadron in May was "reprehensible." Sampson's letter became public during debate that followed President McKinley's proposal to make permanent Sampson's and Schley's promotions to rear admiral. Naval officers, congressmen, and newspaper editors lined up behind either Sampson or Schley as the controversy continued to grow. Neither the passage of the promotions on 3 March 1899 nor Secretary Long's circular the following November prohibiting officers from discussing the matter in public ended the damaging debate.

Hoping to put the issue to rest, Long eventually ordered Admiral of the Navy George Dewey to convene a court of inquiry to investigate the charges related to Schley's conduct. The court met for forty days beginning on 12 September 1901. In the final report a majority of court members were critical of Schley, but Dewey issued a separate opinion supportive of Schley's conduct. Neither Sampson nor Schley was satisfied by this turn of events, and both sides filed appeals as the public debate continued. When the judge advocate upheld the court's findings, Schley appealed directly to President Roosevelt in January 1902. Roosevelt, who saw the issue as a review of McKinley's decision to promote Sampson over Schley in 1899, supported the action of his predecessor, and the advocates now continued their fight through memoirs and historical narratives. The Sampson-Schley controversy discredited the otherwise excellent reputation of the U.S. Navy during the war and probably obstructed attempts to record an objective view of events. Participants who wrote accounts of the campaign and Battle of Santiago de Cuba in the years following the war could not help but be influenced by the controversy raging around them.

==Aftermath==
Although the Spanish-American War lasted fewer than five months, it had a lasting influence on the United States and signaled a dramatic change in its position in the world. It also marked the emergence on the global stage of the U. S. Navy.

The United States went to war with Spain in April 1898 to secure Cuban independence and end the revolutionary war that was killing thousands of Cuban civilians and damaging U.S. economic interests. As a result of the war, the United States became a world power by acquiring the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico from a defeated Spain. Recognizing the need to support its new overseas interests, the country acquired through purchase or treaty the Hawaiian Islands, Guantánamo Bay, the Virgin Islands, and part of the Samoan archipelago.

Ironically, in winning a war against European colonialism, the United States became a colonial power itself and ended up suppressing, by force, a bitter insurrection in the Philippines. A major departure from American tradition, the acquisition of overseas colonies (especially the Philippines) stimulated a great national debate. Those opposed saw colonialism as a denial of America's high moral position in entering the war to win Cuba's freedom. They feared the consequences of an enlarged military establishment and foreign entanglements. Expansionists, on the other hand, saw the Philippines as a base for American trade in the Far East and as part of a campaign to ensure national greatness. The domestic market could not absorb all the output of American factories, and American farmers sought new markets for their agricultural surpluses. Protestant churches saw an opportunity to send missionaries to the Philippines to work among the population. Social Darwinists believed the United States had a duty to bring civilization, and what they considered to be a superior culture, to the native populations of the newly occupied territories. Navalists held that the United States could only hold its place and advance its interests in the world if the country had a strong navy; and a strong navy required a healthy merchant marine, overseas commerce, and naval bases and coaling facilities throughout the world.

The acquisition of overseas territories, along with memory of the Navy's victories in the Spanish-American War, led to the realization of Mahan's goals of a larger and more powerful fleet. The American people then viewed the Navy with greater understanding and even affection. Pictures of ships on stereo cards and sailor-suits for children became an indelible part of popular culture at the turn of the century. The Navy also benefited from the interest of President Theodore Roosevelt, a former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and an accomplished naval historian. Congressional appropriations in the next two decades provided for an unprecedented level of new construction, not only of warships, but also of auxiliary vessels necessary to maintain a fleet on deployments throughout the world.

Institutional changes also helped keep the Navy efficient. Naval administrators sought to make conditions of service attractive to young, native-born, American men. The amalgamation of the Engineer Corps with the Line in 1899 resolved a long-standing cause of dissension. Establishment of the Chief of Naval Operations in 1915 prepared the Navy Department to direct naval operations in the coming world war.

In short, the Spanish-American War was primarily a naval war, and the U.S. Navy was dramatically affected by the experience. Following the war, naval expansion continued at such a high rate that the Navy went from ranking sixth in the world in 1897 to being afforded equal status with Great Britain by the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of 1922. The Spanish-American War served as a catalyst propelling the New Navy forward, preparing it to fulfill the country's added responsibilities as a major world power in the twentieth century.
==Bibliography==
===References===
* Benjamin R. Beede, ed. ''The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898-1934'' (1994). an encyclopedia
* Donald H. Dyal, Brian B. Carpenter, Mark A. Thomas; ''Historical Dictionary of the Spanish American War'' Greenwood Press, 1996 [http://www.questia.com/read/24402823?title=Historical%20Dictionary%20of%20the%20Spanish%20American%20War online edition]
* Hendrickson, Kenneth E., Jr. ''The Spanish-American War'' (2003). short summary
* Tucker, Spencer C. ''The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars'' (3 vol 2009)
===Diplomacy and causes of the war===
* James C. Bradford , ed., ''Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War and Its Aftermath'' (1993), essays on diplomacy, naval and military operations, and historiography.
* Lewis L. Gould, ''The Spanish-American War and President McKinley'' (1982)
* Ernest R. May, ''Imperial Demoracy: The Emergence of America as a Great Power'' (1961)
* Walter Millis, ''The Martial Spirit: A Study of Our War with Spain'' (1931)
*H. Wayne Morgan, ''America's Road to Empire: The War with Spain and Overseas Expansion'' (1965)
* John L. Offner, ''An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895-1898'' (1992). [http://www.questia.com/read/99426981?title=An%20Unwanted%20War%3a%20The%20Diplomacy%20of%20the%20United%20States%20and%20Spain%20over%20Cuba%2c%201895-1898 online edition]
* Offner, John L. "McKinley and the Spanish-American War" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 2004 34(1): 50-61. Issn: 0360-4918 [http://www.questia.com/read/5006516097?title=McKinley%20and%20the%20Spanish-American%20War%2c%20in%20Presidential%20Studies%20Quarterly online edition]
* Pratt, Julius W. ''The Expansionists of 1898'' (1936)
* Schoonover, Thomas. ''Uncle Sam's War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization.'' 2003
* Tone, John Lawrence. ''War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895-1898'' (2006)

===The war===
* Donald Barr Chidsey, The Spanish American War ( New York, 1971)
* Cirillo, Vincent J. ''Bullets and Bacilli: The Spanish-American War and Military Medicine'' 2004.
* Graham A. Cosmas, ''An Army for Empire: The United States Army and the Spanish-American War'' (1971)
* A. B. Feuer. ''The Spanish-American War at Sea: Naval Action in the Atlantic'' (1995) [http://www.questia.com/read/6830920?title=The%20Spanish-American%20War%20at%20Sea%3a%20Naval%20Action%20in%20the%20Atlantic online edition]
* Frank Freidel, ''The Splendid Little War'' (1958), well illustrated narrative by scholar
* Allan Keller, ''The Spanish-American War: A Compact History'' 1969
* Gerald F. Linderman, ''The Mirror of War: American Society and the Spanish-American War'' (1974), domestic aspects
* G. J. A. O'Toole, ''The Spanish War: An American Epic--1898'' (1984).
* John Tebbel, ''America's Great Patriotic War with Spain'' (1996)
* David F. Trask, ''The War with Spain in 1898'' (1981)

===Historiography===
* Duvon C. Corbitt, "Cuban Revisionist Interpretations of Cuba's Struggle for Independence," ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 32 (August 1963): 395-404.
* Edward P. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," ''Diplomatic History'' 16 (Fall 1992): 573-97;
*Hugh DeSantis, "The Imperialist Impulse and American Innocence, 1865-1900," in Gerald K. Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., ''American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review'' (1981), pp. 65-90
* James A. Field Jr., "American Imperialism: The Worst Chapter' in Almost Any Book," ''American Historical Review'' 83 (June 1978): 644-68, past of the "AHR Forum," with responses
* Joseph A. Fry, "William McKinley and the Coming of the Spanish American War: A Study of the Besmirching and Redemption of an Historical Image," ''Diplomatic History'' 3 (Winter 1979): 77-97
* Joseph A. Fry, "From Open Door to World Systems: Economic Interpretations of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," ''Pacific Historical Review'' 65 (May 1996): 277-303
* Thomas G. Paterson, "United States Intervention in Cuba, 1898: Interpretations of the Spanish-American-Cuban-Filipino War," ''History Teacher'' 29 (May 1996): 341-61;
* Louis A. Pérez Jr.; ''The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/read/25040869?title=The%20War%20of%201898%3a%20The%20United%20States%20and%20Cuba%20in%20History%20and%20Historiography online edition]
* Ephraim K. Smith, "William McKinley's Enduring Legacy: The Historiographical Debate on the Taking of the Philippine Islands," in James C. Bradford, ed., ''Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War and Its Aftermath'' (1993), pp. 205-49

==Links==
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/ United States Library of Congress entry on the War]

----
{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.history.navy.mil/biblio/biblio7/biblio7.htm]}}

[[Category:Wars]]
[[Category:Spanish-American War]]
[[Category:Naval Battles]]

[[Category:Progressive Era]]

Sex chromosomes

2012-05-09T20:02:37Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''Sex chromosomes''' are [[chromosome]]s that determine the sex (gender) of an individual.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia
Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

Human cells normally contain two sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes, and males have an X and a Y chromosome.<ref> [http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-4097,subcat-MATH.html Genetics: Examining the Basics of Chromosomes] </ref>

==References==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Genetics]]

==See also==
*[[Autosomal chromosome]]s: "Autosomal simply refers to non-sex chromosomes. So, sticking with the human example, do the math, and you can see that humans have 44 autosomal chromosomes." <ref> [http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-4097,subcat-MATH.html Genetics: Examining the Basics of Chromosomes] </ref>

Sex chromosomes

2012-05-09T20:00:39Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''Sex chromosomes''' are [[chromosome]]s that determine the sex (gender) of an individual.<ref>Wile, Dr. Jay L. ''Exploring Creation With Biology''. Apologia
Educational Ministries, Inc. 1998</ref>

Human cells normally contain two sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes, and males have an X and a Y chromosome.<ref> [http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-4097,subcat-MATH.html Genetics: Examining the Basics of Chromosomes] </ref>

==References==

<references />

[[Category:Genetics]]

==See also==
*[[Autosomal chromosome]]s: "Autosomal simply refers to non-sex chromosomes. So, sticking with the human example, do the math, and you can see that humans have 44 autosomal chromosomes." <ref> [http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-4097,subcat-MATH.html Genetics: Examining the Basics of Chromosomes] </ref>

Talk:Honor killing

2012-03-22T20:16:22Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Sentence fragment in first paragraph */ new section

== Honor Killings Sanctioned by Koran ==
The statement here that Honor Killings are not sanctioned by the Koran is politically correct revisionism. This view has been manufactured for the west to "soften" Islam for the public.

I will correct the text and cite Koranic Verses and hadiths.

[[User:ChristianFaith|ChristianFaith]] 12:18, 23 July 2007 (EDT)

== Most ==
I know some people are likely to get upset at why I removed the qualifier from atheists and agnostics, so I'm posting a rationale for the change here. Atheists are bad for their own reasons, but I don't think we should portray this as if there are non-Muslim elements that do not think it is an abhorrent practice. It's pretty clear why atheism is an evil to most Conservapedia readers, I don't think we need to imply they support honor killings. I'd be happy to see it readded, if someone can get a cite of a prominent atheist saying they think honor killing is okay, but otherwise I think we should leave it out. [[User:TGeary|TGeary]] 19:34, 14 November 2008 (EST)
: While looking around online, I've also found mention that some honor killings are carried out by Hindus or Sikhs in the traditions of their respective religions. I cannot find a citation better than the Telegraph (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2008/02/04/dl0401.xml) which seems rather weak so I am not adding it to the article at this time. [[User:TGeary|TGeary]] 19:39, 14 November 2008 (EST)

== My comments ==

To be honest, the formatting on this article is utterly horrible. They is potential for using better prose and more consise language. Another this is that {{tl|cite}}, etc. should be used for the article. I plan on getting this done sometime soon, when I have the time to do so. [[User:GregoryZ|GregoryZ]] 22:20, 29 July 2010 (EDT)

== Sentence fragment in first paragraph ==

The last sentence in the first paragraph seems to be a sentence fragment. I would fix it but I'm not sure what the original editor's intent was. --[[User:Dfrischknecht|Dfrischknecht]] 16:16, 22 March 2012 (EDT)

Corruption

2012-03-22T13:47:38Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Founding Fathers */

'''Corruption''' is, in politics and business, abusing one's position to enrich or otherwise advance oneself or one's friends or relatives. Bribery and [[nepotism]] are common forms of corruption. More subtle is the failure to perform civic duty, or to allow personal priorities to overcome national needs.

Corruption is found in every part of the political spectrum, as soon as people get power that they can abuse. As the great conservative historian Lord Acton (1834–1902) explained, "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely."<ref> see [http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/288200.html "The Phrase Finder"]</ref>

In [[morality]], it refers to the subversion of moral principle for ulterior motives.

[[File:Puck112188.jpg|thumb|550px|Do newspaper expose or endorse corruption? Nasty little printing devils spew forth from the [[Hoe press]] in the cartoon from ''Puck'' magazine, Nov. 21, 1888]]

==Founding Fathers==
As Bailyn (1968) demonstrated, fear of corruption by the conservative forces in Britain and America was the single most important impulse for the [[Founding Fathers]] to distrust the royal government, embrace [[republicanism]] and insist on civic virtue for all citizens. Threats to free government, most Americans (and some British "country party" critics ) believed, lurked everywhere, but nowhere more dangerously than in the designs of ministers in office to aggrandize power by the corrupt use of influence, and by this means ultimately to destroy the balance of the constitution. "Corruption!" was as universal a cry in the colonies as it was in England, and with it came the same belief that [[tyranny]], already dominant over most of the earth, was continuing to spread its menace and was threatening even that greatest bastion of [[liberty]], England itself. In the colonies the executive was legally far stronger than in England, but circumstances - such as inflexible royal instructions, encroachments on the governor's patronage, the more democratic nature of colonial politics, the impermanence of the governor's tenure, and the possibility of going over the governor's heads and appealing directly to authorities in England - worked to reduce radically the influence of the colonial governors. With an indeterminate leadership, an unstable economic structure, and the exertion by colonial governments of creative power unknown to 18th-century England, the colonial political system was troubled, contentious, even explosive, evoking, as it did, both the belief that faction was seditious and the fear that the government was corrupt and threatened the survival of liberty. English constitutional theory offered a mode of comprehension of such an inflamed, anomalous politics; and it is this mode of understanding that forms the background of the American Revolution.<ref> Bernard Bailyn, ''The Origin of American Politics'' (1968)</ref>

Corruption was thus the great evil the Founding Fathers confronted. When Britain escalated its defense of corruption in 1773-75, it was time to break free with the [[American Revolution]].
===Pursuit of civic virtue===
To overcome the temptations of corruption--such as luxury and bribery--in their own lives, the Founding Fathers cultivated the virtue of disinterestedness. That is, the made a conscious effort to not be the creature of his financial interests, and not give any sign to the public that they sought luxury or bribes. The goal was to be impartial, concerned only for the public good, not the advancement of friends or, still less, of party.

The Founding Fathers sought "Honor" --freedom from corruption, and a positive devotion to civic virtue. These were key elements of [[Republicanism]], and the Founding Fathers made republicanism the core values of the American system of government.

Even personal shame and humiliation was preferable to a tarnished honor or the hint of corruption. When Treasury Secretary [[Alexander Hamilton]] was accused of corruption for making secret payments to a man named James Reynolds, Hamilton revealed he had been set up and was paying blackmail to Reynolds following an affair with Mrs. Reynolds. Duels over honor were common in the era--Hamilton was killed in one, as was Hamilton's son.

Corruption continues to be the greatest threat to [[republicanism]], and is a red flag for both parties in the U.S., even though both parties have been guilty.
===Presidential elections===
Corruption is most often an issue in state and city elections, but it has been a central issue in several presidential campaigns.

In 1828 [[Andrew Jackson]] campaigned against the "corrupt bargain" that cost him the election in 1824, when [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[Henry Clay]] joined forces to make Adams president and Clay Secretary of State. Jackson was elected in a landslide, but historians downplay his allegations.

In 1876 Democrat [[Samuel J. Tilden]] crusaded against the scandals of the Grant Administration, though the GOP candidate was [[Rutherford Hayes]], who was squeaky clean. The result was a disputed election that was eventually awarded to Hayes.

The new Republican party in 1860 publicized corruption in the [[James Buchanan]] administration in congressional reports, Republican pamphlets and newspapers between 1857-60, especially Navy contract frauds, use of Federal monies to win elections, and defalcations by the New York City postmaster. To safeguard themselves from similar attacks, the Republican National Convention bypassed [[William Seward]] as a presidential nominee because of his suspicious links with lobbyist [[Thurlow Weed]], and named 'Honest Abe' Lincoln instead. Lincoln's record for honesty appears to have been almost as important as his stand on slavery and slavery extension as the reason for his nomination. Lincoln won a landslide.<ref> David E. Meerse, Buchanan, Corruption and the Election of 1860. Civil War History; 1966 12(2): 116-131</ref>

In 1952, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] crusaded against "Korea, Communism and Corruption" (the Korean war, the Communist threat, and widespread corruption in the Truman Administration). He won a landslide.

==Political machines==
Political scientists have compared the conditions that gave rise to urban machines in the United States (such as the the [[Tweed Ring]] in New York City in the 1860s) to conditions today in Africa and Asia. Both types of machines have been organized in societies undergoing a transition and seeking personal or family rewards rather than seeking national goals or civic duty. Both kinds of machines overcame the fragmentation of government power, the social fragmentation created by urbanization, and the poverty of the people. Patronage has been the key element in maintaining control in both situations. Perhaps the machine as an organization works best at a subnational level where the social structure is more appropriate for machine development.<ref> Scott (1969) </ref>
In the [[Progressive Era]] in the early 20th century, reformers determined to rewrite the laws to eliminate corruption in American politics. Assuming that the people were good and the politicians corrupt, they adopted means to enhance grass roots political activism, including the [[direct primary]], direct election of senators (instead of election by the legislature), the [[Recall election|recall]], initiative, and referendum. They tried to eliminate [[saloons]] and regulated financial contributions to politicians and parties. Seeing women as purer than men, they enacted [[womans suffrage]], and also reduced the voting powers of groups seen as susceptible to corruption, especially blacks and illiterate immigrants.

[[William Allen White]] was a leader of the Progressives in the 1900-1940 era who sought a viable moral order that would provide the nation with a sense of community. White recognized the powerful forces of corruption but called for slow, remedial change having its origin in the middle class. In the 'Heart of a Fool' (1918), White fully developed the idea that reform remained the soundest ally of property rights. He felt that the Spanish American War fostered political unity, and believed that a moral victory and an advance in civilization would be compensation for the devastation of World War I. White concluded that democracy in the New Era of the 1920s inevitably lacked direction, and the indifference to corruption of the [[New Deal]] baffled him. Nevertheless, he clung to his vision of a cooperative society until his death in 1944.<ref> Richard W. Resh, "A Vision in Emporia: William Allen White's Search for Community," ''Midcontinent American Studies Journal'' 1969 10(2): 19-35</ref>

===Prohibition===
There have been many grass-roots crusades against corruption in American history. The most successful--for a while--was the dry crusade to close saloons because they were the seat of corruption in local politics, and the ruination (through drunkenness, domestic violence and wasteful spending) of the family. Led by the [[Anti-Saloon league]], the drys mobilized their forces and carried the day in World War I. [[Prohibition]] represented the fulfillment of the Progressives' desire to end corruption, elevate the masses, and use governmental power to correct social evils. World War I provided a second factor. It added patriotism to the struggle against liquor by pointing out that prohibition saved food needed by soldiers and America's Allies, produced better soldiers and more efficient workers, and struck at an industry controlled by men of German background.

==Recent examples==
In 1969, Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]], discovering that Associate Justice [[Abe Fortas]], a leading liberal, had been taking payoffs from a criminal, forced Fortas to resign.

In 1974 Republican [[Richard Nixon]] facing impeachment for his guilt in the [[Watergate]] affair, resigned the presidency. Conservative had supported Nixon but when the "smoking gun" (a tape showing Nixon involved in the coverup) was released, conservatives led by Senator [[Barry Goldwater]] told him to quit. Nixon's Vice President [[Spiro T. Agnew]] had been forced out a year earlier for taking bribes.

In 2006 Republican lobbyist Jack Abramoff went to federal prison for his corruption crimes, revolving around use of Indian money to buy favors for Congressmen to vote for casinos.

In December 2008, the Illinois governor [[Rod Blagojevich]], a Democrat, was impeached and removed by the state legislature on corruption charges, and also given a criminal indictment in federal court. He had attempted to sell [[Barack Obama]]'s vacant senate seat to the highest bidder, and threatened to withhold funding from a children's hospital.<ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/public/content/article.aspx?RsrcID=40593</ref>
==Other countries==
===Nazi Germany===
{{Nazi bureaucracy and corruption}}

==Further reading ==
* Scott, James C. "Corruption, Machine Politics, and Political Change," ''American Political Science Review'' 1969 63(4): 1142-1158 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1955076 in JSTOR]
{{Liberalism}}
==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Simony]]
*[[Barratry]]

[[Category:Corruption]]
[[category:Progressive Era]]
[[Category:republicanism]]
[[Category:Liberal Traits]]

Warren Buffett

2011-11-24T13:20:42Z

Dfrischknecht:

[[Image:Warren Buffet.jpg|thumb|Warren Buffett]]
'''Warren Buffett''' (b. Omaha, [[Nebraska]], 1930) is an American businessman, supposed philanthropist, and tax evader<ref>[http://www.theblaze.com/stories/obama-suporter-warren-buffetts-co-hasnt-paid-some-taxes-since-2002/]</ref>. According to [[Forbes]] he is at present the richest man in the world. Buffett is noted for his frugality despite his personal fortune (He still lives in the same house in [[Omaha]] he bought three decades ago for $31,500, and drives an older Lincoln Towncar).

<blockquote>
Over the past thirty-five years, Warren Buffett has emerged as arguably the greatest investor in American history. [http://beginnersinvest.about.com/cs/warrenbuffett/l/blwarrenbuffett.htm]
</blockquote>

In 2007 he announced that most of his fortune would be administered by the [[Gates Foundation|Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]]. He pledged 10 million shares of Berkshire Hathaway stock to the foundation, and as of 2010 has delivered 25% of the pledged shares, valued at around $6 billion. [http://www.gatesfoundation.org/about/Pages/implementing-warren-buffetts-gift.aspx]

Susie, his wife died in 2004, at 72.

Despite his reputation for entrepenuership and successful business management, Buffett endorsed Democratic candidate [[Barack Obama]] during the [[2008 United States Presidential Election]]. He is also an affirmed [[agnostic]][http://www.theamericanview.com/index.php?id=649].

Buffett hypocritically supports raising taxes on the rich, while not giving the government any extra tax money himself. He wrote an Op-ed article for the New York Times begging for tax increases on the rich. Of Buffett's $50 billion net worth, he only paid $6.9 million in taxes 2010. <ref>Forbes magazine, September 2011</ref> His personal income tax rate is 1/7000th of his net worth. Critics, mostly on the right, have mocked Buffett's call to raise taxes. Like other [[liberal]]s calling for higher taxes, they can afford to pay more but never do on their own.

Buffett's company Berkshire Hathaway has been fighting with the IRS for almost a decade over taxes it owes, estimated to be $1 billion dollars.

<ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/noel-sheppard/2011/08/30/warren-raise-my-taxes-buffetts-company-may-owe-irs-1-billion#ixzz1We56oSBm Warren 'Raise My Taxes' Buffett's Company May Owe IRS $1 Billion, NewsBusters, August 30, 2011]</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Carlos Slim]]
*[[Bill Gates]]

==References==
<references/>

== External links ==

*[http://www.berkshirehathaway.com/message.html A Message From Warren E. Buffett]

[[Category:Business]]
[[Category:Business People]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Buffett, Warren E.}}
{{liberalism}}

Controlled Substances Act

2011-10-12T16:56:08Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Constitutionality */

In the US, the '''Controlled Substances Act''' regulates [[pharmaceutical]]s. It divides [[drug]]s into classes called schedules and established rules for enforcement of the schedules.

==Drug Schedules==

Required findings as followed:

===Schedule I.===
:(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.
:(B) The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
:(C) There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision.

Examples of Schedule I drugs include heroin and other opiates, methampethines, MDMA (ecstasy), [[LSD]], [[marijuana]], and mescaline.

===Schedule II.===
:(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.
:(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States or a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions.
:(C) Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence.

Schedule II drugs include some opiate pain medications (e.g., morphine, methadone), cocaine (legal as a topical surgical anesthetic only), Ritalin, amphetamines, opium, and barbiturates.

===Schedule III.===
:(A) The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II.
:(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
:(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychologicaldependence.

Anabolic steroids, ketamine, and certain pain and stimulant medications are listed on Schedule III.

===Schedule IV.===
:(A) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III.
:(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
:(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III.

Examples of Schedule IV substances include many [[psychotropic medication]]s (e.g., Xanax, Ativan, Provigil), diet drugs (e.g., Redux), rohypnol, and Ambien.

===Schedule V.===
:(A) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV.
:(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
:(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV.

Substances on Schedule V primarily include medications containing smaller doses of opiates (e.g., cough syrups).

==Constitutionality==

The constitutionality of the Controlled Substance Act has been disputed. In 1972, the [[National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse]], commissioned by President [[Richard Nixon]], reported questioned whether the Act has violated various constitutional limitation on federal power. Nixon and the Congress ignored the committee's findings and the Act was implemented anyways. In 2005, the Supreme Court decided in case ''[[Gonzales v. Raich]]'', in a 6-3 decision that the Controlled Substance Act did not violate the [[Commerce Clause]] in [[United States Constitution]]. The decision cited ''[[Wickard v. Filburn]]'', an FDR-era case that significantly expanded federal power over intrastate commerce.

==References==
<references/>
[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/csa.html Controlled Substances Act from U.S. DEA website]

[[Category:United States Law]]

World War I

2011-08-02T15:02:38Z

Dfrischknecht: /* The United States Joins the War */

'''World War I''', also known as the '''First World War''' and '''The Great War''', was waged primarily in [[Europe]] from 1914 to 1918, but spilled over into Africa, the Middle East, and the Atlantic Ocean.

On one side of the war were the [[Central Powers]]: [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Germany]], [[Bulgaria]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The major [[Allies]] consisted of the [[Britain|British]] and [[France|French Empires]], the Tsarist [[Russian Empire]](until 1917), [[Italy]], [[Japan]], and after 1917 the [[United States]].

World War I saw the first use of [[poison gas]], large [[artillery]], armored [[tank|tanks]], and [[airplane]]s. It was a "total war" because the governments involved took control over the economy and factories, giving first priority to the goods needed for war. Wage and price controls were imposed, there was rationing of goods for civilians, and free speech was limited. The governments put out [[propaganda]] to maximize support for the war and dislike of the enemy. Many of the techniques of population manipulation and central government control which we see today were first pioneered by European powers during World War I.

Historian Jacques Barzun observed how Darwinism caused the horrendous brutality of the wars leading up to this one: "Since in every European country between 1870 and 1914 there was a war party demanding armaments, an individualist party demanding ruthless competition, an imperialist party demanding a free hand over backward peoples, a socialist party demanding the conquest of power and a racialist party demanding internal purges against aliens — all of them, when appeals to greed and glory failed, invoked Spencer and Darwin, which was to say science incarnate."<ref>http://www.creators.com/conservative/pat-buchanan/making-a-monkey-out-of-darwin.html</ref>

=== A Spark Leads to a Fire ===
----
''Main article: [[Causes of World War I]]''

On June 28, 1914, a Serbian nationalist group of assassins known as The Black Hand, killed the [[Austrian]] [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] and his wife Sophie in [[Sarajevo]]. This action led to Austria-Hungary giving an ultimatum <ref>http://teachers.sduhsd.k12.ca.us/mmontgomery/world_history/world_war1/ultimatum.htm</ref> to Serbia. Serbia agreed to comply with all of the demands, except the ones which violated their sovereignty, and, due to a number of military alliances throughout Europe, a full scale war was soon in progress. Serbia requested support from its ally, [[Russia]], which mobilized its military forces. This mobilization led to [[Germany]] invading both Russia and [[France]] (which had an existing alliance with Russia), which was a part of Germany's [[Schlieffen Plan]] of war on two fronts. En route to France, German forces passed through neutral [[Belgium]]. The violation of this [[neutrality]] led [[Britain]] to declare war on Germany. [[Italy]] had an alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, but refused to join the war.

Alternative theories cite the building of the Berlin-Baghdad railway and the problems it would have created for England. <ref>http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA138432</ref>

== Stalemate ==

Weapons technology made huge advancements in the time between the U.S. Civil war and the beginning of World War I. [[Rifles]], the standard weapon of the infantry, were vastly improved in terms of accuracy and rate of fire. Even more importantly, the [[machine gun]] was invented. Because of these formidable new weapons, many military commanders expected the war to end quickly. However, these advancements changed the way wars were to be fought. World War I was characterized by huge battles in which hundreds of thousands of men died often for little or no territorial gain. Commanders resorted to sending men "over the top" of the trenches, where they were typically cut down en mass by enemy machine guns. Both sides quickly learned that mass infantry attacks were pointless, and the war settled into a stalemate. The two sides dug elaborate trench systems stretching from the Swiss border all the way to the North sea, a distance of over 2,000 miles<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/highlands_and_islands/8303210.stm</ref>

The quandary facing strategists through most of the war was how to reinstate mobility. The sheer size of the Eastern front made trench warfare unfeasible, creating a fluidity there that generals sought for the Western Front as well.

=== Gas ===

The Germans took the first step on January 3rd 1915 when, in contravention of the [[Hague Convention]] of 1899, which outlawed the use of poisons in war, they employed gas warfare at Bolimov, on the Eastern Front. This attack was largely ineffective, however. The Germans had used xylyl bromide, a non-lethal, but lachrymatory (tear-producing) gas, but it froze in the sub-zero temperatures. But, by April of that year, the Germans had an abundance of lethal [[chlorine]] gas that overstimulates fluid production in the lungs, drowning the victim.

The first effective gas attack, using chlorine, was launched by the Germans at [[Ypres]] on April 22, 1915. Fortunately for the Allies, the Germans viewed gas attacks as an experiment, so the attack was conducted on a relatively small scale. After the usual artillery bombardment, that preceded almost every battle, the greenish-yellow gas began drifting into the Allied trenches, which were occupied by French and Canadian troops. Many were killed almost immediately, and the French troops panicked, fleeing the their trenches, opening up a four-mile wide gap in the lines. However, tenacious resistance by the remaining troops prevented the Germans from making any great gains, as well as the lazy winds which did not move the gas cloud fast enough to stay ahead of the advancing Germans. The attack was still somewhat successful, as it did flatten the curve of the Ypres salient, and the potential gains were enormous, if only the Germans had launched a larger attack.

The Germans launched another gas attack on 24th, forcing the Allied line into a three-mile retreat. But the Germans had made a major mistake: the inaugural gas attack on the 22nd was too small-scale, and the success it had would not be repeated, for the Allies were now prepared. The gas was quickly recognized as chlorine and a Canadian Lieutenant, remembering that chlorine is water-soluble, ordered men to cover their faces with wet cloths, which greatly diminished the effectiveness of the gas. The Allies quickly developed gas masks and their own gas, phosgene. The Germans then responded with mustard gas, a vicious vesicant that blisters the skin and lungs.

=== Overcoming the wire ===

Gas had restored mobility to a certain extent, but there was still the problem of wire barriers. Cutting barbed wire was a serious tactical problem. In [[Gallipoli]], Allied forces had attempted to destroy wire with artillery bombardments, but shells only exploded upon hitting the ground, which usually only served to create further entanglements. The French produced a solution in 1915, with a new kind of fuse called the '''Fusée Instantée Allongée''' (elongated instantaneous fuse), containing a brass tape that unwound during flight. Once unwound, it freed the hammer, and when the shell hit the ground, this triggered the detonator, setting off the primer and exploding the shell. British inventors made some changes to improve its safety, reliability and suitability for mass production, resulting in the Type 106 percussion fuse. The final product was a shell that exploded on impact with all but the softest ground. The explosion produced no crater, dispersed high-velocity steel splinters over the ground, which were lethal at 800 metres. Hence the infantry called them "ground shrapnel" or "daisy cutters". This new fuse bode well for a solution to the wire problem.

=== Tanks ===

With wire resolved, there still remained the problem of what lay behind it: machine guns and rifles, manned by entrenched soldiers. It was necessary to get men past the wire to enemy trenches without costly frontal assaults. This would be possible by protecting the attacker with a mobile bulletproof shield, as such a shield would be too heavy to carry. To accomplish this, the Allies introduced the ‘tank,’ as it was code-named, in 1916. The intention was to restore power to the offensive by combining firepower, protection and movement. The first two were often stressed to the detriment of the third; the tank’s average speed was five miles per hour. They were used sparingly at the Somme and had little effect until used en masse the following year.

The first major tank deployment was at Cambrai in November 1917, when the Allies launched a 318-tank attack on German trenches. Since the wire posed no threat to the tanks, the customary artillery bombardment to attempt to remove it was unnecessary, and it ensured surprise. The tanks penetrated three German lines, advancing eight miles. The attack was an unmitigated success, although the enormous success was also a drawback: the Allied tank columns advanced so rapidly that they outdistanced supporting infantry and cavalry, and were forced to halt their advance.

But the greatest success for the tank had yet to come. On August 8, 1918 at Amiens, four hundred sixty-two tanks were deployed, along with three corps of the British Fourth Army went into action, and penetrated fifteen miles, as far as the German divisional headquarters. In all, one hundred ten square miles of German-held territory was lost that day, causing that day to became known as ‘the black day of Germany.’ The German losses from that day were never published, but some historians have out the casualties as high as seventy-five thousand, as well as thirteen thousand prisoners taken, and over three hundred guns captured as well This day could be said to have been the turning point in the war. After the ‘black day,’ Erich Von Ludendorff, First Quartermaster General to Chief of Staff Paul von Hindenburg, wrote the following:

"Everything I had feared, and of which I had so often given warning, had here, in one place become reality… The 8th of August put the decline of our fighting power beyond all doubt… The war must be ended."<ref>'''The Conduct of War''' by J.F.C. Fuller, p. 176-177.</ref>

However, tanks did not immeditately revolutionize warfare. Historian Ernest Swinton described the role of the tank as “purely auxiliary to the infantry, and are intended to sweep away the obstructions that have hitherto stopped the advance of our infantry beyond the Germans’ first line and cannot with certainty be disposed of by shell fire.” Tanks were certainly an effective weapon in breaking trench lines, but were not independently decisive. Swinton’s description was mostly accurate, except for the part about destruction by artillery. While the tanks were heavily armoured, they were exceedingly slow, and moving over rough terrain slowed them further, making them easy targets for artillery. Indeed, many tanks were destroyed before generals realized that they could only be truly effective if working in cooperation with infantry and artillery.

There was one area in which tanks could be said to be the most important, that being psychological warfare. German officers recorded that their troops “felt powerless to stop the tanks,” and while this is not entirely true, the tank was a formidable-looking machine. Historian J.F.C. Fuller notes that the tank was “a psychological, more so than a material weapon.”

== Great Battles of World War I ==
----
World War I consisted mostly of [[trench warfare]]. This method of waging war was very slow and messy. Soldiers might wait in their trenches for weeks, only to advance a few feet and wait in a new trench. Unfortunately, this became a necessity, as air forces were in their infancy, and the first combat tank only saw action by August of 1916. There were several important battles which were fought before America joined the war.

'''[[First Battle of the Marne]]'''

By the 5th of September, 1914, the German invasion of France was going so successfully, that French and British forces were in a general retreat towards Paris, with the German army hot on their heels. Just prior to the battle, the two main German forces, the 1st and 2nd German armies, had split up to attack the French 5th and 6th armies, respectively. The regiments of the British Expeditionary Force were pushed in between the two German armies, acting as a wedge, allowing the Germans to be outflanked. Following that, the French 5th army launched a surprise attack, eventually forcing the German army to retreat, stopping after having marched 40 miles. A number of unofficial cease fires took place, allowing both sides to dig their own trenches, setting the tone for the rest of the war. The Western allies took 234,000 casualties, while the Germans took just over 220,000. France still refers to this battle as "The miracle of the Marne" to this day.

'''Gallipoli Campaign'''

In 1915, [[Winston Churchill]], then First Lord of the Admiralty, proposed a daring plan to attack the [[Dardanelles]], a narrow section of ocean south of what is now [[Turkey]], in order to open a supply route to Russia. Unfortunately, he made his plans based of bad intelligence.
A preliminary attack was launched in February of 1915, bombarding artillery of the Ottoman Empire. However, in March, a fleet of British and French warships attempted to navigate the Dardanelles and ran into mines at its narrowest point (which is only a mile wide).
The British and Churchill, not wanting to admit defeat, diverted British, Australian, New Zealander and French troops from training in [[Egypt]] to their campaign in Turkey. Putting together an amphibious Allied force, a plan was put together to land on the Turkish peninsula of Gallipoli on April 25. Although the Allies greatly outnumbered the Turks, poor counter-intelligence efforts by the Allies allowed the Ottoman Empire to resupply and reinforce the Gallipoli peninsula. Additionally, the Allies did not understand the terrain adequately and suffered from limited knowledge of their enemy. The Turkish soldiers were also very tenacious and very able fighters.
However, the bloody-mindedness of the British commanders led to nine months wasted on the peninsula, with 44,000 deaths among over 100,000 casualties before their successful withdrawal, which was completed by January 9th, 1916.

'''[[Battle of Verdun]]'''

In 1916, the Battle of Verdun between the French and Germans may have been the most demanding battle in world history. The struggle started when the Germans attacked [[Verdun]], France, a city surrounded by a ring of underground forts. At least 220,000 soldiers died, and at least 480,000 were wounded in this 10-month struggle that accomplished nothing. At the end the front lines were in nearly the same locations as at the beginning.

'''[[Battle of Flers-Courcelette]]'''

A subsidiary offensive of the 1916 [[Somme Offensive]], the Battle of Flers-Courcelette marked the debut of [[tanks]]. Twelve British divisions and 50 tanks charged into battle on September 11, 1916, but gained only a mile of ground. Although the tanks were impervious to small arms fire, they were extremely slow, difficult to navigate and often bogged down in the thick mud on the Western Front.<ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/flers.htm</ref>

''' Brusilov Offensive '''

The Brusilov Offensive began on 4 June 1916 in spectacular fashion, demolishing the Austrian Fourth and Seventh Armies. The Austrians lost a staggering 1.5 million men (including 400,000 taken prisoner) and ceded some 25,000 square kilometres of ground. <ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/brusilov.htm</ref>

With the launch of the Brusilov Offensive any hopes the Austrians harboured of bringing about victory in the east were extinguished. Austrian attacks in Italy ceased; and Romania finally entered the war with the Allies.

'''[[Battle of the Somme]]'''

Also in 1916, and also in France, the British and French armies met at the Somme River and began a massive attack on the Germans in order to distract them from [[Verdun]]. This became the Battle of the Somme, and the fighting was even heard across the British channel in England. First the Allies shelled the Germans to weaken them, and then 100,000 British soldiers charged the enemy. But the shelling did not have its intended effect, as the Germans were dug in too deeply to be affected by it. On July 1, 1916, the Germans killed 20,000 of the British soldiers and wounded over 40,000, making it the single worst day in British military history. This battle, which did not succeed in moving trench lines, eventually involved over 2 million men along a 30-mile front. The British and French lost nearly 750,000 men.

'''[[Third Battle of Ypres]]'''

For 18 months the British hid 19 huge land mines underneath the German lines southeast of Ypres, Belgium, a location that had already seen battles in 1914 and 1915. The British then detonated those massive mines, and charged the German positions in July 1917. At first the strategy worked, as the Germans were confused and disorganized. But the British did not pursue the Germans as quickly as they should have. Rain began to drench the area in one of the wettest fall seasons there in years. Soon the British forces were stuck in a mountain of mud, and this Allied plan was yet another failure.

=== The United States Joins the War ===
----
For the first three years of World War I, the [[United States]] attempted to stay out of the war, but try to act as a mediator. Mediation failed. When the Germans used a [[U-boat]] to sink the British ocean liner ''[[Lusitania]]'' in 1915, killing over one thousand civilians including some prominent Americans, the Americans were outraged. Badly hurt by the British naval blockade of Germany, which cut off food supplies, the Germans wanted to retaliate. In early 1917 they decided they could defeat Britain and France by cutting off all supplies. They could only do this by sinking merchant ships without warning, which violated international law and their repeated promises to the U.S. Berlin knew it meant war with the U.S. but moved anyway. At the same time Berlin invited Mexico to form a military alliance and fight the U.S. Publication of the [[Zimmerman Telegram]] was a ''casus bellum" (cause of war). The Mexicans wisely ignored the proposal but American pubic opinion was outraged.

German U-boats now began sinking American ships on sight. On April 2, 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] spoke in favor of declaring war on Germany in an address to the joint houses of Congress. Congress then formally declared war on April 6, 1917, with opposition votes coming mostly from areas with large German ethnic populations.<ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usofficialawardeclaration.htm</ref>

The Army was expanded by a factor of 100 to 4 million soldiers (all men), and a major expeditionary force was sent to Europe called the [[American Expeditionary Forces]], under command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. Officially the U.S. did not join the Allies and there was no treaty or formal agreement with Britain or France, so Pershing was practically independent. He was also largely independent of Washington, and allowed to make his own strategic and command decisions.

=== Russia ===
In 1917 Russia suffered two successive internal Revolutions which would later caused it to withdraw from the side of the Allies and leave the war altogether. The [[February Revolution]] overthrew the centuries-old monarchy of the Tsar; the [[October Revolution]] installed the [[communist]] [[Bolshevik Party]] under [[V.I. Lenin]]. The lack of success against the German and Austrian Empires, and the hyperinflation caused by unsustainable military spending by the Russian government led to much internal discontent and economic chaos.

Losses and hardship of the war had weakened Russian [[Czar Nicholas II]]. He abdicated the throne in March 1917 in favor of a provisional government headed by [[Alexander Kerensky]]. Hopes for a democratic revolution still existed at this time. But in October 1917, [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]], and the [[Communist Party]], which was never strong enough to challenge the Czar, overthrew the fledgling provisional government. The Communists later executed every member of the Czar's family including the children.

Lenin became the founder of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] state. He was both a writer and a revolutionary, a rare combination. He was the brother of the "bomb thrower" [[Alexander Ulyanov]] who was hanged for his involvement in terrorist activity and an assassination attempt on Czar Alexander III in 1887. An atheist, he became a [[Marxism|Marxist]] in 1889. He obtained a law degree shortly afterwards, and by 1895 was a subversive who was arrested and sent to the Tsarist gulag along the Lena River in frigid [[Siberia]] where he adopted the name Lenin after the place of his internment. Once he served his time he left for [[Zurich]], where he developed his ideas further and became a leader of the [[Bolsheviks]]. He was returned to Russia by the Germans in the wake of chaos during the [[Kerensky]] regime with the hope to led the Bolsheviks to power and negotiate a peace settlement with the Germans. After the [[Treaty of Versailles]] failed to recognize the settlement between Germany and the Soviet Union in the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]], he then ruled the Soviet Union and imposed a system of [[Marxism-Leninism]] (communism) that remained in force there until [[Stalin]]'s rise to power.

=== The Western Front ===
----
The exit of Russia allowed Germany to shift a majority of their troops from the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|eastern front]] to the [[Western Front (World War I)|western front]]. This gave them a final chance to try and break the Allies before the Americans arrived. Known as [[Operation Michael]], the German offensive began in March of 1918.

The Germans launched five major campaigns in a four month period in 1918 on the [[Western Front]]. The Germans had technology and lots of energy. They had elite storm-troopers with [[automatic rifle]]s, light [[machine gun]]s, [[flame-thrower]]s and [[artillery]] fire. They used poisonous [[mustard gas]] lavishly. They easily defeated the vastly outnumbered British Fifth Army. The Germans were advancing and taking property.

But a combination of fresh American troops arriving on the scene, and a failure in German supply lines was soon to halt the Micheaal offensive. In the [[Second Battle of the Marne]] in July 1918, the Allies started winning. Nine American divisions fought in this battle about 75 miles northeast of [[Paris]]. The Germans started this battle on another one of their offensives, but the Americans valiantly turned the tables and enabled the Allies to win it. Casualties were enormous for everyone, including the Americans. Former President [[Teddy Roosevelt]]’s son Quentin was killed in this battle.

American Capt. [[Jesse Woolridge]], 38th Inf., 3rd Division described the battle as follows: “It’s [[God]]’s truth that one Company of American soldiers beat and routed a full regiment of picked shock troops of the German Army ... At ten o’clock ... the Germans were carrying back wounded and dead [from] the river bank and we in our exhaustion let them do it - they carried back all but six hundred which we counted later and fifty-two machine guns... We had started with 251 men and 5 lieutenants...I had left 51 men and 2 second lieutenants."

=== The War Ends ===
In January 1918, Wilson proclained the [[Fourteen Points]], which an idealistic vision of world peace that strengthened the peace movement inside germany and Austria and promised ana alternative to the increasingly despised monarchies.

As the Americans and the Allies advanced toward Germany, the [[Ottoman Turks]] and [[Bulgarian]]s surrendered. There was a [[revolution]] in Austria-Hungary that overthrew its government, and Germany would not recognize that new government. [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] abdicated his throne in Germany on November 1918, and the Germans formed a new republic. Members of the German republic signed an [[Armistice]] (agreement to stop fighting), which was tantamount to surrender. The Armistice took effect at 11:00 AM on November 11, 1918. The "war to end all wars", was over.

=== Aftermath ===
----
Austria-Hungary was dismantled, mostly along ethnic lines. The Ottoman Empire was also dismantled. For the first time in over 1000 years [[Palestine]] was not under Muslim control, as Britain assumed control of the area as a colony. Germany was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Versailles]] accepting full responsibility for the war and had to pay for the entire cost of the war. This led Germany into economic collapse and sowed the seeds for anyone who could get them out of this collapse and restore their pride to be view as almost a savior. Italy felt they were shortchanged in their portion of the spoils and led to a bitterness that would cause them to side with Germany in the years ahead. The initial causes of the war, alliances and imperialism, were not dealt with. Only 20 years after the Treaty of Versailles, [[World War II]] would start.
====Cultural effects====
On the cultural level, World War I represented the end of the Enlightenment movement in Europe, opening the doorway for cultural movements such as avante-garde, absurdism, and other artistic forms questioning moral absolutes. These movements justified their relativistic stance by pointing out the horrors of war, which caused them to question the concepts of human goodness within the world. The currents set in motion by this continue to the present day.

== Chronology of World War I ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-
== '''1914''' ==
|-
| June 28 || In [[Sarajevo]], [[Serbia]], [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]] Archduke [[Franz Ferdinand]] is murdered. The Black Hand is responsible.
|-
| July 28 || War is declared on [[Serbia]] by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| August 1 || War is declared on [[Russia]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| August 3 || War on [[France]] is declared by [[Germany]]; [[Italy]] remains neutral
|-
| August 4 || [[Belgium]] is invaded by [[Germany]]; War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Britain]]
|-
| August 5-6 || War is declared on [[Russia]] by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]; War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Serbia]]
|-
| August 12 || [[Serbia]] is invaded by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| August 17 || [[East Prussia]] is invaded by [[Russia]]
|-
| August 23 || War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Japan]]
|-
| August 26-29 || [[Russia]] is defeated by [[Germany]] at [[Tannenburg]], [[East Prussia]]
|-
| September 6-10 || Battle of the [[Marne]], [[France]]- [[Germany]] is defeated by [[France]]. Both sides dig in.
|-
| October 19-November 22 || First Battle of [[Ypres]], [[Belgium]]; [[Germany]] is stopped by [[Britain]]
|-
| October 29 || Attacking the [[Russian Black Sea Fleet]], [[Turkey]] enters the war.
|-
| November 5 || War is declared on [[Turkey]] by [[Britain]] and [[France]]
|-
| November 11-25 || [[Russia]] is defeated by [[Germany]] in [[Lodz]], [[Poland]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1915''' ==
|-
| February 23 || Off coast of [[Britain]], first [[German]] [[submarine]] attacks occur
|-
| April 22-May 25 || [[Britain]] holds [[Germany]] at [[Second Battle of Ypres]]; [[poison]] [[gas]] is first used by [[Germany|Germans]]
|-
| April 25 || [[Allies]] land at Gallipoli Peninsula in Turkey
|-
| May 7 || [[''Lusitania'']] is sunk by [[German]] [[U-boat]]
|-
| May 23 || The [[Allies]] are joined by [[Italy]]
|-
| August 5 || [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] is captured by [[Germany|Germans]]
|-
| August 6 || [[British]] land at [[Suvla Bay]], [[Gallipoli Peninsula]]
|-
| August 20 || War is declared on [[Turkey]] by [[Italy]]
|-
| September 25 || Western Front ([[Artois]], [[Champagne]], and [[Loos]] in France) is attacked by [[Allies]]
|-
| December 8 || [[Evacuation]] of [[Gallipoli]] is begun by [[Allies]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1916''' ==
|-
| February 21 || In [[France]], the Battle of [[Verdun]] begins by [[Germany]] attacking [[France]]
|-
| March 9 || War is declared on [[Portugal]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| May 31 || [[North Sea]], [[Battle of Jutland]]
|-
| June 4 || [[Russia]], The Brusilov Offensive begins
|-
| July 1 || Battle of [[Somme]], [[France]] begins
|-
| August 28 || War is declared on [[Romania]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| September 2-3 || [[Britain]] shoots down first [[Zeppelin]] [[German]] [[airships]]
|-
| September 15 || [[Tanks]] used for the first time in war by [[Britain]]
|-
| November 18 || Battle of [[Somme]] ends- [[Britain]] and [[France]] hold the [[Somme River]]
|-
| December 18 || [[France]] defeats [[Germany]], Battle of [[Verdun]] ends
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1917''' ==
|-
| January || [[Palestine]] is entered by [[Britain]]
|-
| February || [[Germany]] declares unrestricted [[U-boat]] warfare and sinks five [[American]] ships
|-
| March 12 || [[Russian Revolution]] begins
|-
| April 6 || War is declared on [[Germany]] by the [[United States]]
|-
| April 9 || Battle of [[Arras]], [[France]]
|-
| April 10 || [[Vimy Ridge]], [[France]] is captured by [[Canadians]]
|-
| April 16-May 9 || [[French]] attack on Second Battle of [[Aisne River]], [[France]]
|-
| May 25 || In [[Britain]], daylight [[bombing]] raids begin
|-
| June 7 || [[Messines Ridge]], [[Belgium]] is attacked by [[British]]
|-
| July 31-November 6 || [[British]] against [[Germans]]- third Battle of [[Ypres]]
|-
| November 6-7 || [[Passchendaele]] is captured by [[Canadians]], ending Battle of [[Ypres]]; [[Bolshevik revolution]] begins in [[Russia]]
|-
| November 20 || [[British]] use large number of [[tanks]] to win Battle of [[Cambrai]]
|-
| December 9 || [[Jerusalem]] in [[Middle East]] is captured by [[British]]; [[Romania]] and [[Central Powers]] make [[Armistice]] (a cease-fire before signing a peace treaty)
|-
| December 15 || [[Armistice]] between [[Russia]] and [[Central Powers]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1918''' ==
|-
| January 18 || [[Fourteen-point Peace Plan]] is proposed by [[Woodrow Wilson|President Woodrow Wilson]]
|-
| April 9 || [[Germans]] begin attack in northern [[France]]
|-
| May 27-30 || [[Allies|Allied]] line on the [[Marne River]] is broken by [[Germans]]
|-
| August 8 || [[Germans]] are routed by [[Allies]] at Battle of [[Amiens]]
|-
| September 26 || Final [[Allies|Allied]] attack begins
|-
| October 1 || [[Damascus]], [[Syria]] is captured by [[British]]
|-
| October 30 || [[Italy]] defeats [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]] at Battle of [[Vittorio Veneto]]; [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Turkey]]
|-
| November 3 || [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| November 9 || Revolution in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]; throne is given up by [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]], [[Germany]] becomes a republic
|-
| November 11 || [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Germany]]; War on [[Western Front]] ends
|}

== Cultural legacy ==

The unprecedented scale and barbarity of World War I inspired a great deal of enduring art and literature. Many soldiers produced written or visual works based on their first-hand experiences on the front.

=== Visual arts ===

Many of the belligerents in WWI commissioned artists to produce paintings and other works as a means of propaganda, many artists produced independent works reflecting the horror of the battlefield. The war also triggered the advent of several new artistic genres, including [[Cubism]], [[Futurism]], [[Expressionism]] and [[Abstract Art]]. Notable artists of this period include John Singer Sargent, Wyndham Lewis, John Nash and Muirhead Bone.<ref>http://www.art-ww1.com/gb/present.html</ref>

=== Literature ===

Some of the most famous Western books and poems were inspired by the war, and most were written by soldiers. Notable works include [[Erich Maria Remarque]]'s ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]],'' an anti-war novel written from the point of view of German soldiers. When published in 1929, it quickly became the best-selling novel of the 20th century and is widely regarded as one of the finest war novels ever written. [[Siegfried Sassoon]] and [[Wilfrid Owen]] were other prominent war writers; Owen's ''[[Anthem for Doomed Youth]]'' and ''Dulce et Decorum Est'' are two enduring war poems. Another significant work is ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'', penned by Canadian medic John MacRae.<ref>http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWliterature.htm</ref>

==Further reading ==
===Short popular histories===
* ''American Heritage History of WWI''. (1964). heavily illustrated
* Barnett, Correlli. ''The Great War,'' (2003), 224pp, illustrated
* Carver, Michael, Field Marshal Sir. ''War Lords''. (1976) Includes brief bios of Hamilton, Foch, Haig, von Falkenhayn
* Cawood, Ian, and David Mckinnon-Bell. ''The First World War.'' (2001), 174pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109316843 online edition]
* Cruttwell, C. R. M. F. ''A History of the Great War, 1914-1918'' (1934), general military history
* Esposito, Vincent J. ''The West Point Atlas of American Wars: 1900-1918'' (1997) despite the title covers entire war; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/great%20war/great%20war%20index.htm online maps from this atlas]
* Evans, David. ''Teach yourself— the First World War''. (2004)
* Falls, Cyril. ''The Great War'' (1960), general military history
* Gilbert, Martin. ''Atlas of World War I'' (1995), very clear schematic maps
* Gilbert, Martin. ''The Routledge Atlas of the First World War: The Complete History'' (2002)
* Henig, Ruth ''The Origins of the First World War'' (2002) 76pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103326769 online edition]
* Hurley, Alfred F. ''Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power'' (1975)
* Jeffers, H. Paul. ''Ace of Aces: The Life of Captain Eddie Rickenbacker'' (2003). 352 pgs.
* Keegan, John. ''An Illustrated History of the First World War'' (1999). by a leading British scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Illustrated-History-First-World-War/dp/B0001FZGNU/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528338&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Livesey, Anthony, and H. P. Willmott. ''The Historical Atlas of World War I'' (1994)
* Lyons, Michael J. ''World War I: A Short History'' (2nd Edition), 1999.
* Neiberg, Michael S. ''Fighting the Great War: A Global History.'' (2005). 416 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Fighting-Great-War-Global-History/dp/0674022513/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201531862&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Pope, Stephen and Wheal, Elizabeth-Anne, eds. ''The Macmillan Dictionary of the First World War'' (1995)
* Robbins, Keith. ''The First World War'' (1993), very short overview [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14754381 online edition]
* Stevenson, David L. ''1914 - 1918: The History of the First World War'', 2004
* Stone, Norman. ''World War One: A Short History'' (2008), 208pp
* Stokesbury, James L. '' A Short History of World War I'' (1981) [http://www.amazon.com/Short-History-World-War-I/dp/0688001297/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205527619&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Strachan, Hew, ed. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Illustrated-History-First-World/dp/0192893254/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528053&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Strachan, Hew. ''The First World War'' (2004): a 385pp version of his multivolume history [http://www.amazon.com/First-World-War-Hew-Strachan/dp/B000F4LMQC/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528053&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Taylor, A. J. P. ''The First World War: An Illustrated History'', (1963) [http://www.amazon.com/First-World-War-J-P-Taylor/dp/0399502602/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205537432&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Toland, John. ''No Man's Land. 1918 - The Last Year of the Great War'' (1980)
* Tuchman, Barbara. ''The Guns of August'', best-seller and Pulitzer Prize book tells of the opening diplomatic and military manoeuvres in August 1914 [http://www.amazon.com/Guns-August-Barbara-W-Tuchman/dp/0345476093/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205537159&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Tucker, Spencer. ''The Great War 1914-18'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Great-War-1914-18-Spencer-Tucker/dp/0253211719/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528478&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Willmott, H. P. ''World War I'' (2007) 296pp
* Winter, J. M. ''The Experience of World War I'' (2nd ed 2005), topical essays; well illustrated; strongest on behind-the-lines

===Advanced books===
* Bakeless, John Edwin. ''The Economic Causes of Modern War: A Study of the Period: 1878-1918'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=5wgAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:war+date:1919-1921&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=LZcIMpEGmzqwkIldzuhfH5Muveg#PPR3,M1 online edition]
* Fay, Sidney. ''The Origins of the World War'' (1930); classic scholarly study; argues every nation shared guilt for starting the war [http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/fay/origin_index.html online edition]
* Ferguson, Niall ''The Pity of War'' (1999), 563pp; much on death and casualties [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100769957 online edition]
* Gray, Edwyn A. ''The U-Boat War, 1914-1918'' (1994)
* Halpern, Paul G. ''A Naval History of World War I''(1995)
* Herwig, Holger H. ''The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918'' (1996)
* [http://www.stratnet.ucalgary.ca/publications/pdf/herwig_operation-michael_nov2001.pdf Herwig, Holger H. ''Operation Michael: The “Last Card”'' 2001], German spring offensive in 1918
* Haber, L. F. ''The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War'' (1986); the standard history
* Higham, Robin and Dennis E. Showalter, eds. ''Researching World War I: A Handbook'' (2003), 475pp; highly detailed historiography, stressing military themes; annotates over 1000 books; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107066504 online edition]
* Horne, Alistair. ''The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916'' (2nd ed 1994), very well written narrative
* Joll, James. ''The Origins of the First World War''. (3rd ed 2006).
* Kennett, Lee. ''First Air War, 1914-1918'' (1999). 288 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/First-Air-War-1914-1918/dp/0684871203/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528300&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Miller, Steven E. (ed.) ''Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War: an International Security Reader'', (1985)
* Passingham, Ian. ''All the Kaiser's Men: The Life & Death of the German Army on the Western Front 1914-1918,'' (2nd ed 2006) 288pp
* Sheldon, Jack. ''German Army on the Somme, 1914-1916,'' (2005) 352pp
* Showalter, Dennis. ''Tannenberg: Clash of Empires,'' 1991
* Stevenson, David. ''The First World War and International Politics'' (2005)
* Stone, Norman. ''The Eastern Front, 1914–1917.'' 1975.
* Strachan, Hew. ''The First World War: Volume I: To Arms'' (2004): the major scholarly synthesis. Thorough coverage of 1914 in 1248 pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0199261911/ref=sib_dp_bod_ex/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&p=S00M#reader-link excerpt online]
* Tooley, Hunt. ''The Western Front: Battle Ground and Home Front in the First World War.'' (2003), 305pp, social history, does not emphasize battles
* Travers, Tim. ''How the War Was Won: Command and Technology in the British Army on the Western Front, 1917-1918,''. London:Routledge (1992) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103449849 online edition]
* Tuchman, Barbara W. ''The Zimmermann Telegram'' (1966)
* Tucker, Spencer, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (5 vol 2005); the most detailed reference source; articles by specialists cover all aspects of the war
* Tucker, Spencer, ed. ''European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia'' (1999)
* Tucker, Spencer C. ''Tanks: An Illustrated History of Their Impact.'' ABC-CLIO, 2004. 379 pp.

===USA and Canada===
* Bassett, John Spencer. ''Our War with Germany: A History'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=76UTAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:war+date:1919-1921&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=4Vx3GGygya6F24ozaNJyLzMI694#PPP10,M1 online edition]
* Chambers, John W., II. ''To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America'' (1987)
* Coffman, Edward M. ''The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I'' (1998) [http://books.google.com/books?id=px_1JGtbeIAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=COFFMAN+The+War+to+End+All+Wars:&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=0RdYSJKmKJyMjAG04JWFDA&sig=s-w6Np6drA_a-MzUxR0UnsQcORc excerpt and text search]
* Kennedy, David M. ''Over Here: The First World War and American Society'' (1979) [http://www.amazon.com/Over-Here-First-American-Society/dp/0195173996 excerpt and text search]
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959[http://hdl.handle.net.proxy.cc.uic.edu/2027/heb.00283 online at ACLS e-books]
* Morton, Desmond, and Jack Granatstein. ''Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914-1919'' (1989)
* Scott, Emmett Jay. ''Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War'' (1919) 511 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=intitle:world+intitle:war+date:1919-2007&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24640205 online edition]
* Venzon, Anne ed. ''The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia'' (1995)
* Wilson, Dale E. ''Treat'Em Rough!: The Birth of American Armor, 1917-20'' (1989)
* Zieger, Robert H. ''America's Great War: World War I and the American Experience.'' 2000. 272 pp.

===Online secondary and primary sources===
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#J. ''Web Sources for Military History'' by Richard Jensen]
* [http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/ WWI Document Archive], valuable collection
* [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ww1.htm diplomatic primary documents, from Mt. Holyoke College]

====notes====
<references/>

[[Category:Wars]]
[[Category:World War I| ]]

== External links ==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#J. Guide to web resources by RJJensen]
* [http://www.firstworldwar.com/index.htm Excellent British site]
* [http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/ The Great War, from PBS]
* [http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/historian/index.html interviews with historians]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext04/shogw10.txt ''A Short History of the Great War,'' by A.F. Pollard (1920), British perspective]
* [http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Main_Page Primary documents], very thorough collection from all countries
** [http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/WWI_Biographical_Dictionary short biographies]
** [http://www.vlib.us/wwi/resources/archives/imarchive.html Photographs]
** [http://www.vlib.us/medical/ medical history]
* [http://www.worldwar1.com/maproom.htm maps]
* [http://www.worldwar1.com/reflib.htm Trenches on the Web]
===Origins and political impact===
* [http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/comment/WarFacts/wfactsTC.htm ''Handbook of War Facts and Peace Problems'' (1919) sophisticated American pamphlet; anti-German; good summary of effects of war on each country involved]
* [http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/fay/origin_index.html Sidney Fay, ''The Origins of the World War'' (1930) classic scholarly study; argues many nations shared guilt for starting the war]
* [http://www.onpower.org/history_wwi.html/ World War I]
* [http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1345 "American Foreign Policy: The Turning Point, 1898–1919," by Ralph Raico]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/working_papers/article.asp?id=1499 "Government and the Economy: The World Wars," by Robert Higgs]
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard91.html "War Collectivism in World War I," by Murray N. Rothbard]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=40&articleID=506 "The Great War Retold," by Ralph Raico]

World War I

2011-08-02T15:01:37Z

Dfrischknecht: /* The United States Joins the War */

'''World War I''', also known as the '''First World War''' and '''The Great War''', was waged primarily in [[Europe]] from 1914 to 1918, but spilled over into Africa, the Middle East, and the Atlantic Ocean.

On one side of the war were the [[Central Powers]]: [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Germany]], [[Bulgaria]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The major [[Allies]] consisted of the [[Britain|British]] and [[France|French Empires]], the Tsarist [[Russian Empire]](until 1917), [[Italy]], [[Japan]], and after 1917 the [[United States]].

World War I saw the first use of [[poison gas]], large [[artillery]], armored [[tank|tanks]], and [[airplane]]s. It was a "total war" because the governments involved took control over the economy and factories, giving first priority to the goods needed for war. Wage and price controls were imposed, there was rationing of goods for civilians, and free speech was limited. The governments put out [[propaganda]] to maximize support for the war and dislike of the enemy. Many of the techniques of population manipulation and central government control which we see today were first pioneered by European powers during World War I.

Historian Jacques Barzun observed how Darwinism caused the horrendous brutality of the wars leading up to this one: "Since in every European country between 1870 and 1914 there was a war party demanding armaments, an individualist party demanding ruthless competition, an imperialist party demanding a free hand over backward peoples, a socialist party demanding the conquest of power and a racialist party demanding internal purges against aliens — all of them, when appeals to greed and glory failed, invoked Spencer and Darwin, which was to say science incarnate."<ref>http://www.creators.com/conservative/pat-buchanan/making-a-monkey-out-of-darwin.html</ref>

=== A Spark Leads to a Fire ===
----
''Main article: [[Causes of World War I]]''

On June 28, 1914, a Serbian nationalist group of assassins known as The Black Hand, killed the [[Austrian]] [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] and his wife Sophie in [[Sarajevo]]. This action led to Austria-Hungary giving an ultimatum <ref>http://teachers.sduhsd.k12.ca.us/mmontgomery/world_history/world_war1/ultimatum.htm</ref> to Serbia. Serbia agreed to comply with all of the demands, except the ones which violated their sovereignty, and, due to a number of military alliances throughout Europe, a full scale war was soon in progress. Serbia requested support from its ally, [[Russia]], which mobilized its military forces. This mobilization led to [[Germany]] invading both Russia and [[France]] (which had an existing alliance with Russia), which was a part of Germany's [[Schlieffen Plan]] of war on two fronts. En route to France, German forces passed through neutral [[Belgium]]. The violation of this [[neutrality]] led [[Britain]] to declare war on Germany. [[Italy]] had an alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, but refused to join the war.

Alternative theories cite the building of the Berlin-Baghdad railway and the problems it would have created for England. <ref>http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA138432</ref>

== Stalemate ==

Weapons technology made huge advancements in the time between the U.S. Civil war and the beginning of World War I. [[Rifles]], the standard weapon of the infantry, were vastly improved in terms of accuracy and rate of fire. Even more importantly, the [[machine gun]] was invented. Because of these formidable new weapons, many military commanders expected the war to end quickly. However, these advancements changed the way wars were to be fought. World War I was characterized by huge battles in which hundreds of thousands of men died often for little or no territorial gain. Commanders resorted to sending men "over the top" of the trenches, where they were typically cut down en mass by enemy machine guns. Both sides quickly learned that mass infantry attacks were pointless, and the war settled into a stalemate. The two sides dug elaborate trench systems stretching from the Swiss border all the way to the North sea, a distance of over 2,000 miles<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/highlands_and_islands/8303210.stm</ref>

The quandary facing strategists through most of the war was how to reinstate mobility. The sheer size of the Eastern front made trench warfare unfeasible, creating a fluidity there that generals sought for the Western Front as well.

=== Gas ===

The Germans took the first step on January 3rd 1915 when, in contravention of the [[Hague Convention]] of 1899, which outlawed the use of poisons in war, they employed gas warfare at Bolimov, on the Eastern Front. This attack was largely ineffective, however. The Germans had used xylyl bromide, a non-lethal, but lachrymatory (tear-producing) gas, but it froze in the sub-zero temperatures. But, by April of that year, the Germans had an abundance of lethal [[chlorine]] gas that overstimulates fluid production in the lungs, drowning the victim.

The first effective gas attack, using chlorine, was launched by the Germans at [[Ypres]] on April 22, 1915. Fortunately for the Allies, the Germans viewed gas attacks as an experiment, so the attack was conducted on a relatively small scale. After the usual artillery bombardment, that preceded almost every battle, the greenish-yellow gas began drifting into the Allied trenches, which were occupied by French and Canadian troops. Many were killed almost immediately, and the French troops panicked, fleeing the their trenches, opening up a four-mile wide gap in the lines. However, tenacious resistance by the remaining troops prevented the Germans from making any great gains, as well as the lazy winds which did not move the gas cloud fast enough to stay ahead of the advancing Germans. The attack was still somewhat successful, as it did flatten the curve of the Ypres salient, and the potential gains were enormous, if only the Germans had launched a larger attack.

The Germans launched another gas attack on 24th, forcing the Allied line into a three-mile retreat. But the Germans had made a major mistake: the inaugural gas attack on the 22nd was too small-scale, and the success it had would not be repeated, for the Allies were now prepared. The gas was quickly recognized as chlorine and a Canadian Lieutenant, remembering that chlorine is water-soluble, ordered men to cover their faces with wet cloths, which greatly diminished the effectiveness of the gas. The Allies quickly developed gas masks and their own gas, phosgene. The Germans then responded with mustard gas, a vicious vesicant that blisters the skin and lungs.

=== Overcoming the wire ===

Gas had restored mobility to a certain extent, but there was still the problem of wire barriers. Cutting barbed wire was a serious tactical problem. In [[Gallipoli]], Allied forces had attempted to destroy wire with artillery bombardments, but shells only exploded upon hitting the ground, which usually only served to create further entanglements. The French produced a solution in 1915, with a new kind of fuse called the '''Fusée Instantée Allongée''' (elongated instantaneous fuse), containing a brass tape that unwound during flight. Once unwound, it freed the hammer, and when the shell hit the ground, this triggered the detonator, setting off the primer and exploding the shell. British inventors made some changes to improve its safety, reliability and suitability for mass production, resulting in the Type 106 percussion fuse. The final product was a shell that exploded on impact with all but the softest ground. The explosion produced no crater, dispersed high-velocity steel splinters over the ground, which were lethal at 800 metres. Hence the infantry called them "ground shrapnel" or "daisy cutters". This new fuse bode well for a solution to the wire problem.

=== Tanks ===

With wire resolved, there still remained the problem of what lay behind it: machine guns and rifles, manned by entrenched soldiers. It was necessary to get men past the wire to enemy trenches without costly frontal assaults. This would be possible by protecting the attacker with a mobile bulletproof shield, as such a shield would be too heavy to carry. To accomplish this, the Allies introduced the ‘tank,’ as it was code-named, in 1916. The intention was to restore power to the offensive by combining firepower, protection and movement. The first two were often stressed to the detriment of the third; the tank’s average speed was five miles per hour. They were used sparingly at the Somme and had little effect until used en masse the following year.

The first major tank deployment was at Cambrai in November 1917, when the Allies launched a 318-tank attack on German trenches. Since the wire posed no threat to the tanks, the customary artillery bombardment to attempt to remove it was unnecessary, and it ensured surprise. The tanks penetrated three German lines, advancing eight miles. The attack was an unmitigated success, although the enormous success was also a drawback: the Allied tank columns advanced so rapidly that they outdistanced supporting infantry and cavalry, and were forced to halt their advance.

But the greatest success for the tank had yet to come. On August 8, 1918 at Amiens, four hundred sixty-two tanks were deployed, along with three corps of the British Fourth Army went into action, and penetrated fifteen miles, as far as the German divisional headquarters. In all, one hundred ten square miles of German-held territory was lost that day, causing that day to became known as ‘the black day of Germany.’ The German losses from that day were never published, but some historians have out the casualties as high as seventy-five thousand, as well as thirteen thousand prisoners taken, and over three hundred guns captured as well This day could be said to have been the turning point in the war. After the ‘black day,’ Erich Von Ludendorff, First Quartermaster General to Chief of Staff Paul von Hindenburg, wrote the following:

"Everything I had feared, and of which I had so often given warning, had here, in one place become reality… The 8th of August put the decline of our fighting power beyond all doubt… The war must be ended."<ref>'''The Conduct of War''' by J.F.C. Fuller, p. 176-177.</ref>

However, tanks did not immeditately revolutionize warfare. Historian Ernest Swinton described the role of the tank as “purely auxiliary to the infantry, and are intended to sweep away the obstructions that have hitherto stopped the advance of our infantry beyond the Germans’ first line and cannot with certainty be disposed of by shell fire.” Tanks were certainly an effective weapon in breaking trench lines, but were not independently decisive. Swinton’s description was mostly accurate, except for the part about destruction by artillery. While the tanks were heavily armoured, they were exceedingly slow, and moving over rough terrain slowed them further, making them easy targets for artillery. Indeed, many tanks were destroyed before generals realized that they could only be truly effective if working in cooperation with infantry and artillery.

There was one area in which tanks could be said to be the most important, that being psychological warfare. German officers recorded that their troops “felt powerless to stop the tanks,” and while this is not entirely true, the tank was a formidable-looking machine. Historian J.F.C. Fuller notes that the tank was “a psychological, more so than a material weapon.”

== Great Battles of World War I ==
----
World War I consisted mostly of [[trench warfare]]. This method of waging war was very slow and messy. Soldiers might wait in their trenches for weeks, only to advance a few feet and wait in a new trench. Unfortunately, this became a necessity, as air forces were in their infancy, and the first combat tank only saw action by August of 1916. There were several important battles which were fought before America joined the war.

'''[[First Battle of the Marne]]'''

By the 5th of September, 1914, the German invasion of France was going so successfully, that French and British forces were in a general retreat towards Paris, with the German army hot on their heels. Just prior to the battle, the two main German forces, the 1st and 2nd German armies, had split up to attack the French 5th and 6th armies, respectively. The regiments of the British Expeditionary Force were pushed in between the two German armies, acting as a wedge, allowing the Germans to be outflanked. Following that, the French 5th army launched a surprise attack, eventually forcing the German army to retreat, stopping after having marched 40 miles. A number of unofficial cease fires took place, allowing both sides to dig their own trenches, setting the tone for the rest of the war. The Western allies took 234,000 casualties, while the Germans took just over 220,000. France still refers to this battle as "The miracle of the Marne" to this day.

'''Gallipoli Campaign'''

In 1915, [[Winston Churchill]], then First Lord of the Admiralty, proposed a daring plan to attack the [[Dardanelles]], a narrow section of ocean south of what is now [[Turkey]], in order to open a supply route to Russia. Unfortunately, he made his plans based of bad intelligence.
A preliminary attack was launched in February of 1915, bombarding artillery of the Ottoman Empire. However, in March, a fleet of British and French warships attempted to navigate the Dardanelles and ran into mines at its narrowest point (which is only a mile wide).
The British and Churchill, not wanting to admit defeat, diverted British, Australian, New Zealander and French troops from training in [[Egypt]] to their campaign in Turkey. Putting together an amphibious Allied force, a plan was put together to land on the Turkish peninsula of Gallipoli on April 25. Although the Allies greatly outnumbered the Turks, poor counter-intelligence efforts by the Allies allowed the Ottoman Empire to resupply and reinforce the Gallipoli peninsula. Additionally, the Allies did not understand the terrain adequately and suffered from limited knowledge of their enemy. The Turkish soldiers were also very tenacious and very able fighters.
However, the bloody-mindedness of the British commanders led to nine months wasted on the peninsula, with 44,000 deaths among over 100,000 casualties before their successful withdrawal, which was completed by January 9th, 1916.

'''[[Battle of Verdun]]'''

In 1916, the Battle of Verdun between the French and Germans may have been the most demanding battle in world history. The struggle started when the Germans attacked [[Verdun]], France, a city surrounded by a ring of underground forts. At least 220,000 soldiers died, and at least 480,000 were wounded in this 10-month struggle that accomplished nothing. At the end the front lines were in nearly the same locations as at the beginning.

'''[[Battle of Flers-Courcelette]]'''

A subsidiary offensive of the 1916 [[Somme Offensive]], the Battle of Flers-Courcelette marked the debut of [[tanks]]. Twelve British divisions and 50 tanks charged into battle on September 11, 1916, but gained only a mile of ground. Although the tanks were impervious to small arms fire, they were extremely slow, difficult to navigate and often bogged down in the thick mud on the Western Front.<ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/flers.htm</ref>

''' Brusilov Offensive '''

The Brusilov Offensive began on 4 June 1916 in spectacular fashion, demolishing the Austrian Fourth and Seventh Armies. The Austrians lost a staggering 1.5 million men (including 400,000 taken prisoner) and ceded some 25,000 square kilometres of ground. <ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/brusilov.htm</ref>

With the launch of the Brusilov Offensive any hopes the Austrians harboured of bringing about victory in the east were extinguished. Austrian attacks in Italy ceased; and Romania finally entered the war with the Allies.

'''[[Battle of the Somme]]'''

Also in 1916, and also in France, the British and French armies met at the Somme River and began a massive attack on the Germans in order to distract them from [[Verdun]]. This became the Battle of the Somme, and the fighting was even heard across the British channel in England. First the Allies shelled the Germans to weaken them, and then 100,000 British soldiers charged the enemy. But the shelling did not have its intended effect, as the Germans were dug in too deeply to be affected by it. On July 1, 1916, the Germans killed 20,000 of the British soldiers and wounded over 40,000, making it the single worst day in British military history. This battle, which did not succeed in moving trench lines, eventually involved over 2 million men along a 30-mile front. The British and French lost nearly 750,000 men.

'''[[Third Battle of Ypres]]'''

For 18 months the British hid 19 huge land mines underneath the German lines southeast of Ypres, Belgium, a location that had already seen battles in 1914 and 1915. The British then detonated those massive mines, and charged the German positions in July 1917. At first the strategy worked, as the Germans were confused and disorganized. But the British did not pursue the Germans as quickly as they should have. Rain began to drench the area in one of the wettest fall seasons there in years. Soon the British forces were stuck in a mountain of mud, and this Allied plan was yet another failure.

=== The United States Joins the War ===
----
For the first three years of World War I, the [[United States]] attempted to stay out of the war, but try to act as a mediator. Mediation failed. When the Germans used a [[U-boat]] to sink the British ocean liner ''[[Lusitania]]'' in 1915, killing over one thousand civilians including some prominent Americans, the Americans were outraged. Badly hurt by the British naval blockade of Germany, which cut off food supplies, the Germans wanted to retaliate. In early 1917 they decided they could defeat Britain and France by cutting off all supplies. They could only do this by sinking merchant ships without warning, which violated international law and their repeated promises to the U.S. Berlin knew it meant war with the U.S. but moved anyway. At the same time Berlin invited Mexico to form a military alliance and fight the U.S. Publication of the [[Zimmerman Telegram]] was a ''casus bellum" (cause of war). The Mexicans wisely ignored the proposal but American pubic opinion was outraged.

German U-boats now began sinking American ships on sight. On April 2, 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] spoke in favor of declaring war on Germany in an address to the joint houses of Congress. Congress then formally declared war on April 6, 1917, with opposition votes coming mostly from areas with large German ethnic populations.<ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usofficialawardeclaration.htm</ref>

The Army was expanded by a factor of 100 to 4 million soldiers (all men), and a major expeditionary force was sent to Europe called the [[American Expeditionary Forces]], under command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. Officially the U.S. did not join the Allies and there was no treaty or formal agreement with Britain or France, so Perhaps was practically independent. He was also largely independent of Washington, and allowed to make his own strategic and command decisions.

=== Russia ===
In 1917 Russia suffered two successive internal Revolutions which would later caused it to withdraw from the side of the Allies and leave the war altogether. The [[February Revolution]] overthrew the centuries-old monarchy of the Tsar; the [[October Revolution]] installed the [[communist]] [[Bolshevik Party]] under [[V.I. Lenin]]. The lack of success against the German and Austrian Empires, and the hyperinflation caused by unsustainable military spending by the Russian government led to much internal discontent and economic chaos.

Losses and hardship of the war had weakened Russian [[Czar Nicholas II]]. He abdicated the throne in March 1917 in favor of a provisional government headed by [[Alexander Kerensky]]. Hopes for a democratic revolution still existed at this time. But in October 1917, [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]], and the [[Communist Party]], which was never strong enough to challenge the Czar, overthrew the fledgling provisional government. The Communists later executed every member of the Czar's family including the children.

Lenin became the founder of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] state. He was both a writer and a revolutionary, a rare combination. He was the brother of the "bomb thrower" [[Alexander Ulyanov]] who was hanged for his involvement in terrorist activity and an assassination attempt on Czar Alexander III in 1887. An atheist, he became a [[Marxism|Marxist]] in 1889. He obtained a law degree shortly afterwards, and by 1895 was a subversive who was arrested and sent to the Tsarist gulag along the Lena River in frigid [[Siberia]] where he adopted the name Lenin after the place of his internment. Once he served his time he left for [[Zurich]], where he developed his ideas further and became a leader of the [[Bolsheviks]]. He was returned to Russia by the Germans in the wake of chaos during the [[Kerensky]] regime with the hope to led the Bolsheviks to power and negotiate a peace settlement with the Germans. After the [[Treaty of Versailles]] failed to recognize the settlement between Germany and the Soviet Union in the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]], he then ruled the Soviet Union and imposed a system of [[Marxism-Leninism]] (communism) that remained in force there until [[Stalin]]'s rise to power.

=== The Western Front ===
----
The exit of Russia allowed Germany to shift a majority of their troops from the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|eastern front]] to the [[Western Front (World War I)|western front]]. This gave them a final chance to try and break the Allies before the Americans arrived. Known as [[Operation Michael]], the German offensive began in March of 1918.

The Germans launched five major campaigns in a four month period in 1918 on the [[Western Front]]. The Germans had technology and lots of energy. They had elite storm-troopers with [[automatic rifle]]s, light [[machine gun]]s, [[flame-thrower]]s and [[artillery]] fire. They used poisonous [[mustard gas]] lavishly. They easily defeated the vastly outnumbered British Fifth Army. The Germans were advancing and taking property.

But a combination of fresh American troops arriving on the scene, and a failure in German supply lines was soon to halt the Micheaal offensive. In the [[Second Battle of the Marne]] in July 1918, the Allies started winning. Nine American divisions fought in this battle about 75 miles northeast of [[Paris]]. The Germans started this battle on another one of their offensives, but the Americans valiantly turned the tables and enabled the Allies to win it. Casualties were enormous for everyone, including the Americans. Former President [[Teddy Roosevelt]]’s son Quentin was killed in this battle.

American Capt. [[Jesse Woolridge]], 38th Inf., 3rd Division described the battle as follows: “It’s [[God]]’s truth that one Company of American soldiers beat and routed a full regiment of picked shock troops of the German Army ... At ten o’clock ... the Germans were carrying back wounded and dead [from] the river bank and we in our exhaustion let them do it - they carried back all but six hundred which we counted later and fifty-two machine guns... We had started with 251 men and 5 lieutenants...I had left 51 men and 2 second lieutenants."

=== The War Ends ===
In January 1918, Wilson proclained the [[Fourteen Points]], which an idealistic vision of world peace that strengthened the peace movement inside germany and Austria and promised ana alternative to the increasingly despised monarchies.

As the Americans and the Allies advanced toward Germany, the [[Ottoman Turks]] and [[Bulgarian]]s surrendered. There was a [[revolution]] in Austria-Hungary that overthrew its government, and Germany would not recognize that new government. [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] abdicated his throne in Germany on November 1918, and the Germans formed a new republic. Members of the German republic signed an [[Armistice]] (agreement to stop fighting), which was tantamount to surrender. The Armistice took effect at 11:00 AM on November 11, 1918. The "war to end all wars", was over.

=== Aftermath ===
----
Austria-Hungary was dismantled, mostly along ethnic lines. The Ottoman Empire was also dismantled. For the first time in over 1000 years [[Palestine]] was not under Muslim control, as Britain assumed control of the area as a colony. Germany was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Versailles]] accepting full responsibility for the war and had to pay for the entire cost of the war. This led Germany into economic collapse and sowed the seeds for anyone who could get them out of this collapse and restore their pride to be view as almost a savior. Italy felt they were shortchanged in their portion of the spoils and led to a bitterness that would cause them to side with Germany in the years ahead. The initial causes of the war, alliances and imperialism, were not dealt with. Only 20 years after the Treaty of Versailles, [[World War II]] would start.
====Cultural effects====
On the cultural level, World War I represented the end of the Enlightenment movement in Europe, opening the doorway for cultural movements such as avante-garde, absurdism, and other artistic forms questioning moral absolutes. These movements justified their relativistic stance by pointing out the horrors of war, which caused them to question the concepts of human goodness within the world. The currents set in motion by this continue to the present day.

== Chronology of World War I ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-
== '''1914''' ==
|-
| June 28 || In [[Sarajevo]], [[Serbia]], [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]] Archduke [[Franz Ferdinand]] is murdered. The Black Hand is responsible.
|-
| July 28 || War is declared on [[Serbia]] by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| August 1 || War is declared on [[Russia]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| August 3 || War on [[France]] is declared by [[Germany]]; [[Italy]] remains neutral
|-
| August 4 || [[Belgium]] is invaded by [[Germany]]; War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Britain]]
|-
| August 5-6 || War is declared on [[Russia]] by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]; War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Serbia]]
|-
| August 12 || [[Serbia]] is invaded by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| August 17 || [[East Prussia]] is invaded by [[Russia]]
|-
| August 23 || War is declared on [[Germany]] by [[Japan]]
|-
| August 26-29 || [[Russia]] is defeated by [[Germany]] at [[Tannenburg]], [[East Prussia]]
|-
| September 6-10 || Battle of the [[Marne]], [[France]]- [[Germany]] is defeated by [[France]]. Both sides dig in.
|-
| October 19-November 22 || First Battle of [[Ypres]], [[Belgium]]; [[Germany]] is stopped by [[Britain]]
|-
| October 29 || Attacking the [[Russian Black Sea Fleet]], [[Turkey]] enters the war.
|-
| November 5 || War is declared on [[Turkey]] by [[Britain]] and [[France]]
|-
| November 11-25 || [[Russia]] is defeated by [[Germany]] in [[Lodz]], [[Poland]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1915''' ==
|-
| February 23 || Off coast of [[Britain]], first [[German]] [[submarine]] attacks occur
|-
| April 22-May 25 || [[Britain]] holds [[Germany]] at [[Second Battle of Ypres]]; [[poison]] [[gas]] is first used by [[Germany|Germans]]
|-
| April 25 || [[Allies]] land at Gallipoli Peninsula in Turkey
|-
| May 7 || [[''Lusitania'']] is sunk by [[German]] [[U-boat]]
|-
| May 23 || The [[Allies]] are joined by [[Italy]]
|-
| August 5 || [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] is captured by [[Germany|Germans]]
|-
| August 6 || [[British]] land at [[Suvla Bay]], [[Gallipoli Peninsula]]
|-
| August 20 || War is declared on [[Turkey]] by [[Italy]]
|-
| September 25 || Western Front ([[Artois]], [[Champagne]], and [[Loos]] in France) is attacked by [[Allies]]
|-
| December 8 || [[Evacuation]] of [[Gallipoli]] is begun by [[Allies]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1916''' ==
|-
| February 21 || In [[France]], the Battle of [[Verdun]] begins by [[Germany]] attacking [[France]]
|-
| March 9 || War is declared on [[Portugal]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| May 31 || [[North Sea]], [[Battle of Jutland]]
|-
| June 4 || [[Russia]], The Brusilov Offensive begins
|-
| July 1 || Battle of [[Somme]], [[France]] begins
|-
| August 28 || War is declared on [[Romania]] by [[Germany]]
|-
| September 2-3 || [[Britain]] shoots down first [[Zeppelin]] [[German]] [[airships]]
|-
| September 15 || [[Tanks]] used for the first time in war by [[Britain]]
|-
| November 18 || Battle of [[Somme]] ends- [[Britain]] and [[France]] hold the [[Somme River]]
|-
| December 18 || [[France]] defeats [[Germany]], Battle of [[Verdun]] ends
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1917''' ==
|-
| January || [[Palestine]] is entered by [[Britain]]
|-
| February || [[Germany]] declares unrestricted [[U-boat]] warfare and sinks five [[American]] ships
|-
| March 12 || [[Russian Revolution]] begins
|-
| April 6 || War is declared on [[Germany]] by the [[United States]]
|-
| April 9 || Battle of [[Arras]], [[France]]
|-
| April 10 || [[Vimy Ridge]], [[France]] is captured by [[Canadians]]
|-
| April 16-May 9 || [[French]] attack on Second Battle of [[Aisne River]], [[France]]
|-
| May 25 || In [[Britain]], daylight [[bombing]] raids begin
|-
| June 7 || [[Messines Ridge]], [[Belgium]] is attacked by [[British]]
|-
| July 31-November 6 || [[British]] against [[Germans]]- third Battle of [[Ypres]]
|-
| November 6-7 || [[Passchendaele]] is captured by [[Canadians]], ending Battle of [[Ypres]]; [[Bolshevik revolution]] begins in [[Russia]]
|-
| November 20 || [[British]] use large number of [[tanks]] to win Battle of [[Cambrai]]
|-
| December 9 || [[Jerusalem]] in [[Middle East]] is captured by [[British]]; [[Romania]] and [[Central Powers]] make [[Armistice]] (a cease-fire before signing a peace treaty)
|-
| December 15 || [[Armistice]] between [[Russia]] and [[Central Powers]]
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
|-

== '''1918''' ==
|-
| January 18 || [[Fourteen-point Peace Plan]] is proposed by [[Woodrow Wilson|President Woodrow Wilson]]
|-
| April 9 || [[Germans]] begin attack in northern [[France]]
|-
| May 27-30 || [[Allies|Allied]] line on the [[Marne River]] is broken by [[Germans]]
|-
| August 8 || [[Germans]] are routed by [[Allies]] at Battle of [[Amiens]]
|-
| September 26 || Final [[Allies|Allied]] attack begins
|-
| October 1 || [[Damascus]], [[Syria]] is captured by [[British]]
|-
| October 30 || [[Italy]] defeats [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]] at Battle of [[Vittorio Veneto]]; [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Turkey]]
|-
| November 3 || [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Austria]]-[[Hungary]]
|-
| November 9 || Revolution in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]; throne is given up by [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]], [[Germany]] becomes a republic
|-
| November 11 || [[Armistice]] is signed by [[Germany]]; War on [[Western Front]] ends
|}

== Cultural legacy ==

The unprecedented scale and barbarity of World War I inspired a great deal of enduring art and literature. Many soldiers produced written or visual works based on their first-hand experiences on the front.

=== Visual arts ===

Many of the belligerents in WWI commissioned artists to produce paintings and other works as a means of propaganda, many artists produced independent works reflecting the horror of the battlefield. The war also triggered the advent of several new artistic genres, including [[Cubism]], [[Futurism]], [[Expressionism]] and [[Abstract Art]]. Notable artists of this period include John Singer Sargent, Wyndham Lewis, John Nash and Muirhead Bone.<ref>http://www.art-ww1.com/gb/present.html</ref>

=== Literature ===

Some of the most famous Western books and poems were inspired by the war, and most were written by soldiers. Notable works include [[Erich Maria Remarque]]'s ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]],'' an anti-war novel written from the point of view of German soldiers. When published in 1929, it quickly became the best-selling novel of the 20th century and is widely regarded as one of the finest war novels ever written. [[Siegfried Sassoon]] and [[Wilfrid Owen]] were other prominent war writers; Owen's ''[[Anthem for Doomed Youth]]'' and ''Dulce et Decorum Est'' are two enduring war poems. Another significant work is ''[[In Flanders Fields]]'', penned by Canadian medic John MacRae.<ref>http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWliterature.htm</ref>

==Further reading ==
===Short popular histories===
* ''American Heritage History of WWI''. (1964). heavily illustrated
* Barnett, Correlli. ''The Great War,'' (2003), 224pp, illustrated
* Carver, Michael, Field Marshal Sir. ''War Lords''. (1976) Includes brief bios of Hamilton, Foch, Haig, von Falkenhayn
* Cawood, Ian, and David Mckinnon-Bell. ''The First World War.'' (2001), 174pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109316843 online edition]
* Cruttwell, C. R. M. F. ''A History of the Great War, 1914-1918'' (1934), general military history
* Esposito, Vincent J. ''The West Point Atlas of American Wars: 1900-1918'' (1997) despite the title covers entire war; [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/great%20war/great%20war%20index.htm online maps from this atlas]
* Evans, David. ''Teach yourself— the First World War''. (2004)
* Falls, Cyril. ''The Great War'' (1960), general military history
* Gilbert, Martin. ''Atlas of World War I'' (1995), very clear schematic maps
* Gilbert, Martin. ''The Routledge Atlas of the First World War: The Complete History'' (2002)
* Henig, Ruth ''The Origins of the First World War'' (2002) 76pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103326769 online edition]
* Hurley, Alfred F. ''Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power'' (1975)
* Jeffers, H. Paul. ''Ace of Aces: The Life of Captain Eddie Rickenbacker'' (2003). 352 pgs.
* Keegan, John. ''An Illustrated History of the First World War'' (1999). by a leading British scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Illustrated-History-First-World-War/dp/B0001FZGNU/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528338&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Livesey, Anthony, and H. P. Willmott. ''The Historical Atlas of World War I'' (1994)
* Lyons, Michael J. ''World War I: A Short History'' (2nd Edition), 1999.
* Neiberg, Michael S. ''Fighting the Great War: A Global History.'' (2005). 416 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Fighting-Great-War-Global-History/dp/0674022513/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201531862&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Pope, Stephen and Wheal, Elizabeth-Anne, eds. ''The Macmillan Dictionary of the First World War'' (1995)
* Robbins, Keith. ''The First World War'' (1993), very short overview [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14754381 online edition]
* Stevenson, David L. ''1914 - 1918: The History of the First World War'', 2004
* Stone, Norman. ''World War One: A Short History'' (2008), 208pp
* Stokesbury, James L. '' A Short History of World War I'' (1981) [http://www.amazon.com/Short-History-World-War-I/dp/0688001297/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205527619&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]
* Strachan, Hew, ed. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Illustrated-History-First-World/dp/0192893254/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528053&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Strachan, Hew. ''The First World War'' (2004): a 385pp version of his multivolume history [http://www.amazon.com/First-World-War-Hew-Strachan/dp/B000F4LMQC/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528053&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Taylor, A. J. P. ''The First World War: An Illustrated History'', (1963) [http://www.amazon.com/First-World-War-J-P-Taylor/dp/0399502602/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205537432&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Toland, John. ''No Man's Land. 1918 - The Last Year of the Great War'' (1980)
* Tuchman, Barbara. ''The Guns of August'', best-seller and Pulitzer Prize book tells of the opening diplomatic and military manoeuvres in August 1914 [http://www.amazon.com/Guns-August-Barbara-W-Tuchman/dp/0345476093/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205537159&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Tucker, Spencer. ''The Great War 1914-18'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Great-War-1914-18-Spencer-Tucker/dp/0253211719/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528478&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Willmott, H. P. ''World War I'' (2007) 296pp
* Winter, J. M. ''The Experience of World War I'' (2nd ed 2005), topical essays; well illustrated; strongest on behind-the-lines

===Advanced books===
* Bakeless, John Edwin. ''The Economic Causes of Modern War: A Study of the Period: 1878-1918'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=5wgAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:war+date:1919-1921&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=LZcIMpEGmzqwkIldzuhfH5Muveg#PPR3,M1 online edition]
* Fay, Sidney. ''The Origins of the World War'' (1930); classic scholarly study; argues every nation shared guilt for starting the war [http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/fay/origin_index.html online edition]
* Ferguson, Niall ''The Pity of War'' (1999), 563pp; much on death and casualties [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100769957 online edition]
* Gray, Edwyn A. ''The U-Boat War, 1914-1918'' (1994)
* Halpern, Paul G. ''A Naval History of World War I''(1995)
* Herwig, Holger H. ''The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918'' (1996)
* [http://www.stratnet.ucalgary.ca/publications/pdf/herwig_operation-michael_nov2001.pdf Herwig, Holger H. ''Operation Michael: The “Last Card”'' 2001], German spring offensive in 1918
* Haber, L. F. ''The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War'' (1986); the standard history
* Higham, Robin and Dennis E. Showalter, eds. ''Researching World War I: A Handbook'' (2003), 475pp; highly detailed historiography, stressing military themes; annotates over 1000 books; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107066504 online edition]
* Horne, Alistair. ''The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916'' (2nd ed 1994), very well written narrative
* Joll, James. ''The Origins of the First World War''. (3rd ed 2006).
* Kennett, Lee. ''First Air War, 1914-1918'' (1999). 288 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/First-Air-War-1914-1918/dp/0684871203/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205528300&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Miller, Steven E. (ed.) ''Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War: an International Security Reader'', (1985)
* Passingham, Ian. ''All the Kaiser's Men: The Life & Death of the German Army on the Western Front 1914-1918,'' (2nd ed 2006) 288pp
* Sheldon, Jack. ''German Army on the Somme, 1914-1916,'' (2005) 352pp
* Showalter, Dennis. ''Tannenberg: Clash of Empires,'' 1991
* Stevenson, David. ''The First World War and International Politics'' (2005)
* Stone, Norman. ''The Eastern Front, 1914–1917.'' 1975.
* Strachan, Hew. ''The First World War: Volume I: To Arms'' (2004): the major scholarly synthesis. Thorough coverage of 1914 in 1248 pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0199261911/ref=sib_dp_bod_ex/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&p=S00M#reader-link excerpt online]
* Tooley, Hunt. ''The Western Front: Battle Ground and Home Front in the First World War.'' (2003), 305pp, social history, does not emphasize battles
* Travers, Tim. ''How the War Was Won: Command and Technology in the British Army on the Western Front, 1917-1918,''. London:Routledge (1992) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103449849 online edition]
* Tuchman, Barbara W. ''The Zimmermann Telegram'' (1966)
* Tucker, Spencer, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (5 vol 2005); the most detailed reference source; articles by specialists cover all aspects of the war
* Tucker, Spencer, ed. ''European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia'' (1999)
* Tucker, Spencer C. ''Tanks: An Illustrated History of Their Impact.'' ABC-CLIO, 2004. 379 pp.

===USA and Canada===
* Bassett, John Spencer. ''Our War with Germany: A History'' (1919) [http://books.google.com/books?id=76UTAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:war+date:1919-1921&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=4Vx3GGygya6F24ozaNJyLzMI694#PPP10,M1 online edition]
* Chambers, John W., II. ''To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America'' (1987)
* Coffman, Edward M. ''The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I'' (1998) [http://books.google.com/books?id=px_1JGtbeIAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=COFFMAN+The+War+to+End+All+Wars:&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=0RdYSJKmKJyMjAG04JWFDA&sig=s-w6Np6drA_a-MzUxR0UnsQcORc excerpt and text search]
* Kennedy, David M. ''Over Here: The First World War and American Society'' (1979) [http://www.amazon.com/Over-Here-First-American-Society/dp/0195173996 excerpt and text search]
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959[http://hdl.handle.net.proxy.cc.uic.edu/2027/heb.00283 online at ACLS e-books]
* Morton, Desmond, and Jack Granatstein. ''Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914-1919'' (1989)
* Scott, Emmett Jay. ''Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War'' (1919) 511 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=intitle:world+intitle:war+date:1919-2007&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]
[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24640205 online edition]
* Venzon, Anne ed. ''The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia'' (1995)
* Wilson, Dale E. ''Treat'Em Rough!: The Birth of American Armor, 1917-20'' (1989)
* Zieger, Robert H. ''America's Great War: World War I and the American Experience.'' 2000. 272 pp.

===Online secondary and primary sources===
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#J. ''Web Sources for Military History'' by Richard Jensen]
* [http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/ WWI Document Archive], valuable collection
* [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ww1.htm diplomatic primary documents, from Mt. Holyoke College]

====notes====
<references/>

[[Category:Wars]]
[[Category:World War I| ]]

== External links ==
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/military.html#J. Guide to web resources by RJJensen]
* [http://www.firstworldwar.com/index.htm Excellent British site]
* [http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/ The Great War, from PBS]
* [http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/historian/index.html interviews with historians]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext04/shogw10.txt ''A Short History of the Great War,'' by A.F. Pollard (1920), British perspective]
* [http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Main_Page Primary documents], very thorough collection from all countries
** [http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/WWI_Biographical_Dictionary short biographies]
** [http://www.vlib.us/wwi/resources/archives/imarchive.html Photographs]
** [http://www.vlib.us/medical/ medical history]
* [http://www.worldwar1.com/maproom.htm maps]
* [http://www.worldwar1.com/reflib.htm Trenches on the Web]
===Origins and political impact===
* [http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/comment/WarFacts/wfactsTC.htm ''Handbook of War Facts and Peace Problems'' (1919) sophisticated American pamphlet; anti-German; good summary of effects of war on each country involved]
* [http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/fay/origin_index.html Sidney Fay, ''The Origins of the World War'' (1930) classic scholarly study; argues many nations shared guilt for starting the war]
* [http://www.onpower.org/history_wwi.html/ World War I]
* [http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1345 "American Foreign Policy: The Turning Point, 1898–1919," by Ralph Raico]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/working_papers/article.asp?id=1499 "Government and the Economy: The World Wars," by Robert Higgs]
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard91.html "War Collectivism in World War I," by Murray N. Rothbard]
* [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=40&articleID=506 "The Great War Retold," by Ralph Raico]

Salvador Allende

2011-07-22T18:41:34Z

Dfrischknecht: /* History */

'''Salvador Allende''' was the President of [[Chile]] from 1970 to 1973. [[South America]]'s only [[Marxist]] leader at the time, his overthrow and death are very controversial.

==History==

Salvador Allende was was born July 26, 1908, in [[Valparaiso]]. Allende was a member of the [[Socialist Party of Chile]].

Allende, representing a coalition of [[Marxist]] parties,
came to power in 1970 after narrowly beating his closest opponent with 36.3 percent of the vote. [http://foia.state.gov/Reports/ChurchReport.asp]
Allende was outspoken in his intent to dramatically "transform" Chile according to socialist principles, which concerned moderate voters and politicians. The Chilean Congress voted to give Allende the presidency, in accordance with run-off rules in place at the time, but required Allende to sign a special statement promising that his reforms would always respect the constitution.

During his government, Allende instituted a plan called "La vía chilena al socialismo" which lead to widespread disruption of the Chilean economy. The media wrote extensively of his failures. He "nationalized" many industries. Strikes and shutdowns caused massive inflation and unrest, and the conservative-controlled Chilean Congress sought to reject Allende's proposals whenever possible, causing considerable political gridlock.

US intelligence reports implicated Allende in the assassination of several opponents,<ref>http://nixontapeaudio.org/chile/517-004.pdf</ref> while KGB files smuggled out of Russia by Vasily Mitrokhin indicate that Allende received funds from the Soviet Union.<ref>http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/219461/pinochet-history/nro-symposium</ref> Allende was formally condemned by Chile's parliament for systematically destroying democracy in Chile.<ref>“Declaration of the Breakdown of Chile’s Democracy,” Resolution of the Chamber of Deputies, Chile, August 22, 1973.</ref> The Chilean Chamber of Deputies Resolution of August 22, 1973, accused Allende of support of armed groups, torture, illegal arrests, muzzling the press, confiscating private property, and not allowing people to leave the country. In the infamous "Cuban Packages Scandal" that precipitated the coup, large quantities of weapons were sent from Castro's Cuba to arm pro-Allende terrorists in Chile.<ref>http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/219461/pinochet-history/nro-symposium</ref> Kissinger privately told Nixon that Allende might declare martial law.<ref>http://nixontapeaudio.org/chile/517-004.pdf</ref> By 1973, as a result of covert US aid to Chilean dissidents and financing of pro-democracy protestors, US intelligence indicated Allende would likely lose the next Chilean election if it was held.<ref>http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=15648</ref>

Volodia Teitelboim, the chief ideologue of the Communist Party in Chile, declared that if civil war came, "it probably would signify immense loss of human lives, between half a million and one million."<ref>http://www.lyd.com/noticias/violencia/what_really.html</ref>

On September 11, 1973, Allende committed suicide during a military coup launched by Army Commander-in-Chief [[Augusto Pinochet]], who became President.

The Chilean National Commission on Truth and Reconciliation concluded in its 1991 report, "Within hours Chile's elected president, Salvador Allende, lay dead (this report concludes that he committed suicide), and a military junta presided by [[Augusto Pinochet]] took power."<ref>http://www.usip.org/library/tc/doc/reports/chile/chile_1993_introeng.html</ref> Many in the US vigorously protested both the CIA's alleged involvement in the coup, and the appalling human rights violations that followed, including the murder of Victor Jara, a popular songwriter and musician and ardent supporter of Allende. Jara was one of several thousand Chileans who were taken into custody the day after the coup. He was tortured for several days, then shot to death.<ref>http://www.usip.org/library/tc/doc/reports/chile/1993_pt3ch1_A2a2_153-167.html</ref>

The Senate Intelligence Committee under Senator [[Frank Church]] investigated US involvement and exonerated the Nixon administration of any unlawful activity.<ref>[http://www.foia.state.gov/Reports/ChurchReport.asp Church Report. Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973]. United States Senate. 94th Cong. 1st Ses. GPO 63-372. Washington. 1975.</ref><ref>Falcoff, Mark, [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Printable.asp?ID=10612 ''Kissinger and Chile''], Commentary Magazine, 10 November 2003.</ref>
[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/09/19/us.cia.chile.ap/]
[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/ch01-01.htm]

==References==
<references />

==External links==

*[http://www.lyd.com/noticias/violencia/what_really.html ''What Really Happened In Chile 30 Years Ago''], James R. Whelan, Wall Street Journal Online, 12 September 2003.
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/chile/index.html CIA Activities in Chile], September 18, 2000.

[[Category:Heads of State|Allende, Salvador]]
[[Category: Marxism]]

Virginia

2011-07-14T20:51:19Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Transportation */

{{USState
|name=Virginia
|flag=11121.gif
|motto="Sic Semper Tyrannis" (Thus Always to Tyrants)
|nick=The Old Dominion State
|capital=Richmond
|language=English
|governor=Bob McDonnell
|gparty=Republican
|senator2=Mark Warner
|s2party=Democrat
|s2phone=(202) 224-2023
|s2email=http://warner.senate.gov/contact/contact.cfm Contact
|senator1=Jim Webb
|s1party=Democrat
|s1phone=(202) 224-4024
|s1email=http://webb.senate.gov/contact/ Contact
|population=
|date=June 25, 1788 (10th)
}}

'''Virginia''' (Officially '''''The Commonwealth of Virginia''''') is one of the fifty [[United States]]. Named in honor of [[Queen Elizabeth I]] of [[England]], Virginia was also nicknamed the ''Old Dominion'' by King Charles II because it remained loyal to the crown during the [[English Civil War]] and throughout [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s years. Virginia was one of the first colonies in [[Colonial America]] in the 1600s and was a leader in the [[American Revolution]].

==Politics==
In partisan terms, the two parties compete furiously for the legislature and the governorship. In presidential elections Virginia was reliably Republican from 1968 until 2004, but in 2008 Obama won, thanks to the growing liberal strength in the Washington suburbs.

[[File:Va-gov.jpg|thumb|330px]]

The 2009 election for governor was a referendum on the Obama administration. Republican [[Bob McDonnell]], Virginia's former attorney general, defeated Democrat State Senator [[Creigh Deeds]]. Since 1977, the political party that has won the presidency has, in every case, lost the Virginia governorship in the next election.

McDonnell explained that, "The business community was the first to recoil" from policies such as "card check" -- legislation to allow union organization by signing cards instead of by a secret ballot -- and cap-and-trade environmental policies. "But health care now dwarfs previous concerns -- handing over the best medical system in the world to the federal government. It affects everyone." Conservatives, he contends, are more activated than at any time since 1993. A young McDonnell campaign worker exuded confidence, boasting, "We have the enthusiasm Obama's people had last time."<ref>Michael Gerson, "A Virginia Model For a GOP Comeback?" [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/27/AR2009082703256.html?hpid=opinionsbox1 '"Washington Post'' Aug. 28, 2009] </ref>

The Virginia Senate has 22 Democrats and 18 Republicans. The House of Delegates, however, consists of 59 Republicans, 39 Democrats, and two Independents who caucus with Republicans.

==Elected Officials==

===Federal===
*Sen. [[James Webb]] (D)
*Sen. [[Mark Warner]] (D)
*Rep. [[Rob Wittman]] [R, VA-01]
*Rep. [[Scott Rigell]] [R, VA-02]
*Rep. [[Robert Scott]] [D, VA-03]
*Rep. [[Randy Forbes]] [R, VA-04]
*Rep. [[Robert Hurt]] [R, VA-05]
*Rep. [[Bob Goodlatte]] [R, VA-06]
*Rep. [[Eric Cantor]] [R, VA-07]
*Rep. [[Jim Moran]] [D, VA-08]
*Rep. [[Morgan Griffith]] [R, VA-09]
*Rep. [[Frank Wolf]] [R, VA-10]
*Rep. [[Gerry Connolly]] [D, VA-11]

===Statewide===
*Governor [[Robert McDonnell]] (R)
*Lt. Governor [[Bill Bolling]] (R)
*Attorney General [[Ken Cuccinelli]] (R)

==Geological Regions of Virginia==
Virginia is commonly divided into five geological regions, Tidewater, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge and the Appalachia Plateau. There are no formal lines marking these regions and any political boundaries, such as county or city boundaries are coincidental. However, these regions have identifiable geology which differentiates them.

===Fall Line===
The ''Fall Line'' is so named because it marks a line where many waterfalls occur in Virginia Rivers. Below the Fall Line most rivers, such as the James and Potomac and Rappahannok, are broad, deep and gentle, but above the Fall Line the rivers are rockier and swifter. Below the Fall Line rivers are navigable by ocean-going vessels. Above the Fall Line canoes and flat boats are the only means to navigate most rivers.

Because of this the C&O Canal (Chesapeake and Ohio Canal) was constructed above the Fall Line. The goal was to unite the Chesapeake Bay with the Ohio River system the way the Erie Canal had opened up the Great Lakes below Niagara. Many important Virginia cities such as Alexandria, Richmond and Petersburg are just below the Fall Line.

===Tidewater===
The Tidewater or "Coastal Plain" of Virginia is bounded on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and on the west by the ''Fall Line''.

The Tidewater Region was the first region of Virginia to be settled by Europeans, and is home to many of the oldest English settlements in North America, such as [[Jamestown]]. The dominant geographical feature of the region is the [[Chesapeake_Bay | Chesapeake Bay]]. Rivers in the region rise and fall with the tides because they flow into the Chesapeake or other salt-water bays. Major ports such as [[Norfolk]] or Newport News are found in the region as are historical port cities such as the tobacco ports of Alexandria and Yorktown are found on the Coastal Plain. The British surrender at Yorktown was considered a tipping point in the [[Revolutionary War]].

====Eastern Shore====
The Eastern Shore of Virginia is that part of Virginia situated on the Delmarva Peninsula between the [[Chesapeake Bay]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The region is fairly undeveloped due to the remoteness imposed by the bay and ocean, but many fishers, farmers and chicken farms are found here. These region is geographically part of the Tidewater region and its connected to the mainland by way of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel. <ref>http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554210/Delmarva_Peninsula.html</ref>

===Piedmont===
Above the Fall Line are the foothills of the Appalachian and the region whose name means "foot mountain". The Piedmont is rockier and higher than the coastal plain of the Tidewater. The Piedmont was settled by English pioneers in the earliest days of colonial America and later by African slaves who worked the plantations of the region. Tobacco and corn are still an important part of the Piedmont economy. Scenic and historic cities such as Charlottesville and Lynchburg are two important Piedmont cities. The famed Appomattox courthouse is in the Piedmont.

===Blue Ridge===
The Blue Ridge is a range of mountains rise up above the Piedmont and mark the point where the Appalachian Mountains rise up above the Piedmont. The [[Shenandoah National Park]] and the Skyline Drive are Blue Ridge tourist destinations. Apples orchards are common in this region, but the industry is not as vibrant as it was historically. [http://www.whitehousefoods.com/ White House Foods], a major apple juicer and product packager, draws many of its apples from this region. Cities are uncommon, perhaps unknown in this region, but "mountain people" inhabited much of the highlands before they were converted to parks. Mountain people, sometimes called ''hillbillies, rednecks, or or other liberal slurs for reverse discrimination'', had a unique culture devoted to life in the highland. <ref>Memories of a Lewis Mountain Man by John W. Stoneberger published by Potomac Appalachian Trail Club</ref><ref>http://www.patc.net/store/PC320.htm</ref>

===Valley and Ridge===
Beyond the Blue Ridge is the ''Valley and Ridge Region''. Perhaps the most famous part of the Valley and Ridge Region west of the Blue Ridge is the Shenandoah Valley. Stonewall Jackson's Valley campaign was fought throughout this region. Cities in this region developed in proximity to the early railroad system, and this figured into the strategy of the [[American Civil War | War Between the States]]. Manassas, Harrisonburg and Roanoke are important cities in this region.

===Appalachian Plateau===
The southwest corner of Virginia between [[West Virginia]], [[Kentucky]], and [[Tennessee]] makes up Virginia's Appalachian Plateau. The region is similar geographically to West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky with rugged terrain not well-suited to the development of large cities like the westernmost metropolitan area, Roanoke, though some parts of the region, such as the Grundy area, have major educational facilities which attracts many out of state residents (i.e., the Appalachian School of Law). The [[Coal]] industry is an important industry and way of life in this part of Virginia. Also, this region is one of the leading producers of natural gas due to large methane deposits found within deep (underground) mines. The region is also known for its national parks (i.e. the Breaks Interstate Park, which is on the VA/KY border.)

==Regions, Counties and Cities==
Virginia has evolved into several different cultural regions which have very divergent economic interests, lifestyle goals and ways of life. Northern Virginia is one of the wealthiest, best educated and most developed parts of the United States and thus the entire world. Traffic congestion is a common problem and the [[Metrorail|Metro]] ([[subway]] system) aids commuters into and out of Washington D.C., [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington]] and Alexandria. High technology industries and U.S. government jobs are leading employers in this region. Southwestern Virginia is mountainous with coal mining and few other industries. The Virginia Beach/Norfolk Region is home to several major military installations and [[ship]]-building foundries. Central Virginia is dominated by mid-sized cities with disproportionate political strength such as [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]]. The [[Chesapeake Bay]] separates the Eastern Shore of Virgina from the rest of Virgina. The Eastern Shore is the Virginia portion of the Delmarva Peninsula and is sparsely populated, flat, and sandy.

Virginia is organized into a system of [[county|counties]] and [[independent city|independent cities]]. Towns are incorporated in counties, and towns have the power to levy taxes in addition to those imposed by the county. Arlington is organized as a county, but it is completely urbanized, and there are [[unincorporated area|no towns]] in the county limits, so for all practical purposes, Arlington is a city.

===Cities & Towns===
* Alexandria
* Abingdon
* Bedford
* Bridgewater
* Chesapeake
* Fairfax City
* Falls Church
* Fredericksburg
* Galax
* Grundy
* Hampton
* Hampton Roads Region
* Lebanon
* Manassas
* Petersburg
* Richmond
* Roanoke
* Staunton
* Tangiers Island
* Williamsburg
* Winchester

===Counties===
*Accomack
*Albemarle
*Alleghany
*Amelia
*Amherst
*Appomattox
*Arlington
*Augusta
*Bath
*Bedford
*Bland
*Botetourt
*Brunswick
*Buchanan
*Buckingham
*Campbell
*Caroline
*Carroll
*Charles City
*Charlotte
*Chesterfield
*Clarke
*Craig
*Culpeper
*Cumberland
*Dickenson
*Dinwiddie
*Essex
*Fairfax
*Fauquier
*Floyd
*Fluvanna
*Franklin
*Frederick
*Giles
*Gloucester
*Goochland
*Grayson
*Greene
*Greensville
*Halifax
*Hanover
*Henrico
*Henry
*Highland
*Isle of Wight
*James City
*King and Queen
*King George
*King William
*Lancaster
*Lee
*Loudoun
*Louisa
*Lunenburg
*Madison
*Mathews
*Mecklenburg
*Middlesex
*Montgomery
*Nelson
*New Kent
*Northampton
*Northumberland
*Nottoway
*Orange
*Page
*Patrick
*Pittsylvania
*Powhatan
*Prince Edward
*Prince George
*Prince William
*Pulaski
*Rappahannock
*Richmond
*Roanoke
*Rockbridge
*Rockingham
*Russell
*Scott
*Shenandoah
*Smyth
*Southampton
*Spotsylvania
*Stafford
*Surry
*Sussex
*Tazewell
*Warren
*Washington
*Westmoreland
*Wise
*Wythe
*York

<nowiki>*Information obtained from VA state site.</nowiki>

==Flag, Seal and Official Symbols & Emblems==
The unofficial motto and tourist marketing slogan of the Commonwealth is ''Virginia is for Lovers'' but the official State Motto is ''Sic Semper Tyrannis'', a Latin phrase meaning "Thus Always to Tyrants". <ref>http://www.state.va.us/cmsportal2/facts_and_history_4096/facts_4104/trivia_facts.html</ref>

The front of the Great Seal of Virginia (called the obverse) features the Roman goddess Virtus standing over a defeated opponent. Virtus wears a blue tunic exposing her left breast. One arm rests on a spear, the other carries a sheathed sword. This goddess stands in a triumphant victor's with one foot on the chest of a fallen tyrant, whose crown lies at Virtus' feet. ''Sic Semper Tyrannis'' arches at the bottom the image and "Virginia" symmetrically arches above Virtus. <ref>http://www.netstate.com/states/symb/seals/va_seal.htm</ref> The reverse (or back side) of the Seal features the Latin word ''Perseverando'' (Persevering) and a depiction of three robed Roman goddesses figures who represent Libertas, Ceres and Aeternitas. Ceres the goddess of agriculture holds a horn of plenty with other symbols of agricultural bounty. In the center of the reverse, Libertas, the goddess of liberty, holds a wand at the top of the wand hangs a Phrygian Cap, also known as a Liberty Cap. To the right of Libertas is Aeternitas or "Eternity" holding a orb representing Virginia's authority.
<ref>http://legis.state.va.us/cap_class/4-5/4_5_emb_symb.html#Emblems</ref>

Virginia's flag features the Great Seal of the Commonwealth on white center over a field of royal blue. Many web images depict a light blue flag, but the actual flag is a rich purplish blue. The General Assembly adopted an official flag salute in 1954:

::''I salute the flag of Virginia, with reverence and patriotic devotion to the ‘Mother of States and Statesmen,’ which it represents—the ‘Old Dominion,’ where liberty and independence were born.''<ref>http://legis.state.va.us/cap_class/4-5/4_5_emb_symb.html#Emblems</ref>

The cardinal and the dogwood petal are among Virginia's most well-known emblems, but Virginia's has many emblems:

* State Bat: Virginia Big Eared [[Bat]] (an endangered species)
* State Beverage: [[Milk]]
* State Bird: Northern [[cardinal]]
* State Boat: Chesapeake Bay Deadrise
* State Dog: American Foxhound
* State Dance: Square Dance (Virginia Reel)
* State Fish: Brook [[Trout]]
* State Flower (and tree): American Dogwood
* State Fossil: Chesapeten Jeffersonius
* State Insect: Tiger Swallowtail [[Butterfly]]
* State Shell: Oyster Shell <ref>http://legis.state.va.us/cap_class/4-5/4_5_emb_symb.html#Emblems</ref>

==Transportation==
Virginia is well served by the [[Interstate Highway System]] including at least two of the busiest highways on the Eastern Coast of the US, I-81 and I-95. Interstate 81, which moves through the city of Bristol, TN/VA is popular with tractor-trailers and some travelers, while 95 is a popular tourist highway. The famed [[Beltway]] (I-495) surrounds Washington DC by looping through Northern Virginia. Richmond is served by I-95 and a beltway looping off I-64. Rail lines are not as busy as they were historically, but important coal lines still make their way through the Valley and Ridge Region of Virginia. [[Amtrak]] lines Richmond and Alexandria to the cities in the Eastern US. Dulles International is one of the busiest airports in the US and the Northern Virginia area is also served by Ronald Reagan National Airport. Norfolk Virginia is one of the largest ports on the East Coast. The Virginia Inland Port in Front Royal Virginia is linked by rail line to Norfolk.

==History==
See [[History of Virginia]]

The '''History of Virginia''' began with the settlement of the geographic region now known as the Commonwealth of Virginia in the U.S. thousands of years ago by Native Americans. Permanent European settlement began with English settlers at Jamestown in 1607. Tobacco emerged as a profitable export crop, and the Virginia Colony became the richest and largest British colonies in North America. The year 2007 marked the 400th anniversary of the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown.

As one of the original 13 United States which won their independence from Great Britain during the [[American Revolution]], Virginia produced more national leaders than any state, including four of the first five presidents (Washington, Jefferson, Madison and Monroe). The new state gave up its western lands to form Kentucky and Ohio. During the first half of the 19th century, Virginia grew less rapidly than industrial states to the north, or cotton states to the south. The state exported young people and slaves to form plantations and farms to the west and south.

Virginia was a slave state but refused to join the cotton states in the new Confederacy until Lincoln called for troops to invade the Confederacy. Then it seceded and Richmond became the new Confederate capital. After many decades of sectional hostility in 1861 West Virginia broke away as a separate state and joined the Union.

With the Yankees intent on capturing Richmond, Virginia became the main battlefield of the war, which it lost in 1865 as its greatest general, Robert E. Lee, surrendered.

Reconstruction brought the liberation of the state's slaves, and proved less contentious than elsewhere in the South. Virginia was poor after 1865, though the new popularity of cigarettes boosted its tobacco industry. After 1940, prosperity returned. [[World War II]] gave the state a major naval and industrial economic base. Desegregation of schools and the integration of African Americans in many other aspects of the society were major issues from the 1950s to the 1970s and the changes did not come without considerable efforts. However, in 1989 [[Douglas Wilder]] became the first elected black governor anywhere in the country. By the 1980s the suburban fringes of Washington D.C. known as Northern Virginia saw the greatest growth and prosperity, a trend which was also seen in the [[Hampton Roads]] region.

Politically, the state was a stronghold of conservative Democrats for most of the 20th century, with a new strength shown by conservative Republicans in the final decade. In the early 21st century, funding for transportation needs emerged as the most controversial single issue.

In partisan terms, the two parties compete furiously for the legislature and the governorship. In presidential elections Virginia was reliably Republican from 1968 until 2004, but in 2008 Obama won, thanks to the growing liberal strength in the Washington suburbs.

===Mother of Presidents===
Virginia is often called the ''Mother of Presidents'' or ''Birthplace of Presidents'' because eight U.S. Presidents have been born in there. Four of the first five presidents, [[George Washington]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], and [[James Monroe]], were Virginians. The remaining Presidents from Virginia are [[William Henry Harrison]], [[John Tyler]], [[Zachary Taylor]], and [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Many of their Virginia homes such as Jefferson's [[Monticello]] and Washington's Mount Vernon are popular tourist destinations.<ref>http://www.virginia.org/site/features.asp?featureID=94</ref>

== See also ==

*[[State Governors]]

==References==
<references/>

{{USstates}}
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:Virginia| ]]
[[Category:The South]]
http://www.virginia.gov/cmsportal3/

In-vitro Fertilization

2011-06-27T02:57:33Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''In vitro Fertilization''', or '''IVF''' is a technique of creating [[life]] by fertilizing an [[egg]] outside the [[human]] [[body]], thus creating a [[zygote]]. In the US, in vitro fertilization can only be performed for the express purpose achieving [[pregnancy]], wherein the zygote is allowed to grow for several days in vitro, thus becoming an embryo, which is implanted in a woman (typically the mother, but sometimes a segregant is used). This procedure is used when traditional [[pregnancy]] cannot be achieved.

This technique has the potential to benefit families by blessing them with children, but it is typically used more often by [[liberal]]s than [[conservative]]s since a large percentage of the new life formed by in vitro fertilization (zygotes) do not progress to the embryo stage (i.e. [[death|die]]) and several embryos must be sacrificed during implantation to ensure that at least one embryo attaches to the uterine wall. Thus, in the typical IVF procedure, many eggs must be fertilized and those embryos that are not implanted are often [[death|killed]] or cryogenically preserved for a short time and later used in future implantations or ultimately destroyed. Instead of killing these embryos, [[conservatives]] have created a program for these embryos to be adopted by new parents, sometimes over the objections of liberals and parent's rights groups who believe the parents have the right to do with their embryos as they please (i.e. kill them). [http://www.snowflakes.org]

IVF clinics are the only source of embryos for the creation of new [[embryonic stem cell]] lines in the US; embryos at not created ''ad hoc''. In the past, parents could donate their unimplanted embryos for this purpose rather than killing them outright or allowing others to adopt them. However, in nearly all cases the process of harvesting the cells needed to make embryonic stem cell lines results in the death of the embryo.

The [[Catholic Church]] is opposed to the IVF process because it separates [[procreation]] from [[sexual intercourse]], as well the need to sacrifice many zygotes and embryos (i.e. living human beings) in the process.

[[Category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Pregnancy]]

GOProud

2011-02-17T18:25:08Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Leftist Policies */

'''GOProud''' is a gay rights group that consists of [[RINO]]s. They consider themselves conservatives who believe in [[limited government]], individual liberty, free markets, national defense and a strong foreign policy. Per their website "We believe that every individual should be equal under the law." This stance would include the right to gay marriage. Some people believe the group has more in common with conservatism than the [[libertarian]] wing. Traditional conservatism is defined by social issues; God, heterosexual marriage, etc. As such, GOProud divides the conservative movement which is now evident in the annual [[CPAC]] convention and the refusal of social conservative groups to attend an event that promotes [[homosexuality]] from GOProud. The co-founders of GOProud are Jimmy LaSalvia and Christopher Barron, a political director for [[Planned Parenthood]].<ref>[http://www.gaypatriot.net/2005/11/16/breaking-news-log-cabin-loses-political-director-to-planned-parenthood/ BREAKING NEWS: LOG CABIN LOSES POLITICAL DIRECTOR TO PLANNED PARENTHOOD, Gay Patriot, November 16, 2005]</ref> In a rejection of the [[homosexual agenda]], the CPAC board of directors voted to exclude GOProud from future CPAC conferences.<ref>[http://www.wnd.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=263673 GOProud out at annual summit of conservatives]</ref>

==Leftist Policies==
*Christopher Barron calls Cleta Mitchell, a conservative lawyer fighting same-sex marriage in D.C., a "nasty [[bigot]]." <ref>[http://www.redstate.com/erick/2011/02/10/this-is-too-much-for-me/ This is Too Much For Me, Red State, February 10, 2011]</ref>
*GOProud attacks conservative [[Tim Pawlenty]] for his support of Don't Ask Don't Tell. <ref>[http://www.redstate.com/erick/2011/02/08/reciprocal-courtesy-on-a-bridge-too-far/ Reciprocal Courtesy On a Bridge Too Far, Red State, February 2011]</ref>
*GOProud calls conservative leader [[Jim DeMint]] "outrageous and bizarre" for suggesting the barring of openly [[gay]] teachers from school. <ref>[http://www.goproud.org/jim-demint-trying-his-best-to-make-alvin-greene-look-sane/ Jim DeMint: Trying His Best to Make Alvin Greene Look Sane, GOProud, October 5, 2010]</ref>
*GOProud attempts to [[dilute]] the [[Biblical]] condemnation of [[homosexuality]] as a [[sin]] and an [[abomination]] unto [[God]].
*GOProud supports attempts to force the [[military]] to allow openly [[homosexual]] men and women to serve.

==See Also==
* [[Log Cabin Republicans]]

==References==
<references/>

==External Links==
* [http://www.goproud.org Official website]

[[Category:Homosexuality]]
[[Category:Politics]]

IPhone

2011-01-17T20:56:41Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Other Applications */

{{lowercase}}

The [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] '''iPhone''' is a next-generation [[cell phone]] built with [[internet|web]] capability in "true-web" fashion: rather than viewing "mobile" versions of web-pages, as common on other mobile devices, using a [[touch screen]] panel, the iPhone enables the user to navigate a full-size [[web page]].

== Other Applications ==
Aside from cellular phone capabilities, and web-viewing, the iPhone also offers (through partnership with [[Google|Google Maps]]), a full-featured map application that users can use anywhere in the [[United States]], over AT&T's [[EDGE]] data network. Other standard [[Personal Digital Assistant|PDA]] capabilities were included, too, such as [[Microsoft Outlook]] synchronization capability.

== Release and Price Controversy ==
The iPhone was release in the United States on 29 June 2007 in the [[United States]], to wide acclaim. At release the iPhone was capable only of usage on the [[AT&T]] network, and retailed (depending on hard disk size) for $500 and $600. The pricing of the device made it a quick luxury and status symbol, although it restricted availability to most other users.

Only 69 days after the release, though, on 5 September 2007, Apple slashed the prices of the device to $400 for the model formerly priced at $600, and discontinued selling the lower-capacity $500 model. This quick price cut - aside from being very uncommon in Apple's tradition of delayed price cuts - inflamed the tempers of so-called "early adopters," or those who had purchased the iPhone in the preceding two months, and now had no recourse against Apple's seemingly capricious price cut. Apple founder [[Steve Jobs]], conscious of his company's image, quickly offered a $100 credit to the [[iTunes]] Music Store to every early adopter who could not otherwise obtain price relief from a return or exchange.

== Notable Oversights ==
Despite the iPhone's technological breakthroughs, it initially lacked several features that users have come to expect of [[Personal Digital Assistant|PDAs]], such as a copy and paste feature, [[Bluetooth]] synchronization capability, and a customizable ringtone. The latter of these two features, within one week of the iPhone's release, was available to users who were willing to "[[hack]]" their device to add such functionality. Copy and paste functionality and bluetooth have been announced for iPhone OS 3.0, and ringtones are now available via the [[iTunes]] store.

Also, many AT&T customers were befuddled that the iPhone's designers had not taken the chance to use AT&T's [[3G]] mobile data network, a considerably faster and more usable framework than the included EDGE compatibility. Apple stated that the EDGE network was used to prolong battery life, as the battery on the original iPhone would not last long on 3G. The newer version of the iPhone is now capable of utilizing the 3G network.

[[Category:Apple Inc.]]
[[category:technology]]

DREAM Act

2010-12-17T21:01:25Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''The Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors (DREAM) Act''' (S. 2075) is a [[United States]] [[bill]] that would provide a two step path to full citizenship to illegal aliens. The act was first introduced in 2003 and then reintroduced in 2005 by Democrat Senator [[Richard Durbin]] and Republican Senator's Chuck Hegel and Richard Luger.The bill would specifically deal with an estimated 65,000 undocumented students which graduated from United States high schools each year. The bill failed to pass the Senate in September of 2010. But Senate Majority Leader [[Harry Reid]] has vowed to bring the bill to the Senate floor for a vote during the lame duck session of December, 2010. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/12/08/breaking-dream-act/ Fox News; Breaking Down the DREAM Act, 12/9/2010]</ref>

==Qualifications of Act==

Only illegal aliens that fill all of the the following criteria are able to receive benefits from the DREAM Act<ref>http://www.senate.gov/~feinstein/03Releases/r-dreamact.htm</ref>:
#have lived in the United States for at least 5 years and were under the age of 16 at the time of entry;
#have graduated from high school or have been accepted to a college or institution of higher education;
#have good moral character;
#are not deportable on account of a criminal conviction, alien smuggling or document fraud.

==Qualifications for Citizenship==
[[Illegal aliens]] which fit the qualifications must do one of the following to obtain permanent citizenship<ref>http://www.nilc.org/immlawpolicy/DREAM/Dream001.htm</ref>:
#obtain a diploma from a junior college or trade [[school]];
#complete at least two years of a bachelor's or graduate program;
#join the Armed Forces and if discharged, be honorably discharged; or
#perform part or full time volunteer community service under the direction of the [[USA]] Freedom Corps or with an entity eligible to receive funds from the Combined Federal Campaign.
# or demonstrate both a compelling reason why they cannot meet the requirements, and exceptional and extremely unusual hardship if they were removed from the United States.

== Act Would Allow Criminals Entry ==
Republican Senator [[Jeff Sessions]] of [[Alabama]] released a "DREAM Alert" in November of 2010, revealing that at least one version of the legislation would allow qualified illegal immigrants up to the age of 35 to gain resident status, prevent the Department of Homeland Security from removing any illegal who has a pending application – '''''regardless of age or criminal record – and offers amnesty to qualified illegals with misdemeanor convictions, even DUIs.'''''

The alert says that not only would the legislation put an estimated 2.1 million illegal immigrants on a path to citizenship, it would also give them access to in-state tuition rates at public universities, federal student loans, and federal work-study programs.

Illegals who gain citizenship under this legislation will have the legal right to petition for the entry of their family members, including their adult brothers and sisters and the parents who illegally brought or sent them to the U.S. It is estimated that provision alone would double or triple the initial 2.1 Million "Green Cards" that would be distributed under the act. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/11/20/dream-act-allow-illegals-criminal-records-gain-residency-gop-says/ Fox News; "DREAM Act Would Allow Illegals With Criminal Records to Gain Residency"]</ref>

== Also See ==

* [[Closed Convention]]
* [[Eighth Circuit]]
* [[Agency]]
* [[Illegal immigration]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.immigration.com/newsletter1/immrefact.pdf Full text of the 2005 DREAM Act]

[[Category: Immigration]]
[[Category:United States Congress]]
[[Category: Liberalism]]

Yugoslavia

2010-12-15T21:18:55Z

Dfrischknecht: /* World War II */

[[Image:Yugoslavia.png|right|thumb|Flag of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]
==Origins==
The former state of '''Yugoslavia''' (literally "Land of the South Slavs") was created following the [[Paris Peace Talks]] of 1919-1920 as the "Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes." Since these were not the only ethnic groups existing in the country, the name was changed in 1929 to "Kingdom of Yugoslavia." During the span of its existence it was the largest and most important nation in the [[Balkan peninsula]]. While none of the countries created at the Peace Conference perfectly represented the [[Wilsonian]] ideal of national [[self-determination]], Yugoslavia was more of a repudiation of this idea than probably any other. Most of its territory had previously been part of the recently destroyed kingdom of [[Serbia]]; the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]; or prior to [[World War I]], the [[Ottoman Empire]].
==World War II==
Besides [[Britain]] and [[France]], Yugoslavia was the only European country to openly defy [[Nazi Germany]] after the [[Munich agreement of 1938]] but before being attacked or annexed. It earned this distinction as a result of a [[coup d'etat]] in April 1941 triggered by [[Benito Mussolini]]'s unsuccessful invasion of neighboring [[Greece]]. The coup overthrew a pro-[[Nazi]] prime minister and led to war with Germany
===Tito===
Hitler invaded Yugoslavia in April 1941. The Yugoslavian government fled to London and joined the Allied governments-in-exile of Belgium, Czechoslovak, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and the [[French National Committee]]. At the Inter-Allied Meeting held of September 24, 1941 in London, the Yugoslavian government along with the other governments-in-exile and the Soviet Union, pledged their "adherence to the common principles of policy set forth" in the [[Atlantic Charter]], to "respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live."<ref>[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/atlantic/at17.htm The Atlantic Conference : Resolution of September 24, 1941].</ref> On January 1, 1942, the Yugoslavian government agreed to the [[Declaration by United Nations]], "being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world....
each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto."<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw/274.html Declaration by United Nations, January 1, 1942], U.S. Department of State Bulletin, vol. VI, p. 3.</ref>

Within Yugoslavia, Colonel Draja Mikhailovitch, a Serb, organized a Serbian resistance army on behalf of the Yugoslavian government known in the press as the "Chetniks". Yet Mikhailovitch soon found it more important to fight Communism than the occupater and at the end of 1941 started collaborating with Germans. Although both were allied with Berlin, there were still fights between the chetniks and the [[Croatia]]n [[ustashe]] movement.<ref> Matteo J. Milazzo, ''The Chetnik Movement and the Yugoslav Resistance.'' (1975); Jozo Tomasevich, ''The Chetniks: War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941-1945'' (1975) </ref>

[[Tito]], led the communist [[Yugoslav Partisans]]. The Yugoslav government-in-exile in London continued to support Mikhailovitch. [[Franklin Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] in 1942 paid tribute to Mikhailovitch and his men. But at the 1943 [[Teheran conference]], as part of the policy of appeasing Stalin, British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] abandoned Mikhailovitch completely and agreed to support Tito. The U.S. sent arms to Tito and thus delivered Yugoslavia to communism, but also shortened the war as the Communist partisans were by then a much stronger force against the Nazis than the weak Mikhailovitch forces.<ref> Walter R. Roberts, ''Tito, Mihailovich, and the Allies, 1941-1945'' (1973) [http://www.questia.com/read/97541664?title=Tito%2c%20Mihailoviac%20and%20the%20Allies%2c%201941-1945 online edition]
</ref>

Shortly after the Teheran conference, Churchill in a speech in February 1944 indicated that the allies were no longer sending supplies to Mikhailovitch. Two months later King Peter, the Yugoslavian Head of State was forced to dismiss Premier Purich, which meant the entire cabinet in which Mikhailovitch was Minister of War. A delegate of the partisans Subasich was made Prime Minister. Neither the Russians not the British ever invaded; Tito took control and never had to depend on the Russians or worry about their army inside his country. Mikhailovitch was executed after the war as a traitor.

===Ethnic battles===

Following the Axis invasion and partition in 1941, Yugoslavia became the scene of numerous interrelated ethnic and ideological conflicts fought by insurgents, occupiers, and various local bands and militias--in effect, a civil war fought within the wider context of global war. This view, now widely accepted, contrasts with the communists' black-and-white interpretation of the postwar period, which held that the war in Yugoslavia was merely an extension of a global anti-fascist struggle.

The Nazis also set up [[Croatia]] as a separate [[puppet state]] run by the fascist [[Ustashe]], providing yet another combatant to the ensuing confusion.

During the war a bitter struggle was waged between two anti-Nazi forces, the Chetniks and the Communsit partisans under Tito. The defeat of the royalist and Serb nationalist forces, known collectively as the Chetniks, resulted from chronic disunity as well as their lacking appeal to non-Serbs. By contrast, their great rivals, Tito's Communists and the partisan movement they led, realized that they had to appear as a broader patriotic movement in order to acquire and retain the support of non-communist followers, all the while focused on establishing communist rule in postwar Yugoslavia. The Chetniks and their nominal leader, Mihailović, had been the first to take up the insurgency against the Axis occupiers. But they never developed either an effective central command structure or an ideological appeal that could transcend the boundaries of nationality, and thereby attract non-Serbs to their cause in significant numbers, even though they enjoyed official legitimacy for much of the war. In some regions there was a high degree of passive and sometimes even active cooperation of Chetnik forces--and others as well--with the Axis occupiers and their regional satrapies, such as "Serbian Residual State." The facts and
perception of resistance and collaboration proved decisive not only to the military and diplomatic course of the war but also to the history of postwar Yugoslavia.<ref> Walter R. Roberts, ''Tito, Mihailović, and the allies, 1941-1945‎,'' (1987) [http://books.google.com/books?id=43CbLU8FgFsC&dq=intitle:Mihailovi%C4%87&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]</ref>

All parties assumed—falsely—that sooner or later the Allies would invade. Many optimistic plans were based on the assumption of Western Allied support, and on its magical power to put everything right. Historians are unsure why there was such universal faith among all parties in Allied invasion or intervention. Was it Nazi disinformation? Faulty intelligence? Wishful thinking? Or a combination of all three? Meanwhile there was an exiled royal government in London sponsored by Churchill.
Besides receiving British aid, Mihailović served as war minister of the royalist government and chief of Supreme Command Staff in the homeland. But the Allies, the exiled government, and even young King Peter II eventually concluded (not without reason) that the Communist partisans were the only ones effectively resisting the Axis and transferred their support to Tito during 1944.

Insurgents in Yugoslavia caused the Nazis more trouble than in any other country with the exceptions of the [[Soviet Union]].

==Cold War==
Tito was the new leader of a reunited Yugoslavia. In 1949, he broke with the Soviet Union and adopted a policy of armed neutrality in the [[Cold War]] between the Soviet Union and the United States. The U.S. provided large amounts of military equipment. Yugoslavia prospered considerably from this policy and was able to trade on favorable terms with both [[superpowers]] and their economic blocs. Shortly after Tito's death in 1980, the state industrial ministry began marketing the last new European car brand, the [[Yugo]], to the United States. The Yugo suffered, however, from the same quality deficiencies as the state-made cars of other communist countries and never caught on.

==Collapse==
In 1991-1992 the internal republics comprising the country of '''Yugoslavia''' divided up and became five separate countries: [[Bosnia]] and [[Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Macedonia]], [[Slovenia]], and [[Yugoslavia]] ([[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]]). In 2006 [[Montenegro]] became independent and in 2008 even [[Kosovo]], a former province of [[Serbia]], declared its independence.

It was said at the time that only Tito could have held the fractious nation together, although the monarchy had also managed tolerably well prior to the Nazi invasion.

Serbia and Montenegro both claim to be the successor country to the former Yugoslavia so each use the name "Yugoslavia."
==Further reading==
* Banac, Ivo. ''With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism.'' (1989). 294 pp.
* Bennett, Christopher. ''Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse: Causes, Course, and Consequences.'' (1995). 253 pp.
* Djordjevic, Dimitrije, ed. ''The Creation of Yugoslavia, 1914-1918.'' (1980). 228 pp.
* Gapinski, James H. ''The Economic Structure and Failure of Yugoslavia.'' (1993). 212 pp.
* Hehn, Paul N. ''The German Struggle Against Yugoslav Guerrillas in World War II: German Counter-Insurgency in Yugoslavia, 1941-1943.'' (1979). 153 pp.
* Jelavich, Barbara. ''History of the Balkans: Twentieth century‎'' (1983) 476 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=Hd-or3qtqrsC&dq=intitle:history+intitle:balkans+inauthor:jelavich&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Judah, Timothy. ''The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia.'' (1997). 347 pp.
* Lane, Ann. ''Britain, the Cold War and Yugoslav Unity, 1941-1949.'' (1996). 220 pp.
* Larson, David L. ''United States Foreign Policy Toward Yugoslavia, 1943-1963.'' (1979). 380 pp.
* Magas, Branka. ''The Destruction of Yugoslavia: Tracking Yugoslavia's Break-Up, 1980-92.'' (1993). 384 pp.
* Pavlowitch, Stevan K. ''Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia.'' (2008). 352pp
* Ramet, Sabrina Petra. ''Balkan Babel: Politics, Culture, and Religion in Yugoslavia.'' (1992). 230 pp.
* Roberts, Walter R. ''Tito, Mihailovich, and the Allies, 1941-1945'' (1973) [http://www.questia.com/read/97541664?title=Tito%2c%20Mihailoviac%20and%20the%20Allies%2c%201941-1945 online edition]
* Silber, Laura and Little, Alan. ''Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation.'' (1996). 306 pp.
* Singleton, Fred. ''A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples.'' (1985). 309 pp.
* Vucinich, Wayne S., ed. ''At the Brink of War and Peace: The Tito-Stalin Split in a Historic Perspective.'' (1982). 341 pp.
* West, Richard. ''Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia.'' (1995). 448 pp.
* Wheeler, Mark C. ''Britain and the War for Yugoslavia, 1940-1943.'' (1980). 351 pp.
* Woodward, Susan L. ''Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War.'' (1995). 536 pp.
* Woodward, Susan L. ''Socialist Unemployment: The Political Economy of Yugoslavia, 1945-1990.'' (1995). 443 pp.

[[Category:Former Countries]]
[[Category:Balkans]]
[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:Cold War

Tom Coburn

2010-12-09T20:24:49Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Coburn's Earmark Fight */

{{Officeholder
|name=Tom Coburn
|image=Coburn.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=Carolyn Coburn
|religion=Baptist
|offices=
{{Officeholder/senator
|state=Oklahoma
|terms=January 3, 2005 – Present
|preceded=Don Nickles
|former=n
|succeeded=
}}
{{Officeholder/representative
|state=Oklahoma
|district=2nd
|terms=January 4, 1995 – January 3, 2001
|preceded=Mike Synar
|former=n
|succeeded=Brad Carson
}}
}}

'''Tom Coburn''', M.D., born March 14, 1948 (age {{age|1948|3|14}}), is a [[Republican]] [[United States]] Senator from [[Oklahoma]].

== Background Information ==
"In 1970, Dr. Coburn graduated with an accounting degree from Oklahoma State University. One of the Top Ten seniors in the School of Business, Dr. Coburn served as president of the College of Business Student Council.

From 1970 to 1978, Dr. Coburn served as manufacturing manager at the Ophthalmic Division of Coburn Optical Industries in Colonial Heights, Virginia. Under his leadership, the Virginia division of Coburn Optical grew from 13 employees to more than 350 and captured 35 percent of the U.S. market.

After the family business was sold, Dr. Coburn changed the course of his life by returning to school to become a physician. Again he emerged as a leader, becoming president of his class at the University of Oklahoma Medical School where he graduated in 1983. He then did his internship in general surgery at St. Anthony's Hospital in Oklahoma City and family practice residency at the University of Arkansas, Fort Smith.

Dr. Coburn returned to Muskogee where he specializes in family medicine, obstetrics and the treatment of allergies. Dr. Coburn and his associates serve more than 15,000 patients for whom he has personally delivered more than 4,000 babies.

Dr. Coburn also is a two-time cancer survivor.

Coburn and his wife, Carolyn, a former Miss Oklahoma, were married in 1968 and have three children and four grandchildren. They are members of Muskogee's New Community Church."<ref>http://www.coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=AboutSenatorCoburn.Biography</ref>

Dr. Coburn is a personal friend of [[Barack Obama]], though both acknowledge their polar opposition in most political matters <ref>http://thehill.com/leading-the-news/the-president-has-a-friend--on-right-flank-2009-05-06.html</ref>. Their friendship began while Obama was in the Senate and has continued into his presidency.

== A Citizen Legislator ==

"Dr. Coburn represented Oklahoma's Second Congressional District in the House of Representatives from 1995 through 2001. He was first elected in 1994, then re-elected in 1996 and 1998, becoming the first Republican to hold the seat for consecutive terms. Dr. Coburn retired from Congress in 2001, fulfilling his pledge to serve no more than three terms in the House." <ref>http://coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=AboutSenatorCoburn.Biography</ref>

When Coburn was first elected in to the House of Representatives in 1994, the year of the Republican Revolution he stated from the beginning that he would only serve three terms (if he was re-elected each time). Coburn believes in the idea of a term limited citizen legislator. In other words, a citizen who serves in Congress for several years and then goes home to live under the laws they have helped to create.

== Coburn's Activities in the House ==

"During his tenure in the House, Dr. Coburn wrote and passed far-reaching legislation. These include laws to expand seniors' health care options, to protect access to home health care in rural areas and to allow Americans to access cheaper medications from Canada and other nations. Dr. Coburn also wrote a law intended to prevent baby AIDS. The Wall Street Journal said about the law, "In 10 long years of AIDS politics and funding, this is actually the first legislation to pass in this country that will rescue babies." He also wrote a law to renew and reform federal AIDS care programs.

During his three terms in the House, Dr. Coburn also played an influential role in reforming welfare and other federal entitlement programs. He led efforts to balance the budget, offering countless amendments to trim the bloated federal budget." <ref>http://www.coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=AboutSenatorCoburn.Biography</ref>
== The Interlude ==

"In 2002, President George Bush chose Dr. Coburn to serve as co-chair of the President's Advisory Council on HIV/AIDS (PACHA)."<ref>http://www.coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=AboutSenatorCoburn.Biography</ref>

== The Road to the Senate ==

In 2004, however, Coburn decided to return to public life and ran for and won a seat as a United States Senator from Oklahoma. In keeping with the idea of the citizen legislator, Coburn has promised to serve only two terms in the Senate.<ref>http://www.coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=AboutSenatorCoburn.Biography</ref>

== Coburn's Earmark Fight ==
In an article entitled, "Week of July 18, 2007," columnist Robert D. Novak discussed the continuing anti-earmark fight by several member of the Upper and Lower Houses of Congress, Tom Cobunr among them.

"Senators Tom Coburn (R-Okla.) and Jim DeMint (R-S.C.) will continue in the Senate the anti-earmark fight that Representatives Jeff Flake (R-Ariz.) and Jeb Hensarling (R-Tex.) have been fighting in the House. Two Senate amendments to the Defense bill will target an earmark by one of Flake's favorite targets, Rep. John Murtha (D-Pa.), and a Nebraska defense company. Two other amendments will require a competition to determine the best rifle for U.S. soldiers and require competitive contract processes for winning earmarked Defense money. Coburn leads the charge in stripping individual earmarks, while DeMint pushes for new transparency rules."<ref>http://www.www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=21588</ref>

On his website, Coburn also provides an explanation of why he is fighting against earmarks in addition to a scorecard of what he has done during the 109th and 110th Congresses.

"I ran for the Senate, in part, to reduce wasteful Washington, D.C. spending, re-prioritize spending to ensure essential needs are not compromised by parochial political interests and to reform the way our government spends money. Our national debt now surpasses $8.7 trillion, important programs like Social Security and Medicare are in danger of bankruptcy, our nation is fighting a global War on Terror and we still are paying for costs associated with the most expensive natural disaster in our nation’s history.

Every family in America must make decisions that require prioritizing and financial restraint to meet their financial situation and expect the government to do the same. But politicians in Washington have for too long avoided making tough decisions and have prioritized their next election over the next generation. Clearly this in not the time for business as usual in Washington and the borrow and spend mentality must come to an end if we are to ensure that the next generation of Americans inherit the same standard of living and that our seniors can enjoy financial security during their retirement years.

The following is a summary of the amendments I have offered on the Senate floor to reduce wasteful Washington spending and to reform the budget process. While many of these amendments have been unsuccessful — often losing in lopsided votes — I believe it is important not to be discouraged and to continue to press for change and fiscal responsibility in Washington. The future of our country, after all, depends upon it." <ref>http://www.coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=ConstituentServices.PorkBusters</ref>

== Coburn's Senate Activities ==

"Dr. Coburn's priorities in the Senate include reducing wasteful spending, balancing the budget, improving health care access and affordability, protecting the sanctity of all human life - including the unborn - and representing traditional, Oklahoma values. As a citizen legislator, Dr. Coburn has pledged to serve no more than two terms in the Senate and to continue to care for patients. He is a member of the Senate Judiciary Committee, Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee, the Indian Affairs Committee and the Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions." <ref>http://www.coburn.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=AboutSenatorCoburn.Biography</ref>

Coburn has recently been criticized by the ''Marine Corps Times'' newspaper for stalling Senate approval of a major veterans' benefits bill. <ref>[http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2009/11/military_veteransbill_coburnhold_110309w/ Marine Corps Times, 3 November 2009.] </ref>

==External Links==
*[http://coburn.senate.gov/public/ Official Website]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Senate/Tom_Coburn.htm Coburn On the Issues]
==References==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT: Coburn, Tom}}
[[Category:United States Senators]]

[[Category:Republican Party]]
[[Category: 111th United States Congress]]
[[Category:Fiscal Conservatives]]
[[Category:The 100 Americans The Left Hates Most]]

Attack on Pearl Harbor

2010-12-08T03:45:06Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Prelude */

[[Image:H50930.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Photograph taken from a Japanese plane during the torpedo attack on ships moored on both sides of Ford Island. The geyser of water in the center marks a torpedo hit on USS ''West Virginia'']]
'''The Attack on Pearl Harbor''' or (less often) the '''Battle of Pearl Harbor''' was a major battle that immediately led to U.S. entry into World War II. The battle comprised a series of naval air strikes by the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] on the morning of December 7, 1941 against U.S. air and naval forces at its main Pacific base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The strike was designed to cripple the U.S. battleships fleet, giving Japan naval dominance in the Pacific and thus giving Japan to have easy access to much of the western [[Pacific Ocean]] and Southeast [[Asia]]. The Japanese destroyed or disabled all the battleships but missed the aircraft carriers (which were not present), allowing the U.S. to fight back using naval air power. The United States Congress declared war against Japan the next day. The attack was seen by Americans as a "Day of Infamy" that silenced the isolationists and united the people in a demand for victory in the Pacific.
==Prelude==
The road to war between Japan and the United States began in the 1930s when differences over [[China]] drove the two nations apart. In 1931 Japan conquered [[Manchuria]], which until then had been part of China. In 1937 Japan began a long and ultimately unsuccessful war to conquer the rest of China, an informal ally of the United States. In 1940, the Japanese government allied their country with [[Nazi Germany]] in the [[Axis]] Alliance, and, in the following year, occupied all of French Indochina, isolating China and threatening British and Dutch possessions.

The U.S. increased military and financial aid to China, and embarked on a program of strengthening its military power in the Pacific. In 1941 the U.S., in alliance with Britain and the Netherlands, ended oil shipments to Japan, thus cutting off 95% of Japan's oil supply. The American policy was that Japan's aggression had to end and would no longer be facilitated by American oil. Japan found itself in a position where its oil reserves would be exhausted in two years, unless it either made peace or went to war and conquered the oil fields in Sumatra (controlled by the Dutch) and Burma (controlled by the British). The chief of the Navy told the emperor that if Japan resorted to war, it would be very doubtful that it could win. The decision was war, by going south to seize the resource-rich territories of Southeast Asia. Knocking out the American fleet was critical to the success of the strategy, hence the attack was ordered on Pearl Harbor.

Roosevelt meanwhile thought that Japanese movements south would be deterred by the threat of large scale air bombing of the main cities of Japan. He ordered raids undertaken (in the name of China) by American forces in China, but they never got close enough. Washington then ordered new B-17 long-range bombers to the Philippines, expecting to have enough air power by spring 1942 to seriously threaten Japan. It was too little too late.

==Japanese plan==
The main immediate threat to Japan was the U.S. Pacific Fleet based at Pearl Harbor. Admiral [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], commander of the Japanese fleet, devised a plan to immobilize the U.S. fleet at the outset of the war with a surprise attack.

The key elements in Yamamoto's plans were meticulous preparation, the achievement of surprise, and the use of aircraft carriers and naval aviation on an unprecedented scale. In the spring of 1941, Japanese carrier pilots began training in the special tactics called for by the Pearl Harbor attack plan.
[[File:Pearl Harbor NARA.jpg|left|300px|Captured Japanese photograph taken during the attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941. In the distance, the smoke rises from Hickam Field. (Navy)]]
In October 1941 the naval general staff gave final approval to Yamamoto's plan, which called for the formation of an attack force commanded by Vice Admiral [[Chuichi Nagumo]]. It centered around six heavy aircraft carriers accompanied by 24 supporting vessels. A separate group of submarines was to sink any American warships which escaped the Japanese carrier force.

Nagumo's fleet assembled in the remote anchorage of Tankan Bay in the [[Kurile Islands]] and departed in strictest secrecy for Hawaii on November 26, 1941. The ships' route crossed the North Pacific and avoided normal shipping lanes. At dawn on December 7, 1941, the Japanese task force had approached undetected to a point slightly more than 200 miles north of Oahu. No one sighted the force en route and it maintained complete radio silence. Neither Japan's allies nor Japan's diplomats knew the strike was coming. Nagumo did not know that the American aircraft carriers based at Pearl Harbor would not be there on December 7.<ref>The Japanese did not have current information on the disposition of ships at Pearl Harbor. On November 28, Admiral Kimmel sent USS ''Enterprise'' under Rear Admiral William Halsey to deliver Marine Corps fighter planes to [[Wake Island]]. On December 4 ''Enterprise'' delivered the aircraft and on December 7 the task force was on its way back to Pearl Harbor. On December 5, Admiral Kimmel sent the USS ''Lexington'' with a task force under Rear Admiral Newton to deliver 25 scout bombers to [[Midway Island]]. The last Pacific carrier, USS ''Saratoga'', had left Pearl Harbor for upkeep and repairs on the West Coast.</ref>

Nagumo's force included, in addition to its supply train, six aircraft carriers, two battleships, two cruisers, nine destroyers, and three submarines. They reached position approximately 200 miles north of Oahu before dawn on 7 December (Hawaiian time.) Plans for the strike had been initiated during the previous summer, completed by early November. In September picked crews--with pilots who averaged better than 800 hours' flying time--from the Japanese First Air Fleet had begun a period of intensive training in horizontal and dive bombing and in the technique of torpedo attack in shallow waters. En route to the rendezvous above Oahu, with the ships under radio silence, the pilots were briefed on their coming mission. The primary target was the naval base of Pearl Harbor, the design to cripple the Pacific Fleet. It was hoped that at least four aircraft carriers and four battleships could be sunk or rendered useless for a long period. Exactly on schedule, at 0600 on the 7th, orders for the take-off were given. Shortly thereafter the first wave--fifty fighters, fifty horizontal bombers, forty torpedo bombers, and fifty dive bombers--roared off the carriers and headed toward Oahu. Forty-five minutes later fifty horizontal bombers, eighty dive bombers, and forty fighters followed as the second and last wave of attack.<ref> Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds. ''Army Air Forces in World War II: Vol. I: Plans & Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942'' (1949), ch. 6</ref>

==The attack==
At 6:00 a.m. on December 7, the six Japanese carriers launched a first wave of 181 planes composed of [[Nakajima B5N|torpedo bombers]], [[Aichi D3A|dive bombers]], horizontal bombers and [[Mitsubishi Zero|fighters]]. Even as they winged south, some elements of U.S. forces on Oahu realized there was something different about this Sunday morning.

In the hours before dawn, U.S. Navy vessels spotted an unidentified submarine periscope near the entrance to Pearl Harbor. It was attacked and reported sunk by the destroyer USS ''Ward'' (DD-139) and a patrol plane. At 0700, an alert operator of an Army radar station at Opana spotted the approaching first wave of the attack force. The officers to whom those reports were relayed did not consider them significant enough to take action. The report of the submarine sinking was handled routinely, and the radar sighting was passed off as an approaching group of American planes due to arrive that morning.

The Japanese aircrews achieved complete surprise when they hit American ships and military installations on Oahu shortly before 0800. They attacked military airfields at the same time they hit the fleet anchored in Pearl Harbor. The Navy air bases at Ford Island and Kaneohe Bay, the Marine airfield at Ewa and the Air Force fields at Bellows, Wheeler and Hickam were all bombed and strafed as other elements of the attacking force began their assaults on the ships moored in Pearl Harbor. The purpose of the simultaneous attacks was to destroy the American planes before they could rise to intercept the Japanese.

====Battleship Row====
[[Image:pearlharborattack.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Battleship ''[[USS Arizona]]'' burns after her magazine was hit by a Japanese bomb.]]
Before dawn on 7 December 1941, the American strategic center of gravity in the Pacific reposed in the seven battleships then moored along "Battleship Row", the six pairs of interrupted quays located along Ford Island's eastern side. Quay F-2, the southernmost, which usually hosted an aircraft carrier, was empty. Northeastward, Battle Force flagship ''California'' was next, moored at F-3. Then came two pairs, moored side by side: ''Maryland'' with ''Oklahoma'' outboard, and ''Tennessee'' with ''West Virginia'' outboard. [[Astern]] of ''Tennessee'' lay ''Arizona'', which had the repair ship ''Vestal'' alongside. Last in line was ''Nevada'', by herself at quay F-8. These seven battleships, ranging in age from eighteen to twenty-five years, represented all but two of those available to the Pacific Fleet. The Fleet flagship, ''Pennsylvania'', was also in Pearl Harbor, drydocked at the nearby Navy Yard. The ninth, ''Colorado'', was undergoing overhaul on the west coast.

Together, these ships were one short of equaling Japan's active battlefleet. Clearly a worrisome threat to Japanese plans for Pacific Ocean dominance, they were the Japanese raiders' priority target. Twenty-four of the forty Japanese torpedo planes were assigned to attack "Battleship Row", and five more diverted to that side of Ford Island when they found no battleships in their intended target areas. Of these planes' twenty-nine Type 91 aerial torpedoes (each with a warhead of some 450 pounds of high explosive), up to twenty-one found their targets: two hit ''California'', one exploded against ''Nevada'' and as many as nine each struck ''Oklahoma'' and ''West Virginia''. The latter two ships sank within minutes of receiving this torpedo damage.

Horizontal bombers, armed with heavy armor-piercing bombs, arrived just as the last torpedo planes finished their attacks, and other horizontal and dive bombers came in later. Together, these planes scored many hits or damaging near-misses on the "Battleship Row" ships: two on ''California'', ''Maryland'' and ''Tennessee''; a few on ''West Virginia''. Most spectacular of the bombers' victims was ''Arizona'', which was struck many times. One bomb penetrated to the vicinity of her forward magazines, which detonated with a massive blast, immediately sinking the ship.

There was a short lull in the fury of the attack at about 0830. At that time ''Nevada'', despite her wounds, managed to get underway and move down the channel toward the open sea. Before she could clear the harbor, a second wave of 170 Japanese planes, launched 30 minutes after the first, appeared over the harbor. They concentrated their attacks on the moving battleship, hoping to sink her in the channel and block the narrow entrance to Pearl Harbor. On orders from the harbor control tower, ''Nevada'' beached herself at Hospital Point and the channel remained clear.

====West side of Ford Island====
[[Image:pearlharbor.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Destroyer USS ''Shaw'' explodes during the second wave.]]
In addition to strategically vital "Battleship Row", the Japanese thought two other areas were important enough to warrant attention from the initial Pearl Harbor attack wave's torpedo planes. These were the long 1010 Dock at the Navy Yard, and the fixed moorings on the western side of Ford Island, both of which might hold battleships or aircraft carriers. On the morning of the attack the latter location was occupied by the seaplane tender ''Tangier'', the old target and training ship ''Utah'' and the light cruisers ''Raleigh'' and ''Detroit''. Six aerial torpedoes were launched against these ships, of which three hit, sinking one vessel and nearly sinking another.

The thirty-year-old ''Utah'', which had been converted from an obsolete battleship ten years earlier, received two torpedoes, completely overwhelming her very limited ability to absorb underwater damage. She capsized to port in about ten minutes, coming to rest with her bottom in the air. As ''Utah's'' crew were abandoning ship and swimming through the oily water to Ford Island, they were the target of machine-gun attacks by Japanese planes. Although ten trapped Sailors were later cut free from her upturned hull, about sixty were lost with their ship. ''Utah'' was partially turned upright in 1943-44 but was not further salvaged.

USS ''Raleigh'' was hit by one torpedo and a bomb. Of an old and not very sturdy design, she barely avoided capsizing, but her crew, assisted by a salvage barge and a tug, kept her upright and afloat. Major repairs returned ''Raleigh'' to the active fleet in a a little over a half-year.

Also damaged west of Ford Island was the seaplane tender ''Curtiss'', hit by a crashing enemy dive bomber, plus one bomb and fragments of another during the second wave attack. ''Curtiss'' was also unsuccessfully attacked by a Japanese midget submarine, which fired a torpedo at the seaplane tender and was then promptly sunk by the destroyer ''Monaghan''.

====Navy Yard area====
[[Image:G19943.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Destroyers ''Downes'' and ''Cassin'' lie wrecked in front of the lightly-damaged battleship ''Pennsylvania'' at Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941.]]
The initial Japanese attack wave hit the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard area relatively lightly, with a few torpedoes launched at ships along 1010 Dock and some dive bombers targeting that vicinity and the drydock area immediately to the southward. The torpedo planes made one hit, on the light cruiser ''Helena'', opening two of her engineering spaces to the sea. The minelayer ''Oglala'', tied up alongside ''Helena'', fared much worse. This old converted passenger ship had her port side opened up by the blast of the torpedo that hit the cruiser, and the resulting inrush of water could not be controlled. About two hours later, ''Oglala'' rolled over to port and sank alongside 1010 Dock.

The second Japanese attack wave's horizontal and dive bombers gave the Navy Yard's drydock area considerable attention. Though their efforts were somewhat mitigated by the diversion of some planes against USS ''Nevada'' as she passed nearby, these bombers made several hits, wrecking three destroyers and damaging the battleship ''Pennsylvania''. The latter, Flagship of the Pacific Fleet and one of the raiders' priority targets, was "high and dry" in Drydock #1 with destroyers ''Cassin'' and ''Downes''. One bomb hit ''Pennsylvania'' amidships, killing eighteen crewmembers and producing modest damage to the battleship. Other bombs, hitting on and near the two destroyers, opened their fuel tanks and set intense fires. Ammunition explosions, including the detonation of a torpedo on ''Downes'', added to the destruction, which was compounded when the drydock was partially flooded. ''Cassin'' then lifted off her blocks and rolled over against ''Downes''.

Dive bombers from the second wave also struck the destroyer ''Shaw'', which was in the floating drydock YFD-2. The resulting fires spread to ''Shaw's'' forward magazines, which blew up spectacularly, severing her bow. However, the rest of the ship remained afloat as the drydock sank beneath her. The little tug ''Sotoyomo'', also in YFD-2, was badly burned by ''Shaw's'' fires and went down as well.

Japanese bombs near-missed some of the ships at the piers in the northeastern part of the Navy Yard, producing notable damage to the hull of light cruiser ''Honolulu''. However, the attackers' concentration on battleship targets left the Yard's vital industrial facilities essentially untouched. These were soon hard at work on rescue, repair and salvage jobs, of which there were many immediately at hand.

====The airfields and aerial combat====
Military and Naval aircraft at Oahu's airfields were second only to battleships among the Japanese target priorities, though the reason was different. While Pearl Harbor's battleships represented American strategic "reach", and had to be eliminated to safeguard Japan's offensive into Southeast Asia and the East Indies, Oahu's aircraft had to be taken out for a more immediate reason: to protect the Pearl Harbor attack force. U.S. fighter planes, if they could get into the air in any numbers, would be a serious threat to Japanese bombers. U.S. Air Force bombers and Navy patrol planes potentially imperiled the Striking Force's invaluable aircraft carriers.

The Japanese first attack wave therefore assigned many fighters and bombers to airbase suppression, the fighters to set planes afire with machine gun and cannon fire and the bombers to wreck them with high explosives. The second attack wave also had airfield strikes among its tasks. Wheeler Airfield, in central Oahu, was Hawaii's main fighter base. It was heavily attacked. Of some 140 planes on the ground there, mainly [[P-40 Warhawk|P-40]] and P-36 pursuits, nearly two-thirds were destroyed or put out of action. A similar proportion of the B-17, B-18 and A-20 bombers at Hickam Airfield, adjacent to the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard, was also wrecked or damaged enough to keep them grounded. Many airmen were killed at Hickam when the Japanese bombed their barracks. Smaller Bellows Field in eastern Oahu was also hit, destroying several P-40s, including two whose pilots attempted to take off in the teeth of the enemy onslaught.

U.S. Navy and Marine Corps air stations on Pearl Harbor's Ford Island, at Ewa to the west of Pearl and at Kanoehe Bay near Bellows Field, also received concentrated attention from the raiders. Ewa's aircraft complement, mainly carrier-type bombers and fighters, was reduced from nearly fifty operational planes to less than twenty. Ford Island and Kanoehe, home to several squadrons of long-range PBY patrol seaplanes, were massively attacked, with Ford Island losing about half its planes and Kaneohe all but a few.

These very successful Japanese strikes thus prevented any significant aerial opposition, though the few Air Force fighters that got airborne gave a good account of themselves. P-36 pilot Lt. Harry Brown, who would finish the war with seven victories to his credit, splashed two [[Nakajima B5N|Kates]] near Wheeler, probably the first American aerial kills of the war.<ref>''P-36 Hawk Aces of World War 2'', by Lionel Rersyn, Kari Stenman, and Andrew Thomas, Osprey Publishing, 2009</ref> When Brown returned to his airfield, his crew chief was surprised to see the pilot still wearing his tuxedo from the previous night's party! P-40 pilot Lt. John Dains downed a bomber near the Kaawa radar station, but was shot down and killed later that morning. The two most successful pilots that day were Army pilots [[George Welch]] and [[Ken Tayler]], who between them shot down eight Japanese planes (one [[Mitsubishi Zero|Zeke]] and seven [[Aichi D3A|Vals]]).<ref>''P-40 Warhawk Aces of the Pacific'', by Carl Molesworth, Osprey Publishing, 2003</ref> In total, American interceptors accounted for twelve Japanese planes over Oahu, ten of them bombers, and damaged at least two others for only three losses in air combat.

Later on December Seventh, surviving bombers and patrol planes were sent out to search for the Japanese carriers. They found nothing and confronted considerable "friendly" anti-aircraft gunfire when they returned to their bases.

==Aftermath==
[[Image:U036055.jpg|right|200px|thumb|USS ''Bennington'' (CVA-20) passes the wreck of USS ''Arizona'' (BB-39) on Memorial Day, 31 May 1958. By the mid-1950's platforms were constructed over the sunken battleship for services to the more than 1,100 sailors and Marines entombed on board; a white marble memorial structure would span the wreck in 1962, inscribed with their names.]]
When the attack ended shortly before 10:00 a.m., less than two hours after it began, the American forces have paid a fearful price. Twenty-one ships of the U.S. Pacific Fleet were sunk or damaged: the battleships ''Arizona'', ''California'', ''Maryland'', ''Nevada'', ''Oklahoma'', ''Pennsylvania'', ''Tennessee'', and ''West Virginia''; cruisers ''Helena'' (CL-50), ''Honolulu'' (CL-48), and ''Raleigh'' (CL-7); the destroyers ''Cassin'' (DD-372), ''Downes'' (DD-375), ''Helm'' (DD-388), and ''Shaw'' (DD-373); seaplane tender ''Curtiss'' (AV-4); target ship (ex-battleship) ''Utah'' (AG-16); repair ship ''Vestal'' (AR-4); minelayer ''Oglala'' (CM-4); tug ''Sotoyomo'' (YT-9); and Floating Drydock Number 2. Aircraft losses were 188 destroyed and 159 damaged, the majority hit before they had a chance to take off. The AAF reported 64 of its 231 aircraft had been destroyed, and 79 of the remaining planes needed major repairs. At Hickam Field some of the more important administrative and engineering files, the base parachute section, and the overhaul and assembly sections of the Engine Repair Branch had been wiped out. Test equipment, about 75 per cent of the equipment of Aero Repair Branch, and more than half of the depot property stocks were destroyed. AAF casualties, especially at Hickam Field, were heavy, reaching a total of 163 killed, 43 missing, and 336 wounded. The Japanese canceled a third strike that would have knocked out the vital American oil supply, which proved critical to rebuilding Pearl Harbor in the months to come.

American dead numbered 2,403. That figure included 68 civilians, most of them killed by improperly fused anti-aircraft shells landing in Honolulu. There were 1,178 military and civilian wounded.

Japanese losses were comparatively light. Twenty-nine planes, less than 10 percent of the attacking force, failed to return to their carriers.

The Japanese success was overwhelming, but it was not a strategic victory. They failed to damage any American aircraft carriers, which by a stroke of luck, had been absent from the harbor. They neglected to damage the shoreside facilities at the Pearl Harbor Naval Base, which played an important role in the Allied victory in [[World War II]]. American technological skill raised and repaired all but three of the ships sunk or damaged at Pearl Harbor (''Arizona'', ''Oklahoma'' and ''Utah''). Most importantly, the shock and anger caused by the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor united a divided nation and was translated into a wholehearted commitment to victory in World War II.

==see also==
* [[World War II in the Air]]

==Further reading==
* Craven, Wesley, and James Cate, eds. ''The Army Air Forces in World War II.'' (1958). Official history in 7 vol; [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/I/index.html Vol. 1, Plans and Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942'' online edition]
* Feis, Herbert. ''The Road to Pearl Harbor: The Coming of the War Between the United States and Japan'' (1963), standard diplomatic history
* Goldstein, Donald M., and Katherine V. Dillon. ''The Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Pearl-Harbor-Papers-Inside-Japanese/dp/1574882228/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236891574&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Prange, Gordon W. ''At Dawn We Slept''. (1982) , the standard history of the Pearl Harbor attack [http://www.amazon.com/At-Dawn-Slept-Gordon-Prange/dp/0140157344/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214102682&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wohlstetter, Roberta. ''Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision'' (1962), explains why the U.S. was surprised [http://www.amazon.com/Pearl-Harbor-Decision-Roberta-Wohlstetter/dp/0804705984/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236891574&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]
===Primary sources===
* Allen, Thomas B. ''Remember Pearl Harbor: American and Japanese Survivors Tell Their Stories'' (2007)

==References==
<references/>

==Links==
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq66-4.htm Battle reports from the individual commands on December 7, 1941]
*[http://www.archive.org/details/PreludeToWar Frank Capra's "Prelude to War", from the ''Why We Fight'' series of films made during World War II]
*[http://www.ww2pacific.com/aaf41.html Aircraft at Pearl Harbor]

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}
source = [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq66-1.htm]

[[Category:Japanese History]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:World War II]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pearl Harbor}}
[[category:warships]]
[[Category:Naval Battles]]
[[Category:United States Navy]]
[[Category:United States Air Force]]
[[Category:Naval History]]
[[Category:Air Power]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

United States Constitution:Article I

2010-12-07T18:13:56Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Section Three */

''For the full text of the U.S. Constitution, see [[Full Text of the United States Constitution]].''

'''Article I''' of the [[United States Constitution]] describes and grants power to the [[Legislative Branch]], or [[House of Representatives]] and [[Senate]].<ref>U.S Government and Politics</ref>

==Section One==

Section one establishes that the powers of the [[Legislative Branch]] shall be vested in a [[Bicameral Legislature]] composed of [[Senate]] and the [[House of Representatives]].

==Section Two==

Article One, section two, discusses the method of election and qualifications necessary to serve in the House, as well as the procedure for calculating the number of representatives each state may elect. These sections also touch on filling vacancies in the house, choosing the speaker of the house, and impeachment.

==Section Three==

Article One, section three, discusses the election, qualifications of, and impeachment of senators. It also establishes the Vice President of the United States as the president of the Senate.

==Section Four==

Section four elaborates on the "times, places, and manner" of holding elections for Senators and Representatives. It also establishes that the Congress must assemble at least once each year.

==Section Five==

Section five establishes the rules of congress.

==Section Six==

Section six addresses the compensation and immunities of the senators and representatives.

==Section Seven==

Section seven states that all bills for raising money must originate in the House of Representatives.

==Section Eight==

Section eight specifically states the power of Congress. These are called the [[Enumerated Powers]].

==Section Nine==

Section nine elaborates several restrictions on Congress.

==Section Ten==

Section ten details restrictions on the states.
<ref>The United States Constitution (see top of page for a link)</ref>

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:United States Constitution]]
[[Category:United States History]]

Articles of Confederation

2010-12-02T17:19:31Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Links */

[[File:Articles-of-confederation.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Articles of Confederation]]
The '''Articles of Confederation''', written in 1777, ratified by the colonies March 1, 1781, established the [[United States of America]]. Signed by [[John Dickenson]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Roger Sherman]] and other future [[Framers]] of the [[U.S. Constitution]], the Articles instituted a perpetual union of the thirteen colonies into a confederation that could operate unitarily in times of war. The new national government consisted only of a [[Legislature]], with one vote per state. A 3/4 vote was required to pass laws, and amendments required unanimous voting.

The Articles of Confederation invoked spiritual guidance:

:Whereas the delegates of the United States of America in Congress assembled did on the fifteenth day of November in the Year of Our Lord 1777, and in the second year of the independence of America agree on certain Articles of Confederation and perpetual union between the States ...

:The said states hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force ... or attacks made upon them ... on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense. ...

:It has pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the Legislatures we respectively represent in Congress, to approve of and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation.

The Articles of Confederation were primarily an agreement among States (it has virtually no references to the "people" in terms of political power), while the U.S. Constitution was primarily an agreement among people ("We the People ....")

==Strengths and Successes==
====[[Land Ordinance of 1785]]====
This law dictated that all states give up their claims to western lands. The [[Northwest Territory]] was then set up from these lands. Townships were to be surveyed before settlement. This provided the northwest with efficient and orderly towns, unlike the land claims in the trans-Appalachian south, which were often haphazard and led to often violent conflicts.
====[[The Northwest Ordinance]]====
The Northwest Ordinance set up a method of governing the western territories, and a gradual system of how to admit territories as [[States of the United States of America|states]]. When a territory had a population of 1-5000, Congress made laws that were enforced by a territorial governor. When population surpassed this mark, residents could elect territorial legislatures. When population reached 60,000, the territory was able to apply for statehood by writing a state constitution that was to be approved by Congress then ratified by the territory's voters. Then Congress would vote whether or not to admit the territory into the Union.

==Weaknesses and Failures==
Though the Articles did have two early successes, its weaknesses were far greater. It established no executive to enforce laws, no army or navy, no judiciary, no national currency, could not regulate trade, no way to collect taxes, and foreign policy was impossible. At the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, [[George Washington]] called together elite statesmen (including [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[James Madison]], and [[George Mason]]) to discuss the Articles. At the Conference, they decided they were a failure and needed to be rewritten, calling for an Annapolis Convention the next year. At the Convention, only five states sent delegates. They proposed to meet in [[Philadelphia]] the next year.
----
==Text of the Articles of Confederation==

To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting.

Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

I.
The Stile of this Confederacy shall be "The United States of America".

II.
Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.

III.
The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever.

IV.
The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each State shall free ingress and regress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any State, on the property of the United States, or either of them.

If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his offense.

Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State.

V.
For the most convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year.

No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind.

Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the committee of the States.

In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote.

Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendence on Congress, except for treason, felony, or [[breach]] of the peace.

VI.
No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, Prince or State; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever from any King, Prince or foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility.

No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue.

No State shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress, to the courts of France and Spain.

No vessel of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judgement of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage.

No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise.

VII.
When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment.

VIII.
All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint.

The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled.

IX.
The United States in Congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article -- of sending and receiving ambassadors -- entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever -- of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated -- of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace -- appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts.

The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other causes whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another shall present a petition to Congress stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as Congress shall direct, shall in the presence of Congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination: and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgement and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgement, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgement or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the security of the parties concerned: provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgement, shall take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State, where the cause shall be tried, 'well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of reward': provided also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States.

All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States.

The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States -- fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States -- regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislative right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated -- establishing or regulating post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office -- appointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers -- appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States -- making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations.

The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'A Committee of the States', and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direction -- to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses -- to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted -- to build and equip a navy -- to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloth, arm and equip them in a solid-like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so clothed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of each State, unless the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloth, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared. And the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled.

The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque or reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the United States in Congress assembled.

The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances or military operations, as in their judgement require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State on any question shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States.

X.
The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite.

XI.
Canada acceding to this confederation, and adjoining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this Union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States.

XII.
All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said United States, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged.

XIII.
Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.

And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union. Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained: And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions, which by the said Confederation are submitted to them. And that the Articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respectively represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual.

In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Eight, and in the Third Year of the independence of America.

Agreed to by Congress 15 November 1777 In force after ratification by Maryland, 1 March 1781

==Links==
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=127 Facsimile of the Articles]

[[Category:Founding Fathers]][[Category:American State Papers]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]

United States of America

2010-12-01T23:19:47Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Expansion */

{{Country
|name =''United States of America''
|map =US map.PNG
|map2 =Loc of United States.png
|established=1776
|flag =50 star flag.png
|arms =United States arms.png
|capital =Washington, D.C.
|government =Constitutional Republic
|language =English
|official =n
|president =Barack Hussein Obama
|area =3,718,695 sq mi
|pop =301,554,000 (2007)
|gdp-year =$13.049 trillion (2007
|gdp-pc =$44,333 (2007)
|currency =United States Dollar (USD)
}}
The '''United States of America''' (''conventional short form'': '''United States'''; ''abbreviation'': '''US''' or '''USA'''; sometimes also referred to as '''the States''' or simply as '''America''') is a [[North America|North American]] nation that consists of a federal union of fifty individual states, along with territories and a capital district. Founded originally as 13 colonies in the [[British Empire]], Britain's American colonies broke with the mother country on July 4, 1776 with the [[Declaration of Independence]].<ref>IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. [http://www.ushistory.org/Declaration/document/index.htm The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America], ushistory.org, (Accessed August 2010).</ref> The new nation became recognized as the United States of America following the [[American Revolutionary War|War of Independence]] in 1783. Shortly thereafter, in 1787, the [[United States Constitution]] was written; grounded on Christian values and [[Republican form of government|republican]] political principles, the constitution remains in effect today. The Americans created the world's first political parties and, since abolishing [[slavery]] in a bloody [[American Civil War|civil war]] (1861-65), instituted a form of government guided by the rule of law rather than the desires of a majority of voters. According to the U.S. Constitution written by America's [[Founding Fathers]], the United States is a [[Constitutional Republic]]. It is not a [[Democracy]].

America's capitalist economy grew rapidly, becoming the largest in the world by the 1870s. During the 19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the North American continent and acquired a number of overseas possessions. After defeating Communism in the [[Cold War]], the U.S. emerged as the world's only [[superpower]], boasting the largest economy and most powerful military. It exerts enormous cultural and intellectual influence worldwide, and in return is the target of the enemies of democracy and [[capitalism]].

The capital of the United States of America is [[Washington, DC]].

==Geography==
{{main|North America}}

North America, bordering both the North [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the North [[Pacific Ocean]], is between [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]]. In addition to the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, the United States is otherwise bounded by the Bering Sea, the Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Two of the fifty states, Alaska and Hawaii (an archipelago), are not contiguous with any of the other states. Puerto Rico, which is largely self governing, is part of the U.S., as are several smaller territories in the Pacific Ocean, such as Guam. Each of the 50 states has a large degree of sovereignty, but the boundaries are debated and shift slightly every year.

At over 3.7 million square miles (over 9.6 million km²), the U.S. (including its non-contiguous and overseas states and territories) is the third largest country by total area. It is the world's third most populous nation, with over 350 million people.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html CIA World Factbook], ''North America :: United States'', Updated on February 4, 2010, (Accessed on March 5, 2010).</ref>

==History==

===American Revolution===
{{main|American Revolution}}

The American Revolution exploded from fears the British Empire was trying to restrict the historic rights and liberties of Americans. The British victory in the French and Indian War ended the threat that foreign powers might attack the colonies; Britain's protection was no longer needed. At the same time Britain decided to assert its powers by imposing [[taxes]]. The taxes (as on stamps, sugar, and tea) were not large but the principle was simple: Americans insisted their own [[Legislature|legislatures]] could impose taxes but not [[Parliament]], because Americans were not represented there. "No taxation without representation!" and "[[Don't tread on me]]" became common phrases in America by the American people, but the British refused over and over again to accept it. London sent in troops when Boston protested vehemently, and Americans organized shadow governments in every colony.

The Americans were adopting a new political philosophy, called [[republicanism]], which stressed civic virtue, fear of corruption, and disdain for [[aristocracy]] (there were no aristocrats in America apart from occasional British visitors). Republicanism alerted Americans to their constitutional rights as Englishmen – one right was that the people, through their elected officials, set the taxes and upheld law. Constitutionally, to Americans their "elected officials" were not represented in the British Parliament, it meant having their own colonial legislatures. The British replied haughtily toward this desire from the Americans, going so far as to suggest America was "virtually represented" by the British Parliament in some way or form.

====Boston Tea Party====
{{main|Boston Tea Party}}

The British Parliaments idea of representation in America fueled their desire to increase taxes on the Americans. The tax on stamps in 1765 incited near rebellion, as the 13 separate colonies began meeting together and sharing their grievances. The stamp tax was repealed but others followed, especially the tax on tea. In response, Americans boycotted tea and merchants refused to order it, except in Boston. There, a well-organized group of patriots dumped the tea in the harbor, historically known as the [[Boston Tea Party]]. These events infuriated London, so they sent troops to North America and stripped [[Massachusetts]] of its self government and suspended the historic rights the colonists were so proud of.

====Thirteen Colonies====
{{main|Thirteen Colonies}} [[Image:Pop1750.jpg|right|thumb|400px]]

The thirteen original colonies began organizing shadow governments, called "Committees of Correspondence," which prepared the Americans for the day "patriots" (or "Whigs," as they called themselves) could assume all functions of local government. That day came when the British sent troops from Boston to seize gunpowder in attempt to dismantle a potential revolt, and the American patriots gathered there to defend their liberty. These patriots were known as the American "Minute men," a well trained militia, and had planned for this day at Lexington and Concord. When the militia clashed with the elite British troops they soundly defeated them, prompting an historic backlash from Britain. The American Revolution had begun.

The thirteen colonies, organized as the "[[First Continental Congress]]," became a national government as the shadow governments in each colony took control and ousted all royal officials. Congress set up a [[Continental Army]] and gave command to an American hero and Virginia's leader, [[George Washington]]. George Washington took charge in Boston, and he forced the British to leave in the spring of 1776. All 13 colonies were at this point in control of the American Patriots, and they listened as [[Tom Paine]] explained ''Common Sense'' principles, proudly boasting of America's strength and its power as a new nation. America, in its own right as an individual nation no longer needed nor wanted a foreign [[King]]. Congress called on the colonies to become States and to write new State constitutions. On July 4, 1776, Congress unanimously declared the independence of a new nation, the United States of America.

====France in the American Revolutionary War====

King [[George III]] could not abide the insolent Americans and he sent his small army and large navy to America in attempt to reconquer his lost colonies. They were able to recapture [[New York City]], but the King's failure to spread elsewhere greatly outweighed this small victory. The powerful Royal navy gave the British command of the seas and the ability to land troops anywhere and capture any specific place, but the shortage of British soldiers, and the very long 3000 mile supply line, meant that the British could only hold a few points at any one time. Hiring German soldiers (Hessians) was necessary, but they were not enough, for the Patriots always had more available soldiers. The British expectations that Loyalist would rise up and overthrow the Patriots was a [[chimera]]; the Loyalists did provide some help to British invasion forces, but were never strong enough to operate on their own or control any territory.

[[France]], humiliated by Britain in the 1760s, was stronger in the late 1770's than it was a decade earlier and wanted revenge against the British for their past woes. Thus, the French secretly armed and financed the Americans. In 1777, the British sent a large army to invade [[New York]] and cut off the revolutionary states of [[New England]]. The plan was a disaster as the American militia captured the entire British invasion force at Saratoga. Encouraged by diplomat [[Benjamin Franklin]], the French recognized the United States as an independent nation, signed a treaty of alliance, and entered the war against Britain. Later, the treaty extended to [[Spain]] and the [[Netherlands]] as allies to America; Britain's diplomacy was disjointed that it had no allies at all, and was militarily matched or surpassed by America and its new allies. The British invasion of the South in 1780-81 was designed to bring out Loyalist support, but it failed and the second major British army was captured at the [[Battle of Yorktown]]. The British Parliament revolted at their reckless king and his incompetent government and sued for peace, which was achieved on terms favorable to the U.S. in 1783. About 20% of the Loyalists moved to [[Canada]], but many stayed in America, and the new peaceful nation resumed its rapid growth.

===New Nation===

In 1783, when the Treaty of Paris concluded the war of independence, the American population totalled some three million citizens and slaves living on about one million square miles of land. Tens of thousands of [[Native Americans]] also lived in the [[Northwest Territory]] and the Southwest.

The Thirteen original states are [[Connecticut]], [[Delaware]], [[Georgia]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]] (including [[maine]]), [[New Hampshire]], [[New Jersey]], [[New York]], [[North Carolina]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[South Carolina]] and [[Virginia]]. In 1790, an agreement between supporters of Jefferson and those of [[Alexander Hamilton]] resulted in the creation of the [[District of Columbia]] from part of [[Maryland]]; it has served as the national capital since 1800. The remainder of the 1783 territory was eventually organized as the states of [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]], [[Illinois]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Kentucky]], [[Tennessee]], [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]].

===Expansion===

In 1803, [[French]] emperor [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] took advantage of a lull in his war with Great Britain to sell the [[Louisiana Territory]] to the United States, more than doubling the nation's land area. This territory would later be organized as the states of [[Minnesota]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], [[Nebraska]], [[Iowa]], [[Missouri]], [[Arkansas]], [[Kansas]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Louisiana]] proper. President Jefferson commissioned [[Lewis and Clark]] to explore the new territory from 1802 to 1804.

The U.S. seized, then purchased [[Florida]] from Spain in 1819. [[Texas]] joined the United States in 1845 after winning its revolution against Mexico.

After victory the [[Mexican American War]] of 1846-48, the U.S. purchased via the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] territory that became the states of [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Arizona]]. In 1846 the U.S. and Britain agreed that the 49th Parallel (degree of latitude) would serve as the boundary between the U. S. and [[British Columbia]] (now part of Canada). The American portion became the states of [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and [[Idaho]].

In 1867, the U.S. purchased [[Alaska]] from [[Russia]]. It became a state in 1959.

Hawaii became an independent republic in 1894 and voluntarily joined the U.S. in 1898, becoming a state in 1960.

As a result of the [[Spanish-American War]], the United States took control of the [[Philippines]] and annexed [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]]. The Phillipines became independent in 1946, after the U.S. reconquered the islands from Japan in World War II. [[Puerto Rico]] has occasionally held referenda that ratified its continuing unique "Commonwealth" status as part of the United States. The residents of Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens. Guam continues as a U.S. owned territory with full citizenship for its inhabitants. The people of Puerto Rico and Guam have a vote in presidential primaries and a voice, but not a vote, in Congress.

==The Constitution and Politics in the United States==

[[Image:76485685i79.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The drafting committee presenting the [[Declaration of Independence]] to the [[Continental Congress]], painted by John Trumbull 1817–1819.]]

Between 1776 and 1788, the United States was governed according to the [[Articles of Confederation]]. The Founding Fathers formally established the current structure of the United States by ratification of the [[U.S. Constitution]] in 1788. Since 1789, that constitution has been the basic governing document. America's Founding Fathers understood that a democracy is always in flux and given to “mob rule,”<ref>[[Michelle Malkin]]. [http://michellemalkin.com/2009/03/27/the-coming-g20-riots-the-spread-of-mob-rule/comment-page-1/ The coming G20 riots & the spread of mob rule], ''Michelle Malkin'', March 27, 2009.</ref> while a republic is fixed and stable, resting on “the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God.” Because of the uncertainty of democracy, [[Benjamin Rush]] — a signer of the Declaration of Independence — wrote: “A simple democracy is one of the greatest of evils.”<ref>AWR Hawkins. [http://pajamasmedia.com/blog/america-a-republic-not-a-democracy/ America: A Republic, Not a Democracy], ''Pajamas Media'', September 03, 2009.</ref>

Sovereignty in America comes from the citizenry, and the basic political values are called "[[republicanism]]," (not to be confused with the [[Republican Party]],) especially the commitment to civic virtue and civic duty, and opposition to corruption and aristocracy. Popular political parties emerged in the United States in the 1790s; currently the two major political parties are the [[Democratic Party]], and the [[Republican Party]]. Minor parties are of little importance.

=== The Role of Religion in Government ===
{{main|Religion and U.S. Government}}

==Government==
{{main|United States Federal Government}}

[[Image:56eugyjnm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[White House]], the official home and workplace of the [[President of the United States]] of America.]]

===Executive Branch===

*Chief of state: The [[President of the United States]] is both the chief of state and head of government
*Head of government: President of the United States; [[Vice President of the United States]]
*Cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president with Senate approval
*Elections: The president and vice president serve four-year terms (eligible for a second term)

===Legislative Branch===

The United States legislative branch of government is a [[bicameral]] Congress, which consists of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] (100 seats, 2 members are elected from each state by popular vote to serve six-year terms; one-third are elected every two years) and the [[House of Representatives]] (435 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms).

===Judicial Branch===
{{main|Supreme Court of the United States}}

The United States [[Supreme Court]] consists of nine justices, nominated by the president and confirmed with the advice and consent of the Senate. Members of the Supreme Court are appointed to serve for life; the judicial branch extends to the United States Courts of Appeal, the United States District Courts, and State and County Courts. The primary role of the nine justices of the Supreme Court is to assure the United States government does not attempt to surrender, sell or transfer the people's unalienable rights given by [[God]]. The Supreme Court has the power to consider the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress.

==2010 Federal Holidays==
The table below lists public holidays for U.S. Federal employees for 2010.<ref>[http://www.opm.gov/Operating_Status_Schedules/fedhol/2010.asp 2010 Federal Holidays], OPM.gov, Federal law (5 U.S.C. 6103).</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date
! Holiday
|-
|Friday, Jan. 1 || [[New Year’s Day]]
|-
|Monday, Jan. 18 || Birthday of [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
|-
|Monday, Feb. 15* || Washington’s Birthday
|-
|Monday, May 31 || [[Memorial Day]]
|-
|Monday, July 5** || [[Independence Day]]
|-
|Monday, Sept. 6 || [[Labor Day]]
|-
|Monday, Oct. 11 || [[Columbus Day]]
|-
|Thursday, Nov. 11 || [[Veterans Day]]
|-
|Thursday, Nov. 25 || [[Thanksgiving Day]]
|-
|Friday, Dec. 24*** || [[Christmas|Christmas Day]]
|-
|}

==Flag Description==
[[Image:50 star flag.png|right|thumb|150px|The [[Flag of the United States of America]]]]
{{main|Flag of the United States of America}}

Thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies; known as Old Glory; the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including [[Chile]], [[Liberia]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Puerto Rico]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Also See==
*[[Pledge of Allegiance]]
*[[Famous American artists]]
*[[List of 50 states]]
*[[Americas]]
*[[America (continent)]]
*[[Columbia]]

==External links==
*[[CIA]] - [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html The World FactBook]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/america.htm America]
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/flags_of_us_states.htm Flags of the U.S. States]
*[http://www.pibmug.com/files/map_test.swf Interactive map test of the 50 U.S. states]
*[http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h445.html U.S. History]
{{USstates}}

[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:United States of America]]
[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Blue Angels

2010-11-29T19:46:09Z

Dfrischknecht:

{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="250" style="margin-left:5px"
|align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Blue Angels Insignia.png|150px]]
|-
! Current aircraft:
| [[F/A-18 Hornet]], [[C-130 Hercules|C-130T Hercules]]
|-
! Sponsor:
| [[United States Navy]]
|-
! Home Airfield:
| Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida
|-
! Winter Airfield:
| Naval Air Facility El Centro, California
|-
! Date Formed:
| April 24, 1946
|-
| colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller;" | {{{footnotes|}}}
|}

The '''Blue Angels''' is the [[United States Navy]]'s flight demonstration team whose mission is to enhance Navy and Marine Corps recruiting efforts and to represent the naval service to the United States, its elected leadership and foreign nations. The Blue Angels serve as positive role models and goodwill ambassadors for the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps.

A Blue Angels flight demonstration exhibits choreographed refinements of skills possessed by all naval aviators. It includes the graceful aerobatic maneuvers of the four-plane Diamond Formation, in concert with the fast-paced, high-performance maneuvers of its two Solo Pilots. Finally, the team illustrates the pinnacle of precision flying, performing maneuvers locked as a unit in the renowned, six-jet Delta Formation.

The team is stationed at Forrest Sherman Field, [[Naval Air Station Pensacola]], [[Florida]], during the show season. However, the squadron spends January through March training pilots and new team members at [[Naval Air Facility El Centro]], [[California]].

==History==
At the end of World War II, [[Chester W. Nimitz]], then the [[Chief of Naval Operations]], ordered the formation of a flight demonstration team to keep the public interested in naval aviation. The Blue Angels performed their first flight demonstration - in fact, the world's first such demonstration - less than a year later in June 1946 at their home base, Naval Air Station (NAS) Jacksonville, Florida. Flying the [[Grumman]] [[F6F Hellcat]], they were led by Lt. Cmdr. Roy “Butch” Voris.

Only two months later on August 25, 1946, the Blue Angels transitioned to the Grumman [[F8F Bearcat]]. One year later, the 1947 team, led by Lt. Cmdr. Robert Clarke, introduced the now famous “Diamond Formation.”

By the end of the 1940’s the Blue Angels were flying their first jet aircraft, the Grumman [[F9F-2 Panther]]. In response to the demands placed on naval aviation in the Korean Conflict, the team reported to the aircraft carrier USS Princeton as the nucleus of Fighter Squadron 191 (VF-191), "Satan’s Kittens", in 1950.

The team reorganized the next year and reported to NAS Corpus Christi, Texas, where they began flying the newer and faster version of the Panther, the F9F-5. The Blue Angels remained in Corpus Christi until the winter of 1954 when they relocated to their present home base at NAS Pensacola, Florida. It was here that they progressed to the swept-wing Grumman [[F9F-8 Cougar]].

The ensuing 20 years saw the Blue Angels transition to two more aircraft, the Grumman [[F11F-1 Tiger]] (1957) and the [[McDonnell Douglas]] [[F-4|F-4J Phantom II]] (1969).
[[Image:Blue Angels.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Blue Angels in their current aircraft, the [[McDonnell Douglas]] F/A-18 Hornet]]
In December 1974, the Navy Flight Demonstration Team began flying the McDonnell Douglas [[A-4F Skyhawk]] II and was reorganized as the Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron. This reorganization permitted the establishment of a commanding officer vice a flight leader (Cmdr. Tony Less was the squadron’s first official commanding officer), added support officers and further redefined the squadron’s mission, emphasizing the support of recruiting efforts.

On November 8, 1986, the Blue Angels completed their 40th anniversary year during ceremonies unveiling their present aircraft, the new sleek [[F/A-18 Hornet]], the first dual-role fighter/attack aircraft now serving on the nation’s front lines of defense.

In 1992 more than one million people viewed Blue Angel’s performances during a 30-day European deployment to Sweden, Finland, Russia, Romania, Bulgaria, Italy, the United Kingdom and Spain. This was the first European deployment in 19 years.

The 2006 show season brought out more than 15 million spectators. Since 1946, the Blue Angels have performed for more than 427 million fans.

=="Fat Albert"==
An all-Marine Corps crew of three officers and five enlisted personnel operate the [[Lockheed-Martin]] [[C-130 Hercules|C-130T Hercules]], affectionately known as Fat Albert Airlines. Fat Albert joined the team in 1970 and flies more than 140,000 miles each season. It carries more than 40 maintenance and support personnel, their gear and enough spare parts and communication equipment to complete a successful air show.

Fat Albert cruises at a speed of more than 320 knots (approximately 360 miles per hour) at 27,000 feet. Four Allison turboprop engines, which produce more than 16,000 shaft-horsepower, provide Fat Albert Airlines with the power to land and depart on runways as short as 2,500 feet.

At select show sites, Fat Albert demonstrates its jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) capability. Eight solid-fuel rocket bottles, four on each side, attached near the rear paratrooper doors thrust the Hercules skyward. Fired simultaneously, the JATO bottles allow the mammoth transport aircraft to takeoff within 1,500 feet, climb at a 45-degree angle, and propel it to an altitude of 1,000 feet in approximately 15 seconds. Getting Fat Albert airborne in minimal time and distance simulates conditions in hostile environments or on short, unprepared runways.

==Links==
[http://www.blueangels.navy.mil/index.htm Official website]

[[category:military]]
[[Category:United States Navy]]

United Nations

2010-11-28T05:57:36Z

Dfrischknecht: /* History */

[[Image:UN1.jpg|right|200px]]
The '''United Nations''' is a [[globalism|globalist]] organization of countries all over the world, originally created to facilitate cooperation in [[international law]], international security, economic development, and [[human rights]]. It was founded in 1945 at the signing of the United Nations Charter by 51 countries, replacing the League of Nations, founded in 1919. The UN currently has 192 members, including almost all the countries in the world. Non-members include [[Taiwan]] and [[Vatican City]]. Switzerland finally joined in 2002.<ref> [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/GA10041.doc.htm]</ref> The United Nations typically supports [[liberal]], [[socialist]] ideas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kincaid|first=Cliff|url=http://www.aim.org/aim-report/the-plan-for-socialist-world-government|title=The Plan For Socialist World Government|accessdate=2010-02-06|publisher=Accuracy in Media}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations|title=United Nations|accessdate=2010-02-06|work=Wikipedia|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middletownca.com/LIBERAL-EQUALS-SOCIALIST.htm|title=Liberal equals socialist equals communitarian equals fabian society equals Agenda 21|accessdate=2010-02-06|publisher=middletownca.com}}</ref>

==History==
The term "United Nations" was widely used during [[World War II]] to denote the allied powers making war against Germany and Japan, but the actual UN was created in 1945. It was designed by the U.S. State Department. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] envisaged "four policemen", Britain, United States, Soviet Union, and [[Republic of China]] to be the major forces on what later became the UN Security Council to enforce the peace worldwide. This was deemed a modern approach to replace the old [[spheres of influence]] as they were called during the age of Imperialism.

US Secretary of State Cordell Hull said at the time while selling the idea to Congress, "there will no longer be need for spheres of influence, for alliances, for balance of power, or any other of the separate alliances through which in the unhappy past the nations strove to safeguard their security or promote their interest."

American enthusiasm for the UN soured after the [[Soviet Union]] vetoed most resolutions of the Security Council. However the Soviets boycotted the UN in 1950, allowing the UN to officially sponsor the [[Korean War]]. In practice, the U.S. made all the decisions for the UN regarding that war. When the Soviets returned in 1951, soo too did stalemate, and the UN played a minor role in the [[Cold War]].

The western military alliance of [[NATO]] began in 1949 and played a much greater role in US foreign policy commitments and decisions during the [[Cold War]] than the UN ever did. The one exception was the [[Korean War]], which was fought under UN auspices since the Soviet Union was boycotting the UN in 1950.
===Third World issues===
In its earliest years, the United Nations was not dominated by the Asian and African "Third World" nations which ultimately poisoned the organization, but was of only limited use in controlling international conflict.

By the 1960s, the General Assembly, although powerless, became a shrill sounding board for anti-American sentiment.

===China===

==Organization==
[[Image:Int Atomic Ag.jpg|thumb|Flag of the International Atomic Energy Agency]]
The main deliberative organ is the '''General Assembly''' which usually meets annually in September with representation by all member states. The General Assembly votes on the annual budget of the United Nations, elects members to other UN organs and committees, and makes non-binding recommendations to member states through resolutions.

The '''[[Security Council]]''' handles matters relating to international peace and stability. It consists of five permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia and PR China), and ten temporary members, which are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. The Security Council decides by vote. On substantive issues, nine members must support the proposal, including all five permanent members, giving each permanent member an effective veto power. The chair of the Security Council rotates each month among its members, in alphabetic order.
===International Court of Justice===
The '''International Court of Justice''', based in [[The Hague]], was founded to settle conflicts and disputes over questions arising from the [[international law|interpretation of treaties]] among member states. It only may entertain <ref> International Court of Justice, [http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&p2=6 How the Court works], retrieved 26 April 2007.</ref> cases where all parties to the case in question have agreed to recognize the jurisdiction of the Court. The Court also advices other organs and agencies of the United Nations on questions of the interpretation of treaties.
===Other Sections===
The '''United Nations Economic and Social Council''' is a deliberative and advisory organ dedicated to promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. It cooperates with the [[International Monetary Fund]], the World Bank Group and similar international agencies.

The '''United Nations Secretariat''' is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the UN system. The head of the Secretariat is the [[Secretary-General]], who is nominated by the Security Council and appointed by the General Assembly for renewable five-year terms. The current Secretary-General is [[Ban Ki-moon]], the former Foreign Minister of the Republic of Korea. It is customary to let the position rotate among the different world regions.

==Criticism==
The U.N. has at various times in its history been accused of inefficiency and waste, which some critics have attributed to its cumbersome and excessive bureaucracy. Probably the most controversial issue with the United Nations is the Oil-for-Food scandal.

As a meeting place for many different nations, the UN can only act as a mechanism for international consensus. The UN has been unable to act in a clear and decisive way when confronted crises in which this consensus is not present. Recent examples include the [[Iran]]ian nuclear program and the genocides in Darfur, Sudan and Rwanda. Because each of the five permanent members of the Security Council have a veto, and because they often disagree, many times no action can be agreed upon. Typically but not always this division includes the [[United States]] on one side with either [[China]], [[Russia]] or both on the other. Other times the Security Council has been able to agree but lacks the will or means to enforce its resolutions. A recent example is the 2006 Israel-Lebanon Crisis, where no action has been taken to enforce the provisions of Resolution 1559 and Resolution 1701 to disarm terrorist organizations such as Hezbollah. There usually are no consequences for violating a Security Council resolution.

Inclusion on the old United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) of nations such as Sudan and Libya, whose leaderships have dubious records on human rights, and Libya's chairmanship of this Commission, has been a highly controversial issue.
[[Image:un_building.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The UN headquarters, on the east side of Manhattan, opened its doors on January 10th, 1951.]]

The U.N. has been accused of hypocritical conduct and double standards. The U.N. condemns Israel for its conduct toward the Palestinians, yet it refuses to condemn China for its conduct toward the Tibetans. <ref>[http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=C0058CAB-F932-4EB8-B2C1-2C8CABB01F53 The U.N.'s Hypocrisy in Tibet], [[Joseph Klein]], ''[[Front Page Magazine]]'', March 28, 2008</ref>

The United Nations has on many occasions ignored the plight of people across the world, especially in parts of Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Current examples include the UN's inaction toward the Sudanese government in Darfur, the Chinese government's ethnic cleansing in Tibet, and the Israel-Arab conflict. <ref> IBD Editorial, [http://www.ibdeditorials.com/IBDArticles.aspx?id=291423057524689 U.N. Fiddles As China Torches Tibet], retrieved 30 March 2008.</ref>

During the Rwandan genocide the UN did not authorize UNAMIR to intervene or use force to prevent or halt the killing.

===Promoting Abortion===
The Committee for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) pushes countries to promote [[abortion]].
<ref>[http://www.lifenews.com/int620.html United Nations Committee Pushes Countries to Promote Abortion in CEDAW Mtg], [[Samantha Singson]], ''[[Life News]]'', February 15, 2008</ref>

===Arab-Israel dispute===
[[File:Bnai-brith.jpg|thumb|300px|''B'nai B'rith'' magazine gives a Jewish view of the UN, [http://mydigimag.rrd.com/publication/?i=25994 winter 2009 online]]] A General Assembly resolution led to the partition of Palestine in 1947, but the UN was useless in preventing armed Arab aggression against the new State of Israel in 1948. Increasingly the General Assembly became a forum for Arab attacks on [[Israel]]

The UN has taken a one-sided approach to issues relating to the [[Israel]]-Arab conflict. Israel has consistently been singled out by the UN for uniquely critical treatment. In 1975 the General Assembly passed a resolution declaring that "Zionism is racism" <ref>[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/a06f2943c226015c85256c40005d359c/761c1063530766a7052566a2005b74d1!OpenDocument 16/12/1991, A/RES/46/86, Elimination of racism and racial discrimination/Zionism]</ref>, and UN-sponsored meetings supposedly opposing [[racism]] have criticized Israel (which grants equal political and religious rights to Arabs) while suppressing all criticism of those Arab countries (where non-Muslims are second-class citizens and [[anti-Semitism]] enjoys state support).

Unlike other refugee groups, the Palestinian Arabs have their own agency within the United Nations, and are beneficiaries of special events such as an "International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People."<ref>[http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/palestinian/ UN Web Site for International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, retried June 29, 2007]</ref> Israel was excluded from membership in any of the UN's regional groups until 2000. In effect, this meant Israel was forbidden from serving on UN bodies such as the Security Council. Israel's recent permission to participate more fully within the UN as a member of the Western European and Others regional group is temporary and subject to renewal. Israel is allowed to participate only in the New York operations of the UN and is excluded from the UN offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Rome and Vienna which handle such issues as human rights and arms control. Censure of Israel has apparently been instituted as a routine agenda item for various UN bodies such as the Human Rights Council. The 1975 Resolution 3379 qualified Zionism as a form of racism (later revoked with Resolution 4686).

===Defending Islam===
The United Nations Secretary General [[Ban Ki-moon]] condemned [[Geert Wilders]]'s controversial film "[[Fitna]]", while stating "freedom of expression is not at stake here." <ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN2844232220080328?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews&rpc=22&sp=true U.N.'s Ban condemns Dutch film as anti-Islamic], ''[[Reuters]]'', March 28, 2008.</ref>

The U.N.'s Human Rights Council passed a resolution that directs the body’s expert on free speech to report on “individuals and news media for negative comments on Islam.” <ref>[http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=F00A83C1-8D4A-4A7B-9545-9A63091D8294 The United Nations: Islam’s Gestapo], [[Stephen Brown]], ''[[Front Page Magazine]]'', April 11, 2008</ref> This suppression of free speech at an organization purporting to fairly represent the world's nations in a common forum is one of numerous actions in the past decade that has undermined U.N. credibility.

===Contemporary US Criticism===
Some American critics view the UN as an agent for eroding the [[Sovereignty]] of the [[United States]] and instead promoting forms of [[One-world government|world government]]. Some claim that President [[Bill Clinton]] rejected and ignored the position of the United Nations when he ordered U.S. military "police actions" in foreign countries. President [[George W. Bush]] also rejected the inaction of the UN when he authorized military action against the regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]] for ignoring various UN resolutions. Some commentators now feel that it has since devolved into a radical debating society which has ironically blocked most of the goals for which it has been formed. <ref>[http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030501faessay11217/michael-j-glennon/why-the-security-council-failed.html Why the Security Council Failed], Michael J. Glennon, ''Foreign Affairs'', May/June 2003.</ref>

==UN Peacekeepers Child Sexual Abuse==
The United Nations since its founding has been enmeshed in various scandals.

In July 1997 the UN announced an investigation into [[United Nations Peacekeeping Force]]s in [[Cote d'Ivoire]] on charges of widespread sexual abuse with a large number of underage girls. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/africa/07/21/un.ivory.coast.reut/ U.N. suspends peacekeepers amid sex abuse charges], CNN, July 21, 2007.</ref> More than 300 members of UN peacekeeping missions around the world have been investigated for sexual exploitation and abuse since 2004, including some stationed in [[Congo]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Haiti]]. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6909664.stm UN probes 'abuse' in Ivory Coast], BBC, July 23, 2007.</ref>

=== Incidents ===
*1998 - Bosnia <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml;jsessionid=YVWZRGS4V2AGJQFIQMGSFGGAVCBQWIV0?xml=/news/2002/04/25/wbos25.xml Teenagers 'used for sex by UN in Bosnia'], By Stewart Payne, London Telegraph, 25/04/2002.</ref>
*2003 - Nepalese troops accused of sexual abuse while serving in DR Congo. Six are later jailed
*2004 - Two UN peacekeepers repatriated after being accused of abuse in Burundi
*2005 - UN troops accused of rape and sexual abuse in Sudan <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/01/03/wsudan03.xml UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan], By Kate Holt in Juba and Sarah Hughes, London Telegraph, 04/01/2007.</ref>
*2006 - UN personnel accused of rape and exploitation on missions is Haiti and Liberia
*2007 - UN launches probe into sexual abuse claims in Ivory Coast

==Notable roles of U.S. Ambassadors to the U.N.==
* 1981-1985, Jeane Kirkpatrick - Denunciated the Soviet Union for the Sept. 1, 1983 shootdown of [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] in international airspace just west of [[Sakhalin]] Island.

==Further reading==
* Pubantz, Jerry, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the United Nations'' (2nd ed. 2008), useful basic guide to all activities
* Weiss, Thomas G., and Sam Daws, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations'' (2009), 848pp; articles by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-United-Nations-Handbooks/dp/0199560102/ref=pd_sim_b_1 excerpt and text search]
* Weiss, Thomas G. ''The United Nations and Changing World Politics'' (6th ed. 2009), 504pp; solid college textbook [http://www.amazon.com/United-Nations-Changing-World-Politics/dp/0813344352/ref=pd_sim_b_3cerpt and text search]
==External links==

*[http://www.nysun.com/article/56061 UNDP Officials Said To Hamper Probe Into Counterfeit Cash], By Benny Avni, ''The New York Sun'', June 7, 2007.
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HR00972:@@@D&summ2=m& H.R. 972 Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005] - Title I: Combatting International Trafficking in Persons - (Sec. 101); Directs the U.S. Secretary of State, prior to voting for a peacekeeping mission, to notify the appropriate Congressional committees respecting measures taken to prevent Peacekeeping personnel from involvement in human trafficking or sexual exploitation.

==See Also==
*[[Previous Breaking News/United Nations|Articles about the '''United Nations''' from previous "In the news" ]]

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/ United Nations] - Official site
*[http://www.unausa.org/site/pp.asp?c=fvKRI8MPJpF&b=1813833 All about the United Nations Budget] June 2006
*[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticleNew.asp?xfile=data/theuae/2007/May/theuae_May569.xml&section=theuae&col UN General Assembly President Shaikha Haya Rashed Al Khalifa calls for Islamic texts re-interpretation,]Khaleej Times Online, 19 May 2007.
*[http://www.rescue007.org/ International Committee for the Rescue of KAL 007 Survivors]

===Sites critical of the U.N.===
*[http://www.unwatch.org UN Watch]
*[http://www.unisevil.com/temp213.htm UN is Evil]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/united-nations/ What Liberals Say - Category: United Nations], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[category:United Nations]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[category:diplomacy]]
[[category:Cold War]]
[[category:Human Rights]]

==See Also==
*[[Jeane Kirkpatrick]]

==References==
<references/>

European Union

2010-11-28T05:52:07Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Politics */

{{Country
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|government-raw = Sui generis [[supranationalism]]
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|president-raw = José Manuel Barroso (Commission) Hans-Gert Pöttering (Parliament)
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|area =4,324,782 km² (1,669,807 sq mi)
|pop =497,198,740 (2007)
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|gdp-pc =$33,482 (2007 IMF)
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The '''European Union (EU)''' is a democratically organised legal, political and economic union of 27 [[European]] countries. It was formed in 1993 with the ratification of the [[Maastricht Treaty]], though its predecessor, the [[European Economic Community]], was founded in 1957.

As a set of institutions, the EU has more powers over its member states and their citizens than other international bodies; many of its competencies are supranational (above the member states) rather than intergovernmental (between them). Despite having a legal personality and sovereignty in agreed areas, it is not regarded as a federation or state in its own right: rather, it stands somewhere between these two points. Fifteen member states use a common currency, the '''[[euro]]'''<ref>Five other states formally agree to use it, and four others use it without formal agreement.</ref>.

There is no EU military. Each nation has its own forces, but nearly all are members of [[NATO]], in which the U.S. has a preponderant voice.

The EU is a driving force of global economic and political integration, but Hix (2008) sees three problems with the EU: policy gridlock, lack of popular legitimacy and the democratic deficit. He notes, "In substantive terms ... the EU is closer to a form of enlightened despotism than a genuine democracy."<ref> Hix (2008) </ref>
==Politics==
Each nation elects members to the Parliament in proportion to population. The June 2009 elections saw sweeping gains by conservative and anti-immigration parties, as labor and socialist parties lost heavily. Since the 2004 elections the largest grouping has for the last five years been the centre-right European People's Party '''EPP''' (288 seats out of a current 785), followed by the centre-left '''PES''' (216) and the liberal '''ALDE''' (100). With the 2009 election EPP made gains and retains power in the parliament.

Conservative Jose Manuel Barroso, who will have a second term as European Commission president, thanked voters and assured them their voices would be heard.

In 2009 The British [[Labour Party]], Germany's [[SPD]] (Social Democrats) and France's Socialist Party suffered historic defeats--the worst defeat for Labour in Britain in a century..

Turnout was at an all-time low in some countries, including France (41%) and Germany (42%).

==Structure==

===The European Commission===
In September 2009 Jose Manuel Barroso, was re-elected as president of the European Commission after the European Parliament voted to give him a second term. This ended weeks of uncertainty during which Socialist, Green and Liberal critics tried to block Mr Barroso's candidacy on the grounds that he had yielded too much power to national governments and promoted the kind of free-market liberalism that led to the financial crisis.

The role and responsibilities of the European Commission place it at the centre of the EU's decision-making process. Acting as the EU's policy and executive engine, the Commission is composed of 27 Commissioners, one from each state, and is supported by a substantial staff located primarily in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]. In matters relating to economic integration ("First or 'Community' Pillar"), only the Commission has the right to propose legislation for approval by the EU Council and European Parliament. As "guardian of the Treaties," the Commission ensures that EU laws are applied and upheld throughout the EU, prosecuting member states and other institutions for failing to follow treaty precepts or otherwise apply Community law. The Commission has full authority to enforce Community competition policy, and its policing of implementation of Community legislation preserves the integrity of the EU single market. The Commission likewise manages and develops the Common Agriculture Policy (CAP), implements the budget, and represents the European Community in its areas of competence, notably including international trade negotiations.

The Commission President is appointed by agreement of the EU heads of government and is subject to approval by the European Parliament. Commissioners serve for a renewable five-year term. New Commissioners are identified by member state governments in consultation with the President-designate of the Commission and are normally put in place at the beginning of the term of the Commission President. The entire Commission must be confirmed as a collective whole by the European Parliament before its formal appointment by common accord of EU governments.

===The European Council===
The European Council brings together EU heads of government and the President of the European Commission; foreign ministers of member states also participate. Finance ministers are normally included when the leaders discuss questions related to the euro and the economy. The European Council meets at least twice a year, usually quarterly, at the end of each Presidency, to review major EU projects, set guidelines for policies and provide necessary guidance. The Presidency of the Council rotates every six months among EU member states (January–June; July–December). Its role has become increasingly important with the expansion of EU responsibilities and competencies. The Presidency organises and presides over the meetings of the European Council and EU Council (ministerial) meetings, drafts compromises, and seeks solutions to problems submitted to the European Council.

===Council of Ministers===
The Council of Ministers of the European Union (the "EU Council") is the body in which representatives of the individual member state governments, usually ministers, legislate for the EU, set its political objectives, coordinate national policies and resolve differences among their governments and with other EU bodies. Legally speaking, there is only one Council, but it meets in nine different formations, depending on the matters on its agenda. Foreign ministers usually meet at least once a month in the General Affairs and External Relations Council (GAERC), which deals with major foreign policy issues and plays a coordinating role. Ministers for the Economy and Finance (ECOFIN) and ministers responsible for agriculture also hold monthly meetings. Ministers for Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) hold regular meetings to coordinate policies within their competence.

The Council holds formal sessions in its Brussels headquarters, except in April, June and October, when all sessions take place in Luxembourg. Most formations of the Council also meet informally (tasking no legally binding decisions) in the country holding the EU Presidency, usually once in the course of the Presidency's six-month term. The most prominent of these informal meetings is the so-called "Gymnich" meeting of foreign ministers, named for a town in Germany where the first such meeting took place.

The Council takes most decisions under the Community Pillar by qualified majority voting (QMV) but endeavours to reach the broadest possible consensus before approving legislation. Unanimity is required for a number of specific areas related to economic integration (e.g. taxation), constitutional matters such as amendments to the treaties, the launching of a new common policy, the accession of a new member state, and matters falling within the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy, European Security and Defence Policy, and aspects of law enforcement and judicial cooperation. The number of votes cast by each member state when the EU Council votes by qualified majority voting was determined by the Nice Treaty and roughly correlates to the size of its population.

===The [[European Parliament]]===
The European Parliament is the largest trans-national parliament in the world, and the second-largest overall (behind [[India]]), with an electorate of almost half a billion. Members of the Parliament are directly elected by all EU citizens for five-year terms; elections follow national election procedures, except they have to be a form of proportional representation. Members do not sit in national delegations; rather, they sit in groups according to political affiliation (including Socialists, Christian Democrats/Conservatives, Liberals, Greens, et cetera).

Parliament's powers have gradually grown with the entry into force of the Single European Act (1986), the Maastricht Treaty (1993) and the Treaty of Amsterdam (1999). Parliament shares decision-making power on an equal footing with the Council in many areas under the Community Pillar to which the "co-decision procedure" applies. The European Parliament is one of the two branches with budgetary authority – the Council is the other. The signature of the EP president brings the overall EU budget into effect.

The European Parliament also plays a role in the process of selecting the President and other members of the Commission. The European Council's nomination of the President is subject to approval by the Parliament. The EP holds U.S.-style public hearings of Commission nominees before taking a formal vote to approve the nomination of the Commission as a body. Parliament has the power to censure the entire Commission, but not to dismiss individual Commissioners.

===The European Court of Justice===
The European Court of Justice (ECJ) ensures uniform interpretation and application of both the Treaties establishing the European Communities and the secondary legislation and other law adopted under their authority. To enable it to carry out that task, the Court has wide jurisdiction to hear various types of cases. For example, the Court has the authority to hear and issue binding judgements in lawsuits that seek to annul a law adopted by the EU, to compel an EU institution to act, or to require that a member state comply with EU law. The ECJ may issue clarifications of EU law (in response to a request for a preliminary ruling from any member state court) and hears appeals on legal questions arising out of cases at the Court of First Instance. The ECJ currently has 27 justices and eight advocates-general, who are appointed by common accord of the governments of the member states and who hold office for six-year renewable terms.

==Sovereignty==
The member states of the European Union fall under the jurisdiction of the Union's legislative and judicial institutions (the Court of Justice, the Commission, the Council and the Parliament) in those competences that they have conferred to the Union (the principle of subsidiarity). Similar to Federal Law trumping State Law in United States politics, EU member states are obliged to follow the laws set forth by the European Court of Justice, even if their national laws are contradictory. This system of government pools sovereignty in those agreed areas from the nation, and rests it in the EU institutions. Some political theorists argue that the EU is thus the death of the nation, as by the [[Treaty of Westphalia]], nations are defined by their right of self-sovereignty; however, each member state has a legal right to cede from the EU, which non-sovereign components of states do not.

==Economy==
The institutions of the European Union were originally created to oversee the operation of the several economic communities that later became the Single European Market. Even as the EU's political integration has continued, the area of greatest integration has always been in the economic sphere: goods, capital, and labour move freely between member states (with exceptions for goods which pose a public health risk), businesses in all member states are increasingly subject to common basic rules, and fifteen of the 27 member states use a common currency, the euro. The rest of the states are legally obliged to adopt the euro when their economies meet strict ''Convergence Criteria''. The fifteen euro-area countries share a common monetary policy administered by the European Central Bank in Frankfurt, Germany. The EU strives to eliminate internal barriers to the free flow of goods, services, labour, and capital, and to promote the overall convergence of living standards. Internationally, the EU aims to strengthen Europe's trade position and capitalise on the political and economic leverage that a large, unified market brings.

===Growth===
The EU is the world's largest economic area (the U.S. is second) with a 2007 GDP of $16.6 trillion. Growth in many western member states has been slow compared to those in the east; between 2001 and 2003, the overall growth rate dropped from 1.8 percent to 1.0 percent, then recovered in 2004 to 2.4%, fell to 1.8 percent in 2005, then rose to 2.8% in 2006 and 2.4% in 2007. Within the euro area, growth varies as much as 4.5 percentage points between the fastest and slowest-growing economies: in 2005, the economies of Germany, France and Italy, grew by less than two percent. Growth remains strong in the new central- and eastern-European member states with rapidly industrialising economies.

In spring 2000, the EU committed to a ten-year strategic goal of transforming the EU into a more competitive, knowledge-based economy capable of sustaining higher levels of growth. Focusing on labour market reform, macroeconomic and fiscal policy, and promotion of e-commerce and entrepreneurship, the EU's "Lisbon Agenda" was an attempt to stimulate growth while remaining committed to the EU social model. Some suggest that it has so far failed to achieve its goals in large part because national governments (which retain authority over employment policy, immigration, large public sector workforces, entitlement programs and pensions) have not completed the necessary reforms, with unemployment at 6.9 percent in 2007. The European Commission re-launched the Lisbon Agenda in March 2005, promising three percent growth and six million new jobs by 2010. The revamped strategy focuses on developing political consensus within member states to make the changes necessary to complete elimination of barriers in the internal market, reduce the regulatory burden on business, improve labour market flexibility, provide incentives to work and increase investment in human capital.

===Fiscal and Monetary Policy===
Introduced in 1999, the euro is currently the official currency of fifteen of the 27 EU member states. The United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden chose to retain their national currencies, and some of the newer EU members have yet to meet the strict economic conditions required to adopt the euro. Prior to the euro's launch in 1999, national currency exchange rates of countries intending to join the euro were fixed within an Exchange Rate Mechanism. Following the January 2002 introduction of euro notes and coins into general circulation, national currencies were removed from circulation. Each of the euro area countries agreed to abide by a shared fiscal policy rule book known as the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP). This agreement generally obliges national governments to limit government budget deficits to 3 percent of GDP and established a target debt-to-GDP ratio of below sixty percent. Although enforcement actions have been forgiving – France and Germany, for example, avoided sanctions despite missing SGP targets – countries violating the SGP are technically subject to sanctions by the European Commission. As of March 2005, national governments have been granted budget leeway to achieve structural reforms and to combat prolonged stagnation, negative growth or other factors, such as the cost of German reunification or state pensions. The revised standards still require deficits to remain close to the targets; they may only temporarily exceed the three percent limit.

The euro area's monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank (ECB), which must devise a monetary policy to accommodate a wide range of domestic policies and economic conditions within the euro area. The Treaties require that the ECB's primary objective be to maintain price stability (i.e., to keep inflation low). Euro area national governments have sometimes criticised the ECB for guarding against inflation at the expense of interest rate flexibility that could enable struggling economies to gain traction. The ECB's consistent overnight interest rate of two percent has been credited with creating favourable conditions for growth in Spain and Ireland, but has been blamed for hindering growth in France, Germany, Italy, and Portugal. Non-EU countries have also adopted the euro, including Andorra, United Kingdom base areas, Kosovo, Monaco, Montenegro, and the Vatican City. Additionally, several countries have currencies pegged to the euro, including French African states and those in the Exchange Rate Mechanism.

===Trade===
The EU is the world's largest exporter of goods and services. In 2003, the then fifteen EU members exported $987 billion worth of goods to non-EU countries. The EU's exports grew rapidly between 1996 and 2000 but have grown more slowly since. Except for 2002, the EU as a whole has posted a trade deficit every year since 1999; it was $62 billion in 2004. The EU is a major exporter of chemicals, transport equipment, and industrial machinery. The EU has large trade deficits in raw materials and energy, and a small deficit in food and drink.

The U.S. is the EU's main trading partner by a wide margin. U.S. goods and services exports to the EU reached $283 billion in 2004, while U.S. goods and services imports from the EU totalled $388 billion. Asian economies such as Japan and China, however, account for an increasingly important share of EU trade. The EU's two-way merchandise trade with China grew to $223 million in 2004, while merchandise trade with Japan was $149 million. Internal trade between euro area and non-euro area countries was down one percent in the first quarter of 2005, but the EU's external trade was up four percent, particularly with Russia and Norway.

Member states have given almost exclusive authority to the EU to negotiate binding international trade treaties. The European Community (EC) is a full member of the World Trade Organisation and plays an active role in the Doha Development Round to foster international trade in services and agricultural products. Bilaterally, the EC maintains framework agreements to facilitate trade flows with thirty-five countries worldwide, mostly elsewhere in Europe, in North Africa, and in the Middle East.

===Foreign Direct Investment===
The EU is both a major destination for foreign direct investment (FDI) and a major source of FDI. U.S. foreign direct investment in the EU totalled $83.3 billion in 2004; EU FDI into the U.S. totalled $46.6 billion. Following strong year-upon-year growth in the late 1990s, however, inward and outward flows of FDI have contracted since 2001. The EU is a net recipient of FDI from Japan, receiving $81 billion in 2003. Conversely, the EU is a net investor in Canada ($86 billion in outward investment in 2003), and China ($29 billion in outward investment in 2003). Growth of intra-EU FDI has increased rapidly in recent years and has increased much faster than FDI in non-EU countries.

The pattern of foreign investment by European firms reflects deep commercial ties with the United States. U.S. and EU businesses invest heavily and operate profitably on both sides of the Atlantic. U.S. affiliates in Europe accounted for 56 percent of the aggregate output of U.S. affiliates worldwide. European firms were the largest foreign investors in 44 U.S. states and the second largest foreign investor in the remaining six. Sales by U.S. affiliates in Europe totalled $1.5 trillion in 2002, more than double those of U.S. affiliates in the Asia/Pacific region. European affiliate sales in the U.S. were $1.2 trillion in 2002, more than three times the value of U.S. imports from Europe.

Intra-firm trade involving foreign affiliates is particularly important to the transatlantic trade and investment relationship. Approximately 58 percent of U.S. imports from the EU in 2004 involved trade between related parties, as did 30 percent of U.S. exports to Europe in 2003. This high level of intra-firm trade has contributed to the persistence of the U.S. trade deficit with Europe even as the dollar has lost value against the euro since 2002.

===Budget===
The EU's budget is composed of member state contributions. Equivalent to roughly one percent of the member states' combined gross national income (GNI), it was $123 billion in 2005. The UK receives a rebate for some of its contribution, as the CAP benefits the UK less than other states. In June 2005, the EU failed to agree on a budget plan for 2007 through 2013, due in part to a disagreement between the UK and France over the persistence of the UK budget rebate and the funding of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Costs attributable to the CAP constitute the EU's largest annual budget item, benefiting farmers across the EU, especially in France. Payments to net-recipient member states, designed to reduce economic and social disparities among EU countries and regions, are another budget item which has become more contentious with the accession of ten new states poorer than the EU average.

==Criticism==
A significant number of Europeans on the political right of centre are opposed to the EU on the grounds that it undermines national sovereignty and identity. The term "eurosceptic" has risen in popularity in Britan to describe these people, and among them are such members as the former British Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] (although, while in power, she committed Britain to the 1986 [[Single European Act]], a major integrationist measure). They also, however, include less well-respected politicians belonging to far right or [[nationalism|nationalist]] parties, such as France's [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]]. There are also extreme left-wing opponents of the European Union, such as ''Die Linke'' in Germany, who regard it as constituting an anti-progressive "Fortress Europe", and claim that EU membership impedes countries from following socialist policies.

==History==
Following World War II, traditional European rivals sought to solidify peace by bringing their nations together under a common institutional structure. Influenced by his compatriot [[Jean Monnet]], French Foreign Minister [[Robert Schuman]] officially tabled a plan on May 9, 1950 to pool French and German coal and steel production under an organisation that would be open to other European countries. German Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] supported this proposal, and six founding countries – Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands – took an early step toward European integration by establishing the '''European Coal and Steel Community''' (ECSC) in 1951.

After failing to establish a European Defence Community in the 1950s, the six countries then decided to set up a common market. With the entry into force of the ''''Treaty of Rome''' in 1957, they created the '''European Economic Community''' (EEC), with an objective of liberating the movement of goods, capital, workers and services. (The European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) was also established at this time.) The Treaty of Rome established the basic institutions and decision-making mechanisms still in place in today's European Union. in 1968, the EEC abolished customs duties between member states on manufactured goods. New policies, including a common agricultural policy (CAP) and a common trade policy, were in place by the end of the 1960s.

The success of the European integration project during a period of steady economic growth in the 1960s set the stage for a first enlargement – the accession of Britain, Ireland and Denmark – in 1973. Further "deepening" of European integration followed: the Community acquired executive authority in social, regional, and environment policies. The benefits of economic convergence became more evident in the context of the 1970s energy crisis and financial turmoil, which led to the launch of the European Monetary System in 1979. In the same year, the first direct elections to the European Parliament (EP) took place. Previously, delegates from national parliaments had represented their country's legislative bodies at the EP in Strasbourg, France.

The Community further expanded southward with the accession of Greece (1981, the second enlargement), followed by Spain and Portugal (1986, the third enlargement). These accessions led the EEC to adopt "structural programs" in order to reduce economic and social disparities among its regions.

During the 1960s and 1970s, the Community began to assert itself on the international scene with the conclusion of agreements with southern Mediterranean countries. Starting in 1963, the EEC signed four successive Lome Conventions, which guaranteed trading advantages and development aid for member states' former colonies in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific (ACP).

World recession and internal disputes over member states' financial burdens gave way, from 1985 onward, to renewed efforts for economic integration, enshrined in the 1985 "Single European Act" (SEA) and marked by the 1992 "Single Market Project." The SEA set January 1, 1993 as the date by which an internal single market was to be established and, by extending the practice of majority voting rather than unanimity in the EU Council, gave Community institutions the means of adopting the 300 Community-wide Directives required to abolish the remaining barriers and obstacles to intra-Community trade. In 1995, the Community entered into the "Barcelona" partnership with twelve southern Mediterranean countries. The partnership, reinforced by agreements on social, cultural, and human cooperation, was intended to lead to a free-trade area.

The collapse of the Berlin Wall and German unification prompted member states to negotiate the 1992 Treaty on European Union (the "Maastricht Treaty"). In addition to establishing the European Union, the Maastricht Treaty set an ambitious program of further integration: establishment of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) by 1999 (part of the "First or 'Community' Pillar"), setting up of a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) ("Second Pillar"); and cooperation on Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) ("Third Pillar"). Shortly thereafter, in 1995, Austria, Finland and Sweden joined the EU – the fourth enlargement.

Signed in 1997 and entering into force on May 1, 1999, the '''Amsterdam Treaty''' partially streamlined the EU institutional structure. Its most significant effects were: (1) to transfer aspects of Justice and Home Affairs policy to the Community Pillar, enabling the Commission to propose decisions to be taken by the EU Council by qualified majority voting instead of by consensus, and (2) to establish a High Representative for the CFSP (who also serves as Secretary-General of the Council Secretariat). Ten countries in Central and Eastern Europe and Cyprus began accession procedures in 1997, followed by Malta. The prospect of eastward enlargement raised significant resource concerns and prompted the adoption in March 1999 of the "Agenda 2000" package, which covered amendments to the CAP and EU structural policies, as well as a budgetary framework through 2006.

In May 1998, EU heads of government officially designated eleven member states eligible to adopt a single currency. Britain and Denmark "opted out." On January 1, 1999, the euro became the official currency of the EU, and the '''European Central Bank''' (ECB) put euro notes and coins into circulation in 2002. Today, fifteen countries use the euro: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain.

Streamlining the size and procedures of EU institutions to make the expanded EU more efficient was also an aim of the 2003 Treaty of Nice.

===Expansion===
In 2004, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the EU, and in 2007 Bulgaria and Romania acceded, bringing total membership to 27. Candidate countries currently include Turkey, FYR Macedonia and Croatia, and potential candidates include the rest of the Western Balkan states.

In October 2004, member states signed an EU Constitutional Treaty designed to replace all previous treaties. French and Dutch voters rejected the treaty through referendums in 2005, thereby suspending the ratification process. In 2007, a modified '''Treaty of Lisbon''' was agreed upon, which retains most of the reforms of the Constitution, but amends rather than replaces previous treaties.

==Candidates for membership==
There are three official candidates being considered for membership, [[Turkey]], [[Croatia]] and [[The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]]. The western Balkan states of Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, Bosnia-Hercegovina and Albania are officially ''potential candidates''. A country that is expected to accede is required to make some economic, social and governmental changes to bring it in line with other member states.

The status of Turkey is highly controversial. It has repeatedly applied to join the EU but has been rejected each time on numerous grounds. Despite being one of the first countries to join the post-war Council of Europe and being a key regional power with a strong military Turkey has a long list of obstacles to overcome before accession. Many nations have cited its poor relations with other countries such as Cyprus, as well as its views on the rights of women and the Turkish Penal Code which includes the notorious Article 301. Article 301 is a recent piece of legislation that provides that "a person who publicly insults the Turkish nation, the State of the Republic of Turkey, or the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, shall be punishable by imprisonment of between six months and two years". Turkey's population of 70 million would make it one of the largest states in the EU with the second-highest amount of MEPs, and would be the first Muslim-majority state in Europe. Britain supports admission while France is strongly against Turkey's membership.

Gateway to the European Union (EU official website) <ref>http://europa.eu/</ref>

==Member states==
*[[Austria]]
*[[Belgium]]
*[[Bulgaria]]
*[[Cyprus]]
*[[Czech Republic]]
*[[Denmark]]
*[[Estonia]]
*[[Finland]]
*[[France]]
*[[Germany]]
*[[Greece]]
*[[Hungary]]
*[[Ireland]]
*[[Italy]]
*[[Latvia]]
*[[Lithuania]]
*[[Luxembourg]]
*[[Malta]]
*[[Netherlands]]
*[[Poland]]
*[[Portugal]]
*[[Romania]]
*[[Slovakia]]
*[[Slovenia]]
*[[Spain]]
*[[Sweden]]
*[[United Kingdom]]

==References==
<References/>

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/54126.htm]}}
==Further reading==
* Cini, Michelle, and Nieves Perez-Solorzano Borragan, eds. ''European Union Politics'' (2009)
* Craig, Paul and Gráinne de Búrca. ''EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials'' (4th ed. 2007)
* Dinan, Desmond. '' Europe Recast: A History of European Union' '(2004).
* Hix, Simon. ''What's Wrong with the Europe Union and How to Fix It'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Whats-Wrong-Europe-Union-How/dp/0745642055/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&qid=1263576617&sr=1-10-spell excerpt and text search]
* Kaiser, Wolfram. ''Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union'' (2007)
* Peterson, John, and Michael Shackleton eds. ''The Institutions of the European Union'' (2nd ed. 2006)
* McCormick, John. ''The European Union: Politics and Policies'' (2007)
* Pinder, John, and Simon Usherwood. ''The European Union: A Very Short Introduction'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/European-Union-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0199233977/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1263575844&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
*Podmore, Will & Nicholls, Doug (2006), The EU: bad for Britain - a [[trade union]] view. Bread Books, ISBN 0-942112-5-1.
* Staab, Andreas. ''The European Union Explained: Institutions, Actors, Global Impact'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/European-Union-Explained-Institutions-Actors/dp/0253220181/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1263575844&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Yesilada, Birol A. and David M. Wood. ''The Emerging European Union'' (5th ed. 2009)
[[Category:European Politics]]
[[Category:European History]]

European Union

2010-11-28T05:51:41Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Politics */

{{Country
|name =''European Union''
|map =European_Union.jpg
|flag =567rugyhj.png
|arms =
|capital =
|capital-raw = [[Brussels]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Strasbourg]]
|government =
|government-raw = Sui generis [[supranationalism]]
|language = 23 official languages
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw = José Manuel Barroso (Commission) Hans-Gert Pöttering (Parliament)
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =4,324,782 km² (1,669,807 sq mi)
|pop =497,198,740 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$16,574 billion (2007 IMF)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$33,482 (2007 IMF)
|currency =euro
|idd =
|tld =.eu
}}
The '''European Union (EU)''' is a democratically organised legal, political and economic union of 27 [[European]] countries. It was formed in 1993 with the ratification of the [[Maastricht Treaty]], though its predecessor, the [[European Economic Community]], was founded in 1957.

As a set of institutions, the EU has more powers over its member states and their citizens than other international bodies; many of its competencies are supranational (above the member states) rather than intergovernmental (between them). Despite having a legal personality and sovereignty in agreed areas, it is not regarded as a federation or state in its own right: rather, it stands somewhere between these two points. Fifteen member states use a common currency, the '''[[euro]]'''<ref>Five other states formally agree to use it, and four others use it without formal agreement.</ref>.

There is no EU military. Each nation has its own forces, but nearly all are members of [[NATO]], in which the U.S. has a preponderant voice.

The EU is a driving force of global economic and political integration, but Hix (2008) sees three problems with the EU: policy gridlock, lack of popular legitimacy and the democratic deficit. He notes, "In substantive terms ... the EU is closer to a form of enlightened despotism than a genuine democracy."<ref> Hix (2008) </ref>
==Politics==
Each nation elects members to the Parliament in proportion to population. The June 2009 elections saw sweeping gains by conservative and anti-immigration parties, as labor and socialist parties lost heavily. Since th 2004 elections the largest grouping has for the last five years been the centre-right European People's Party '''EPP''' (288 seats out of a current 785), followed by the centre-left '''PES''' (216) and the liberal '''ALDE''' (100). With the 2009 election EPP made gains and retains power in the parliament.

Conservative Jose Manuel Barroso, who will have a second term as European Commission president, thanked voters and assured them their voices would be heard.

In 2009 The British [[Labour Party]], Germany's [[SPD]] (Social Democrats) and France's Socialist Party suffered historic defeats--the worst defeat for Labour in Britain in a century..

Turnout was at an all-time low in some countries, including France (41%) and Germany (42%).

==Structure==

===The European Commission===
In September 2009 Jose Manuel Barroso, was re-elected as president of the European Commission after the European Parliament voted to give him a second term. This ended weeks of uncertainty during which Socialist, Green and Liberal critics tried to block Mr Barroso's candidacy on the grounds that he had yielded too much power to national governments and promoted the kind of free-market liberalism that led to the financial crisis.

The role and responsibilities of the European Commission place it at the centre of the EU's decision-making process. Acting as the EU's policy and executive engine, the Commission is composed of 27 Commissioners, one from each state, and is supported by a substantial staff located primarily in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]. In matters relating to economic integration ("First or 'Community' Pillar"), only the Commission has the right to propose legislation for approval by the EU Council and European Parliament. As "guardian of the Treaties," the Commission ensures that EU laws are applied and upheld throughout the EU, prosecuting member states and other institutions for failing to follow treaty precepts or otherwise apply Community law. The Commission has full authority to enforce Community competition policy, and its policing of implementation of Community legislation preserves the integrity of the EU single market. The Commission likewise manages and develops the Common Agriculture Policy (CAP), implements the budget, and represents the European Community in its areas of competence, notably including international trade negotiations.

The Commission President is appointed by agreement of the EU heads of government and is subject to approval by the European Parliament. Commissioners serve for a renewable five-year term. New Commissioners are identified by member state governments in consultation with the President-designate of the Commission and are normally put in place at the beginning of the term of the Commission President. The entire Commission must be confirmed as a collective whole by the European Parliament before its formal appointment by common accord of EU governments.

===The European Council===
The European Council brings together EU heads of government and the President of the European Commission; foreign ministers of member states also participate. Finance ministers are normally included when the leaders discuss questions related to the euro and the economy. The European Council meets at least twice a year, usually quarterly, at the end of each Presidency, to review major EU projects, set guidelines for policies and provide necessary guidance. The Presidency of the Council rotates every six months among EU member states (January–June; July–December). Its role has become increasingly important with the expansion of EU responsibilities and competencies. The Presidency organises and presides over the meetings of the European Council and EU Council (ministerial) meetings, drafts compromises, and seeks solutions to problems submitted to the European Council.

===Council of Ministers===
The Council of Ministers of the European Union (the "EU Council") is the body in which representatives of the individual member state governments, usually ministers, legislate for the EU, set its political objectives, coordinate national policies and resolve differences among their governments and with other EU bodies. Legally speaking, there is only one Council, but it meets in nine different formations, depending on the matters on its agenda. Foreign ministers usually meet at least once a month in the General Affairs and External Relations Council (GAERC), which deals with major foreign policy issues and plays a coordinating role. Ministers for the Economy and Finance (ECOFIN) and ministers responsible for agriculture also hold monthly meetings. Ministers for Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) hold regular meetings to coordinate policies within their competence.

The Council holds formal sessions in its Brussels headquarters, except in April, June and October, when all sessions take place in Luxembourg. Most formations of the Council also meet informally (tasking no legally binding decisions) in the country holding the EU Presidency, usually once in the course of the Presidency's six-month term. The most prominent of these informal meetings is the so-called "Gymnich" meeting of foreign ministers, named for a town in Germany where the first such meeting took place.

The Council takes most decisions under the Community Pillar by qualified majority voting (QMV) but endeavours to reach the broadest possible consensus before approving legislation. Unanimity is required for a number of specific areas related to economic integration (e.g. taxation), constitutional matters such as amendments to the treaties, the launching of a new common policy, the accession of a new member state, and matters falling within the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy, European Security and Defence Policy, and aspects of law enforcement and judicial cooperation. The number of votes cast by each member state when the EU Council votes by qualified majority voting was determined by the Nice Treaty and roughly correlates to the size of its population.

===The [[European Parliament]]===
The European Parliament is the largest trans-national parliament in the world, and the second-largest overall (behind [[India]]), with an electorate of almost half a billion. Members of the Parliament are directly elected by all EU citizens for five-year terms; elections follow national election procedures, except they have to be a form of proportional representation. Members do not sit in national delegations; rather, they sit in groups according to political affiliation (including Socialists, Christian Democrats/Conservatives, Liberals, Greens, et cetera).

Parliament's powers have gradually grown with the entry into force of the Single European Act (1986), the Maastricht Treaty (1993) and the Treaty of Amsterdam (1999). Parliament shares decision-making power on an equal footing with the Council in many areas under the Community Pillar to which the "co-decision procedure" applies. The European Parliament is one of the two branches with budgetary authority – the Council is the other. The signature of the EP president brings the overall EU budget into effect.

The European Parliament also plays a role in the process of selecting the President and other members of the Commission. The European Council's nomination of the President is subject to approval by the Parliament. The EP holds U.S.-style public hearings of Commission nominees before taking a formal vote to approve the nomination of the Commission as a body. Parliament has the power to censure the entire Commission, but not to dismiss individual Commissioners.

===The European Court of Justice===
The European Court of Justice (ECJ) ensures uniform interpretation and application of both the Treaties establishing the European Communities and the secondary legislation and other law adopted under their authority. To enable it to carry out that task, the Court has wide jurisdiction to hear various types of cases. For example, the Court has the authority to hear and issue binding judgements in lawsuits that seek to annul a law adopted by the EU, to compel an EU institution to act, or to require that a member state comply with EU law. The ECJ may issue clarifications of EU law (in response to a request for a preliminary ruling from any member state court) and hears appeals on legal questions arising out of cases at the Court of First Instance. The ECJ currently has 27 justices and eight advocates-general, who are appointed by common accord of the governments of the member states and who hold office for six-year renewable terms.

==Sovereignty==
The member states of the European Union fall under the jurisdiction of the Union's legislative and judicial institutions (the Court of Justice, the Commission, the Council and the Parliament) in those competences that they have conferred to the Union (the principle of subsidiarity). Similar to Federal Law trumping State Law in United States politics, EU member states are obliged to follow the laws set forth by the European Court of Justice, even if their national laws are contradictory. This system of government pools sovereignty in those agreed areas from the nation, and rests it in the EU institutions. Some political theorists argue that the EU is thus the death of the nation, as by the [[Treaty of Westphalia]], nations are defined by their right of self-sovereignty; however, each member state has a legal right to cede from the EU, which non-sovereign components of states do not.

==Economy==
The institutions of the European Union were originally created to oversee the operation of the several economic communities that later became the Single European Market. Even as the EU's political integration has continued, the area of greatest integration has always been in the economic sphere: goods, capital, and labour move freely between member states (with exceptions for goods which pose a public health risk), businesses in all member states are increasingly subject to common basic rules, and fifteen of the 27 member states use a common currency, the euro. The rest of the states are legally obliged to adopt the euro when their economies meet strict ''Convergence Criteria''. The fifteen euro-area countries share a common monetary policy administered by the European Central Bank in Frankfurt, Germany. The EU strives to eliminate internal barriers to the free flow of goods, services, labour, and capital, and to promote the overall convergence of living standards. Internationally, the EU aims to strengthen Europe's trade position and capitalise on the political and economic leverage that a large, unified market brings.

===Growth===
The EU is the world's largest economic area (the U.S. is second) with a 2007 GDP of $16.6 trillion. Growth in many western member states has been slow compared to those in the east; between 2001 and 2003, the overall growth rate dropped from 1.8 percent to 1.0 percent, then recovered in 2004 to 2.4%, fell to 1.8 percent in 2005, then rose to 2.8% in 2006 and 2.4% in 2007. Within the euro area, growth varies as much as 4.5 percentage points between the fastest and slowest-growing economies: in 2005, the economies of Germany, France and Italy, grew by less than two percent. Growth remains strong in the new central- and eastern-European member states with rapidly industrialising economies.

In spring 2000, the EU committed to a ten-year strategic goal of transforming the EU into a more competitive, knowledge-based economy capable of sustaining higher levels of growth. Focusing on labour market reform, macroeconomic and fiscal policy, and promotion of e-commerce and entrepreneurship, the EU's "Lisbon Agenda" was an attempt to stimulate growth while remaining committed to the EU social model. Some suggest that it has so far failed to achieve its goals in large part because national governments (which retain authority over employment policy, immigration, large public sector workforces, entitlement programs and pensions) have not completed the necessary reforms, with unemployment at 6.9 percent in 2007. The European Commission re-launched the Lisbon Agenda in March 2005, promising three percent growth and six million new jobs by 2010. The revamped strategy focuses on developing political consensus within member states to make the changes necessary to complete elimination of barriers in the internal market, reduce the regulatory burden on business, improve labour market flexibility, provide incentives to work and increase investment in human capital.

===Fiscal and Monetary Policy===
Introduced in 1999, the euro is currently the official currency of fifteen of the 27 EU member states. The United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden chose to retain their national currencies, and some of the newer EU members have yet to meet the strict economic conditions required to adopt the euro. Prior to the euro's launch in 1999, national currency exchange rates of countries intending to join the euro were fixed within an Exchange Rate Mechanism. Following the January 2002 introduction of euro notes and coins into general circulation, national currencies were removed from circulation. Each of the euro area countries agreed to abide by a shared fiscal policy rule book known as the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP). This agreement generally obliges national governments to limit government budget deficits to 3 percent of GDP and established a target debt-to-GDP ratio of below sixty percent. Although enforcement actions have been forgiving – France and Germany, for example, avoided sanctions despite missing SGP targets – countries violating the SGP are technically subject to sanctions by the European Commission. As of March 2005, national governments have been granted budget leeway to achieve structural reforms and to combat prolonged stagnation, negative growth or other factors, such as the cost of German reunification or state pensions. The revised standards still require deficits to remain close to the targets; they may only temporarily exceed the three percent limit.

The euro area's monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank (ECB), which must devise a monetary policy to accommodate a wide range of domestic policies and economic conditions within the euro area. The Treaties require that the ECB's primary objective be to maintain price stability (i.e., to keep inflation low). Euro area national governments have sometimes criticised the ECB for guarding against inflation at the expense of interest rate flexibility that could enable struggling economies to gain traction. The ECB's consistent overnight interest rate of two percent has been credited with creating favourable conditions for growth in Spain and Ireland, but has been blamed for hindering growth in France, Germany, Italy, and Portugal. Non-EU countries have also adopted the euro, including Andorra, United Kingdom base areas, Kosovo, Monaco, Montenegro, and the Vatican City. Additionally, several countries have currencies pegged to the euro, including French African states and those in the Exchange Rate Mechanism.

===Trade===
The EU is the world's largest exporter of goods and services. In 2003, the then fifteen EU members exported $987 billion worth of goods to non-EU countries. The EU's exports grew rapidly between 1996 and 2000 but have grown more slowly since. Except for 2002, the EU as a whole has posted a trade deficit every year since 1999; it was $62 billion in 2004. The EU is a major exporter of chemicals, transport equipment, and industrial machinery. The EU has large trade deficits in raw materials and energy, and a small deficit in food and drink.

The U.S. is the EU's main trading partner by a wide margin. U.S. goods and services exports to the EU reached $283 billion in 2004, while U.S. goods and services imports from the EU totalled $388 billion. Asian economies such as Japan and China, however, account for an increasingly important share of EU trade. The EU's two-way merchandise trade with China grew to $223 million in 2004, while merchandise trade with Japan was $149 million. Internal trade between euro area and non-euro area countries was down one percent in the first quarter of 2005, but the EU's external trade was up four percent, particularly with Russia and Norway.

Member states have given almost exclusive authority to the EU to negotiate binding international trade treaties. The European Community (EC) is a full member of the World Trade Organisation and plays an active role in the Doha Development Round to foster international trade in services and agricultural products. Bilaterally, the EC maintains framework agreements to facilitate trade flows with thirty-five countries worldwide, mostly elsewhere in Europe, in North Africa, and in the Middle East.

===Foreign Direct Investment===
The EU is both a major destination for foreign direct investment (FDI) and a major source of FDI. U.S. foreign direct investment in the EU totalled $83.3 billion in 2004; EU FDI into the U.S. totalled $46.6 billion. Following strong year-upon-year growth in the late 1990s, however, inward and outward flows of FDI have contracted since 2001. The EU is a net recipient of FDI from Japan, receiving $81 billion in 2003. Conversely, the EU is a net investor in Canada ($86 billion in outward investment in 2003), and China ($29 billion in outward investment in 2003). Growth of intra-EU FDI has increased rapidly in recent years and has increased much faster than FDI in non-EU countries.

The pattern of foreign investment by European firms reflects deep commercial ties with the United States. U.S. and EU businesses invest heavily and operate profitably on both sides of the Atlantic. U.S. affiliates in Europe accounted for 56 percent of the aggregate output of U.S. affiliates worldwide. European firms were the largest foreign investors in 44 U.S. states and the second largest foreign investor in the remaining six. Sales by U.S. affiliates in Europe totalled $1.5 trillion in 2002, more than double those of U.S. affiliates in the Asia/Pacific region. European affiliate sales in the U.S. were $1.2 trillion in 2002, more than three times the value of U.S. imports from Europe.

Intra-firm trade involving foreign affiliates is particularly important to the transatlantic trade and investment relationship. Approximately 58 percent of U.S. imports from the EU in 2004 involved trade between related parties, as did 30 percent of U.S. exports to Europe in 2003. This high level of intra-firm trade has contributed to the persistence of the U.S. trade deficit with Europe even as the dollar has lost value against the euro since 2002.

===Budget===
The EU's budget is composed of member state contributions. Equivalent to roughly one percent of the member states' combined gross national income (GNI), it was $123 billion in 2005. The UK receives a rebate for some of its contribution, as the CAP benefits the UK less than other states. In June 2005, the EU failed to agree on a budget plan for 2007 through 2013, due in part to a disagreement between the UK and France over the persistence of the UK budget rebate and the funding of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Costs attributable to the CAP constitute the EU's largest annual budget item, benefiting farmers across the EU, especially in France. Payments to net-recipient member states, designed to reduce economic and social disparities among EU countries and regions, are another budget item which has become more contentious with the accession of ten new states poorer than the EU average.

==Criticism==
A significant number of Europeans on the political right of centre are opposed to the EU on the grounds that it undermines national sovereignty and identity. The term "eurosceptic" has risen in popularity in Britan to describe these people, and among them are such members as the former British Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] (although, while in power, she committed Britain to the 1986 [[Single European Act]], a major integrationist measure). They also, however, include less well-respected politicians belonging to far right or [[nationalism|nationalist]] parties, such as France's [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]]. There are also extreme left-wing opponents of the European Union, such as ''Die Linke'' in Germany, who regard it as constituting an anti-progressive "Fortress Europe", and claim that EU membership impedes countries from following socialist policies.

==History==
Following World War II, traditional European rivals sought to solidify peace by bringing their nations together under a common institutional structure. Influenced by his compatriot [[Jean Monnet]], French Foreign Minister [[Robert Schuman]] officially tabled a plan on May 9, 1950 to pool French and German coal and steel production under an organisation that would be open to other European countries. German Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] supported this proposal, and six founding countries – Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands – took an early step toward European integration by establishing the '''European Coal and Steel Community''' (ECSC) in 1951.

After failing to establish a European Defence Community in the 1950s, the six countries then decided to set up a common market. With the entry into force of the ''''Treaty of Rome''' in 1957, they created the '''European Economic Community''' (EEC), with an objective of liberating the movement of goods, capital, workers and services. (The European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) was also established at this time.) The Treaty of Rome established the basic institutions and decision-making mechanisms still in place in today's European Union. in 1968, the EEC abolished customs duties between member states on manufactured goods. New policies, including a common agricultural policy (CAP) and a common trade policy, were in place by the end of the 1960s.

The success of the European integration project during a period of steady economic growth in the 1960s set the stage for a first enlargement – the accession of Britain, Ireland and Denmark – in 1973. Further "deepening" of European integration followed: the Community acquired executive authority in social, regional, and environment policies. The benefits of economic convergence became more evident in the context of the 1970s energy crisis and financial turmoil, which led to the launch of the European Monetary System in 1979. In the same year, the first direct elections to the European Parliament (EP) took place. Previously, delegates from national parliaments had represented their country's legislative bodies at the EP in Strasbourg, France.

The Community further expanded southward with the accession of Greece (1981, the second enlargement), followed by Spain and Portugal (1986, the third enlargement). These accessions led the EEC to adopt "structural programs" in order to reduce economic and social disparities among its regions.

During the 1960s and 1970s, the Community began to assert itself on the international scene with the conclusion of agreements with southern Mediterranean countries. Starting in 1963, the EEC signed four successive Lome Conventions, which guaranteed trading advantages and development aid for member states' former colonies in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific (ACP).

World recession and internal disputes over member states' financial burdens gave way, from 1985 onward, to renewed efforts for economic integration, enshrined in the 1985 "Single European Act" (SEA) and marked by the 1992 "Single Market Project." The SEA set January 1, 1993 as the date by which an internal single market was to be established and, by extending the practice of majority voting rather than unanimity in the EU Council, gave Community institutions the means of adopting the 300 Community-wide Directives required to abolish the remaining barriers and obstacles to intra-Community trade. In 1995, the Community entered into the "Barcelona" partnership with twelve southern Mediterranean countries. The partnership, reinforced by agreements on social, cultural, and human cooperation, was intended to lead to a free-trade area.

The collapse of the Berlin Wall and German unification prompted member states to negotiate the 1992 Treaty on European Union (the "Maastricht Treaty"). In addition to establishing the European Union, the Maastricht Treaty set an ambitious program of further integration: establishment of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) by 1999 (part of the "First or 'Community' Pillar"), setting up of a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) ("Second Pillar"); and cooperation on Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) ("Third Pillar"). Shortly thereafter, in 1995, Austria, Finland and Sweden joined the EU – the fourth enlargement.

Signed in 1997 and entering into force on May 1, 1999, the '''Amsterdam Treaty''' partially streamlined the EU institutional structure. Its most significant effects were: (1) to transfer aspects of Justice and Home Affairs policy to the Community Pillar, enabling the Commission to propose decisions to be taken by the EU Council by qualified majority voting instead of by consensus, and (2) to establish a High Representative for the CFSP (who also serves as Secretary-General of the Council Secretariat). Ten countries in Central and Eastern Europe and Cyprus began accession procedures in 1997, followed by Malta. The prospect of eastward enlargement raised significant resource concerns and prompted the adoption in March 1999 of the "Agenda 2000" package, which covered amendments to the CAP and EU structural policies, as well as a budgetary framework through 2006.

In May 1998, EU heads of government officially designated eleven member states eligible to adopt a single currency. Britain and Denmark "opted out." On January 1, 1999, the euro became the official currency of the EU, and the '''European Central Bank''' (ECB) put euro notes and coins into circulation in 2002. Today, fifteen countries use the euro: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain.

Streamlining the size and procedures of EU institutions to make the expanded EU more efficient was also an aim of the 2003 Treaty of Nice.

===Expansion===
In 2004, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the EU, and in 2007 Bulgaria and Romania acceded, bringing total membership to 27. Candidate countries currently include Turkey, FYR Macedonia and Croatia, and potential candidates include the rest of the Western Balkan states.

In October 2004, member states signed an EU Constitutional Treaty designed to replace all previous treaties. French and Dutch voters rejected the treaty through referendums in 2005, thereby suspending the ratification process. In 2007, a modified '''Treaty of Lisbon''' was agreed upon, which retains most of the reforms of the Constitution, but amends rather than replaces previous treaties.

==Candidates for membership==
There are three official candidates being considered for membership, [[Turkey]], [[Croatia]] and [[The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]]. The western Balkan states of Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, Bosnia-Hercegovina and Albania are officially ''potential candidates''. A country that is expected to accede is required to make some economic, social and governmental changes to bring it in line with other member states.

The status of Turkey is highly controversial. It has repeatedly applied to join the EU but has been rejected each time on numerous grounds. Despite being one of the first countries to join the post-war Council of Europe and being a key regional power with a strong military Turkey has a long list of obstacles to overcome before accession. Many nations have cited its poor relations with other countries such as Cyprus, as well as its views on the rights of women and the Turkish Penal Code which includes the notorious Article 301. Article 301 is a recent piece of legislation that provides that "a person who publicly insults the Turkish nation, the State of the Republic of Turkey, or the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, shall be punishable by imprisonment of between six months and two years". Turkey's population of 70 million would make it one of the largest states in the EU with the second-highest amount of MEPs, and would be the first Muslim-majority state in Europe. Britain supports admission while France is strongly against Turkey's membership.

Gateway to the European Union (EU official website) <ref>http://europa.eu/</ref>

==Member states==
*[[Austria]]
*[[Belgium]]
*[[Bulgaria]]
*[[Cyprus]]
*[[Czech Republic]]
*[[Denmark]]
*[[Estonia]]
*[[Finland]]
*[[France]]
*[[Germany]]
*[[Greece]]
*[[Hungary]]
*[[Ireland]]
*[[Italy]]
*[[Latvia]]
*[[Lithuania]]
*[[Luxembourg]]
*[[Malta]]
*[[Netherlands]]
*[[Poland]]
*[[Portugal]]
*[[Romania]]
*[[Slovakia]]
*[[Slovenia]]
*[[Spain]]
*[[Sweden]]
*[[United Kingdom]]

==References==
<References/>

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/54126.htm]}}
==Further reading==
* Cini, Michelle, and Nieves Perez-Solorzano Borragan, eds. ''European Union Politics'' (2009)
* Craig, Paul and Gráinne de Búrca. ''EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials'' (4th ed. 2007)
* Dinan, Desmond. '' Europe Recast: A History of European Union' '(2004).
* Hix, Simon. ''What's Wrong with the Europe Union and How to Fix It'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Whats-Wrong-Europe-Union-How/dp/0745642055/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&qid=1263576617&sr=1-10-spell excerpt and text search]
* Kaiser, Wolfram. ''Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union'' (2007)
* Peterson, John, and Michael Shackleton eds. ''The Institutions of the European Union'' (2nd ed. 2006)
* McCormick, John. ''The European Union: Politics and Policies'' (2007)
* Pinder, John, and Simon Usherwood. ''The European Union: A Very Short Introduction'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/European-Union-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0199233977/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1263575844&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
*Podmore, Will & Nicholls, Doug (2006), The EU: bad for Britain - a [[trade union]] view. Bread Books, ISBN 0-942112-5-1.
* Staab, Andreas. ''The European Union Explained: Institutions, Actors, Global Impact'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/European-Union-Explained-Institutions-Actors/dp/0253220181/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1263575844&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Yesilada, Birol A. and David M. Wood. ''The Emerging European Union'' (5th ed. 2009)
[[Category:European Politics]]
[[Category:European History]]

United Kingdom Independence Party

2010-11-28T05:44:45Z

Dfrischknecht:

[[File:Farage.jpg|thumb|200px|Prominent UKIP MEP, Nigel Farage, wants to take Britain out of the [[EU]] and subject immigration to legal controls]]

The '''United Kingdom Independence Party''', also known by the acronym '''UKIP''', is a British political party. Founded in 1993, it campaigns for [[British]] withdrawal from the [[European Union]] (EU). Its support-base is made up substantially of right-wing voters opposed to the surrender of British sovereignty. The current leader of UKIP is [[House of Lords]] member Lord Pearson of Rannoch.
UKIP is the fastest-growing British political party. It currently has 17,400 members according to a statement by General Secretary Jonathan Arnott in UKIP e-newletter 26th May 2010.

In the 2008 European elections UKIP came second. with 16.5% of the vote and 13 of the UK's 78 seats in the [[European Parliament]]
In the Parliamentary election of May 6th 2010, UKIP got 3.1% of the vote, a total of 917,232, an increase of 50% on the previous parliamentary election vote. However, owing to the electoral system, they still did not receive any MPs. This makes them the largest unrepresented party in the UK. UKIP has 2 members in the [[House of Lords]].

Under the leadership of Nigel Farage, UKIP broadened its political agenda. It now has policies on tax, defence, the health service, education, electoral reform and constitutional reform.

UKIP attracts alienated voters especially on the right who are critical of the centralized and undemocratic structure of the [[EU]]. UKIP has endorsed a [[libertarian]] economic agenda. It proposes a flat tax of 33% and opposes national identity cards. It is sceptical of the more extreme claims of AGW and critical of carbon-permits and other [[EU]] environmental policies as economically and environmentally harmful. [[www.ukip.org/manifesto ]]
UKIP is frequently accused of being a racist party and associated with racist parties in the media. However, UKIP membership is open to all regardless of ethnic origin and in the 2010 election UKIP fielded a significant number of candidates who are members of ethnic minorities. [http://www.manzoor4mep.co.uk/

http://www.dailyecho.co.uk/news/politics/election_2010/southampton_test/candidates/7984351.Pearline_Hingston__UKIP__Southampton_Test/

http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/guide/seat-profiles/tottenham
]

==Further reading==
* Daniel, Mark. ''Cranks and Gadflies: The Story of UKIP'' (2005) 199pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=My7bPb1XnVIC excerpt and text search]
* Margetts, H. et al. "Latent Support for the Far-Right in British Politics: The BNP and UKIP in the 2004 European and London Elections" (2004) scholarly paper [http://www.ipeg.org.uk/papers/latentsupport210405b.pdf online edition]

==External links==
* [http://www.ukip.org/ UKIP - official website]

[[Category:British Political Parties]]

Talk:Birthright Citizenship

2010-11-18T17:21:31Z

Dfrischknecht: Created page with "I was under the impression that Birthright Citizenship also applied to children born of legal residents of the US. I agree that children of illegal aliens should not become citi..."

I was under the impression that Birthright Citizenship also applied to children born of legal residents of the US. I agree that children of illegal aliens should not become citizens just because they were born here. However, I have no problem with children of legal aliens becoming citizens when they're born in the US. --[[User:Dfrischknecht|Dfrischknecht]] 12:21, 18 November 2010 (EST)

Austrian School of Economics

2010-11-15T23:39:22Z

Dfrischknecht:

The '''Austrian school of economics''' is a school of economic thought which supports the [[libertarian]] [[philosophy]] by pointing out the inefficiency and ineffectualness of government intervention. However, Austrian economics is a positive, not a normative, school of thought and therefore has no inherent political leaning. It views all value as subjective, and that efficiency consists of maximizing value as sought by each individual. It avoids [[mathematics]] because it does not feel math can capture the complexities of the economic world and, more importantly, because it views social sciences to be properly based on rationalism and ''a priori'' reasoning. Austrian economists, like many other free market economists including Chicago School and neo-classical economists, believe free trade is key to prosperity. Austrians, unlike many of the same economists however, also believe the free market can function in areas such as infrastructure (roads<ref>http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/7_1/7_1_1.pdf</ref>, electricity<ref>http://www.mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/RAE9_2_3.pdf</ref>, etc), defense (police<ref>http://mises.org/rothbard/newliberty11.asp</ref>, military<ref>http://mises.org/etexts/defensemyth.pdf</ref>), and dealing with "externalities" <ref>http://mises.org/pdf/asc/2003/asc9simpson.pdf</ref> (pollution<ref>http://mises.org/journals/scholar/Storfner.pdf</ref>, free riders<ref>http://mises.org/journals/scholar/Murphy6.pdf</ref>, etc).

The Austrian school of [[economics]] opposed the inflationary approach of [[Keynesian economics]], and thus is favored by many conservatives on that basis.

The founder of the Austrian school of economics was [[Carl Menger]], who published in German in 1871 its leading text, ''Principles of Economics''. In the 1920s through 1940s, [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Friedrich A. Hayek]] advanced the movement by declaring the impossibility for socialism to succeed and also explaining the nature of the business cycle. Mises' most important student, [[Murray Rothbard]], led the Austrian School after Mises' death and made many contributions to Austrian monopoly and monetary theory, along with expanding the traditional analysis of government interventionism to areas such as defense, police, and courts, concluding that socialism in these areas works no better than in others.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.fee.org/ Foundation for Economic Education]
* [http://www.independent.org/ The Independent Institute]
* [http://www.mises.org/ Ludwig von Mises Institute]
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/enc/AustrianEconomics.html "Austrian Economics," by Deborah L. Walker]
* [http://it.stlawu.edu/sdae/ Society for the Development of Austrian Economics]

[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Libertarianism]]

Russian Revolution

2010-11-09T15:27:53Z

Dfrischknecht:

The term '''Russian Revolution''' can refer to two separate events. The first revolution was attempted in 1905, but was unsuccessful. It began with "Bloody Sunday", a peaceful protest for improvements to working conditions. The protesters were gunned down by soldiers, under orders from Tsar [[Nicholas II]]. It did, however, lead to the formation of a parliament with limited powers, known as the Duma.

The second, successful revolution, was a series of socio-economic upheavals in [[Russia]] in 1917, leading ultimately to the [[Russian Civil War]]. The Revolution occurred in two phases: the [[February Revolution]] and [[October Revolution]]. As a result of the revolution, Russia withdrew from the [[Allied_Powers#Allies_of_World_War_II|Allied Powers]]. The repressive [[Communist Party]] overthrew the provisional Kerensky government which was in the organizational stages of a [[democracy]].

The [[Great War]] had weakened Tsar Nicholas II, and he abdicated the throne in March 1917. Russia was left under the provisional government of [[Alexander Kerensky]], which intended to continue fighting in the war, but in November 1917, the [[Bolshevik]] Communist Party, led by [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]], overthrew the provisional government and executed the Czar's family.

Lenin made peace with [[Germany]] and then withdrew Russia from the war. In March of 1918, Lenin signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]], which granted Germany many territories, including what is now Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Estonia, and Latvia. This was a humiliating defeat, but Russia was simply too weak to fight anymore.

The Russian revolution was essentially a [[Socialist]] revolution. Lenin preferred to call his government a Communist government though the term meant very much the same. In fact Russia became known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. However, Lenin and his colleagues completely discarded the idea of a [[democracy|democratically]] controlled society and instead set up what they called the [[Dictatorship of the Proletariat]] which was in fact nothing more than a dictatorship by the Communist Party, a tiny fraction of the population. It was in fact a dictatorship by technicians and managers formed into a ''[[nomenklatura]]'' or elite, the so-called experts in the Socialist organization.

There was a civil war in Russia from 1918 to 1920 between Lenin's [[Red Army]] and the opposing western [[White Army]]. Ten million people died in the war and five million died in the resulting famine. The Red Army won.

After the civil war, Russia was in economic ruins. Lenin announced his [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP) to restore trade and industry to the county. The NEP permitted some capitalism to create incentives, and it allowed some foreign investment. Peasants were permitted sell surplus crops. Profits by merchants were allowed. But government still controlled all major industries. The private ownership only applied to small factories, farms and stores.

A failed assassination attempt on Lenin in August 1918 by a member of a rival revolutionary party led to the 'Red Terror'. Stalin convinced Lenin and other Bolshevik members that a policy of "open and systematic mass terror" against those who were seen as responsible for the shooting would be required. It is estimated that over 200,000 people were executed from 1918 to 1922 as a result of this policy.

Politically, Lenin established the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR) in 1922, allowing one central government under Lenin to control many socialized republics. In 1924, the [[Bolsheviks]] began calling themselves “Communists”. But there was only one political party, and it held all the power. It was the [[Communist Party]].

[[category:European History]]
[[Category:Russia]]
[[Category:Dictatorships]]
[[Category:Soviet Union]]

Russian Revolution

2010-11-09T15:26:14Z

Dfrischknecht:

The term '''Russian Revolution''' can refer to two separate events. The first revolution was attempted in 1905, but was unsuccessful. It began with "Bloody Sunday", a peaceful protest for improvements to working conditions. The protesters were gunned down by soldiers, under orders from Tsar [[Nicholas II]]. It did, however, lead to the formation of a parliament with limited powers, known as the Duma.

The second, successful revolution, was a series of socio-economic upheavals in [[Russia]] in 1917, leading ultimately to the [[Russian Civil War]]. The Revolution occurred in two phases: the [[February Revolution]] and [[October Revolution]]. As a result of the revolution, Russia withdrew from the [[Allied_Powers#Allies_of_World_War_II|Allied Powers]]. The repressive [[Communist Party]] overthrew the provisional Kerensky government which was in the organizational stages of a [[democracy]].

The [[Great War]] had weakened Tsar Nicholas II, and he abdicated the throne in March 1917. Russia was left under the provisional government of [[Alexander Kerensky]], which intended to continue fighting in the war, but in November 1917, the [[Bolshevik]] Communist Party, led by [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]], overthrew the provisional government and executed the Czar's family.

Lenin made peace with [[Germany]] and then withdrew Russia from the war. In March of 1918, Lenin signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]], which granted Germany many territories, including what is now Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Estonia, and Latvia. This was a humiliating defeat, but Russia was simply too weak to fight anymore.

The Russian revolution was essentially a [[Socialist]] revolution. Lenin preferred to call his government a Communist government though the term meant very much the same. In fact Russia became known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. However, Lenin and his colleagues completely discarded the idea of a [[democracy|democratically]] controlled society and instead set up what they called the [[Dictatorship of the Proletariat]] which was in fact nothing more than a dictatorship by the Communist Party, a tiny fraction of the population. It was in fact a dictatorship by technicians an managers formed into an ''[[nomenklatura]]'' or elite, the so-called experts in the Socialist organization.

There was a civil war in Russia from 1918 to 1920 between Lenin's [[Red Army]] and the opposing western [[White Army]]. Ten million people died in the war and five million died in the resulting famine. The Red Army won.

After the civil war, Russia was in economic ruins. Lenin announced his [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP) to restore trade and industry to the county. The NEP permitted some capitalism to create incentives, and it allowed some foreign investment. Peasants were permitted sell surplus crops. Profits by merchants were allowed. But government still controlled all major industries. The private ownership only applied to small factories, farms and stores.

A failed assassination attempt on Lenin in August 1918 by a member of a rival revolutionary party led to the 'Red Terror'. Stalin convinced Lenin and other Bolshevik members that a policy of "open and systematic mass terror" against those who were seen as responsible for the shooting would be required. It is estimated that over 200,000 people were executed from 1918 to 1922 as a result of this policy.

Politically, Lenin established the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR) in 1922, allowing one central government under Lenin to control many socialized republics. In 1924, the [[Bolsheviks]] began calling themselves “Communists”. But there was only one political party, and it held all the power. It was the [[Communist Party]].

[[category:European History]]
[[Category:Russia]]
[[Category:Dictatorships]]
[[Category:Soviet Union]]

Sylvester Stallone

2010-11-04T17:16:38Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''Sylvester Stallone''' is an American actor, screenwriter and movie director best known for his [[Rocky]] and [[Rambo]] films, which between them have encompassed nine films with a tenth one due soon.

[[Anthony Robbins]] wrote:
:{{overcoming}}

== External Links ==

[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000230/ IMDB website]

{{DEFAULTSORT: Stallone, Sylvester}}

[[Category:Actors]]

== References ==

<references/>

Sylvester Stallone

2010-11-04T17:15:55Z

Dfrischknecht:

Nancy Pelosi

2010-11-03T20:15:50Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Bible Quoting */ copyediting

{{Officeholder
|name=Nancy Pelosi
|image=Ytr7576.jpg
|party=[[Democrat]]
|spouse=Paul Pelosi
|religion=Roman Catholic
|offices=
{{Officeholder/representative
|state=California
|district=8th
|terms=June 2, 1987 - Present
|preceded=Sala Burton
|former=n
|succeeded=
}}

}}

'''Nancy Pelosi''', M.C. is the Representative for the 8th Congressional District of [[San Francisco]], [[California]] and is the outgoing [[Speaker of the House]], succeeding [[J. Dennis Hastert]] and preceding [[John Boehner]]. She is the first woman to become House Speaker. Pelosi, a [[Liberal]] [[Democrat]], is among the top ten richest members of the House. <ref>[http://www.opensecrets.org/pfds/CIDsummary.asp?CID=N00007360&year=2005 opensecrets.org]</ref>

Pelosi prides herself in "being called a liberal" and does not consider herself a "moderate". <ref>Michael Crowley, "Follow the Leader," New Republic, November 25, 2002.</ref> Before becoming Speaker of the House, she was the Congressional Representative for the district containing [[San Francisco]] and has generally been criticized for imposing [[San Francisco values]] on mainstream America. Senator McCain has called her "one of the great American success stories" and "an inspiration."<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/07/29/MN0I121CI9.DTL&type=politics McCain extends olive branch to Pelosi, Gore]</ref>

Pelosi grew up in a political family; her father was a Congressman and the mayor of [[Baltimore]] for twelve years. She graduated from Trinity College in Washington, D.C., in 1962. After marrying and having five children, Pelosi rose in the ranks in Democratic Party politics and became representative to the Democratic National Committee and chair of the California Democratic Party. In 1987, Pelosi made a leap into elected office by winning a special election upon the death of Representative Sala Burton. She served on the Appropriations Committee and the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. In 2002 she was elected Minority Leader and Speaker of the House after the 2006 midterm elections when Democrats gained the majorities in the House and Senate.

When coming into her leadership position in 2007, Pelosi's "6 for 06" 100-hour campaign promise turned out being 100-legislative hours, and took several weeks. She frequently battled President [[George W. Bush]] over the [[War in Iraq]]. In 2008, anti-war protester [[Cindy Sheehan]] challenged Pelosi as an independent. Although Sheehan won 16% of the vote, more than the Republican nominee's 10%, Pelosi was reelected with 72%, indicating her House seat is in no peril.

During the 2010 congressional elections, [[Republican]]s gained a historic 60+ seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, meaning she will soon be stripped of the power. <ref>http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/vote-2010-elections-nancy-pelosi-ousted-house-speaker/story?id=12034633</ref>

==Politics==

[[File:Pelosi-headshot Fox.jpg|left|200px]]
===Ethics===
Concerns over ethics in Congress played a big part in the Democratic recapture of the House of Representatives and Pelosi's ascension to the Speaker-ship after several members of Congress were investigated, indicted or convicted for legal wrongdoing in 2006. In early 2007, Speaker Pelosi established a Special Task Force on Ethics Enforcement to explore the problem. Twenty freshmen House Democrats have asked for legislation to establish an independent ethics commission within the legislative branch to investigate future ethical lapses by fellow members.<ref>Alexander Bolton, [http://thehill.com/leading-the-news/dems-press-pelosi-for-ethics-panel-2007-04-18.html''Dems press Pelosi for ethics panel''], The Hill, April 19, 2007. </ref> Speaker Pelosi and others in the majority have resisted such a reform. <ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b7hE4HX-Cwo&NR=1 The More Things Change, The More They Stay the Same], ''ABC News'', April 25 2007. </ref>

Pelosi, capitalizing on the public’s distaste for the [[earmark]]ing process, pledged reform during the elections last fall. Members of Congress regularly abuse the appropriations process by earmarking public monies to fund pet projects of special interests and donors often in their own congressional districts or states. Earmarks are an area of the legislative process particularly susceptible to corruption. In May 2007 Pelosi inserted a $25 million earmark into the Water Resources Development Act for a project that involves renovating ports near four separate commercial real estate properties near property owned by her husband, Paul Pelosi, and is likely to significantly boost the value of the property he owns. <ref>[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=ZGIwYzc2MTQ4YTBlMTg3YjJmZGVhODc4NmJhYjg4YjY Pelosi’s Waterworks], Stephen Spruiell, ''National Review Online'', May 9, 2007.</ref> The properties earn combined rental income of more than $3 million. <ref>[http://www.nypost.com/seven/05082007/news/nationalnews/her_an_fran_treat_nationalnews_geoff_earle.htm Her $an Fransisco Treat: Pelosi Water-Bill Bid Drawing Fire], Geoff Earle, ''New York Post'', May 8, 2007. </ref> .

Members of Pelosi's own Congressional Democratic Caucus have warned failure to deliver on their campaign promises to clean up Congress would be damaging in the 2008 election. <ref>[http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0507/4014.html Democrats divided on lobbying reform], Josephine Hearn and Jeff Patch, May 15, 2007. Retrieved from politico.com 06/01/07.</ref>

Pelosi's now famous comment- the 'culture of corruption' is only meant to be used against Republicans. In another example of her hypocrisy, Democrat [[Charles Rangel]] is under investigation for ethics violations. Nancy says "she has no intention of forcing Rangel out." <ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/insidecover/charles_rangel_ethics/2008/09/10/129539.htmlPelosi, Republicans in Rangel Tug of War] Newsmax.com, September 10, 2008</ref> So, her other famous comment "drain the swamp of corruption" is just as meaningless.

===Iraq war failure===
Another major setback for Pelosi in her early months as Speaker was the rejection by her own caucus, and the Congress as a whole, for her plan to end the [[War in Iraq]] and bring the troops home. Pelosi had promised during the run up to the midterm elections to stop funding for the war and force the President to withdraw troops fighting abroad in the [[War on terror]]. In a stunning rebuke to her leadership, and the anti-war movement, the House voted overwhelmingly 280-142 to continue building Iraqi democracy and counter the threat posed by [[Islamic]] extremists outside of U.S. territory rather than the cut and run strategy proposed by liberal anti-war activists. Only the radical fringe voted against funding the troops. <ref>[http://washingtontimes.com/national/20070525-122215-4854r.htm Congress OKs war bill sans timeline,] By S.A. Miller, ''The Washington Times'', May 25, 2007. </ref> In exchange Pelosi won a raise in the [[minimum wage]], a controversial maneuver that increases the incentive for young people to drop out of school, with devastating effects upon the most vulnerable in our society, minorities in particular -- African-Americans and Hispanics. <ref>[http://www.optimalsolutionsgroup.com/pubs/Duncan-Turner-Pape.pdf Minimum wages and school enrollment of teenagers: a look at the 1990’s.] Duncan D. Chaplin, Mark D. Turner, Andreas D. Pape. ''Economics of Education Review''. 22 (2003) 11–21. </ref>

One review stated,
{{Cquote|Hamilton and Madison knew what they were doing when they gave the bulk of the war powers to the President, and it's hard to imagine a more telling vindication of their wisdom...Speaker Pelosi and Majority Leader [[Harry Reid]] claim to oppose the war and want it to end, yet they refused to use their power of the purse to end it. Instead, they tried every legislative gimmick imaginable to hamstring President Bush's war strategy without actually having to take responsibility for cutting off funds. <ref>[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110010126 Congress and Iraq], ''OpinionJournal'', May 26, 2007.</ref>}}

===Energy Independence===

Pelosi is opposed to expanding domestic drilling, though a recent Fox News poll showed more than 75% of Americans support drilling. This includes 85% of Republicans, 71% of Democrats and 68% of Independents favor drilling. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/062108_energy_release_web.pdf Fox News Polling Opinion Dynamics] Fox News, June 21, 2008</ref> The poll additionally found the American public split on whether the domestic drilling would have any effect on gas prices. By contrast, a CNN poll released July 31st found "just over half say that the Bush administration and the war in Iraq are major causes of high fuel prices."<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/07/31/congress.session/index.html GOP lawmakers want special session on energy crisis]</ref> Pelosi wants oil companies to drill on the lands already leased and is refusing to allow a vote on additional domestic drilling. She did take a vote to close the [[House of Representatives]] early for a five-week recess without addressing energy issues. <ref>[http://www.townhall.com/blog/g/77da4653-28ce-4c3e-a8a9-37ae52671b15 A Month Off for Bad Behavior] Townhall.com, July 30, 2008</ref> Pelosi wants to tap into the Strategic Oil Reserves. "America's greatest strategic reserves lie beneath taxpayer-owned lands - including ANWR's northern coastal plain and the outer continental shelf - that are currently off limits to energy production,” said Daniel Kish, senior vice president of the Institute for Energy Research, an oil industry-supported think tank. <ref>[http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/jul/11/us-oil-reserves-sought-for-relief/ U.S. oil reserves sought for relief] Washington Times, July 11, 2008</ref> Nancy Pelosi often blames oil companies and capitalist speculators for the oil price increases. Her call for renewable energy and new technologies hasn't had an impact on lowering [[oil]] prices. "A New Direction", the Democrats' Six for '06 campaign promises includes energy independence. She has completely failed to produce anything that would contribute to energy independence. "For 25 years, Democrats have blocked more American-made oil and gas. That's why we're in the predicament we're in, voters want Congress "to vote on more American made oil and gas. We want to do that. She, [[Harry Reid]], [[Barack Obama]] are standing in the way." "She's got time to go out and promote her new book tour and her new book, but she doesn't have time to schedule a vote on the floor of the House and let the American people have their will expressed?" said Minority Leader John Boehner, R-OH.

Pelosi is a supporter of increasing taxes and regulation on energy production because she is a believer in [[global warming]]. She was scheduled to speak at a March 2, 2009 global warming protest, but did not make it because her plane was delayed due to a snowstorm. <ref>http://environmentalrepublican.blogspot.com/2009/03/pelosi-misses-global-warming-protest.html</ref>

===Health Care===

Pelosi's major achievement has been the passage on Nov. 7, 2009, of the "Affordable Health Care for America Act" [[H.R. 3962]], costing $1.1 trillion. It just barely passed 215-210, as 39 Democrats deserted her leadership. Pelosi is a strong supporter of abortion but to get the 215 votes she had to give in to Catholic leaders nationally and abortion opponents in her own caucus and allow them to impose tight restrictions of the [[Stupak Amendment]] that bar any insurance plan that is purchased with government subsidies from covering abortions. As a result numerous liberals denounced the bill even as they voted for it.<ref>David M. Herszenhorn and Jackie Calmes, [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/08/health/policy/08scene.html?_r=1 "Abortion Was at Heart of Wrangling," ''New York Times'' Nov 7, 2009]</ref> The bill is now in the Senate, where its fate is uncertain.

===Boy Scouts===
Nancy Pelosi tried to pass legislation making it illegal for [[Boy Scouts]] to use public facilities like schools. This move was brought on by her disapproval of the Boy Scouts not allowing homosexuals to lead the children.{{fact|date=January 2008}}

==Criticism==

===Accusation against CIA===

Pelosi has been caught lying about her knowledge of [[CIA]] interrogations. She claims she was never briefed by the [[Bush Administration]]. In fact, her and three others were briefed. The [[Washington Post]] reported the following: "In September 2002, four members of Congress [that included Pelosi] met in secret for a first look at a unique CIA program designed to wring vital information from reticent terrorism suspects in U.S. custody," and "Among the techniques described, said two officials present, was waterboarding..." <ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/public/Content/Article.aspx?rsrcid=47108 Pelosi Says She Was 'Never Briefed' on Waterboarding] CNSNews, April 24, 2009</ref>

After doing nothing to improve the intelligence of the CIA, after admonishing the CIA for lying, and providing no evidence weeks after her allegation, Pelosi then said she has confidence in the intelligence community. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/07/08/house-democrat-joins-pelosi-accusing-cia-misleading-lying-congress/ House Democrats' Letter Says Panetta Testified CIA 'Misled' Congress] Fox News, July 8, 2009</ref>

===Trip to China===

Pelosi leaves the U.S. at a time when she is under verbal attack at home for her CIA comments. Her travel to China makes no mention of Chinese human right's but raised awareness for [[Global warming]] as a human rights cause. Less than a year ago, she was calling for America and for George W. Bush to boycott the [[Chinese]] Olympics for [[Tibet]] human rights abuses.

===Trip to Syria===
Pelosi traveled to Damascus, Syria in April 2007 to meet with Syrian [[Ba'athist]] leader [[Bashar Assad]]. Pelosi indicated at a press conference that she had carried a message from the government of Israel. "Our message was President Bush’s message," Pelosi told The Associated Press in Portugal . <ref>[http://www.kxmb.com/getARticle.asp?ArticleId=111801 Pelosi: I Carried Bush's Message To Syria] Apr 7 2007. </ref> Pelosi told reporters the meeting "enabled us to communicate a message from Prime Minister Olmert".

The Israeli Prime Minister's office stated Olmert told Pelosi that Israel continued to regard Syria as "part of the axis of evil and a party encouraging terrorism in the entire Middle East." The ''Jerusalem Post'' reported sources at the Prime Minister's Office said, "Pelosi took part of the things that were said in the meeting, and used what suited her." <ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=845618&contrassID=2&subContrassID=1&sbSubContrassID=0 PMO: Pelosi did not carry any message from Israel to Assad], Yoav Stern and Amiram Barkat, Haaretz Correspondents and AP, 5 April 2007.</ref>

The trip was praised by terrorists as "brave". Members of the Islamic Jihad have said Pelosi aligns to their views about terror much better than Bush and Dr. Condoleezza Rice. <ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3385140,00.html Terrorists endorse Pelosi's 'good policy of dialogue'], Aaron Klein, Israel News, 04.05.07. "Palestinian terror group members call US House speaker's visit to Damascus 'brave' and hope for talks with Iran; ‘I think the Democratic Party can do things the best,’ Islamic Jihad member says"</ref> Khaled Al-Batch, spokesman for [[Islamic Jihad]], which along with [[Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades]] has taken responsibility for every suicide bombing in Israel for the past two years, expressed hope Pelosi and the Democratic Party will pressure Bush to create dialogue with Syria and Middle East "resistance movements" and prompt an American withdrawal from Iraq.

In the lead editorial of Thursday, April 5th, The ''[[Washington Post]]'' commented on '''"The Pratfall in Damascus":'''<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/04/AR2007040402306.html</ref>

<blockquote>
HOUSE SPEAKER Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) offered an excellent demonstration yesterday of why members of Congress should not attempt to supplant the secretary of state when traveling abroad. After a meeting with Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad in Damascus, Ms. Pelosi announced that she had delivered a message from Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert that "Israel was ready to engage in peace talks" with Syria. What's more, she added, Mr. Assad was ready to "resume the peace process" as well. Having announced this seeming diplomatic breakthrough, Ms. Pelosi suggested that her Kissingerian shuttle diplomacy was just getting started. "We expressed our interest in using our good offices in promoting peace between Israel and Syria," she said.</blockquote>

<blockquote>
Only one problem: The Israeli prime minister entrusted Ms. Pelosi with no such message. "What was communicated to the U.S. House Speaker does not contain any change in the policies of Israel," said a statement quickly issued by the prime minister's office. In fact, Mr. Olmert told Ms. Pelosi that "a number of Senate and House members who recently visited Damascus received the impression that despite the declarations of Bashar Assad, there is no change in the position of his country regarding a possible peace process with Israel." In other words, Ms. Pelosi not only misrepresented Israel's position but was virtually alone in failing to discern that Mr. Assad's words were mere propaganda. ...</blockquote>

<blockquote>Never mind that that statement is ludicrous: As any diplomat with knowledge of the region could have told Ms. Pelosi, Mr. Assad is a corrupt thug whose overriding priority at the moment is not peace with Israel but heading off U.N. charges that he orchestrated the murder of former Lebanese prime minister Rafiq al-Hariri. The really striking development here is the attempt by a Democratic congressional leader to substitute her own foreign policy for that of a sitting Republican president. Two weeks ago Ms. Pelosi rammed legislation through the House of Representatives that would strip Mr. Bush of his authority as commander in chief to manage troop movements in Iraq. Now she is attempting to introduce a new Middle East policy that directly conflicts with that of the president. We have found much to criticize in Mr. Bush's military strategy and regional diplomacy. But Ms. Pelosi's attempt to establish a shadow presidency is not only counterproductive, it is foolish. </blockquote>

Pelosi was roundly criticized from all quarters for making the trip. The ''New York Post'' said, "the sad reality is that Pelosi is sending Assad the same message she and her Democratic colleagues in Congress have sent the terrorist insurgency in Iraq: Just wait until President Bush leaves office and a Democratic administration will hand you what you want on a platter <ref>[http://www.nypost.com/seven/04032007/postopinion/editorials/nancys_nonsense_editorials_.htm Nancy's Nonsense], New York Post, 3 April 2007.</ref> the ''Philadelphia Enquirer'' ran an editorial declaring Pelosi "was nuts" to visit Assad. <ref>Claudia Rosett, [http://www.philly.com/inquirer/opinion/20070405_Pelosi_was_nuts_to_visit_with_Assad.html Pelosi was nuts to visit with Assad], ''Philadelphia Enquirer'', Thu, Apr. 05, 2007.</ref>

===Gay rights and abortion===

Student [[Lila Rose]] has recently exposed several instances of illegal behavior by [[Planned Parenthood]]. <ref>http://dotherightthing-cyberpastor.blogspot.com/2009/01/lila-rose-wins-award.html</ref> However, Pelosi still wanted $200 million for Planned Parenthood as part of the economic stimulus bill. <ref>http://politicalhousewyf.wordpress.com/2009/01/29/speaker-pelosi-likes-leather/</ref> When asked to explain why this money would promote economic stimulus, Pelosi was never able to give a sensible answer and Planned Parenthood funding was dropped from the bill. <ref>http://www.lifenews.com/nat4799.html</ref>

Commenting on her erroneous understanding of the [[Catholic Church]] beliefs regarding conception, Nancy quips “And what I know is, over the centuries, the doctors of the church have not been able to make that definition. And [[St. Augustine]] said at three months. We don’t know.” <ref>[http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/08/26/archbishop-of-washington-chides-pelosi-denver-archbishop-warns-biden-to-skip-communion/ Archbishop of Washington Chides Pelosi] Fox News, August 26, 2008</ref> [[Archbishop]] Donald Wuerl rebuked her saying "From the beginning, the Catholic Church has respected the dignity of all human life from the moment of [[conception]] to natural death"

In the 2001 San Francisco [[Lesbian]], Gay, [[Bisexual]], Transgender Pride Parade Pelosi marched along with long time [[CPUSA]] <ref>''The Boston Phoenix'', [http://bostonphoenix.com/boston/news_features/other_stories/documents/02511115.htm The real Harry Hay], Michael Bronski, October 31 - November 7, 2002. </ref> member and [[gay rights]] pioneer [[Harry Hay]]. <ref>The American Spectator Special Report, [http://www.spectator.org/dsp_article.asp?art_id=10450 When Nancy Met Harry], Jeffrey Lord, 10/5/2006.</ref><ref>The San Francisco Chronicle, [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2001/06/22/DD115758.DTL Official Guide & Program] Parade Lineup, page SP - 14, June 22, 2001. </ref> A gay activist group calling itself the [[Human Rights Campaign]] (HRC), eulogized Hay as "the first to realize that the dream of equality for our community could be attained through visibility and activism".<ref>[http://www.hrc.org/Content/ContentGroups/News_Releases/20021/HRC_Mourns_the_Death_of_Gay_Rights_Pioneer_Harry_Hay.htm Human Rights Campaign Mourns the Death of Gay Rights Pioneer Harry Hay], Press Release, Oct. 24, 2002.</ref> An outspoken advocate of the North American Man-Boy Love Association [[NAMBLA]], Hay regularly addressed NAMBLA conferences. NAMBLA carries published material by Hay on its website dating back to 1984. The [[ACLU]] defended NAMBLA against a $200 million lawsuit by parents of a 10 year old murder victim who claimed their sons’ killer was motivated by published material on NAMBLA’s website. <ref>Deroy Murdock, [http://www.nationalreview.com/murdock/murdock200402270920.asp No Boy Scouts: The ACLU defends NAMBLA], National Review Online, February 27, 2004. </ref><ref>[http://www.thecpac.com/Curleys-v-NAMBLA.html Curley Vs. NAMBLA]</ref> Pelosi has taken $10,000 in campaign contributions from the Human Rights Campaign. <ref>[http://www.opensecrets.org/politicians/contrib.asp?CID=N00007360&cycle=2006 Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) Top Contributors]</ref>

Pelosi has made special rights for homosexuals a priority in the 109th Congress. <ref>Concerned Women for America, [http://www.cwfa.org/articles/12147/CWA/family/index.htm Homosexual Bills Top House Speaker Pelosi’s List], January 10, 2007.</ref> Several so-called [[Hate Crimes bill]]s, or gay rights advocacy measures, have been introduced into the House which, according to Michael Marcavage of Repent America, could allow a homosexual to "claim emotional damage from hearing Scripture that describes his lifestyle as an abomination. [The homosexual] can press charges against the pastor or broadcaster who merely reads the Bible in public. The 'hater' can be fined thousands of dollars and even imprisoned". <ref>[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/printer-friendly.asp?ARTICLE_ID=54535 Christian belief a 'hate crime' under plan], WorldNetDaily, March 3, 2007. </ref> On National Prayer Day 2007 Pelosi scheduled a vote on an alleged "Hate Crimes Bill".

Every year, the Folsom Street Fair takes place in her [[San Francisco]] district. The participants are from the gay and lesbian community. They are barely dressed and publicly expose themselves in depraved sex acts. In addition, crucifixes made into sex toys are sold on the street during the fair. <ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/public/content/article.aspx?RsrcID=41858 San Francisco Catholic Church Attacked by Pro-Homosexual Marriage Vandals
] CNSNews, January 13, 2009</ref> In 2007, the Fair mocked the 'Last Supper' image of Christians, with homosexuals in leather posing as [[Christ]] and the Apostles. Not a word of condemnation from Pelosi on the sacrilegious display.

Marc Sheppard of American Thinker has asked how can,
:"one of the most outspoken advocates for unrestricted abortion in Congress -- with a perfect 100% rating from the radical [[pro-abortion]] group [[NARAL]], -- maintain a straight face when declaring a concern for children? How can you vote NO to making it a crime to harm a fetus during another crime (Lacy and Conner’s Law - H.R.1997) and pretend to care about infants? How does anyone who voted against restricting interstate transport of minors for the purpose of [[abortion]] (H.R 748) or outlawing the barbaric [[infanticide]] which is [[partial birth abortion]] (H.R 3660) seriously proclaim that anything she does is “about children”. <ref>Marc Sheppard, [http://www.americanthinker.com/2007/01/pelosi_god_bless_the_child_tha.html Pelosi: God Bless the Child that’s not at Home], January 14, 2007.</ref>

In defense of children in the mother's womb and the sanctity of Jesus in the host, a priest at the Saint's Peter and Paul Church in Nancy Pelosi's home district, Fr. John Malloy wrote a letter regarding her abortion stance and church services. The letter makes mention of her 100% rating with [[NARAL]] and her support for partial birth abortion. The last line says "...Nancy, do not receive the Eucharist when you attend Mass." <ref>http://www.calcatholic.com/news/newsArticle.aspx?id=695280f1-c90e-44d8-a866-d8e28f5ef457 , California Catholic Daily A priest writes to Nancy Pelosi, February 1, 2007</ref>

===Treatment of non-union workers===
According to opensecrets.org, nearly half of Pelosi's assets are tied up in a Napa County, California vineyard called Zinfandel Lane. Capitolnews.com has reported Pelosi only employs non-union laborers and does not provide health coverage for her workers. In addition, it is believed illegal aliens have been exploited by Pelosi on the work farm, as well as a general question surrounding paying a basic livable wage for many of societies most vulnerable.<ref>[http://www.capoliticalnews.com/s/spip.php?article13 Does Pelosi’s Non-Union Vineyard Use Illegal Aliens?]Monday 30 October 2006.</ref>

===CordeValle Golf Club and Resort===
Nancy Pelosi has one of her largest investments in a private golf development partnership called Lions Gate Limited. The Santa Clara County Planning Committee approved a plan for them to build a 275-acre golf course 30 minutes south of San Jose, but only under strict conditions. They agreed to allow 60% public usage of the course and to abide by strict environmental rules, since a number of endangered species were present in the area. The club opened in 2000 and did very well, making $250,000 for each member and $400,000 for corporations.<ref>Barry Witt, "Cordevalle club not living up to 60 percent language," San Jose Mercury News Jan. 10, 2002.</ref>

But then the Planning Commission took at look to see if the guidelines had been followed. First of all, only about a dozen non-members had been actually able to play on the course, a far cry from 60%. CordeValle had also set up obvious anti-public rules, such as requiring people to call seventy-two hours in advance and pay close to $300 for 18 holes. Upon investigation, the Commission learned that nonmembers would be told that the club was "full" and turned away even when the club was relatively empty. There were a series of public hearings on the matter and it was concluded that Lion's Gate was in clear violation of the agreement they had made<ref>Barry Witt, "CordeValle Update," San Jose Mercury News, May 8, 2003.</ref>.

During the hearings, it was learned that Lion's Gate had also ignored many of the environmental regulations they were responsible for. The ponds that they needed to make in order to preserve two species of lizard and turtle were not built. And only one mandatory annual environmental report had been submitted in seven years<ref>Barry Witt, "What to do on CordeValle; open it up to the public, or open up it's wallet", San Jose Mercury News, August 7, 2003</ref>. In 2004, a county report complained that improperly abandoned wells and urban pollutants from the resort were causing water quality degradation in the area. <ref>File 5950-68-28-94P, Lions Gate Limited Partnership Staff Report, San Jose Planning Commission, August 5, 2004, and November 4, 2004 (same file name)</ref>

In 2003, the Pelosis and the development partnership finally hired some lobbyists and put a few government employees on the pay role. This caused the commission to cave and give up their fraud investigation as long as the course agreed to host a charity golf tournament for children.<ref>Barry Witt, "Help for CordeValle," San Jose Mercury News, June 13, 2003.</ref>

== Bible Quoting ==

[[NBC]] correspondent Tom Brokaw, asked Pelosi when life begins. She replies "As an ardent, practicing [[Catholic]], this is an issue that I have studied for a long time and what I know is, over the centuries, the doctors of the church have not been able to make that definition. And St. Augustine said at three months. We don’t know.”<ref>[http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/08/26/archbishop-of-washington-chides-pelosi-denver-archbishop-warns-biden-to-skip-communion/ Archbishop of Washington Chides Pelosi] Fox News, August 26, 2008</ref>

On [[Earth Day]] in 2008, Pelosi stated the following: "The Bible tells us in the Old Testament, 'To minister to the needs of God's creation is an act of worship. To ignore those needs is to dishonor the God who made us.'" Pelosi has used the quote many times, often attributing it to Isaiah. The verse is non-existent.<ref>Christianity Today, June 2080, Pg. 15</ref>

Not necessarily a quote from the Bible however, she claims to know where good things come from. Barack Obama is "a leader God has blessed us with at this time."
<ref>[http://www.cbn.com/CBNnews/430377.aspx Pelosi Suggests Obama is a Gift from God] Ap, August 19, 2008</ref>

== Iraq Statements ==

December 16, 1998, Pelosi's public comment "[[Saddam Hussein]] has been engaged in the development of weapons of mass destruction technology which is a threat to countries in the region and he has made a mockery of the weapons inspection process."

Pelosi voted for [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]], authorizing President Bush to invade Iraq.

By June 2005, Minority leader Pelosi had long since changed her position on [[Iraq]] and opposed the war along with fellow Democrats. She remarked of the liberation of 25 million Iraqis as a "grotesque mistake".

== 2008 Election Comments ==

On October 28, Nancy says "Elect us, hold us accountable, and make a judgment and then go from there. But I do tell you that if the Democrats win, and have substantial majorities, the Congress of the United States will be more bipartisan." Commenting on Pelosi Republican Mike Pence said, “As it’s been said before, I have an open mind but not an empty mind.” <ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/public/content/article.aspx?RsrcID=39385 More ‘Bipartisan’ Congress Not Likely, Pence Says] CNSNews, November 17, 2008</ref>

== Memoir ==
[[File:Pelosibook.jpg‎|200px|right]]
Know Your Power: A Message to America's Daughters. She writes "If [[women]] can learn from me, it will make the honor of being [[Speaker of the House]] even greater." Currently, the majority rating is one star on Amazon.com and is doing poorly in sales, ranked at 1620 for a non-fiction memoir. <ref>[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=71104 Corsi's Obama title soars to No. 1, Pelosi's tanks] Worldnetdaily.com, July 31, 2008</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Ségolène Royal]]
*[[Hillary Clinton]]
*[[New_Democrat]]
*[[Liberal]]
*[[Previous Breaking News/Nancy Pelosi|Articles about '''Nancy Pelosi''' from previous "Breaking News"]]

==External links==
*[http://www.house.gov/pelosi/ Nancy Pelosi's Congressional Page]
*[http://www.opensecrets.org/politicians/contrib.asp?CID=N00007360&cycle=2006 Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) Top Contributors]
*[http://www.themilitant.com/1995/5944/5944_5.html Ed Shaw: 50 Years In Fight For Socialism], ''The Militant'', Vol.59/No.44, November 27, 1995. [http://www.opensecrets.org/1996os/contrib/H8CA05035.htm]

{{liberalism}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pelosi, Nancy}}

[[Category:United States Representatives]]
[[Category:Speakers of the House(US)]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]

Movement conservative

2010-11-03T18:52:22Z

Dfrischknecht:

[[Category:Conservative]]A '''movement conservative''' is one who supports all or nearly all [[conservative]] principles with a coherent philosophy, and who advances broad [[conservative]] goals both individually and through teamwork. This is contrasted with [[Republican in name only|cafeteria]], or single-issue, or self-serving approaches.

Put another way, a '''movement conservative''' is a conservative who seeks to help others, and the nation, by explaining, advocating and defending the logical and beneficial conservative approach. A movement conservative is not primarily seeking political gain for himself, but advocates the insights and values of [[conservatism]] for the benefit of others.

Examples of movement conservatives would include:

*[[St. Paul]]
*The late Senator [[Jesse Helms]]
*The late President [[Ronald Reagan]]
*The late Congressman [[John Ashbrook]]
*The Late Congressman [[Larry McDonald]] on board [[KAL 007]] when shot down by Soviets.
*The late Journalist [[Robert Novak]]
*Activist [[Phyllis Schlafly]]
*Justice [[Clarence Thomas]]
*The late University President [[Jerry Falwell]]
*[[United Nations]] Ambassador [[John Bolton]]
*Columnist [[Thomas Sowell]]
*Talk-radio host [[Rush Limbaugh]]
*U.S. Representative for [[Minnesota]]'s 6th District [[Michele Bachmann]]
*Author and talk-radio host [[Mark Levin]]
*[[Sarah Palin]]
*[[Sean Hannity]]

==See also==
*[[Conservative Movement]]

{{Conservatism}}

Sherman Antitrust Act

2010-10-27T19:38:04Z

Dfrischknecht:

The '''Sherman Antitrust Act''' (shortened to '''Sherman Act''') passed by Congress in 1890 is the basic federal antitrust law. It prohibits any unreasonable interference, conspiracy, restraint of trade, or [[monopoly|monopolies]] with respect to interstate commerce.

see [[Antitrust law]]

The Act consists of two sections:
== Section One ==

'''Section One''' prohibits agreements, express or implied, that restrain trade unreasonably.

:''"Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. Every person who shall make any contract or engage in any combination or conspiracy hereby declared to be illegal shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court." 15 U.S.C. § 1.''

This law is usually enforced by a lawsuit brought by one company against another. In such a civil lawsuit, the plaintiff can win only if it proves '''all''' of the following:

(1) Concerted action by defendants that (2) produce anticompetitive effects within the relevant product and geographic markets; (3) that the concerted action was illegal (unreasonable) and that (4) plaintiff was injured as a proximate result of the concerted action. See, e.g., ''[[Gordon v. Lewistown Hospital]]'', 423 F.3d 184, 207 (3d Cir. 2005) (citing ''Petruzzi's IGA Supermarkets, Inc. v. Darling-[[Delaware]] Co.'', 998 F.2d 1224, 1229 (3d Cir. 1993))

== Section Two ==

'''Section Two''' prohibits monopolization, attempts to monopolize and conspiracies to monopolize any aspect of interstate trade or commerce.

:''"Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court." 15 U.S.C. § 2.''

As with Section One, Section Two is typically enforced by one firm suing another in a civil lawsuit. To prevail under Section Two, a plaintiff must prove '''all''' of the following:

(1) an agreement or understanding between two or more parties and (2) a specific intent to monopolize and (3) overt acts in furtherance of the alleged conspiracy. See, e.g., ''Robinson v. Magovern'', 521 F.Supp. 842, 892 (W.D. Pa. 1981).

==see also==
* [[Antitrust law]]

==Further reading==
* Letwin, William. ''Law and Economic Policy in America: The Evolution of the Sherman Antitrust Act'' (1965)

[[Category:United States Law]]
[[Category:Business]]
[[Category:Antitrust]]

Sherman Antitrust Act

2010-10-27T19:37:52Z

Dfrischknecht:

The '''Sherman Antitrust Act''' (shortened to '''Sherman Act''') passed by Congress in 1890 is the basic federal antitrust law . It prohibits any unreasonable interference, conspiracy, restraint of trade, or [[monopoly|monopolies]] with respect to interstate commerce.

see [[Antitrust law]]

The Act consists of two sections:
== Section One ==

'''Section One''' prohibits agreements, express or implied, that restrain trade unreasonably.

:''"Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. Every person who shall make any contract or engage in any combination or conspiracy hereby declared to be illegal shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court." 15 U.S.C. § 1.''

This law is usually enforced by a lawsuit brought by one company against another. In such a civil lawsuit, the plaintiff can win only if it proves '''all''' of the following:

(1) Concerted action by defendants that (2) produce anticompetitive effects within the relevant product and geographic markets; (3) that the concerted action was illegal (unreasonable) and that (4) plaintiff was injured as a proximate result of the concerted action. See, e.g., ''[[Gordon v. Lewistown Hospital]]'', 423 F.3d 184, 207 (3d Cir. 2005) (citing ''Petruzzi's IGA Supermarkets, Inc. v. Darling-[[Delaware]] Co.'', 998 F.2d 1224, 1229 (3d Cir. 1993))

== Section Two ==

'''Section Two''' prohibits monopolization, attempts to monopolize and conspiracies to monopolize any aspect of interstate trade or commerce.

:''"Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court." 15 U.S.C. § 2.''

As with Section One, Section Two is typically enforced by one firm suing another in a civil lawsuit. To prevail under Section Two, a plaintiff must prove '''all''' of the following:

(1) an agreement or understanding between two or more parties and (2) a specific intent to monopolize and (3) overt acts in furtherance of the alleged conspiracy. See, e.g., ''Robinson v. Magovern'', 521 F.Supp. 842, 892 (W.D. Pa. 1981).

==see also==
* [[Antitrust law]]

==Further reading==
* Letwin, William. ''Law and Economic Policy in America: The Evolution of the Sherman Antitrust Act'' (1965)

[[Category:United States Law]]
[[Category:Business]]
[[Category:Antitrust]]

Electoral College

2010-10-15T03:20:07Z

Dfrischknecht:

[[Image:Electoralcollege2008.gif|thumb|300px|right|Electoral votes by state, click for larger image.]]
The '''Electoral College''' is the method by which the [[United States]] elects a [[president]] every four years. The [[Founding Fathers|Founders]] wanted Electors to gather in each state rather than in a common place, thereby minimizing intrigue and corruption. Each state then votes on the presidential candidate. The details are specified in the [[U.S. Constitution]], Article II, Section 1, Clause 3.

The electoral procedure is as follows:

*Political parties and independent presidential candidates select their electors.

*Political parties nominate presidential and vice presidential candidates.

*On the Tuesday following the first Monday of November, people choose the electors of their state depending on their presidential preference.

*On the Monday following the second Wednesday of December, electors of each state meet in their state capital to cast separate votes for the president and vice president. They are only allowed to cast votes for presidents and vice presidents of their own states.

*The ballots are than sealed and sent to the President of the Senate (the [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]]), who opens them on January 6.

*Candidates who win the majority of ballots for president and vice president will than be declared the winners. If no one wins the majority of the ballots for president, then the [[House of Representatives]] makes the choice from among the top three contenders. In this situation, each state's delegation has one vote and the majority of the states will have to elect the president. If there is no winner for vice president the senate will select between the top two contenders.

*At noon, January 20, the new president and vice president will be sworn into office.

The number of electors from each state is determined as being the same as the combined number of that state's [[United States Senate|senators]] and representatives. As the number of senators is always two, and the number of representatives is roughly proportional to the state's population, this means that larger states have more electors than smaller states, but smaller states have a ''proportionately'' higher number of electors. This mechanism was devised by the Founding Fathers as a compromise between large states (who felt they should have a greater say than the smaller states) and small states (who feared a straight proportional number would leave them too little influence).<ref>http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/8176.html</ref>

Nearly all the states vote on a winner-take-all basis, such that whoever wins a [[plurality]] of the votes in that state then receives all of the Electoral College votes for that state. The only two exceptions are [[Maine]] and [[Nebraska]], which divide their electoral votes along congressional districts. Both states would therefore be able to split their share of votes between candidates. In practise however, this never happened until 2008, when [[Barack Obama]] won Nebraska's second congressional district, therefore winning one of Nebraska's five votes. The remaining four were won by [[John McCain]].

Elections in 1800 and 1824 required the House of Representatives to select a president, as no candidate won a majority. The 1824 vote leader, [[Andrew Jackson]], was later elected in 1828. In 1876, [[Samuel Tilden]] won the popular vote, but [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] won with the elector vote. No one since has won a majority of the popular vote and lost the election.

In 1888, [[Grover Cleveland]] got a plurality of the popular vote (by a margin of 110,476) but [[Benjamin Harrison]] won the electoral college vote, and became president. In 1960, [[Richard Nixon]] got a plurality of the popular vote, unles you count votes for [[John F. Kennedy]] that actually went to electors that were pledged to vote for someone else. In the 2000 election, [[Al Gore]] narrowly got a plurality of the popular vote, and [[George W. Bush]] narrowly won the electoral vote. After a careful recount of the election results in [[Florida]], [[George W. Bush]] was declared the 43rd President of the [[United States]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}
1. Bloom, Sol, and Johnson, Lars. ''The Story of the Constitution''. Christian Liberty Press, 2001.
 2. For an essay on attempts to abolish the '''Electoral College''', see [[Essay:Electoral College]].
[[category:United States]]
[[Category: Election Terms]]

Sharron Angle

2010-10-15T02:50:09Z

Dfrischknecht:

[[Image:AnglePortrait300dpiJpeg JPG w300h418.jpg|right|200px|]]'''Sharron Angle''' (born July 26, 1949 in Klamath Falls, Oregon) is the [[Republican]] nominee for [[U.S. Senate]] for [[Nevada]], to challenge Senate Majority Leader [[Harry Reid]] in the 2010 election. On October 3, 2010, she received the endorsement for this election by Nevada's largest newspaper, the ''Las Vegas Review-Journal''.

Sharron Angle served as a member of the Nevada General Assembly from 1999 through 2007. She is also a member of the [[National Rifle Association]] and the [[National Right to Life Committee]].

Angle attended [[Reno]] public schools and graduated the University of Nevada with a Bachelor of Arts degree. She went on to become a substitute teacher, taught art courses at Western Nevada Community College and co-founded and administrated a twenty-four student [[Christian]] school. Angle was a registered [[Democrat]] from 1984 to 1988, although she voted for [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1980 and 1984, and was in the Independent American Party from 1992 until 1997. <ref>http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0610/38630.html</ref>

Angle's first elected office was the Nye County School Board of Trustees in 1990. After her election in 1998, Angle rose to become Minority Whip in the Nevada Legislature. She narrowly lost a campaign for the Republican nomination for [[Congress]] to Nevada Secretary of State Dean Heller by just 428 votes.

Angle's candidacy for Senate surged after the endorsement from the [[Tea Party Express]] and [[Sarah Palin]], and defeated former State Senator [[Sue Lowden]] and businessman [[Danny Tarkanian]] in the Republican primary.

==External links==
*[http://www.sharronangle.com/ Campaign Website]
*[http://www.facebook.com/SharronforSenate Facebook page]
*[http://twitter.com/sharronangle Twitter page]
*[http://www.youtube.com/user/sharronangle YouTube channel]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2010 Midterm Elections]]
[[Category:Republican Party]]
[[Category:Conservative Democrats]]
[[Category:Tea Party Movement]]
{{conservatism}}

Christianity

2010-10-14T16:52:20Z

Dfrischknecht:

{{Christianity}}
'''Christianity''' is the world's largest [[religion]], having 2.2 billion followers. It is a [[monotheistic]] religion that professes belief in [[Jesus]] as the Son of [[God]]. Christianity takes its name from [[Jesus Christ]] meaning "Jesus the Anointed One" or, in the Hebrew original, "Yeshua HaMashiach". Followers of Jesus are called Christians, meaning "of Christ" or "belonging to Christ".<ref>[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=2661&dict=CALD Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]</ref>

Today, Christianity is widespread and is practiced on all continents. It is most prevalent in Latin America, with a following of over four hundred million. Over 90% of the population of countries like Mexico, Brazil, and the Democratic Republic of Congo practice Christianity. Other significant regions include North America and Oceania, where over 70% of the population is Christian.

== Main Christian groups ==
[[Image:Anglican Christ Church.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Anglican Christ Church in Western Australia]]
'''The three largest self-governing bodies of Christians are:'''

* The [[Roman Catholic Church]] (approx. 1.1 billion baptized members) traces its roots back to [[Saint Peter]] whom Catholics believe established their church and the succession of [[Pope]]s as the spiritual leaders of Christendom.

* The [[Orthodox Church]]es (approx. 300 million baptized members) also trace their roots back to the Apostles, but do not believe in the Primacy of the Pope. Differing theological perspectives led to the [[Great Schism]] between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches in A.D. 1054.

* [[Protestantism]]; the largest Communions are the [[Anglican Church|Anglicans]] (approx. 115 million baptized members) and the Lutheran World Federation (approx. 68 million baptized members). Protestantism has its origins in the European [[Reformation]]. It first broke away from the Roman Catholic Church under [[Martin Luther]] when differences over the nature of [[faith]] and works in the role of [[Christianity#salvation|salvation]] as well as other practices of the Catholic Church that Luther saw as unBiblical. Other preachers and theologians, such as [[Ulrich Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin]] followed Luther in rejecting key Catholic teachings.

== Christian Beliefs ==
Christian beliefs [[Christian apologetics|are well supported via a large body of compelling evidence]]. Theologians, over two millennia, have debated a definitive summary of the Christian faith. While its interpretations vary drastically, probably the most commonly accepted statement of faith is the [[Nicene Creed| Nicea-Constantinopolitan Creed]] below:

<blockquote>I believe in one God, [[God the Father|the Father Almighty]], Maker of [[heaven]] and [[earth]], and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of Light; true God of true God; begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father, by whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate of the [[Holy Spirit]] and the [[Virgin Mary]], and became man. And He was crucified for us under [[Pontius Pilate]], and suffered, and was buried. And the third day He rose again, according to the [[Bible|Scriptures]]; and ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead; whose Kingdom shall have no end. And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets. In one Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins. I look for the [[Resurrection]] of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.</blockquote>

Christians and Christian denominations agree on many points of doctrine while disagreeing on others. According to an online Harris poll from 2003, 99% of all American Christians believe in [[God]], 96% in the [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]], 93% in [[Heaven]], 93% in the virgin birth, 92% in the survival of the soul after death, 82% in [[Hell]], 50% in ghosts, 27% in astrology and 21% in reincarnation. <ref>http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359</ref> Note that the latter two beliefs are in opposition to the religious tenents of most Christian denominations.

Nonetheless, the Nicea-Constantinopolitan Creed offers a general overall picture of what Christian theology looks like, and serves as a useful outline.

Other creeds may prove helpful in research. See also: the [[Apostle's Creed]], [[Athanasian Creed]].

===God===
{{main|God}}
God is a triune being. Though there is only one Divine nature there are three Divine Persons: The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The three Persons are collectively called the [[Trinity]] or the Holy Trinity. While God is tripartite, this does not imply that Christians are polytheists--the oneness of the divine nature (or essence) is what matters. The doctrine of the Trinity is central to most (but not all) Christian theology.

A major theme of the Bible is [[love]]. In the Hebrew [[Old Testament]] the idea is expressed in the Hebrew word ''hessed'', which is variously translated as loyal love, tender mercy, steadfast love, mercy, goodness, etc. in the [[New Testament]] the same idea is expressed in the Greek word ''agape'', which is variously translated as love, compassion, charity, etc.

The God of the Christians is the creator of all things, is everywhere present, exists in all times, is transcendent, all-knowing (omniscient), just, and all-powerful (omnipotent).

===Jesus===
[[Image:Jesus' Baptism.jpg|180px|left|]]
During the reign of [[Augustus Caesar|Caesar Augustus]] the Son (e.g. the second Person of the Trinity) took flesh from a virgin woman and was incarnate as a man. He was born in the town of [[Bethlehem]] and was given the name [[Jesus]]. At the age of thirty he was baptized by his cousin, the [[John the Baptist|Prophet John]], and began to preach in the area [[Palestine]]. About three years after his baptism, he raised his friend [[Lazarus]] from the dead, prompting the Jewish power establishment to plot Jesus' death. Jesus was [[crucified]]. He came back from the dead and was seen by over 500 people. He ascended to Heaven. The four [[Gospels]] contain the records of some of what Jesus did and said, but he did much more than those four books relate, as the Apostle John said in his Gospel.
{{Clear}}

===Morality===
The fundamental principle in Christian moral teaching is love and forgiveness, as expressed by the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and the New Testament. Jesus summarized his teachings in two commandments from the Old Testament:

"'You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind.' This is the great and foremost commandment. The second is like it, 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets." ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 22:37-39; [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]] 6:5; Leviticus 19:18)

There has been endless debate over how a person should express love for God in his or her moral behavior. This moral dialogue found expression in the New Testament, where the [[Apostle Paul]] addressed such controversies as [[circumcision]] ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 2:25-29), eating meat that was sacrificed to [[pagan]] deities (1 Corinthians 8), speculating about myths and genealogies (1 Timothy 1:3-5), and observing ceremonial dates and seasons (Galatians 4:9-11).

Regardless of a person's ethical interpretations, adherents commonly point to New Testament passages John 3:16 and 1 Corinthians 13:4-7 as scriptural depictions of love. The former states that <blockquote>"God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish, but have eternal life."</blockquote> The latter characterizes love, saying <blockquote>"Love is patient, love is kind and is not jealous; love does not brag and is not arrogant, does not act unbecomingly; it does not seek its own, is not provoked, does not take into account a wrong suffered, does not rejoice in unrighteousness, but rejoices with the truth; bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things."</blockquote>

Jesus Christ affirmed, "By this all men will know that you are My disciples, if you have love for one another." (John 13:35)

In trying to understand the reason for the growth of Christianity in a pagan culture, it has been noted that while love of one's neighbor is not an exclusively Christian virtue, it appears that the primitive Christian church practiced it much more effectively than any other group.<ref>E.R. Dodds, 1970:136-137</ref> This is most likely due to the constant mention of hospitality and generosity to one's "neighbors" in the Bible. Jesus was especially passionate about caring for people in need:

Jesus said to him, "If you want to be perfect, go and sell what you own and give the money to the destitute, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come back and follow me." (Matthew 19:21)

In addition to sacrificially showing care for those within the community as well as to those without, (cf. Gal. 6:10) the Christians elevated the sanctity of life, opposing abortion, infanticide, child abandonment, suicide, and gladiatorial contests.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''A history of Christianity'' p. 244</ref><ref> Ted Cabal, Chad Owen Brand, Paul Copan, The Apologetics Study Bible, 274 </ref> While the primitive church tolerated the existing and pervasive cultural economic institution of slavery in the [[Roman Empire]], the mandate of equal pay and just treatment (Col. 4:1; Eph. 6:9) greatly ameliorated the treatment of slaves, while advising them to seek freedom if possible, (1Cor. 7:21) and requiring that the escape slave Onesimus be received back not "as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved". (Philemon 1:6) The Christian ethos of love also motivated a great expansion in the building of hospitals.<ref>Albert John Ochsner, Meyer Joseph Sturm, ''The organization, construction and management of hospitals'', p. 17</ref><ref>Roderick E. McGrew, ''Encyclopaedia of Medical Care'', p. 135</ref> By 500 A.D., most large towns in in the Roman Empire had erected them.<ref>George D. Pozgar, ''Legal aspects of health care administration', p. 2</ref>

===The Atonement of Jesus on the Cross===
[[Image:Dalí The Christ of St. John of the Cross.jpg|thumb|The Christ of St. John of the Cross by [[Salvador Dalí]], 1951.]]
All Christians believe with the New Testament that the death of Jesus, along with His resurrection, is an indispensable proclamation of a crucial event for the reconciliation of lost sinners with God. There are three elements they see to understanding His death on the cross.

# Jesus having the knowledge that His path would lead to his own death, desired and willed that that take place, and persevered in that path though there was opportunity for Him to avoid it. Though there is ample recognition in the New Testament that others desired Him to die, and that the circumstances in which His path took him would bring Him to His end on earth, the mover of all these things was Himself and the will of the Father. "I have power to take my life and I have power to lay down my life. I lay down my life for the sheep."

# Jesus saw that in His death there would be a way for people to be brought back to the God from whom they were alienated and lost because of their sins. This would involve a substitution of Himself to effect that way. "For the Son of Man came not to be served, but to serve and give His life as a ransom for many." How this would take place was not new to the Jews of His day from their understanding of contemporary everyday practice of substitute payment - as in redemption of the first-born (Pidyon Ha Ben), or in the understanding of what aggadic stories such as the Binding of [[Isaac]] implied (see [[Midrash]]), but it was not the prevalent view that the Messiah was to be that payment. Though while alive on earth, he had hinted at it in sayings such as "unless a seed falls and dies, it remains alone, but when it dies, it brings forth..", it was only after He had risen from the dead that He explained Scripture (the Old Testament) clearly about the necessity of His death to have taken place. The disciples would henceforth preach, and Peter among them, that the death of Jesus the Messiah and His resurrection was for-planned and for-ordained by God the Father, and foretold in the Scripture (Isaiah 53). And so, "The Just for the unjust, that He might bring us to God".

# It was the belief, recorded in Scripture, that in His death a way back to God was made possible for those that were near to God—the Jews. And a way back to God for those that were far away—the Gentiles. That is why the New Testament saw in the requirements of God for Israel a fulfillment in Jesus the Messiah. He was the perfect Israel, taken out of Egypt, to redeem Israel. And that is why the New Testament saw in Jesus, a deepness to the incarnation of the Son of God, deeper than just a Jew of His time of a certain tribe. He was the "Second Adam" to redeem the sons of Adam. This encompassing perspective had further implications.

Christians of all generations have looked to the perfect Atonement, and the hope for reconciliation, accomplished by Jesus on the cross, to provide the means of understanding the solution to the vexing problems of the mind and of life itself - How can I make reconciliation with my enemies, with even the members of my own family, of race with race and people with people?; Does His death for the sins of the world include those who only partially understand, for the baby aborted, the feeble minded, and severely retarded?; For those who have never heard of Jesus, never been "enlightened", distant and remote in place and time?; Does His death for the sins of the world also include a remedy for the ills that have come as a result of those sins—certain sicknesses, ills of the mind, body and the soul? Do they "hold" for today?; Does His death make good, turn to the better, show the way, effect the way, of the illnesses that have befallen the world, not only by sin, but simply by the circumstances of life, of degeneration, of compounded dysfunction? How does the fruit of His death bring in somehow the Kingdom "among us"?

The death of the Son of God on the cross has provided the solution for sin, and it still holds its sway over the imagination and aspirations for the people of our generation.

===Salvation===
The Bible teaches that "all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God" (Romans 3:23). This is often interpreted to mean that everyone has displeased God and is now separated from him in a kind of alienation and enmity that results from the fundamental conflict between selfish human interests and God's interests (Romans 8:5-8; James 4:4).

However, Jesus offered a solution to this Biblical dilemma in that by repentance of sins and faith in him (Jesus), their sins would be forgiven. He said that "...the Son of man hath power on earth to forgive sins." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 2:10) Jesus also said, "I came not to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance." (Mark 2:17, and "Verily I say unto you, All sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men" (Mark 2:28)

Jesus Christ taught that "unless one is born again he cannot see the kingdom of God" ([[Gospel of John|John]] 3:3). Protestant Evangelical Christianity often use the terms "saved" and "born again" interchangeably. Other Christians, notably the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church use the phrase ''born again'' as a synonym for [[baptism|baptized]]. "Jesus answered, Amen, amen, I say unto thee, Except a man be born of water and [of] the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God" (John 3:5).

Christians are expected to continue living by Christ's teachings (John 8:31), as is appropriate for "children of Light" (Ephesians 5:8-10). Some believe that this is necessary in order to stay saved. However, this is a common misconception of the text. It is rather referring to proving that one is a child of God by their "fruit" (things that they do and how they behave). Christians in the Reformed tradition (following the teaching of the 16th century French lawyer and theologian [[John Calvin]], as well as the faith outlined in the Belgic and Heidleberg Confessions) say that salvation is irrevocable and that it cannot be lost, if it were genuinely part of one's life to begin with. Reformed Christians (often called [[Calvinists]]) point to many verses of Scripture in support of this belief. One such verse is Romans 8:38-39: "For I am convinced that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor things present, nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor depth, nor any other created thing, will be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord" (Romans 8:38-39; [[NASB]]).

According to Calvinists, one reason salvation cannot be lost by natural things is because salvation was obtained through a supernatural being, namely Jesus Christ. This does not negate Jesus' human side, only that he was both one-hundred percent God and one-hundred percent man, as asserted by the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (A. D. 451). Another is because Jesus said of his own Apostles that they could not be snatched from his hand (John 10:28-29). The Bible also makes clear that mankind cannot earn salvation, and that it is a free gift.

== Resurrection of Jesus Christ ==
[[Image:Jesus resurrected.jpg|thumb|left|200px|"The Resurrection" by Carl Heinrich Bloch]]
The [[Resurrection of Jesus Christ|resurrection of Jesus Christ]] is critical to the Christian faith. The Apostle Paul wrote, "if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is vain, your faith also is vain" (I Cor:15:14). Traditionally, Christianity has believed in a physical resurrection of Jesus Christ.<ref>http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/crj0056a.txt</ref>

In recent history Gary Habermas is considered a leading [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologist]] for defending the resurrection of Jesus.<ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/dialog_rexperience/dialog_rexperiences.htm Experiences of the Risen Jesus: The Foundational Historical Issue in the Early Proclamation of the Resurrection], ''Dialog: A Journal of Theology'', Vol. 45; No. 3 (Fall, 2006), pp. 288-297.</ref><ref>"Wildcat" and Holding, J.P., [http://www.tektonics.org/books/lichabrvw.html Book review of "The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus"], 22nd June, 2004 (Tektonics)</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/NTeSources/NTArticles/CTR-NT/Habermas-Resurrection1-CTR.pdf Jesus' Resurrection and Contemporary Criticism: An Apologetic] ''Criswell Theological Review'' 4.1 (1989) 159-74.</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/crj_explainingaway/crj_explainingaway.htm Explaining Away Jesus' Resurrection:
The Recent Revival of Hallucination Theories], Christian Research Journal / vol. 23, no. 4, 2001.</ref><ref>Habermas, Gary, [http://www.apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=/articles/historical_apologetics/habermas-nt.html Why I Believe The New Testament Is Historically Reliable] (Apologetics.com)</ref>
Other notable defenders of the resurrection include: [[William Lane Craig]],<ref>Craig, William Lane, [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/menus/historical.html Articles: Historical Jesus]</ref> [[Lee Strobel]], [[Josh McDowell]],<ref>McDowell, Josh, [http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html Evidence for the Resurrection], 1992.</ref> [[Edwin M. Yamauchi]],<ref>Jamauchi, Edwin M., [http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/yama.html Easter: Myth, Hallucination, or History?]</ref> [[N.T. Wright]]<ref>Wright, N.T., [http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_Early_Traditions.htm Early Traditions and the Origins of Christianity], ''Sewanee Theological Review'' 41.2, 1998.</ref> and [[Michael Horner]].<ref>Horner, Michael, [http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/index.html Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead?]</ref>

===The Meaning of the Resurrection for Christians===

The Fact of the Resurrection of Christ is a key element of the preaching of the message about Jesus and an essential of Christian belief. But there are also certain effects that this belief has on the lives of believers.

1. It is because Jesus rose from the dead, that believers now can resort to a living Savior to help and deliver them from sin and from situations overwhelming for them by their own powers.

2. The New Testament sees in the resurrection of Christ a certain vindication of what apparently to the world and to all beings was a failure and an overcoming of Him by His crucifixion. He was "declared to be the Son of God" by His resurrection. This brings believers in Him to a strong confidence in the determined power of God to both vindicate in their own lives and to bring His reign upon earth.

3. The coming of Jesus back to life means to the believer that, indeed, their sins are totally forgiven. This is because believers know that His death was as a payment for sins - a "wage of death" for our sins that He received in our stead. If He remained dead, believers would know that the wage had not been fully paid. His resurrection, carries with it our knowledge that our sin with its attendant death has been totally and finally paid for.

4. It is a now living Savior that Christians know can go before them, can closely lead them through life - as He did when He was on earth. This makes following Him practical and real.

5. The New Testament reveals that it is the Risen Christ who received from the Father the Holy Spirit and He, through Himself ascended to the Father, has given the Holy Spirit to us. This gives the believer in Christ both the knowledge and the power to live a godly life, and live a life that can be an intimately and personally directed one.

6. The resurrected Christ was no mere reassembling of the molecules and particles of the Body that had been crucified. It was, indeed, a physical body, but one that was fully under the Spirit's control, guidance, and empowerment. It was a "spiritual body". Christians know that likewise, they will one day be granted the nature of a spiritual body, and full of health. They therefore are full of hope and consolations, and consider that even now in this life, there is an overcoming through Him, a restoration, and that tears, even now, are wiped away.

== Evangelism ==
In what is called the [[Great Commission]], Jesus sent his disciples out into the world to preach the Gospel (literally "good news") and make disciples.
:'''Great Commission'''
:''But the eleven disciples proceeded to [[Galilee]], to the mountain which Jesus had designated. When they saw Him, they worshiped Him; but some were doubtful. And Jesus came up and spoke to them, saying, "All authority has been given to Me in [[heaven]] and on [[earth]]." Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the [[#God the Father|Father]] and the [[#God the Son|Son]] and the [[#God the Holy Spirit|Holy Spirit]], teaching them to observe all that I commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, even to the end of the age."'' --[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:16-20 [[New American Standard Bible|NASB]]
[[Image:Gleyre The Departure of the Apostles.jpg|thumb|240px|The Departure of the Apostles by [[Charles Gleyre]].]]
 

== Christian evangelism and Christian internet evangelism ==
Since its inception Christianity has seen a consistent and [http://users.adam.com.au/bstett/BChristianIncrease12.htm dramatic increase in its number of adherents].<ref>http://users.adam.com.au/bstett/BChristianIncrease12.htm</ref><ref>http://pewforum.org/Christian/Faith-and-Conflict-The-Global-Rise-of-Christianity.aspx</ref> In the 1940's, the [[Lausanne Movement]] was started in order to help Christendom evangelize globally with greater effectiveness and thousands of Christian leaders from around the globe meet regularly to increase the effectiveness of [[Christian evangelism]].<ref>http://www.lausanne.org/about.html</ref>

=== Internet evangelism ===

see also: [[Internet evangelism]]

Campus Crusade for Christ International (CCCI) is one of the world's largest evangelism organizations within Christendom and has over 25,000 full time missionaries. In 2006, Alan Beeber of CCCI predicted that internet evangelism will result in more conversion that all other forms of evangelism for CCCI combined.<ref>http://www.lausanneworldpulse.com/pdf/issues/LWP0206.pdf</ref> At [[YouTube]], Christians and Christian creationists have faced problems with [[atheist bullying|atheist cyberbullies]], but they [[Essay: Sharing your Christian/creationist videos on the internet|have developed methods to overcome this problem]].

==History of the name "Christian"==
The early Christian faith was sometimes called ''That Way'', (Acts 19:1,9,23; 24:22) and the church its adherents were also called ''Nazarenes'', (Acts 24:5) evidently after the city of [[Nazareth]] where Jesus lived. Probably close to A.D 50 the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]] (Acts:11:26) records that "the disciples were called Christians first in [[Antioch]]." The title ''Christian'' is also used in Acts 26:28 and 1 Peter 4:16, and likely is referred to in James 2:7, "Do not they blaspheme that worthy name by the which ye are called?"

==Early Church Community and Commitment: The Biblical Period==

The Bible records that that, at least initially, the church saw itself as united. In the community:

they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in prayers. {43} And fear came upon every soul: and many wonders and signs were done by the apostles. {44} And all that believed were together, and had all things common; {45} And sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. {46} And they, continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread from house to house, did eat their meat with gladness and singleness of heart, Praising God, and having favour with all the people. And the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved." "And the multitude of them that believed were of one heart and of one soul: neither said any of them that ought of the things which he possessed was his own; but they had all things common."(Acts 2:42-47; 4:32)

This community was soon "scattered abroad throughout the regions of Judaea and Samaria, except the apostles," due to determined persecution which resulted in the dispersed disciples going "every where preaching the word." (Acts 8:1,4) Although the scattered Christian communities could soon be found throughout the then known world, they were primarily to be found in two separate cultural and liguistic entities and then kingdoms--the Greek and Latin speaking empires of Europe and the mid-east, and the Aramaic speaking sphere of the Parthian empire of the mid and far-east. This latter sphere encompassed not only the eastern portions of Syria, Arabian peninsula and Persia, but also extended to portions of southern India and even China. To this day there are many [[Aramaic Church]] members in the Kerala province of south India.

Other evidence indicates believers had their own houses and goods. (Acts 10:6; 16:14,15,40; 21:8; 1Cor. 11:22; 1Tim. 6:17; Philemon)

==Early Church Community and Commitment: the Post Biblical Period==

'''Justin martyr 100 A.D. - 165 A.D. From the "First Apology" (Defense)
'''

<blockquote>
But we, after we have thus washed him who has been convinced and has assented to our teaching, bring him to the place where those who are called brethren are assembled, in order that we may offer hearty prayers in common for ourselves and for the baptized [illuminated] person, and for all others in every place, that we may be counted worthy, now that we have learned the truth, by our works also to be found good citizens and keepers of the commandments, so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking them, gives praise and glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and offers thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at His hands. And when he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their assent by saying Amen. This word Amen answers in the Hebrew language to genoito [so be it]. And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have expressed their assent, those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced, and to those who are absent they carry away a portion. (Chapt. LXV - administration of the sacraments)</blockquote>

<blockquote>
And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist = the Thanksgiving], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in remembrance of Me, this is My body;" and that, after the same manner, having taken the cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood;" and gave it to them alone... (Chapt. LXVl - of the Eucharist)
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
And we afterwards continually remind each other of these things. And the wealthy among us help the needy; and we always keep together; and for all things wherewith we are supplied, we bless the Maker of all through His Son Jesus Christ, and through the Holy Ghost. And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. But Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the first day on which God, having wrought a change in the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus Christ our Saviour on the same day rose from the dead...(Chapt.LXVll - weekly worship of the Christians)
</blockquote>

'''Tertullian (A.D. 160 -220), Early ecclesiatical leader and writer, in his ''Apology'' (response to pagan charges) in describing the early church community (197 A.D.): '''

:We are a body knit together by one faith, one discipline and one hope. We meet together as a congregation, uniting together to offer prayer to God. We pray for the emperors and all in authority, for the welfare of the world, for peace and for the delay of the final end. We read our holy scriptures to nourish our faith, hope, steadfastness and good habits. We hear exhortations and rebukes. We take such judging very seriously – as befits those who believe they are in the sight of God – especially seriously when anyone sins so grievously we have to cut them off from our prayer, our congregation and all sacred things. Our elders preside over us, obtaining that honor not by money, but by their established character. There is no buying and selling in the things of God. Though we have a fund, but not because people can buy religion. Once a month, anyone who wants to makes a small donation – but only he who is able and willing; there is no compulsion. It is not spent on feasts, but to support and bury poor people, to provide for orphans, the elderly old persons, victims of shipwreck and those in prison for their faith.<ref>Defense by Tertullian (39), Trans. Rev. S. Thelwall. Modernized, abridged and introduced by Stephen Tomkins. Edited and prepared for the web by Dan Graves.</ref>

'''Pliny the Younger, the Roman governor of Pontus & Bithynia (northern Turkey) from A.D. 111-113, reporting to emperor Trajan of Christians, whom such pagan rulers found intolerable:'''

:...in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.

:... Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.

:They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food.<ref>Pliny the Younger Letters, 10.96 </ref>

== Resources on becoming a Christian ==
[[File:Hoffman Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane.jpg|thumbnail|170px|[[Jesus Christ|Christ]] in the Garden of Gethsemane by Heinrich Hofmann.]]
''see also:'' [[Resources on becoming a Christian]]

'''Below are some resources on becoming a [[Christian]]:'''

*[http://www.jesusfilm.org/film-and-media/watch-the-film Jesus film - free access]

*[http://www.thewordfortoday.org/?page=C2000 Free audio Bible and Bible audio streaming]

*[http://www.allaboutgod.com/ AllAboutGod.com]

*[[Video testimonies of Christians]]

*[http://www.gotquestions.org/repentance.html Repentance]

'''Tips on choosing a Christian church:'''

*[http://www.allaboutreligion.org/choosing-a-christian-church-faq.htm Choosing a Christian Church]

'''Spiritual growth as a Christian:'''

*[http://www.navpress.com/product/9781576839324/The-Pursuit-of-Holiness-Jerry-Bridges The Pursuit of Holiness] by Jerry Bridges
*[http://www.navpress.com/product/9780891099413/The-Practice-of-Godliness-Jerry-Bridges The Practice of Godliness] by Jerry Bridges
*[http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/529785.The_Complete_Book_of_Discipleship The Complete Book of Discipleship: On Being and Making Followers of Christ]

==Also See==
[[Image:Orthodox churches icon artwork.jpg|thumb|Orthodox Church's icon artwork.]]
'''Denominations or branches of Christianity'''
*[[Roman Catholic Church]]
*[[Orthodox Church]]
*[[Protestantism|Protestant]]
**[[Amish]]
**[[Baptist]]
**[[Church of England]] or ''Anglican Church''
**[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (or ''Episcopal Church'' or ''Episcopalians'') (Non-UK branch of the Anglican Church)
**[[Evangelical Christianity]]
**[[Fundamentalism]]
**[[Liberal Christianity]]
**[[Lutheran]]
**[[Mennonite]]
**[[Methodist]]
**[[Pentecostal]]
**[[Plymouth Brethren]]
**[[Presbyterian]]
**[[Seventh-day Adventist]]

'''Disputed'''
*[[Christian Science]]

'''Other articles'''
*[[Aramaic Church]]
*[[Cathedral]]
*[[Catholicism]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (Defense of Christianity)
*[[Christianity and Science]]
*[[Church]]
*[[Conservative Christianity]]
*[[Eucharist]]
*[[Evangelical Apostolic Church of North America (Syro-Chaldean)]]
*[[Christian apologetics|Evidence for Christianity]]
*[[Gospel reading in the Church: the Turgama]]
*[[Inspiration of Holy Scripture: An Eastern Christian and Jewish Perspective]]
*[[Jesus Christ]]
*[[Judaism]]
*[[Messiah]]
*[[New Testament understanding through the Jewish perspective]]
*[[Passover Seder]]
*[[Persecution of Christians]]
*[[Red-letter Christian]]
*[[Sign of the Cross]]
*[[Essay: The Way of Salvation]]
*[[Gates of Hell]]
*[[Anti Abortion activism: a personal essay]]

'''Internet evangelism:'''

*[[Essay: Sharing your Christian and creationist videos on YouTube and the internet]]

==Further reading==
===Encyclopedias===
* Bodensieck, Julius, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church,'' (3 vol 1965), ECLS perspective
* Brauer, Jerald C. ''The Westminster Dictionary of Church History'' (1971), 880pp
* [http://newadvent.org/cathen/index.html ''The Catholic Encyyclopedia'' (1907-1913)], old but highly detailed and online
** '' New Catholic Encyclopedia'', edited by the Catholic University of America, 17 vol. 1967-1979.
*Cross, F. L., and E. A. Livingstone, eds. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (3rd ed. 1997), 1840pp; [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Dictionary-Christian-Church/dp/0192802909/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_b excerpt and text search]; online at [[OUP]]
* Elwell, Walter A., ed. ''Evangelical Dictionary of Theology‎'' (2001) 1312 pages; articles by over 200 Evangelical or Fundamentalist scholars
*Hastings, Adrian et al. eds. ''The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought'' (2000) 808pp; 600 articles by 260 Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox scholars; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0198600240/ref=sib_dp_pt/105-4292297-2766841#reader-link excerpt and text search]; online at [[OUP]]
*''New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge'' (1911), ), major sources of older scholarly articles; mainline Protestant perspective
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc01.toc.html Vol. 1: Aachen - Basilians]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc02.toc.html Vol. 2: Basilica - Chambers]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc03.toc.html Vol. 3: Chamier - Draendorf]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04.toc.html Vol. 4: Draeseke - Goa]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc05.toc.html Vol. 5: Goar - Innocent]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc06.toc.html Vol. 6: Innocents - Liudger]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc07.toc.html Vol. 7: Liutprand - Moralities]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc08.toc.html Vol. 8: Morality - Petersen]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc09.toc.html Vol. 9: Petri - Reuchlin]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc10.toc.html Vol. 10: Reutsch - Son]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc11.toc.html Vol. 11: Son of Man - Tremellius]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc12.toc.html Vol. 12: Trench - Zwingli]
**[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc13.toc.html Vol. 13: Index]

===Histories===
*Briggs, J. H. Y., Robert D. Linder, and David F. Wright. ''Introduction to the History of Christianity: First Century to the Present Day'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-History-Christianity-Century-Present/dp/0800638123/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823548&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
*Gonzalez, Justo L. '' A History of Christian Thought: Volume 1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon'' (2nd ed. 1987); [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Beginnings-Chalcedon/dp/0687171822/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823941&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1]; ''A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2: From Augustine to the Eve of the Reformation'' (2nd ed. 1987) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Augustine-Reformation/dp/0687171830/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823941&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 2]; ''A History of Christian Thought: Volume 3: From the Protestant Reformation to the Twentieth Century'' (1987) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Thought-Protestant-Reformation/dp/0687171849/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search vol 3]
*Horsley, Richard A. ''Christian Origins: A People's History Of Christianity, Vol. 1'' (2006), 318pp [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Origins-Peoples-History-Christianity/dp/080063411X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200886474&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
*Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A History of Christianity'' (2 vol 1975) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christianity-Beginnings-1500-Revised/dp/0060649526/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200823548&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1, to 1500], by leading Baptist scholar
*Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A history of the expansion of Christianity'' (7 vol 1939-1970), monumental history of missionary work worldwide
*MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''The Reformation'' (2005), influential recent survey [http://www.amazon.com/Reformation-Diarmaid-MacCulloch/dp/014303538X/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
*McGonigle, Thomas D., and James F. Quigley. ''A history of the Christian Tradition: From Its Jewish Orgins to the Reformation'' (1988); ''A History of the Christian Tradition, Vol. II: From the Reformation to the Present'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Christian-Tradition-Vol-Reformation/dp/0809136481/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200808706&sr=8-15 excerpt and text search vol 2]
*Pelikan, Jaroslav. ''Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine'' (5 vol 1975-91) [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-Development-Doctrine-Medieval/dp/0226653757/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search v. 3, 600 AD -1300]]; [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-Development-Reformation-1300-1700/dp/0226653773/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search vol 4, 1300-1700]; [http://www.amazon.com/Christian-Tradition-History-Development-Doctrine/dp/0226653803/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1201083460&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 5, 1700-present] This is the standard history of Christian doctrine.
*Ward, Keith. ''Christianity: A Beginner's Guide'' (2008), 195pp

===United States===
* Ahlstrom, Sydney E. ''A religious history of the American people‎'' (1979) 1192 pages; classic history from broad perspective [http://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&dq=inauthor:ahlstrom&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Balmer, Randall. ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism'' (2nd ed. 2004), 655pp [http://www.questia.com/library/book/encyclopedia-of-evangelicalism-by-randall-balmer.jsp ''Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism'' online edition]
* Lippy, Charles H. and Peter W. Williams, eds. ''Encyclopedia of the American religious experience: studies of traditions and movements'' (3 vol 1988) 1872 pages; standard reference work; long essays by scholars
* Noll, Mark A. '' A history of Christianity in the United States and Canada‎'' (1992), by leading Evangelical historian [http://books.google.com/books?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&dq=intitle:christianity+inauthor:noll&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Queen, Edward L. et al, eds. Encyclopedia of American Religious History'' (3rd ed. 2 vol. 2009) 1200pp
* Reid, Daniel G. et al. eds., ''Dictionary of Christianity in America'' (199)
* Wooley, Davis C. ed. '' Encyclopedia of Southern Baptists‎'' (5 vol 1958-19820; 2565 pages

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/christians/ What Liberals Say - Category: Christians], [[Accuracy In Media]]
*[http://www.christian.com Christian] Social Network
[[Category:Christianity| ]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Health insurance

2010-10-08T19:10:08Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''Health insurance''' is [[insurance]] against expenses incurred from [[health care]]. In the [[United States]], health insurance is a service provided by private companies, but in many countries (including [[Canada]]), health insurance is partially or completely funded and administered by the [[government]].

==In the United States==

In the United States, health insurance is a service provided by private companies. Generally, businesses in the United States negotiate health insurance services for their employees, who then pay for a portion their health insurance with an automatic deduction from their paychecks, although some people buy health insurance services on their own.

There are two types of payments for insurance services under the American model. The periodic payment, paid in order to maintain health insurance coverage, is called the [[premium]]. When a worker's insurance pays a medical expense, a certain fixed amount of the expense is paid by the worker. This payment is called the [[deductible]].

While most Americans get health insurance through a private company, the United States federal government does provide insurance to certain US citizens. Impoverished people may be eligible for [[Medicaid]], which is a program funded by the federal government and administered by the states, and elderly and disabled people are eligible for [[Medicare]], which is administered and funded by the federal government. Both involve contracts with private insurance companies to actually provide services.

==Terminology==

Some people make no distinction between the ''services'' provided by [[health care]] professionals and the ''insurance'' which pays for these services (see "[[Universal health care]]").

==See also==

*[[Health maintenance organization|HMO]] (health maintenance organization)

[[category:medicine]]

John Adler

2010-10-08T19:05:24Z

Dfrischknecht: minor copy-editing

{{Officeholder
|name=John Adler
|image=Johnadler.jpg
|party=[[Democrat]]
|spouse=Shelley Levitan Adler
|religion=Jewish
|offices=
{{Officeholder/representative
|state=New Jersey
|district=2nd
|terms=January 3, 2009 - Present
|preceded=Jim Saxton
|former=n
|succeeded=
}}

}}

'''John Herbert Adler''' (born August 23, 1959) is the [[Democrat]] U.S. Representative from [[New Jersey]]'s third congressional district, having been elected in 2008 in a close and bitter campaign. He currently serves on the Committees on Financial Services and Veterans' Affairs. Adler has voted with a majority of his Democratic colleagues 92.1% of the time during the current [[Congress]]. <ref>http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/A000364/</ref> He supported major Democratic legislation, including the [[economic stimulus package]] <ref>http://clerk.house.gov/evs/2009/roll070.xml</ref> and [[cap and trade]]. <ref>http://clerk.house.gov/evs/2009/roll477.xml</ref> However, he voted against [[health care]] reform. <ref>http://clerk.house.gov/evs/2009/roll887.xml</ref>

Previously Adler served in the New Jersey State Senate from 1992 through 2009.

==See Also==

*[http://www.conservapedia.com/2010_House_Elections#New_Jersey 2010 Reelection]

==External Links==
*[http://adler.house.gov/ U.S. House Website]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adler, John}}
==References==
{{reflist|}}

[[Category:United States Representatives]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]
[[Category: 111th United States Congress]]

Geraldine Ferraro

2010-10-01T14:45:23Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''Geraldine Ferraro''' (born 1935) was a [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] politician and former member of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. She is best known as the first woman to represent a major [[United States|U.S.]] political party as a candidate for [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]]. Ferraro and running mate [[Walter Mondale]] were defeated in a landslide by incumbent [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] and Vice President [[George H. W. Bush]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1984|1984 election]]. After the election, Ferraro was tarnished by the questionable business practices of her husband and the drug arrest and imprisonment of her son. Having her son serve his jail time in a luxury apartment with maid service raised a few eyebrows. She was later appointed as an ambassador to the [[United Nations]] and is currently a businesswoman.

==Electoral Votes==
Although Ferraro was the first woman to be on a major-party ticket for one of the nation's highest offices, she was not the first woman to receive an [[electoral college|electoral vote]]. That woman was [[Theodora Nathan]], a [[Libertarian]] Vice Presidential candidate who got the support of [[Roger MacBride]], a [[Virginia]] elector who in 1972 voted for her instead of [[Spiro Agnew]]. However, Rep. Ferraro was the first woman to receive more than one electoral vote.

[[Category:Former United States Representatives]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ferraro, Geraldine}}

Geraldine Ferraro

2010-10-01T14:44:38Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''Geraldine Ferraro''' (born 1935) was a [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] politician and former member of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. She is best known as the first and only woman to represent a major [[United States|U.S.]] political party as a candidate for [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]]. Ferraro and running mate [[Walter Mondale]] were defeated in a landslide by incumbent [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] and Vice President [[George H. W. Bush]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1984|1984 election]]. After the election, Ferraro was tarnished by the questionable business practices of her husband and the drug arrest and imprisonment of her son. Having her son serve his jail time in a luxury apartment with maid service raised a few eyebrows. She was later appointed as an ambassador to the [[United Nations]] and is currently a businesswoman.

==Electoral Votes==
Although Ferraro was the first woman to be on a major-party ticket for one of the nation's highest offices, she was not the first woman to receive an [[electoral college|electoral vote]]. That woman was [[Theodora Nathan]], a [[Libertarian]] Vice Presidential candidate who got the support of [[Roger MacBride]], a [[Virginia]] elector who in 1972 voted for her instead of [[Spiro Agnew]]. However, Rep. Ferraro was the first woman to receive more than one electoral vote.

[[Category:Former United States Representatives]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ferraro, Geraldine}}

Jimmy Carter

2010-10-01T14:42:14Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Governor of Georgia */

{{President
|image=Carter.jpg
|seq=39
|term_start=January 20, 1977
|term_end=January 20, 1981<ref>http://home.comcast.net/~sharonday7/Presidents/AP060301.htm</ref>
|party=Democrat
|vp=Walter Mondale
|previous=Gerald Ford
|next=Ronald Reagan
|birth_date=October 1, 1924
|birth_place=Plains, Georgia, USA
|death_date=
|death_place=
|spouse=Rosalynn Carter
|spouse2=
|religion=[[Baptist]]
}}
'''Jimmy Carter''' (formally James Earl Carter, Jr., born 1924) was the 39th [[President of the United States of America]], defeating Republican [[Gerald Ford]] in 1976. Carter was a [[Democrat]] who served from 1977-1981, after being a one-term Governor of [[Georgia]]. After a failed presidency marked by disasters in the economy and foreign affairs, and poor leadership, Carter was defeated for reelection in 1980 by [[Ronald Reagan]], as the nation moved sharply to the right.

Coming out of nowhere in 1976, Carter promised a restoration of honesty to Washington after [[Watergate]], and built a coalition that included most of the South, thanks to his strong support among blacks and his considerable support (in 1976 only) among fellow white Baptists.

In an October 2000 survey of 132 prominent professors of history, law, and political science, Carter's presidency was rated in the "Below Average" group; he ranked 30th, with a mean score of 2.47 out of 5.00.<ref>''Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House'' (Wall Street Journal Book, 2004)</ref> This survey, sponsored by the ''Wall Street Journal'' and the conservative Federalist Society, ranked Carter ahead of Richard Nixon, and below George H.W. Bush.

Carter has been unusually active as an ex-president, serving as an election monitor in many emerging democracies, working with [[Habitat for Humanity]], and as a self-proclaimed "peace advocate", was recognized with the [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Peace Prize]]. In recent years, he has become very controversial because of his positions and statements hostile to [[Israel]].

==Early Life==
Carter was born and raised on his father's farm in Georgia. He entered the Naval Academy at [[Annapolis]] and graduated from there in 1946. Shortly afterwards, on July 7, he married Rosalynn Smith. Carter worked in submarines, attaining the rank of [[lieutenant]], until he resigned in 1953. He became a peanut farmer afterwards. <ref>[[Encyclopedia of Presidents, Jimmy Carter]], by Linda R. Wade, Children's Press, Chicago, 1989, pp. 11-33. </ref> Carter entered politics by running for the Georgia State Senate. He almost lost a close race against Homer Moore, but Carter beat him in the final tally.

==Governor of Georgia==

In 1966 Carter unsuccessfully sought the Democrat nomination for [[Governor]] of Georgia. This failure significantly affected Carter personally by influencing him to turn to [[religion]] for comfort, convincing him that he had been "born again."<ref>The Presidents by Richard Kirkendall, pg. 552</ref> Carter did succeed in his second bid for Governor in 1970. [[Racism]] was a major factor in his campaign, in which he criticized his primary challenger Carl Sanders for paying tribute to [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], in an effort to depress Sanders's white vote. Carter said "I have no trouble pitching for [George] Wallace votes and black votes at the same time, I can win this election without a single black vote." <ref>http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/blogs/beltway-confidential/Jimmy-Carters-racist-campaign-of-1970-59499482.html</ref> Carter was elected governor, with almost no [[African American]] support. For the next four years he presided over state affairs. He presented himself as a [[populist]], the representative of the people as opposed to special interests. Carter emphasized [[welfare]] reform, [[education]]al advance and budget reform. Once [[pro-life]], he [[abortion betrayal|changed his position]] and supported the legalization of [[abortion]] and worked to replace [[capital punishment]] in Georgia with life in prison. Carter declined to run for a second term in 1974.

==1976 Presidential Campaign==

''Main Article: [[United States presidential election, 1976]]''

Carter had decided well before his term as Governor ended to run for the Presidency in 1976. His campaign, which began in early 1975, stressed Washington's defects such as the [[Watergate affair]] in 1974. He campaigned on a widespread call for [[change]]. In the Democrat primary, Carter was able to defeat [[George Wallace]] in the southern primaries and established himself as a person who could win the south and reestablish Democrat control of the [[White House]]. He won the primary because of his inspiring and well organized campaign. <ref>The American Vision, pg. 966</ref> Running against President [[Gerald Ford]] in the general election, Carter had little experience in national politics, however he used that to his benefit by promising to restore honesty and morality to [[government]]. On election day, Carter edged out Ford with 50 percent of the vote to 48 percent.

==Presidency (1977-1981)==
[[Image:Carter1977.jpg‎|thumb|250px|President Carter's inauguration, 01/20/77]]On taking office Carter proposed radical energy programs, redistributive tax reform, public campaign financing, a consumer protection agency (that Ralph Nader had long championed), labor law reform, and enactment of the [[Equal Rights Amendment]]. He fought with fellow Democrats in [[Congress]] and achieved little or nothing. Meanwhile "stagflation" hit the economy hard, as energy shortages, slow growth, escalating inflation and very high interest rates sapped the economy.

It was worse in foreign affairs. Carter did broker a temporary peace in the Middle East, but was forced to abandon détente when the Russians began to exploit American weaknesses around the globe. Carter was forced to restart the [[Cold War]] when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979, but his belated actions validated the complaints of conservatives that he offered too little too late. Meanwhile the nation was humiliated in [[Iran]], where militants held American diplomats captive for 444 days, while Carter proved helpless.
[[Image:000carter.jpg|thumb|400px|]]
===Administration===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Office
! Name
! Term
|-
| [[President]]
| Jimmy Carter
| 1977-1981
|-
| [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]]
| [[Walter Mondale]]
| 1977-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of State]]
| [[Cyrus Vance]]
| 1977-1980
|-
|
| [[Edmund Muskie]]
| 1980-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Treasury]]
| [[W. Michael Blumenthal]]
| 1977-1979
|-
|
| [[G. William Miller]]
| 1979-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Defense]]
| [[Harold Brown]]
| 1977-1981
|-
| [[Attorney General]]
| [[Griffin Bell]]
| 1977-1979
|-
|
| [[Benjamin R. Civiletti]]
| 1979-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Interior]]
| [[Cecil D. Andrus]]
| 1977-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Commerce]]
| [[Juanita M. Kreps]]
| 1977-1979
|-
|
| [[Philip M. Klutznick]]
| 1979-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Labor]]
| [[Ray Marshall]]
| 1977-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Agriculture]]
| [[Robert Bergland]]
| 1977–1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare]]
| [[Joseph A. Califano, Jr.]]
| 1977-1979
|-
| [[Secretary of Health and Human Services]]
| [[Patricia R. Harris]]
| 1979-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Education]]
| [[Shirley M. Hufstedler]]
| 1977-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Housing and Urban Development]]
| [[Patricia R. Harris]]
| 1977-1979
|-
|
| [[Maurice Landrieu]]
| 1979-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Transportation]]
| [[Brock Adams]]
| 1977-1979
|-
|
| [[Neil E. Goldschmidt]]
| 1979-1981
|-
| [[Secretary of Energy]]
| [[James R. Schlesinger]]
| 1977–1979
|-
|
| [[Charles W. Duncan]]
| 1979-1981
|-
|}

=== Economic Crisis ===

[[Image:001carter.jpg‎|thumb|250px|left|President Carter during White House Press Conference.]]Carter inherited a [[recession]] when taking office. First he tried to reduce unemployment by both increasing government spending and cutting [[tax]]es. However, when [[inflation]] skyrocketed in 1978 he changed his mind. He delayed tax cuts and vetoed the spending programs that he himself proposed to the [[Congress]]. Carter then tried to ease inflation by reducing [[money]] supply and raising [[interest rates]]. All of his efforts proved to be unsuccessful. Inflation and interest rates soon reached their highest levels since [[World War II]].

The rapid change in interest rates led to disintermediation of bank deposits, which sowed the seeds of the Savings and Loan crisis. Investments in fixed income were becoming less valuable. Holders of both bonds, and pensions being paid to retired people had their life savings wiped out. The stagnant growth of the economy (causing unemployment), in combination with a high rate of inflation, has often been called stagflation, an unprecedented situation in American economics. By 1979, public opinion polls had Carter's popularity lower then [[Richard Nixon]]'s during Watergate, partly because of his inexperience and difficulties working with [[Congress]].

=== Energy Crisis ===

Carter proposed a national energy program to conserve [[oil]] and promote the use of coal and renewable energy sources. He also persuaded Congress to create the Department of Energy, and asked Americans to personally reduce their energy consumption. Although oil companies were insisting on deregulation of the energy industry, Carter advocated a "windfall profits tax" to prevent oil companies from overcharging consumers. Carter's plan did not solve the country's energy crisis. In the summer of 1979 a major oil shortage in the [[United States]] took place because of instability in the middle east. After increasing pressure to act, Carter gave several televised address' where he complained that there was a "crisis of confidence that had struck at the very heart and soul of our national will." Although Carter meant the speech to be a timely warning, many Americans interpreted it as President Carter blaming the public for his failures. Critics dubbed it Carter's "malaise speech."

=== Foreign Policy ===
[[Image:Decline1978.jpg|thumb|290px|The nation feared it was losing its world power, as this magazine cover shows, Nov. 1978]]

In contrast to Carter's economic policies which were uncertain and left the public confused, his foreign policy was more clearly defined, although foreign policy is where Jimmy Carter suffered his worst defeats. In his inaugural speech he stated that "our commitment to human rights must be absolute." He singled out the [[Soviet Union]] as a violator of human rights and strongly condemned the country for arresting its citizens for political protests. However, he was criticized for not doing enough to promote his proclaimed human rights foreign policy stance in his administration, such as continuing to support the Indonesian government even while it was implicated in the commission of acts of genocide in the occupation of [[East Timor]].

Carter also tried to remove the U.S. image of interventionism by giving Panamanians control of the [[Panama Canal]]. Over conservative opposition he did so--but Panama fell into the hands of a dictator who threatened Americans and had to be overthrown by an American invasion in 1989.

Détente with the Soviet Union collapsed when Soviet troops invaded [[Afghanistan]] in December 1979. President Carter responded by imposing an [[embargo]] on the sale of grain to the Soviet Union, humiliating Moscow by orchestrating a western boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympic Games in Moscow, and start funding and arming the anti-Soviet forces inside Afghanistan. The policy of détente that was established by President Nixon was over and the "Second Cold War" began.

=== Camp David Accords ===

Carter's greatest and arguably only triumph while in office was a historic peace [[treaty]] known as the Camp David Peace Accords, between [[Israel]] and [[Egypt]], two nations that had been bitter enemies for decades. [[Image:Iran1979.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Blindfolded American hostages being paraded before the public by their Iranian captors, November 5, 1979.]] The treaty was formally signed in 1979, with most middle eastern countries opposed to it.

=== Iran Hostage Crisis ===

In 1979, a new radical [[Islamic]] regime lead by [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] in [[Iran]] overthrew America's close ally Shah. Thousands of modernizers were arrested, expelled or executed. In November 1979 student revolutionaries stormed into the American embassy in [[Tehran]] and captured 52 United States diplomats as hostages. The US seized all Iranian assets and tried to bargain, a process that dragged on for 444 days. Despite pressure to use military action Carter tried to negotiate with Iran, which proved to be unsuccessful. In April 1980 President Carter approved a rescue attempt (over the opposition of [[Secretary of State]] [[Cyrus Vance]]). To the nations dismay, the attempt failed when several helicopters malfunctioned. Eight serviceman died in the accident. Carter's negotiations with Iran continued throughout 1980. Ironically, the hostages were released just after Carter left office on January 20, 1981, as they were fearful of what President Reagan might do.

==1980 Reelection Campaign==

''Main Article: [[United States presidential election, 1980]]''

By the time of President Carter's reelection campaign, the country was plagued by problems, including high levels of unemployment, inflation, interest rates and the Iranian hostage crisis. Although incumbent Presidents usually win their party's nomination easily, Carter faced a primary challenge from the more [[liberal]] [[Massachusetts]] Senator [[Ted Kennedy]]. Carter was able to maintain a lead over Kennedy and defeated him with 51 percent of the vote to 38 percent. In the general election, Carter faced two opponents: [[Conservative]] and charismatic [[California]] Governor [[Ronald Reagan]] as the Republican nominee and moderate [[Illinois]] Congressman [[John Anderson]] running as an [[Independent]]. Reagan locked the election in late October of the campaign when, at the Presidential debate, he asked the voters, "Are you better off than you were four years ago?" His relaxed performance helped to dispel fears from the Carter camp that Reagan was a war monger. Reagan won by a large margin, 43.9 million votes for Reagan and 35.5 million votes for Carter. Democrats maintained control of the [[House of Representatives]] but by a narrower margin, and lost control of the [[United States Senate]].

Carter left office disappointed and unhappy. He became the first elected President since [[Herbert Hoover]] to lose a bid for a second term.

==Post Presidency==
[[Image:Palestine peace not apartheid.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Cover of Jimmy Carter's book, ''Peace Not Apartheid'', which accuses [[Israel]] of practicing racism.]]
Carter has been active in foreign affairs since his presidency. His continued work mediating international disputes, organizing election observations, and working with organizations on disease and hunger were cited when he was awarded the 2002 [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Peace Prize]]. In his Nobel lecture, Carter declared his support for "international law":

<blockquote>
Our President, [[Woodrow Wilson]], was honored here for promoting the [[League of Nations]], whose two basic concepts were profoundly important: "collective security" and "self-determination." Now they are embedded in international law. Violations of these premises during the last half-century have been tragic failures, as was vividly demonstrated when the Soviet Union attempted to conquer Afghanistan and when Iraq invaded Kuwait. <ref>[http://jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/nobel.phtml Text of Carter's Nobel Lecture] Jimmy Carter Library and Museum, 2002.</ref>
</blockquote>

In one book, "Palestine Peace Not Apartheid", he made the point that any peace accords reached would fundamentally have to be accompanied by the ceasing of terrorist activity towards Israel, he wrote:
<blockquote>
It is imperative that the general Arab community and all significant Palestinian groups make it clear that they will end the suicide bombings and other acts of terrorism when international laws and the ultimate goals of the Roadmap for Peace are accepted by Israel.
</blockquote>
The sentiment was widely criticized. He apologized for the wording of that sentence, but not for his larger message.<ref>Washington Post, January 24, 2007 [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/23/AR2007012301668.html?nav=rss_artsandliving/books]</ref>

*His 2006 book, "Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid," caused a top aide to resign. Professor Kenneth Stein resigned from the Carter Center because of its depiction of Israel through three decades of diplomatic and military dealings with the Palestinians. Mr. Stein had served as an aide to Mr. Carter during most of those years and considers the book deceitful and malicious. As the book's title suggests, Carter compares Israel with the white supremacist regime of old South Africa. Fourteen members of the Carter Center's advisory board have resigned over the book.

In September 2009, Carter caused controversy when he stated that conservative criticisms of [[Barack Obama]] are due to racism.

"I think, an overwhelming portion, of the intensely demonstrated animosity towed President Barack Obama, is based on the fact that he is a black man. That he's African American...because of a belief among many white people, not just in the South but around the country, that African Americans are not qualified to lead this great country." <ref>http://erickbrockway.wordpress.com/2009/09/16/the-new-radicals-vs-the-new-racists/</ref>

[[John McCain]] responded to Carter's remarks, "I'm deeply disturbed by those accusations because it's an unfair and untrue commentary on the American people, and them exercising their God-given rights to disagree with the administration. '''It seems to me that President Carter has earned his place as, if not the worst president in history, certainly the worst in the 20th century.'''" <ref>[http://freedomeden.blogspot.com/2009/09/mccain-jimmy-carter-worst-president.html McCain:Jimmy Carter worst president ever, freedomeden.blogspot.com, September 18, 2009]</ref>

As President, Carter expressed a goal of making government "competent and compassionate." In pursuit of that vision, he has been involved in a variety of national and international public policy, conflict resolution, human rights and charitable causes.

He founded The Carter Center in 1982 which has the goal of alleviating human suffering. The Center promotes democratic elections and has programmes to improve health in developing countries through the control of parasitic diseases such as Guinea Worm. It is fair to say that ex-President Carter is probably much more respected outside the United States than in his home country.

== UFO Sighting ==

[[Image:Carter Sighting Report 2.gif|thumb|right|Jimmy Carter's UFO report.]] Carter reported seeing an unidentified flying object [[UFO]] in 1969. He later recalled, "A light appeared and disappeared in the sky . . . I think the light was beckoning me to run in the California primary." <ref>[http://www.presidentialufo.com/jimmy.htm Jimmy Carter UFO] </ref> Astronomers generally concur that he actually saw the planet Venus.<ref>Val Morgan, et al. '''Rumor''' (1984).</ref>

==See also==
* [[Carter Doctrine]]
* [[Essay:Criticism of Jimmy Carter]]

==Basic further reading==
* Bourne, Peter G. ''Jimmy Carter: A Comprehensive Biography from Plains to Post-Presidency'' (1997).
* Brinkley, Douglas. ''The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey beyond the White House'' (1998). [http://www.amazon.com/Unfinished-Presidency-Carters-Journey-Beyond/dp/0140276165/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249620205&sr=1-18 excerpt and text search]
*Fink, Gary M. and Hugh Davis Graham, eds. ''The Carter Presidency: Policy Choices in the Post-New Deal Era'' (1998)
* Gaillard, Frye. ''Prophet from Plains: Jimmy Carter and His Legacy'' (2007). [http://www.amazon.com/Prophet-Plains-Jimmy-Carter-Legacy/dp/0820333328/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249619928&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* Hargrove, Erwin C. ''Jimmy Carter as President: Leadership and the Politics of the Public Good'' (1988).
* Kaufman, Burton Ira. ''The Presidency of James Earl Carter, Jr.'' (1993), the best survey of his administration
* Kaufman, Burton Ira. ''The Carter Years'' (2006), short biographies of all the major players
* Morris, Kenneth E. ''Jimmy Carter, American Moralist'' (1996).
* Venezia, Mike. ''Jimmy Carter: Thirty-Ninth President'' (Getting to Know the US Presidents) (2008), for middle schools [http://www.amazon.com/Jimmy-Carter-Thirty-Ninth-President-Presidents/dp/0516259717/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249620205&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* Wilentz, Sean. ''The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974-2008'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Age-Reagan-History-1974-2008-American/dp/0060744812/ref=pd_sim_b_1 excerpt and text search]

==Specialized Bibliography==
===Biography, personality and rhetoric===
*Bourne, Peter G. ''Jimmy Carter: A Comprehensive Biography From Plains to Post-Presidency'' (1997)
*Flint, Andrew R. and Joy Porter. "Jimmy Carter: The re-emergence of faith-based politics and the abortion rights issue. " ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (March 2005) 35#1 pp. 28–51
* Gaillard, Frye. ''Prophet from Plains: Jimmy Carter and His Legacy'' (2007). [http://www.amazon.com/Prophet-Plains-Jimmy-Carter-Legacy/dp/0820333328/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249619928&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
*Hahn, Dan F. "The rhetoric of Jimmy Carter, 1976–1980" in Theodore Windt and Beth Ingold, eds. ''Essays in Presidential Rhetoric'' (3rd ed. 1992) pp. 331–365
* Mattson, Kevin. '''What the Heck Are You Up To, Mr. President?': Jimmy Carter, America's 'Malaise,' and the Speech that Should Have Changed the Country'' (2009)
*Ribuffo, Leo P. "God and Jimmy Carter" in M. L. Bradbury and James B. Gilbert, eds. ''Transforming Faith: The Sacred and Secular in Modern American History'' (1989) pp. 141–159, by conservative historian
*Ribuffo, Leo P. "'Malaise' revisited: Jimmy Carter and the crisis of confidence" in John Patrick Diggins, ed. ''The Liberal Persuasion: Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. and the Challenge of the American Past'' (1997) by conservative historian
* Stuckey, Mary E. ''Jimmy Carter, Human Rights, and the National Agenda'' (2009) on Presidential rhetoric

===Domestic policy===
* Biven, W. Carl ''Jimmy Carter's Economy: Policy in an Age of Limits'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/110717331?title=Jimmy%20Carter's%20Economy%3a%20%20Policy%20in%20an%20Age%20of%20Limits online edition]
* Campagna, Anthony S. ''Economic Policy in the Carter Administration'' (1995) 216 pp [http://www.questia.com/read/27443313?title=Economic%20Policy%20in%20the%20Carter%20Administration online edition]
*Dumbrell, John, ed. ''The Carter Presidency: A Re-evaluation'' (2nd ed. 1995), British perspective
*Fink, Gary M. and Hugh Davis Graham, eds. ''The Carter Presidency: Policy Choices in the Post-New Deal Era'' (1998)
*Kaufman, Burton I. ''The Presidency of James Earl Carter, Jr'' (1993), the standard scholarly survey
*Rosenbaum, Herbert D. and Alexej Ugrinsky, eds. ''The Presidency and Domestic Policies of Jimmy Carter'' (1994), essays by experts [http://www.questia.com/read/27232781?title=The%20Presidency%20and%20Domestic%20Policies%20of%20Jimmy%20Carter online edition]

===Politics===
* Aronoff, Yael S., "In Like a Lamb, Out Like a Lion: The Political Conversion of Jimmy Carter," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' 121 (Fall 2006), 425–49.
* Busch, Andrew E. ''Reagan's Victory: The Presidential Election of 1980 and the Rise of the Right,'' (2005) [http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1103/article_detail.asp online review by Michael Barone]
* Fink, Gary M. ''Prelude to the Presidency: The Political Character and Legislative Leadership Style of Governor Jimmy Carter'' (1980). [http://www.questia.com/read/34288553?title=Prelude%20to%20the%20Presidency%3a%20The%20Political%20Character%20and%20Legislative%20Leadership%20Style%20of%20Governor%20Jimmy%20Carter online edition]
* Freedman, Robert. "The Religious Right and the Carter Administration." ''Historical Journal'' 2005 48(1): 231-260. Issn: 0018-246x Fulltext: in Swetswise
*Gillon, Steven M. ''The Democrats' Dilemma: Walter F. Mondale and the Liberal Legacy'' (1992)
* Hargrove, Erwin C. ''Jimmy Carter as President: Leadership and the Politics of the Public Good'' (1988).
*Jones, Charles O. ''The Trusteeship Presidency: Jimmy Carter and the United States Congress'' (1988)
*Kaufman, Burton I. ''The Presidency of James Earl Carter, Jr'' (1993), the standard scholarly survey
* Kaufman, Burton Ira. ''The Carter Years'' (2006), short biographies of all the major players
* Morgan, Iwan. "Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, and the New Democratic Economics." ''Historical Journal'' 2004 47(4): 1015-1039. Issn: 0018-246x Fulltext: in Swetswise
* Pomper, Gerald M., ed. ''The Election of 1980: Reports and Interpretations'' (1981)
* Ranney, Austin, ed. ''The American Elections of 1980'' (1982), essays by political scientists
*Strong, Robert A. "Recapturing leadership: The Carter administration and the crisis of confidence," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (Fall 1986) 16#3 pp 636–650
*White, Theodore H. ''America in Search of Itself: The Making of the President, 1956–1980'' (1982), classic narrative of presidential campaigns
*Witcover, Jules. ''Marathon: The Pursuit of the Presidency, 1972–1976'' (1977), very detailed narrative

===Foreign Policy===
* Berggren, D. Jason and Rae, Nicol C. "Jimmy Carter and George W. Bush: Faith, Foreign Policy, and an Evangelical Presidential Style." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 2006 36(4): 606-632. Issn: 0360-4918 Fulltext: in Swetswise and Ingenta
* Clymer, Kenton. "Jimmy Carter, Human Rights, and Cambodia." ''Diplomatic History'' 2003 27(2): 245-278. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
*Dumbrell, John, ed. ''The Carter Presidency: A Re-evaluation'' (2nd ed. 1995), British perspective
*Harris, David. ''The Crisis: the President, the Prophet, and the Shah—1979 and the Coming of Militant Islam'' (2004}
* Houghton, David Patrick. ''US Foreign Policy and the Iran Hostage Crisis'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/SM.qst?act=adv&contributors=David Patrick Houghton&dcontributors=David%20Patrick%20Houghton online edition]
*Kaufman, Burton I. ''The Presidency of James Earl Carter, Jr'' (1993), the standard scholarly survey
*Rosenbaum, Herbert D. and Alexej Ugrinsky, eds. ''Jimmy Carter: Foreign Policy and Post-Presidential Years'' (1994), essays by experts [http://www.questia.com/read/14250706?title=Jimmy%20Carter%3a%20Foreign%20Policy%20and%20Post-Presidential%20Years online edition]
* Schmitz, David F. and Vanessa Walker. "Jimmy Carter and the Foreign Policy of Human Rights: the Development of a Post-cold War Foreign Policy." ''Diplomatic History'' 2004 28(1): 113-143. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
* Skidmore, David. ''Reversing Course: Carter's Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and the Failure of Reform'' (1996).
* Stein, Kenneth W. ''Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin and the Quest for Arab-Israeli Peace'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/SM.qst?act=adv&contributors=Kenneth W. Stein&dcontributors=Kenneth%20W.%20Stein online edition]
*Strong, Robert A. ''Working in the World: Jimmy Carter and the Making of American Foreign Policy'' (2000)
* Thornton, Richard C. ''The Carter Years: Toward a New Global Order'' (1991) 572 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/10415810?title=The%20Carter%20Years%3a%20Toward%20a%20New%20Global%20Order online edition]

===Post-presidential years===
* Brinkley, Douglas. ''The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey beyond the White House'' (1998). [http://www.amazon.com/Unfinished-Presidency-Carters-Journey-Beyond/dp/0140276165/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249620205&sr=1-18 excerpt and text search]
* Dershowitz, Alan. ''The Case Against Israel's Enemies: Exposing Jimmy Carter and Others Who Stand in the Way of Peace'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Case-Against-Israels-Enemies-Exposing/dp/0470490055/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1249619928&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Evans, Mike. ''Jimmy Carter: The Liberal Left and World Chaos: A Carter/Obama Plan That Will Not Work'' (2009), conservative critique

==Primary sources==
* [http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/publications/ERP/ Council of Economic Advisors, ''Economic Report of the President'' (annual 1947- )], complete series online; important analysis of current trends and policies, plus statistcial tables

===Books by aides===
* Califano, Joseph A., Jr. ''Governing America: An insider's report from the White House and the Cabinet''. 1981
* Jordan, Hamilton. ''Crisis: The Last Year of the Carter Presidency''. 1982
* Lance, Bert. ''The Truth of the Matter: My Life in and out of Politics''. 1991

==External links==
*[http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/jec/jcnavy.phtml Jimmy Carter's Naval Service]
*[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=13265 Carter the worst ex-president -- Steven Hayward]
*[http://blogcentral.jpost.com/index.php?cat_id=7&blog_id=59&blog_post_id=935 Jimmy Carter is a liar], [[Alan Dershowitz]], ''Jerusalem Post'', March 13 2007.
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/19/AR2007011901541.html Jimmy Carter's Jewish Problem] by Deborah Lipstadt.
*[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,918293,00.html "A Man Among Old Friends"], ''Time''Sep. 06, 1976 (article on Carter's favorite books—says the important book in his life is the Bible.]

==References==
<references/>

{{USPresidents}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Carter, Jimmy}}
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Carter, Jimmy]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace|Carter, Jimmy]]
[[Category:Georgia Governors]]
[[Category:Democratic Governors]]
[[Category:1960s]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[category:Middle East]]
[[category:Human Rights]]

Hospital

2010-09-29T15:08:44Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Reglion */

[[File:Shriners Childrens Hospital.jpg|right|400px]]
A '''hospital''' is a health facility where [[patient]]s receive care, by trained [[doctor]]s, [[nurse]]s and other professionals.

==Ancient==
In ancient history, hospitals were institutions where the sick of the community could be brought for treatment; typically they were connected with religion. One Greek sanctuary was dedicated to Aesculapius (Asclepius), the Greek god of medicine, as early as 1134 BC. ''Aesculapia'', as such institutions came to be called, spread throughout Greece.

In India, around 600 BC, the [[Buddha]] established a medical network of physicians on the village level, and hospitals for the crippled, the ill, and pregnant women.
==Medieval==
Emperor [[Constantine]] in 335 AD closed the Greek and Roman aesculapia and encouraged the building of Christian hospitals. They were operated by monasteries (of men) and convents (of women) but were located outside the church buildings themselves. They focused on providing care for the poor, the old, and orphans. The main therapy was rest.

The Hôtel-Dieu in Paris, founded in 660 AD, is the oldest hospital still in use. The advent of the [[Crusades]] after 1100 led to the growth of ''hospitia'', rest places for Crusaders and other travelers. Built next to monasteries, they provided food, lodgings, and medical care to pilgrims and other travelers.

In medieval Europe, many hospitals were founded by Christian religious orders such as the [[Knights of St. John]].

In Florence, Italy, the most active period for hospital foundation beginning in the mid-thirteenth century was linked to population growth. Specialized hospitals served a variety of different groups, such as women, religious pilgrims, the old, the destitute, etc. As civic authorites worried more and more about contageous diseases and epidemics, the priority shifted to the medical treatment of the sick poor. Most new hospitals were created by philanthropic local bankers and businessmen, but the city oversaw hospitals, perceiving them as socially useful institutions both for assisting and for controlling the poor. The number, size, and facilities of Florence's hospitals, and the beauty of their buildings, became a source of frequently expressed civic pride.
==Modern times==
After 1600 European hospitals were generally either an expansion of the local almshouse, or a place to isolate the ill during epidemics of smallpox, typhus, and plague.
==Latin America==
The Royal Indian Hospital of Mexico City was established in 1553 by King Charles V. Hospital records provide important details concerning the problems of diseases, epidemics, and public health issues in Mexico City. Serving as many as 2,500 patients per month, doctors at the hospital treated the majority of patients for smallpox, venereal disease, tuberculosis, and rabies. Physicians prescribed Aztec herbs and remedies along with standard medical treatments that included quarantine and bloodletting.<ref> John S. Leiby, "The Royal Indian Hospital of Mexico City, 1553-1680." ''Historian'' 1995 57(3): 573-580. </ref>

==Hygiene==
No concept of hygiene existed before the 19th century. The Hôtel-Dieu, for example, housed up to six patients in the same bed, with no attempt made to isolate those with contagious diseases.

Until the discovery of the anesthetic agents ether, (1842) and chloroform (1847), only the simplest, most urgent operations could be attempted. Mortality from infection was very high in the procedures that were performed, until [[Joseph Lister]] introduced [[antiseptic]] techniques in the operating rooms of England in 1865. English pioneer nurse [[Florence Nightingale]] during the Crimean War (1854 to 1856), and the nursing school in London that she founded, transformed nursing into a skilled profession requiring formal training. Her graduates went on to found their own schools throughout the English-speaking world.

==Missionaries==
Christian missionaries throughout Asia and Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries made modern medical care a high priority, opening many local clinics that sometimes grew into hospitals.

==Early American hospitals==
In 1639, three Augustinian nuns from Dieppe, France, established North America's first hospital, the Hôtel-Dieu in Quebec City. It was originally set up to to care for (and isolate) the victims of a smallpox epidemic.

In the [[Thirteen Colonies]] that became the United States, almshouse infirmaries sometimes developed into public general hospitals (for example, Philadelphia General Hospital opened as the infirmary of an almshouse in 1732; Bellevue in New York began as the hospital ward of the public workhouse in 1736).

The Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, which opened in 1751 under the sponsorship of [[Benjamin Franklin]] and the physician Thomas Bond, was the first permanent British-American institution created solely for the care of the sick.

After the Revolution, general hospitals appeared in urban centers (New York Hospital, 1791; Massachusetts General in Boston, 1811). Following the pattern of the British voluntary hospitals, they were privately supported charitable institutions designed to provide short-term care for those who could not be nursed at home. Patients with incurable or terminal illnesses were sent to the public almshouse.
===Specialized care===
Special needs spawned various kinds of hospitals. In the early colonial days, communities often set up temporary pesthouses to isolate and care for the sick during epidemics; and after the middle of the 18th century when smallpox inoculation, the forerunner of vaccination, became accepted, private inoculation hospitals sprang up on the outskirts of towns. To care for the insane, custodial institutions developed, such as Eastern State Hospital at Williamsburg, Va., which opened in 1773. American Quakers played a prominent role in founding asylums for the mentally ill. To fill military needs, the federal government created temporary hospitals; the oldest permanent federally supported hospital system was the Marine Hospital Service legislated by an act of Congress in 1798.
==19th century==
Throughout the 19th century the American hospital scene included a mixture of city, state, and federally supported institutions and private philanthropic hospitals, the latter often established by ethnic, religious, or benevolent societies or Masonic groups. Hospitals devoted to the treatment of a single disease, organ, or age group evolved (for example, New York Eye Infirmary, established in 1820, and numerous tuberculosis sanatoriums).

Until the 1850s the private patient scarcely existed. The sick were cared for in their homes where the chances of recovery were greater than in crowded, unsanitary wards with little or no nursing care.
===Civil War===
During the Ciivl War the U.S. Army created a very large network of hospitals. Mower General Hospital, constructed by the US Army in the Chestnut Hill district of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the largest general hospital created to serve Northern wounded during the Civil War. Built in 1862, the hospital was demolished in 1865. Three military hospitals built in the small Vermont cities of Brattleboro, Burlington, and Montpelier during the Civil War. They represent the expansion of general hospitals, as opposed to post hospitals that cared for soldiers near the battlefield, and the growing number of these hospitals in "remote" locations, away from Washington, D.C. Illustrations show their vast size and capacity. These hospitals provided rehabilitation and long-term care for physically and emotionally wounded soldiers and helped return them to active duty as soon as possible - which was particularly important when military strength dwindled in the latter years of the war.<ref>Nancy E. Boone and Michael Sherman, "Designed to Cure: Civil War Hospitals in Vermont". ''Vermont History'' 2001 69(1-2): 173-200. 0042-4161 </ref>

The largest and best-known hospital in the Confederacy was the Chimborazo in Richmond, Virginia. Beginning in October 1861, wounded and sick soldiers were housed in pavilion-style buildings--America's first. Tents for the convalescent and slightly wounded raised capacity to eight thousand. The hospital was headed by James B. McCaw, a talented and resourceful Richmond physician and professor at the Medical College of Virginia. He directed a dedicated staff of physicians, stewards, and matrons. Designated an independent army post by the Confederate surgeon general, Chimborazo remained in continuous operation until the fall of Richmond in April 1865. About 78,000 patients were treated here with a death rate of slightly over 11% (the comparable Union figure was 10%). Several drug and treatment trials for the Confederate Medical Department were also conducted here.

====Nurses====
About 21,000 women served in Union hospitals. One in ten was black; they worked as laundresses and cooks (rather than as [[nurse|nurses]] or matrons). Most Union hospitals were built in cities. Confederates used mostly makeshift facilities in private residences, and were operated by upper class women "matrons." For example, Juliet Opie Hopkins, the wife of a wealthy Alabama businessman, organized and ran three hospitals in Richmond, Virginia, despite chronic shortages of medicine and other necessary supplies. Despite the local nature of their service, Southern women generally met with more resistance than Northern ones from men who thought hospital work to be inappropriate for "ladies." It took the heroic reputations of Florence Nightingale and American [[Clara Barton]] make the role of the woman nurse generally acceptable.

After the war veteran's care became a major activity.

===Nurses===
In 1873 [[nurse|nursing]] became professionalized when Bellevue introduced the first American nurses' training school, modeled on the Nightingale School in Britain. The first U.S. hospital survey, made by the U.S. Bureau of Education in 1873, showed that there were only 149 hospitals, one-third of which were for mental patients. The [[Progressive Movement]] promoted and funded hospitals, including those run by cities and those operated by religious groups. By 1920 the U.S. had 6,762 hospitals, a growth caused chiefly by changes in the hospital's function. The accelerating progress in medical science and specialization had introduced procedures that could not be performed at home.

===Hospital architecture===
Before the germ theory was accepted in the late 19th century, infection and infectious diseases were attributed to bad air and lack of sunlight, so hospital wards were built on a pavilion plan, (exemplified by the Johns Hopkins Hospital, which opened in 1889), with high ceilings and tall windows for good ventilation and light. The Nightingale ward, a long narrow room with twenty beds against each wall between tall windows, was in vogue until World War I. By the 1920s rising land values, advancing medical technology, and additional hospital functions caused the pavilion plan to be abandoned in favor of the vertical monoblock.
==Expanded role==
Gradually the public image of the hospital changed, so that instead of being the hospice for the sick poor, it became the diagnostic and treatment center for all classes. The number of private or semiprivate rooms steadily increased. St. Vincent's Hospital in New York, founded in 1849, was among the first to provide private rooms, but there was at first little demand (the original Hopkins plans provided for only twenty-six pay beds). Since the mid-20th century, private and semiprivate rooms have predominated and influenced hospital architecture. Other additions since the 1873 hospital survey were scientific laboratories and special therapy areas, which began to appear in 1889 when Lankenau Hospital in Philadelphia and the Johns Hopkins introduced bacteriological and chemical laboratories.
===Ethnic and religious hospitals===
Although they assisted in founding wartime hospitals during 1863-65, Alabama Baptist involvement in the medical field began in earnest in 1905. Their efforts came to fruition in 1922, when the Alabama Baptist Hospital in Selma and the Birmingham Baptist Hospital opened. Other hospitals followed throughout the rest of the 20th century.<ref>Jennifer Blair, "Baptists Minister Through Hospitals." ''Alabama Baptist Historian'' 2001 37(2): 66-69. 0002-4147 </ref>

Catholic bishops and orders of nuns asserted that hospitals should provide spiritual as well as surgical services. To tap the rising population of Catholic immigrants and counteract Protestant proselytizing, the Church created separate institutions, such as hospitals, and defined them along religious lines. Leaders sought women religious to staff these hospitals, in which they could preserve Catholic identity. Three major nursing orders emerged during 1865-1920: the Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet from St. Paul, Minnesota; the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word from San Antonio, Texas; and the Sisters of the Holy Cross from South Bend, Indiana.<ref> Barbra Mann Wall, "Science and Ritual: The Hospital as Medical and Sacred Space, 1865-1920." ''Nursing History Review'' 2003 11: 51-68. 1062-8061 </ref>

For example, Lewiston, Maine's first public hospital became a reality in 1889 when the Sisters of Charity of Montreal, the "Grey Nuns," opened the doors of the Asylum of Our Lady of Lourdes. This hospital was central to the Grey Nuns' mission of providing social services for Lewiston's predominately French Canadian mill workers. The Grey Nuns struggled to establish their institution despite meager financial resources, language barriers, and opposition from the largely Protestant established medical community.<ref> Susan Hudson, "Les Soeurs Grises of Lewiston, Maine 1878-1908: An Ethnic Religious Feminist Expression." ''Maine History'' 2001-02 40(4): 309-332. 1090-5413 </ref>

Chicago's rival Jewish communities built two major hospitals. The German Jews, many of them successful businessmen who arrived in the 1850s, built Michael Reese Hospital in the 1880s. Later the poorer Orthodox Jews from Russia established Maimonides Hospital (later renamed Mount Sinai) in 1912.<ref> Steven M. Schwartz, Strong Medicine. Chicago History 1999 28(1): 4-25. 0272-8540 </ref>

For three decades, the Taborian Hospital and the Friendship Clinic in Mound Bayou, Mississippi, provided quality medical care to thousands of poor blacks, without help from either the federal or state governments. Fraternal orders established both clinics in the 1940s as an alternative to [[Jim Crow]] humiliations. Ironically, segregation helped these establishments prosper by providing a ready market. By the 1960s, however, a combination of circumstances made this kind of "self-help" care unviable. Medicare and Medicaid, along with the demise of segregation, made it possible for poor Delta residents to choose health care facilities with more modern equipment. State regulations also became too burdensome for small, underfinanced facilities. Migration took its toll as well, as black families left the Delta for better opportunity in Memphis and Chicago.<ref>David T. Beito, "Black Fraternal Hospitals in the Mississippi Delta, 1942-1967". ''Journal of Southern History'' 1999 65(1): 109-140. 0022-4642 </ref>

Today, many hospitals, including religious ones, are part of a chain; they are owned by corporations, non-profit organizations, and governmnet authorities. For example, the [[Bon Secours Health System]] is a non-profit organization operating [[Roman Catholic]] hospitals in seven states in the eastern U.S.

===Childbirth and children===
Before 1920, many women of all social classes delivered their babies at home. This continued into the 1940s in the rural South, where midwives handled the deliveries. However, as doctors became aware of the problematic spread of bacteria and germs, they realized they could not create a sterile environment in a house and began urging families to go to modern hospitals where they promised the women good treatment, excellent food, pain-free births, and excellent, professional attention from nurses.<ref> Judith Walzer Leavitt, "'Strange Young Women on Errands': Obstetric Nursing between Two Worlds". ''Nursing History Review'' 1998 6: 3-24. 1062-8061</ref>

The changing ideas about the treatment of children can be explored through the architecture of pediatric hospitals in Montreal and Toronto from 1875 to 2000. Hospital architecture reveals three distinct phases in the structuring of medical care spaces for children as patients. Late-19th- and early-20th-century children's hospitals remained bastions of older spatial attitudes toward health, while the post-World War I hospital was self-consciously modern, with an arrangement more scientific and institutional than its predecessor. Through references to other typologies, the postmodern hospital marks a return to the earlier attitude that children's health is a family affair.<ref> Annmarie Adams and David Theodore, "Designing For 'The Little Convalescents': Children's Hospitals in Toronto and Montreal, 1875-2000." ''Canadian Bulletin of Medical History'' 2002 19(1): 201-243. 0823-2105 </ref>
===Technology===
X rays, discovered in 1895, were quickly adopted, making the hospital the workshop of medicine. With the introduction of aseptic techniques in the late 19th century, surgery advanced rapidly, with the uperior facilities of the hospital replacing the doctor's office. In 1918 the College of Surgeons sponsored a program of hospital standardization that set forth minimum requirements for properly equipped hospitals. In 1918 only 13% of hospitals won approval. Great gains were made in the 1920s so that by 1936, 72% met the standards.

===Reglion===
[[File:Chapel-2-big.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Typical hospital chapel]]
Religion plays a significant role in most hospitals, even those without a particular religious theme. Hospitals of all types usually employ a hospital chaplain.<ref>[http://www.charlotteregional.com/getpage.php?name=pastoralcare Health Management Associates facility Charlotte Regional Medical Center employs Rev. Larry Pope]</ref><ref>[http://cache.zoominfo.com/CachedPage/?archive_id=0&page_id=1906510544&page_url=%2f%2fwww.charlottecoa.org%2fboard.htm&page_last_updated=3%2f5%2f2007+4%3a21%3a34+AM&firstName=Bob&lastName=Carlson Hospital Corporation of America facility employs Rev. Bob Carlson]</ref><ref>[http://www.smh.com/sections/services-procedures/guide_hospital/main.html Sarasota Memorial Hospital, a county-run facility, employs more than one chaplain]</ref> The Gideons International places copies of the Holy Bible in most hospital rooms.<ref>http://www.gideons.org/AboutUs/LastingMission.aspx</ref> Some hospitals without a religious theme were originally built by religious organizations. [[Atheists]] generally do not establish hospitals, and even if a hospital were established by an atheist, there are no "religious free" hospitals as it wouldn't be a profitable business practice to abolish religion in such facilities, and atheists [[Atheism and uncharitableness|are much too uncharitable]] to establish a non-profit facility.

==Costs and insurance==
The costs of hospital care were rising, and in 1933 the American Hospital Association recommended prepaid nonprofit hospital insurance (Blue Cross), initiating a new pattern of prepayment for health-related expenses. There was a massive growth of a private health industry in the United States during the 1940s-1950s, in contrast to the public health insurance programs implemented in Western Europe and Canada. Rising family income and tax policies encouraged a close link between employment and health insurance, thus promoting insurance. On the supply side, hospitals sought to stabilize fluctuating income through prepayment plans that later became Blue Cross. Doctors, although adamantly opposed to government insurance, formed Blue Shield plans. These two created a new supply of health insurance and demonstrated the viability of the private health insurance model, stimulating competitor companies and increasing consumer purchase of health insurance.<ref> Melissa A. Thomasson, "From Sickness To Health: The Twentieth-Century Development of U.S. Health Insurance." ''Explorations in Economic History'' 2002 39(3): 233-253. 0014-4983 </ref>

Political battles over the federal role in health financed continued, with the major change coming in 1965, when Lydon Johnson's "[[Great Society]]" created Medicare, that is low-cost hospital care for Social Security recipients. Actual costs of Medicare proved much higher than predicted, making it a major element of the federal budget.
===Multiple roles===
After World War II the hospital began to assume a new role as community health center, for the outpatient department and the emergency room became a substitute for the rapidly vanishing general practitioner to whom families had formerly turned for help. At the same time, the increasing expensiveness of medical care stimulated attempts to economize by creating new forms of health delivery systems, such as health maintenance organizations, which build and operate their own hospitals to serve their prepaid members.
By 1973 the 7,000, existing hospitals had grown much larger, with 1.65 million beds.

==Best rated==
The annual ''U.S. news'' rating of hospitals gives the top dozen in 2009:<ref>see [http://health.usnews.com/sections/health/best-hospitals rankings March 22, 2009] </ref>
*1 Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore
*2 Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
*3 Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles
*4 Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland
*5 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
*6 New York-Presbyterian University Hospital, New York
*7 UCSF Medical Center (University of California at San Francisco)
*8 Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston
*8 Duke University Medical Center, Durham NC
*10 Hospital of the U. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
*10 U. of Washington Medical Center, Seattle
*12 Barnes-Jewish Hospital/ Washington U., St Louis

==Further reading==
* Goldin, Grace and John Thompson. ''Hospital: A Social and Architectural History'' (1975)
* Risse, Guenter B. ''Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals.'' (1999). 716 pp. standard scholarly history
* Rosenberg, Charles. ''The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System'' (1987) 456 pp [http://www.amazon.com/Care-Strangers-Americas-Hospital-System/dp/0801850827/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1237708571&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Starr, Paul. ''The Social Transformation of American Medicine'' (1982) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-social-transformation-of-american-medicine-by-paul-starr.jsp online edition]
* Stevens, Rosemary. ''In Sickness and in Wealth: American Hospitals in the Twentieth Century.'' (1989). 432 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Sickness-Wealth-American-Hospitals-Twentieth/dp/0801860490 excerpt and text search]
* Vogel, Morris. ''The Invention of the Modern Hospital: Boston, 1870-1930'' (1980).
===Specialized studies===
* Abel-Smith, Brian. ''The Hospitals, 1800-1948: A Study in Social Administration in England and Wales'' (1967)
* Beardsley, E. H. "Good-Bye to Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Hospitals, 1945-70." ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'' 1986 60(3): 367-386.
* Commission on Hospital Care. ''Hospital Care in the United States'' (1947), for 1940s
* Corwin, E.H.L. ''The American Hospital'' (1946), for the 1940s
* Finzsch, Norbert and Jütte, Robert, eds. ''Institutions of Confinement: Hospitals, Asylums, and Prisons in Western Europe and North America, 1500-1950.'' (1996). 369 pp.
* Henderson, John. ''The Renaissance Hospital: Healing the Body and Healing the Soul.'' (2006) 492 pp.
* Howell, Joel D. ''Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century.'' (1995). 341 pp.
* Jones, Colin. ''The Charitable Imperative: Hospitals and Nursing in Ancien Régime and Revolutionary France.'' (1989). 317 pp.
* Loudon, Irvine. ''Western Medicine: An Illustrated History'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/read/97988313?title=Western%20Medicine%3a%20An%20Illustrated%20History online edition]
* Nelson, Sioban. ''Say Little, Do Much: Nursing, Nuns, and Hospitals in the Nineteenth Century.'' (2001). 240 pp.
* Opdycke, Sandra. ''No One Was Turned Away: The Role of Public Hospitals in New York City since 1900.'' (1999). 244 pp.
* Orme, Nicholas and Webster, Margaret. ''The English Hospital, 1070-1570.'' (1995). 320 pp.
* Pickstone, John V. ''Medicine and Industrial Society: A History of Hospital Development in Manchester and Its Region, 1752-1946.'' (1985). 369 pp.
* Rice, Mitchell F. and Woodrow Jones Jr.''Public Policy and the Black Hospital: From Slavery to Segregation to Integration'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/read/27438297?title=Public%20Policy%20and%20the%20Black%20Hospital%3a%20From%20Slavery%20to%20Segregation%20to%20Integration online edition]
* Rosner, David. ''A Once Charitable Enterprise: Hospitals and Health Care in Brooklyn and New York, 1885-1915'' (1982).
* Schultz, Jane E. ''Women at the Front: Hospital Workers in Civil War America.'' (2004) 360pp.
===Specific hospitals===
* Carson, Carolyn Leonard. ''Healing Body, Mind, and Spirit: The History of the St. Francis Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.'' (1995). 246 pp.
* Castleman, Benjamin; Crockett, David C.; and Sutton, S. B. ''The Massachusetts General Hospital 1955-1980.'' (1983). 410 pp.
* Clapesattle, Helen. ''The Doctors Mayo'' (1941),
* Connor, J. T. H. ''Doing Good: The Life of Toronto's General Hospital.'' (2000). 342 pp.
* Green, Carol C. ''Chimborazo: The Confederacy's Largest Hospital.'' (2004) 200pp.
* Hendricks, Rickey and Foster, Mark S. ''For a Child's Sake: History of the Children's Hospital, Denver, Colorado, 1910-1990.'' (1994). 209 pp.
* Kraut, Alan M. and Deborah A. Kraut. ''Covenant of Care: Newark Beth Israel and the Jewish Hospital in America'' (2007) [http://www.questia.com/read/114708785?title=Covenant%20of%20Care%3a%20%20Newark%20Beth%20Israel%20and%20the%20Jewish%20Hospital%20in%20America online edition]
* Levey, Samuel et al. ''The Rise of a University Teaching Hospital, a Leadership Perspective: The University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, 1898-1995.'' (1996). 465 pp.
* Salvaggio, John. ''New Orleans' Charity Hospital: A Story of Physicians, Politics, and Poverty.'' (1992). 406 pp.
* Sibley, Marilyn McAdams. ''The Methodist Hospital of Houston: Serving the World.'' (1989). 241 pp.

==References==
<References/>

==See also==
*[[Hospital emergency codes]]

[[Category: Hospitals]]
[[Category: Medicine]]
[[Category: Health]]

Narnia

2010-09-28T18:48:09Z

Dfrischknecht:

'''Narnia''' is a fictional realm created by [[C.S. Lewis]] in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''. It is a place you cannot get to by wishing; rather, it finds you when the time is right. Also, time does not flow there in parallel to time on [[Earth]]. When [[Lucy (Narnia)|Lucy]] was away having tea with the [[Faun (Narnia)|Faun]], she hurried back and shouted, "Here I am! Sorry to worry you!" (or words to that effect) but they thought she was only playing because for them only a few moments had passed in a round of [[hide and seek]]. This became an important plot point, because one of the reasons the old [[Professor (Narnia)|Professor]] believed her story is that a child her age would be unlikely to make up a story involving the passage of a long period of time.

===See Also===

* ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''
* ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''
* ''[[Prince Caspian]]''
* ''[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader]]''
* ''[[The Silver Chair]]''
* ''[[The Horse and His Boy]]''
* ''[[The Magician's Nephew]]''
* ''[[The Last Battle]]''

[[Category:Narnia]]

Social Security

2010-09-28T14:05:23Z

Dfrischknecht: /* Social Security and African-Americans */

'''Social Security''' is a compulsory social insurance program primarily for old people and the disabled, sponsored by the U.S. federal government. It is strongly endorsed by all major conservative politicians in recent decades, and was expanded by presidents [[George W. Bush]] and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], and put on a stable financial basis by [[Ronald Reagan]]. Social Security includes [[Medicare]], starting in 1965, which covers medical costs of beneficiaries.

Social Security is part of the [[welfare state]], but it is not considered a welfare program because the beneficiaries have paid into it all their working lives.

Social security programs were first introduced by conservatives and pro-business politicians, such as [[Otto von Bismark]] in Germany and [[Winston Churchill]] in Britain, in order to weaken Socialism. All developed countries have a system somewhat similar to the U.S.

==History==

In 1889 Germany was the first country to introduce government pension plans. Britain introduced its program in 1907.

In the United States Social Security was passed by Congress in 1935, endorsed at the 1936 election, and started operations in 1937. Since benefits required at least 5 years of payments, a special program was included in 1937 to help old people who already were retired and who had high rates of poverty.

The Social Security Act was drafted by President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]'s committee on economic security, under Edwin E. Witte, and passed during FDFR's first term which provided for workers who reach the age of 65 a pension of $8 a week at most. The plan had to be pushed through against FDR's procrastination until finally in the 1934 congressional elections the Republicans denounced him for his tardiness. When FDR finally consented to a bill, it contained a plan for building a huge reserve fund that would extract billions from the workers' payrolls without any adequate return. Over the protest of the President, the Congress finally took that provision proposed by Roosevelt out of the law. <ref> ''Roosevelt Myth'', Book 3, Chapter 14, [http://www.rooseveltmyth.com/book/fdrmyth_Chapter_Fifteen___The_Roosevelt_.htm ''The Roosevelt Myth''], John T. Flynn, Fox and Wilkes, 1948.</ref>

Social Security has been called the "third rail of American politics" because politicians get badly burned if they try to tamper with it. In 2009 conservatives attacked the Democrats health care reform program because it involves large cut-backs to Medicare.

In 1965, prodded by liberal president [[Lyndon Johnson]], Congress enacted the [[Medicare]] program as part of the "[[Great Society]]." Medicare operates as part of Social Security and provides affordable health care to beneficiaries over the age of 65. A [[Medicaid ]] program was established to provide health care for poor people who can not afford private health insurance.

Social security will face many problems in the 21st century, most notably the aging of the population in developed nations, although more problematic in Europe and especially Japan, will strain American social security budgets <ref>Will social security and Medicare remain viable as the US population is aging? (pdf) Henning Bohn[http://www.econ.ucsb.edu/~bohn/papers/Aging.pdf]</ref>

==Social Security and African-Americans==
When Social Security was first passed most blacks worked on farms or as domestics and were not covered. Nearly all have left the farms--and the the few remaining domestics are now covered.

The amount of social security benefits received depends on how long one lives after retiring. African-Americans generally have lower life expectancies than other groups. When a black man reaches age 65, he is expected to live only another 13.9 years, almost 2 years (24 payments) less than a white male. The RAND Corporation concluded that, because of differences in life expectancies and marriage rates, on a life-time basis the income transfer from blacks to whites is as much as $10,000 per person. However, blacks aree more likely to receive disability benefits.

African-Americans are much more likely than other groups to be largely dependent on Social Security for retirement income.

==Reform==

Is Social Security going bankrupt?<ref>Social Security Commissioner, 2006 Social Security Statement</ref> Actuaries say that thanks to the Reagan reforms of 1983, Social Security is fullly funded for 75 years. Medicare is much harder to gauge, because no one knows the future rate of growth of medical costs, which have been quite high in recent decades.

In 2005 President Bush proposed a privatization program that would allow people to control their own Social Security accounts, especially by investments in the stock market. He argued that the stock market provided higher rates of return. The proposals got little support and were dropped. The stock market collapse in the [[Recession of 2008]] chilled enthusiasm for similar proposals, and no prominent politician in 2009 is proposing privatization.

==Pros and cons of social security==
This is a list of the most common arguments used in favour of, and against social security, some may not apply to American social security, since it is not as extensive as that of other developed nations.

===Pros===
====Safety Net====
* Guaranteed affordable health care for everyone over 65.
* Guaranteed income for the elderly who can't afford a private pension plan.
====Security====
* Pensions can not "disappear" because of fraud within a pension fund, or because a pension-funds goes bankrupt.
* Victims of an economic recession won't fall into extreme poverty.
* Social security decreases extreme poverty, which in turn decreases crime <ref>Poverty, Income Inequality, and Violent Crime: A Meta-Analysis of Recent Aggregate Data Studies Ching-Chi Hsieh [http://cjr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/18/2/182]</ref>.

===Cons===
* Individual Empowerment: individuals would have more motivation to work hard and succeed, this does however doesn't benefit the disabled and the economy is unpredictable (recessions).

* Higher Returns and Greater Benefits: even the most conservative investors would accrue substantial assets during their lifetimes through privately invested accounts, yielding far more than Social Security promises in retirement income.

* Improved Economy: economists believe that the overall economy will benefit from an increase in savings and investment resulting from this system.

* Some individuals will get "lazy" and choose not to work, only costing society.

* Economic costs of the program. It is estimated that Social Security will be broke in the early-to-mid 21st century.

==Further reading==
* Beland, Daniel. ''Social Security: History and Politics from the New Deal to the Privatization Debate'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Social-Security-Politics-Privatization-Government/dp/0700615229/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1256563533&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Glenn, Brian J. and Steven M. Teles, eds. ''Conservatism and American Political Development'' (2009), two chapters on conservatives andSocial Security issues since 1930s [http://www.amazon.com/Conservatism-American-Political-Development-Brian/dp/0195373936/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1256562179&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Shoven, John B. and George P. Shultz. ''Putting Our House in Order: A Guide to Social Security and Health Care Reform'' (2008), a conservative analysis [http://www.amazon.com/Putting-Our-House-Order-Security/dp/0393066029/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1256563427&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]

==References==
<references/>
[[category:New Deal]]
[[Category:Welfare State]]