Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Ignorance and disbelief

2012-02-03T01:19:14Z

DavidBG:

'''Ignorance and disbelief''' are often mistaken for one another, particularly by liberals - who frequently claim that Christian disbelief in [[Evolution]] indicates ignorance. This is odd, in view of the enormous number of practicing scientists who disagree with the theory. How can 45% of all scientists be "ignorant"? [http://www.religioustolerance.org/ev_publi.htm]

More likely, they are using the word ''ignorant'' as an epithet; they are just engaging in name-calling.

Disagreeing with a theory is not the same thing as "being ignorant", but someone who applies that label is like someone who disagrees with [[President Bush]]'s policies and so calls him "an [[idiot]]". Taken literally, it's obviously untrue, but liberals are accustomed to having people avoid analyzing what they say closely - some conservatives theorizing that the liberals think that the general public are morons.

In science, the cure for ignorance is to be taught the leading theories, along with the opposing theories. Then, as an exercise, the students ought to try and determine which is correct. Teaching them only the leading theory a form of [[indoctrination]] (teaching them what to think rather than how to think). Ironically, what liberals accuse Christians of doing is rather what they do themselves.

It is an argument from ignorance (or [[circular argument]]) to say
that the evidence leans to evolution. If there is evidence, it ought simply to be given.
If it's simply enough for a child to understand, then it can even be taught to schoolchildren.

[[category:Essays]]
[[category:Science]]
[[category:Evolution]]

Mitt Romney

2012-02-03T01:16:08Z

DavidBG:

{{Officeholder
|name=Willard Mitt Romney
|image=MittPortrait.jpg‎
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=[[Ann Romney]]
|religion=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
|offices=

{{Officeholder/governor
|state=Massachusetts
|terms=January 2, 2003 – January 4, 2007
|preceded=[[Jane Swift]]
|former=n
|succeeded=[[Deval Patrick]]
}}
}}

'''Willard Mitt Romney''' (born March 12, 1947), former Republican governor of Massachusetts and wealthy U.S. businessman, is best-known for his run as a serious contender during the [[United States Presidential Election, 2008|2008 Presidential Election]]. Though he lost the nomination, had he been elected, Romney would have become the first [[Mormon]] elected as president. His father, a former govenor of Michigan–[[George Romney]]–also ran for president nearly 50 years earlier in the 1960s. On June 2, 2011, Romney announced that he would once again run for the Republican nomination in the 2012 U.S. Presidential election.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/mitt-romney-announces-2012-presidential-bid/2011/06/02/AG05iJHH_story.html?hpid=z1 ''Washington Post'' article (June 6, 2011)]</ref>

Before entering politics Romney was an established businessman in Boston, having served as CEO of Bain & Company, a management consulting firm. His political start began during the financially unsteady 2002 Winter Olympics. Romney became President and CEO of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee and quickly made the games a huge success. He gained popularity in Massachusetts, a state known for its tepid [[Republican]] support, and was elected governor in 2002. His record as governor demonstrated his financial skill, but often was at odds with the state's voters on social issues. He declined to run for reelection and announced his candidacy for President.

During his campaign for the Republican nomination in 2008, Romney was widely supported as a staunch conservative and ran on his business experience in the private sector. Romney fought a rough battle against Senator [[John McCain]] in Florida, Michigan, and other key states, but large losses on the Super Tuesday primaries ended his campaign. Romney dropped out of the race and endorsed Senator John McCain on February 14, 2008. His name was circulated as a potential running mate for McCain as their relationship improved, though [[Sarah Palin]] eventually became the VP nominee.

== Personal Life ==
[[Image:MittRomneyYouth05.jpg|thumb|Ann Lois Davies and Willard Mitt Romney]]
Romney is the scion of an old Mormon family. His grandparents were polygamists who fled the United States in the early 20th century when the Mormon Church repudiated polygamy; his father was born in Mexico. The Romneys returned to the U.S. in 1911 when a violent civil war broke out in Mexico.

Mitt Romney is a devout member of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]], and spent time as a missionary during his youth converting Catholics and agnostics to Mormonism in France. In fact, his time as a student and missionary helped him defer from military service during the Vietnam draft,<ref>Michael Kranish, "The Making of Mitt Romney: Mormon church obtained Vietnam draft deferrals for Romney, other missionaries" June 24, 2007. The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/2008/specials/romney/articles/part1_side_2/?page=1 </ref> but he stated during interviews that "he had longed to join the soldiers in Vietnam and support the war effort." His father had stated in 1967 that he felt "brainwashed" by U.S. officials over the justification of the prolonged Vietnam war. This statement had been very costly in George Romney's 1968 campaign for president against Richard Nixon.

Romney maintains a stable marriage with his wife Ann, with whom he has five children. Conservatives applaud him for being such a devoted husband and family man. Conservatives also disliked his 2008 presidential competitors, namely John McCain, Rudy Giuliani, and Fred Thompson, for their divorces.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/08/AR2007060802781_pf.html</ref>

Romney is the son of former [[Michigan]] governor and presidential candidate [[George Romney]], a "Rockefeller Republican,"<ref>Lisa McGirr, ''Suburban Warriors''(2001) pp. 141, 222.</ref> who amassed a large fortune as an automobile industry magnate during World War II.  George Romney was popular among moderates during his presidential run and was well-equipped for victory; many of his political advisors had come from [[Nelson Rockefeller]]'s 1964 campaign.

==Business Career==
From 1978 to 1984, Romney was a vice president of Bain & Company, Inc. a worldwide management consulting firm, and in 1984, Romney co-founded a spin-off called Bain Capital. He invested in or bought many well-known companies such as Staples, Brookstone, Domino's, Sealy Corporation and Sports Authority. Critics say he advised corporations to cut their U.S. taxes by reincorporating in Caribbean tax havens such as the Caymen Islands, while maintaining their operations in the U.S.

==Record as Governor==
Romney served as governor of Massachusetts (2003-2007), with a generally [[conservative]] record that included economic expansion. He balanced the budget every year of his administration with out increasing taxes or increasing state dept. Romney turned a $3 billion budget deficit into a $500 million surplus by reducing government spending and added 80,000 new jobs by the end of his term. In 2004, 2005, and 2006 Governor Romney proposed cutting the state income tax from 5.3% to 5.0% <ref>http://www.clubforgrowth.org/2007/08/mitt_romneys_record_on_economi.php</ref>. Although the Democratic super majority in the state legislator refused to budge. Romney vetoed 844 pieces of legislation, with over 700 overridden. <ref>http://www.ontheissues.org/Governor/Mitt_Romney_Government_Reform.htm</ref> He vetoed an increase in the minimum wage, saying "there's no question raising the minimum wage excessively causes a loss of jobs." <ref>Telegram & Gazette, 08/01/06</ref> Under Governor Romney the state abolished a retroactive capital gains tax that would have forced nearly 50,000 taxpayers to pay additional taxes and fees. <ref>http://www.americansformitt.com/</ref> Massachusetts Citizens For Limited Taxation Executive Director Barbara Anderson praised Romney, saying "There was no one else out on the horizon and with the legislature almost entirely Democratic, we felt it was necessary to have a grown-up in the corner office. … And we were right to back him. He's been a really good friend to the taxpayers."

However, some of the actions Governor Romney took received criticisms from conservatives, such as supporting moderate fee increases and creating and the nation's first universal [[health care]] program. During his 2002 gubernatorial campaign Romney supported [[abortion]], his views evolved and would later take [[pro-life]] positions such as vetoing emergency contraception and vetoing [[stem-cell research]] that would allow cloning of human embryos. In 2006, Governor Romney testified before the [[United States]] [[Senate]] to support the Federal Marriage Amendment, which would limit marriage to one man and one woman. Additionally, Romney filed legislation to reinstate [[capital punishment]], but was defeated in the Massachusetts House of Representatives on a 99-53 vote.

Mitt Romney made no pardons as governor, "My conclusion was, if somebody has been convicted by a jury of their peers, and they’ve been prosecuted and the police were able to get the evidence necessary to put them behind bars, why in the world would I step in and reverse that sentence?" <ref>http://hotair.com/archives/2009/12/04/romney-on-huckabee-unlike-some-people-i-never-pardoned-anyone/</ref>

On [[Education]] Romney called for the privatization of the University of Massachusetts medical school<ref>Telegram & Gazette, 02/27/03</ref>. In 2004, he established the John and Abigail Adams Scholarship Program, which rewarded the top 25 percent of Massachusetts high school students with tuition-free scholarship to any Massachusetts public [[university]] or [[college]]. In August 2006, Governor Romney refused to allow former Iranian President Mohammed Khatami, an outspoken opponent of the [[United States]] and [[Israel]], state police escorts during his speech at [[Harvard University]]. <ref>http://www.nysun.com/editorials/khatemi-at-harvard/38903/</ref>

In December 2006, Romney signed a memorandum of agreement with the federal government that would allow state troopers to enforce federal immigration laws <ref>http://www.iowapolitics.com/index.iml?Article=96543</ref>, however was revoked when Democrat Deval Patrict took office as Governor in January 2007.

== Political Views ==

===Abortion===
"I am [[pro-life]]. I believe that [[abortion]] is the wrong choice except in cases of incest, rape, and to save the life of the mother. I wish the people of America agreed, and that the laws of our nation could reflect that view. But while the nation remains so divided over abortion, I believe that the states, through the democratic process, should determine their own abortion laws and not have them dictated by [[judicial mandate]]." ([[Boston]] Globe, Mitt Romney Editorial, July 26, 2005)
<ref>[http://www.mittromney.com/Issue-Watch/Values America's Culture and Values] mittromney.com</ref> 

Despite having a largely pro-life record as governor, in a 1994 debate with Senator [[Edward Kennedy]], Romney said that abortion should be legal, declaring that "regardless of one's beliefs about choice, you would hope it would be safe and legal." "Many years ago, I had a dear, close family relative that was very close to me who passed away from an illegal abortion", Romney said. "It is since that time my mother and my family have been committed to the belief that we can believe as we want, but we will not force our beliefs on others on that matter. And you will not see me wavering on that."<ref>http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/07/03/clarity_sought_on_romneys_abortion_stance/?page=2</ref>

In his campaign literature for the 2002 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, Romney expressed a willingness to defend that State's pro-choice status quo.<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20021218005104/www.romneyhealey.com/issues/4</ref>

===Civil Unions===
Romney is opposed to the idea of [[gay marriage]], however he has voiced support for domestic partnership benefits and equal rights for [[homosexuals]].<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20021218005104/www.romneyhealey.com/issues/3</ref>

===Economic Agenda===
As President, Romney promised to pursue a conservative, pro-growth economic agenda. His number one economic priority would be to grow the economy — helping to create good jobs, raise incomes and preserve American strength. He says he would work to rein in excessive government spending and reform entitlements. To ensure America's continued economic growth, he promises to cut taxes — such as the Death Tax, savings taxes, corporate taxes and marginal tax rates.

Romney says he would also promote trade, bring market forces to bear in health care, pursue national tort and liability reform, eliminate excessive regulations that put a burden on our economy and strengthen American families.

===Immigration===

<blockquote>Immigration has been an important part of our nation's success. The current system, however, puts up a concrete wall to the best and brightest, yet those without skill or education are able to walk across the border. We must reform the current immigration laws so we can secure our borders, implement a mandatory biometrically enabled, tamper proof documentation and employment verification system, and increase legal immigration into America.<ref>http://www.mittromney.com/Issue-Watch/Immigration</ref></blockquote>

Romney supports a strong stance on illegal immigration.<ref>[http://www.iowapolitics.com/index.iml?Article=91722 IowaPolitics.com: Romney Touts Strong Stance On Illegal Immigration]</ref> On 5/24/07, Romney spoke about how he was tolerant about gays and then he discussed the current illegal immigration bill before Congress:
<blockquote>He expressed less tolerance for illegal immigrants, and said he and President Bush have a difference of opinions on a bill that would provide a path toward legalization for an estimated 12 million people unlawfully in the country.

"He has his view, and other people have their views and I have my own," Romney said. "This is for all intents and purposes a form of amnesty in that everyone who is here illegally today will be able to stay under this bill."

The bill is unfair to people who are trying to come to the country legally, he said. People here illegally should be able to apply to come to the United States, but under the same terms as everyone else and behind those who have already applied.

"I don't think that we're going to round up 11 or 12 or however many million people and bus them out of the country. That's not what I'm talking about," Romney said. "Those who committed felonies, of course, would be deported. Those who require government assistance to stay here would surely need to get off government assistance and ultimately could not remain here on government assistance."<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2007May24/0,4670,RomneyGays,00.html</ref></blockquote>

===Stem Cell Research===
Mitt Romney supports the right of scientists to research on embryos created during fertility treatments.<ref>http://www.boston.com/yourlife/health/diseases/articles/2007/02/11/romneys_stem_cell_view_may_upset_the_right/</ref>

==2008 Presidential Campaign==
''Main Article: [[Mitt Romney 2008 Presidential Campaign]]''

[[Image:Dude and mitt romney.jpg|right|180px]] As chairman of the [[Republican Governors Association]], Romney campaigned nationwide for GOP gubernatorial candidates in 2006, building up a network of allies and supporters. While he did not run for reelection as governor, in 2004 Romney set up a federal political action committee (PAC) called the Commonwealth PAC, which raised $2.71 million during the 2006 election cycle. On January 3, 2007, his next-to-last day in office as governor of Massachusetts, Romney filed to form a presidential exploratory committee with the Federal Election Commission. He officially announced his candidacy for President a month later. Romney was the first candidate in either party to start running television and radio ads. The ads focused mainly on his record as governor, running the 2002 Salt Lake Olympics, and his work as a very successful businessman. Romney's five sons had been actively campaigning for their father, traveling around in a campaign bus called the "Mitt Mobile, A Five Brothers Bus."

As a presidential candidate Romney sought the support of the business community and social conservatives. He reversed moderate positions on abortion and gay rights to take a hardline conservative position on them, and on opposition to illegal immigrants. Opponents charged he changed too often. Romney was a leader in fund-raising, augmented by over $35 million from his own fortune. However he was little known outside of Massachusetts, so his strategy was to play for early wins in Iowa and New Hampshire, then "sling-shot" the momentum into national visibility. Romney won the Michigan primary on January 16th, 2008, with 39% of the vote, edging out McCain with 30% and Huckabee with 16%. Romney was favored to win in the state of his birth, where his father, [[George Romney]] was governor from 1963-1969. After losing both the Iowa caucus and the New Hampshire primary (to Huckabee and McCain, respectively), Romney won a low-publicized Wyoming caucus. On January 19, Romney easily won the [[Nevada]] caucuses by 37 percentage points when there were seven candidates on the ballot, however, on that same day he placed a distant fourth in the [[South Carolina]] primary. After a disappointing performance on Super Tuesday, Romney announced the suspension of his campaign on Thursday 7th February. He expressed his wishes not to divide the Republican party and later endorsed Senator [[John McCain]] of [[Arizona]]. Commentators correctly speculated on his chances for a return effort in 2012.

===Fundraising===
Mitt Romney had done well in fund raising. During his first fund raiser as a presidential candidate, he raised $6.5 million dollars compared to an original goal of only $1 million. During the first quarter Romney raised more money then any other Republican presidential candidate with $23 million. However, a substantial portion of his funds ($17 million) came from his own personal wealth. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/10/16/top_spender_romney_could_soon_run_short/]

==Endorsements==
===Congressional===
* Former [[Speaker of the House]] [[J. Dennis Hastert|Dennis Hastert]]
* Senator [[Bob Bennett]] of [[Utah]]
* Senator [[Orrin Hatch]] of [[Utah]]
* Senator [[Larry Craig]] of [[Idaho]]
* Senator [[Jim DeMint]] of [[South Carolina]]
* Senator [[Wayne Allard]] of [[Colorado]]
* Senator [[Judd Gregg]] of [[New Hampshire]]
* Former Sen. [[Jim Talent]] of [[Missouri]]
* Former Sen. [[Rick Santorum]] of [[Pennsylvania]]
* Representative [[Tom Tancredo]] of [[Colorado]]
* Representative [[Marsha Blackburn]] of [[Tennessee]]

===Governors===
* Missouri Governor [[Matt Blunt]]
* Former Colorado Governor [[Bill Owens]]
* [[Rhode Island]] Governor [[Donald Carcieri]]
* Former South Carolina Governor James B. Edwards
* Former Massachusetts Governor Bill Weld
* Former Montana Governor Tim Babcock

===Talk Radio===
* [[Rush Limbaugh]] <ref>[http://www.cnsnews.com/ThisHour.asp#Limbaugh Endorses Romney Limbaugh Endorses Romney], [[Melanie Hunter]], ''[[CNSNews]]'', February 05, 2008</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mittromney.com Mitt Romney for President 2008]
*[http://www.ldslivingonline.com/article.php?articleId=17633 Mitt Romney: proudly, quietly Mormon]
*[http://www.evangelicalsformitt.org/ Evangelicals for Mitt]
*[http://sparklepony.blogspot.com/2007/03/fresh-mitt-romney-juvenalia-hot-off.html Fresh Mitt Romney Juvenalia] Pics - Comments.
*[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=YjE4MmMyMzVkZjlhZGQzNzlhZjdmMDEzNjI3MzM4ZTA= Mitt Romney: “I Changed My View. Is that So Difficult to Understand?”] The candidate talks about his efforts to convince voters that his pro-life conversion is real. Byron York, National Review Online, November 20, 2007
*[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=Y2ZkMWNkZDkzOTk1YTM0NTNkNmJlZThmYjJmM2ZmOGE= Did Mitt Romney Push Poll Himself?] Mark Hemingway, National Review Online, November 19, 2007
*[http://corner.nationalreview.com/post/?q=Y2EzODZjY2UxZTRhMWE2ZDk1ZWE5MGI0ZmRjMDViZTI= Team Romney on Push-Poll Connections] After reading the Hemingway piece, Kevin Madden, Romney for President campaign spokesman replies. Kathryn Jean Lopez, National Review Online, November 19, 2007
*[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=MzliMDgzOWVlOGEwYThlMzc5ZDVlNzM2YjA4M2ZkYTg= Romney Stands for Faith] The candidate pushes back against push-poll attacks. Larry Kudlow, National Review Online, November 16, 2007
*[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=MGQ4YmM4Y2U3Yjc3MzYzNDQwYzk3YTVjMTI5YTkwNzg= Romney’s Religion], The Editors, National Review Online, November 16, 2007

==Blogs==
*[http://www.mymanmitt.com/mitt-romney/ My Man Mitt]
*[http://libertariansformitt.wordpress.com/ Libertarians for Romney]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Romney, Mitt}}
[[Category:Massachusetts Governors]]
[[Category:Republican Governors]]
[[Category:2008 Presidential Candidates]]
[[Category:Business People]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:The 100 Americans The Left Hates Most]]
[[Category:Mormons]]
[[Category:2012 Presidential Candidates]]

Woodrow Wilson

2010-12-17T18:02:57Z

DavidBG: Fixing spelling

{{President
|image=Pppq.jpg
|seq=28
|term_start=March 4, 1913
|term_end=March 4, 1921<ref>http://home.comcast.net/~sharonday7/Presidents/AP060301.htm</ref>
|party=Democratic
|vp=Thomas R. Marshall
|previous=William Howard Taft
|next=Warren G. Harding
|birth_date=December 28, 1856
|birth_place=Staunton, Virginia
|death_date=February 3, 1924
|death_place=Washington, D.C.
|spouse=Ellen Axson Wilson
|spouse2=Edith Galt Wilson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}

'''Woodrow Wilson''' (born Thomas Woodrow Wilson, 1856 - 1924), a Democrat, was elected as the 28th [[President of the United States of America]], and reelected in 1916, serving from 1913 to 1921. A Princeton president who became an intellectual leader of the [[Progressive Movement]], Wilson demonstrated his mastery over Congress by creating the [[Federal Reserve System]], lowering the tariff, and revising the [[antitrust]] laws in a way that ended most of the "trustbusting" and drew clear lineson what was allowed. In general these policies would be in line with conservative recommendations in 2009. He supported liberal policies such as raising wages of railroad workers when they threatened a nationwide strike in 1916.
Trying repeatedly and failing to broker peace during [[World War I]], Wilson in 1917 led the United States into the war. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]].

Wilson played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the Versailles Conference that set the peace terms in 1919. He was the idealist who envisioned Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, unfettered international trade, the end of militarism, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. He failed to obtain Senate approval for the Versailles treaty because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]] and a possible loss of control over the war-making power. Wilson refused to involve the Republicans in the peace-making, even though they controlled Congress, and refused the GOP compromise that would have allowed American entry into the League without giving up sovereignty.

Wilson was a very complex man filled with paradox. He was a southern conservative--an elitist with a profound distrust of radical ideas and such left-wing populists as [[William Jennings Bryan]], but became the Democratic Party's most effective advocate of advanced progressivism. His progressivism in 2009 terms is a mix of liberal and conservative ideas, with a much deper religious underpining than is seen today. He ranks with Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson and Ronald Reagan as the nation's most active and dominant chief executives. He ranks with Abraham Lincoln and Reagan as the most articulate spokesman for national values. He was a war president who largely ignored military affairs and focused on very complex diplomatic issues. He won his war, reshaped the world at the peace conference, and saw his nation reject his idealist League of Nations because he refused to work with republicans on its mechanics.

A rigid, self-exacting personality, whose uncompromising adherence to principles barred agreement on some of his most important political goals, he was a brilliant opportunist who won stunning electoral victories and led controversial laws through Congress. He understood diplomacy and dometic affairs in depth, and was the first to recognize a solution that could satisfy most of the needs of the interested parties. He was willing to negotiate endlessly, usually getting his way in the end, esopecially when his powerful rhetoric energized his backers. A devout Presbyterian who studied the Bible every day, he elevated a religious style of idealism to the central place in American diplomacy. A lonely intellectual, he had few friends, and broke one-by-one with his closest advisors, until in his last two years in office he was an invalid controlled in large part by his wife.

Wilson's idealistic foreign policy, called "Wilsonianism" sought to end militarism as a force in world affairs, vigorously promote national self determination, create international bodies to head off serious disputes, and use American resources to promote democracy. Wilsonianism (and "idealism" generally) is opposed to "realism" in foreign policy, which stresses a concern for American self-interest, especially in economic and military terms. Wilsonianism reshaped the world in the aftermath of the Great War; its values lie at the core of the foreign policy of [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2009). [[File:Ww-sargent.jpg|thumb|350px|1917 portrait by [[John Singer Sargent]]]]
Wilson was the most profoundly Christian political leader in the world in the 20th century. He felt assured that he was following God's guidance. Wilson considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a postmillenarian, and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail.

==Family==
Wilson's father Joseph Ruggles Wilson (1822-1903), born in Ohio, was a Presbyterian minister of Scotch Irish descent. Woodrow's mother Jesse was born in Carlisle, England, to a Scottish-born Presbyterian minister; her family moved to Canada in 1835 and to Ohio in 1837. Woodrow's parents moved South in 1851, owned house slaves, and identified themselves with the culture and political values of the South. The father Joseph Wilson was a theologian, defended slavery and soon emerged as a leader of the Southern Presbyterian Church and an avid supporter of the Confederacy.<ref> In the 1880s Joseph Wilson argued at length that evolution was NOT in conflict with the Bible; he was thereupon forced out as head of the Presbyterian seminary in South Carolina. See Fred Kingsley Elder, ''Woodrow: Apostle of Freedom'' (1996) [http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(199711)63%3A4%3C898%3AWAOF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O&cookieSet=1 online review]</ref>

Wilson's grandfather (Joseph Wilson's father) was James Wilson, who immigrated to the United States from northern Ireland in 1807 and was first an editor of the [[Jeffersonian Republican]] newspaper the ''Aurora'' in Philadelphia, and later published Whig newspapers in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Since his father had been ostracized by the northern relatives, Woodrow had no contact with his grandfather or uncles, who were active in antislavery Republican politics in Ohio and Pennsylvania.<ref>Francis P. Weisenburger, "The Middle Western Antecedents of Woodrow Wilson," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 23, No. 3 (Dec., 1936), pp. 375-390 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886371 in JSTOR]</ref>

Woodrow grew up in the South during the Civil War and Reconstruction his father was a chaplain for the Confederate army. Woodrow saw the humiliation, economic ruin and shame that the loser of a war experiences and the hatred that grows from this, as well as the rampant corruption during Reconstruction in Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. A victim of childhood dyslexia, he became an avid reader. His father imparted a love of literature and politics to his son; much family activity revolved around Bible readings, daily prayers, and worship services at the father's church.

In 1885 Wilson married Ellen Louise Axson (1860 – 1914), the daughter of a Presbyterian minister in Savannah, Georgia. She was an accomplished painter and a successful hostess; they had three daughters.<ref> See [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/ew28-1.html White House biography of Ellen Louise Axson Wilson]</ref>

==Education==
Woodrow studied at Davidson College in North Carolina in 1873-1874 and at Princeton University from 1875 to 1879. he proved a exceptional student, primarily interested in debate and politics. His father always wanted him to be a minister; Wilson greatly admired the British Priome Minister [[William E. Gladstone]], a Christian in politics, and decided to emulate him. Wilson saw politics as a divine vocation--to be a statesman was an expression of Christian service, he believed, a use of power for the sake of principles or moral goals. Wilson saw the "key to success in politics" as "the pursuit of Perfection through hard work and the fulfillment of ideals." Politics would allow him to spread spiritual enlightenment to the American people.

He was an editor of the ''Princetonian'' and wrote his senior thesis on "Cabinet Government in the United States;" it was later published. The essay stressed the superior qualities of the British cabinet system and said it ought to be tried in the United States.<ref>Edward S. Corwin, "Woodrow Wilson and the Presidency," ''Virginia Law Review,'' Vol. 42, No. 6 (Oct., 1956), pp. 761-783 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1070269 in JSTOR]. It was published in a journal edited by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], who became Wilson's bitter enemy in 1919.</ref> After graduation in 1879 he studied law at the University of Virginia; he was admitted to the bar and practiced in Atlanta, in 1882. It was too boring. Wilson's scholarship led him in 1883 to enter the new Johns Hopkins University graduate school where he studied government and history, taking a PhD in 1885. Wilson is the only president to have earned a PhD.
==Academic leader==
In 1885 Wilson was appointed instructor in in history at Bryn Mawr College, an elite Quaker school for women near Philadelphia, as a salary of $1500 a year (which was enough to hire a servant). In 1888 he moved to Wesleyan University, a Methodist college in Connecticut. His reputation as an outstanding leader in political science brought him a professorship of jurisprudence and political economy at [[Princeton University]] in 1890. For the next twelve years he taught at Princeton, popular alike with students and faculty; he became the president of the school in 1902.<ref>W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref>

Henry Wilkinson Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years'' (1967)</ref>

Wilson soon emerged as the nation's foremost academic, in heavy demand in elite circle for his brilliant speeches.

At Princeton he created academic departments but otherwise downplayed the Germanic model of the PhD-oriented research university in favor of the "Oxbridge" (Oxford and Cambridge) model of intense small group discussions and one-one-one tutorials. He hired 50 young professors, called preceptors, to meet with students in small conferences, grilling them about their reading. Complaining that Princeton was dominated by "eating clubs" in which students ate with each other and ignored the professors, he sought to build Oxford-style colleges where students and faculty would eat and talk together. He failed--the eating clubs are still there.<ref>Yale and Harvard later did adopt the college model for undergraduates, but not Princeton. W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref>

Wilson promote the leadership model, whereby the college focused on training a small cadre of undergraduates for national leadership, "the minority who plan, who conceive, who superintend," as he called them in his inaugural address as the university's president. "The college is no less democratic because it is for those who play a special part." He confronted the dean of the graduate school, who had the German research model in mind and outmaneuvered Wilson by obtaining outside funding for a graduate complex for serious scholarlhip that was well separated from the fun-loving undergraduates.
===Political theory===
Wilson made significant contributions to political science.<ref> he also wrote popular history of high quality, including a five-volume history of the United States and a life of George Washington.</ref> In 1885 he published his influential treatise ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics'', based on his PhD dissertation. It set a new standard in analyzing the actual workings of the federal government with striking clarity and thoroughness. Although Wilson had never visited Congress, his emphasis on the centrality of committees in Congress was a major contribution to the study of political science. Noting how the Constitution's separation of powers had been eroded since the Civil War by the increasing power of Congress, he suggested a remedy for this in a cabinet-style government of the variety proposed by [[Walter Bagehot]] in Britain. By criticizing the Constitutionalist and Federalist traditions that had characterized American politics for a century, and showing their faults, Wilson sought to open a serious debate on the political changes in the United States in the intervening century and whether the Constitution remained an adequate regulator of these. By the time he wrote ''Constitutional Government in the United States'' (1908), Wilson was advocating the need for constitutional reform that would make Congress and president more representative and, above all, the need for a strong president who could influence Congress rather than submit to it.

Wilson originated the notion that political parties, besides running campaigns, need to be responsible for clearly designed public policies, which they present to the electorate for approval. The key to responsibility was the presidency. Hegelian conceptions of monarchy strongly influenced Wilson, and his view of public opinion contrasted sharply with the Madisonian view of factionalism. Consequently Wilson viewed parties as primarily the machinery through which strong leaders interpret and pursue the public will.<ref> Scot J. Zentner, "President and Party in the Thought of Woodrow Wilson," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly''; 1996 26(3): 666-677, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551624 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Public administration===
Wilson was a founder of the study of public administration by political scientists. Wilson believed in a strong, active role for the central government and as president succeeded in establishing legislation that significantly enlarged its regulatory powers. With the publication of ''Congressional Government'' in 1885, Wilson established himself as a leader of the political reform movement of the day. The book was the first of its kind to analyze policymaking by the central government and to provide recommendations for changing the process. Wilson was one of the three most prominent public administrationists of the 1880's and 1890's. As an academician, he promoted a separate department for the study of public administration and wrote 'The Study of Adminstration' (1887), the first published essay by a university scholar on the subject, established Wilson as the leading authority in the field. During the next year he inaugurated a course in public administration at Johns Hopkins University, providing three 6-week lecture series arranged in a 3-year cycle. In 1889, Wilson published a textbook, ''The State,'' and, in 1891, he began at Hopkins a new 3-year course which was a further significant step in the development of the study of administration. He was one of the first scholars to realize fully that all government was ultimately to be administration.<ref> Richard J. Stillman, II, "Woodrow Wilson and the Study of Administration: A New Look at an Old Essay," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 67, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 582-588 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1958787 in JSTOR]; Larry Walker, "Woodrow Wilson, Progressive Reform, and Public Administration," ''Political Science Quarterly'', Vol. 104, No. 3 (Autumn, 1989), pp. 509-525 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2151276 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Football===
Wilson as president of Princeton, and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] as president of the United States, took an intense interest in the controversy over the reform of college football. In the 1890s and early 1900s, college football faced sharp of criticism over injuries and the role of athletics in college life. Roosevelt and Wilson, loyal followers of Harvard and Princeton, had defended football in the 1890s. In the fall of 1905, however, President Roosevelt called a conference of football experts at the White House to discuss brutality and unsportsmanlike conduct. Thereafter, Roosevelt worked behind the scenes to bring about sufficient reform to preserve football and insure that it would continue to be played at Harvard. In the years 1909-10, when college football again faced an injury crisis, Wilson worked with the presidents at Harvard and Yale to make reasonable reforms. Both Roosevelt's and Wilson's approaches were consistent with their strategies for national political change. In the years that followed the reforms on the gridiron, football evolved rapidly into the 'attractive' game that Wilson had advocated and a far less brutal game than the unruly spectacle that Roosevelt had tried to control.<ref>John S. Watterson, III, "Political Football: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson and the Gridiron Reform Movement," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1995 25(3): 555-564 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551467 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Southerner===
Wilson was the first southerner elected president since [[Zachary Taylor]] in 1848, and much of his political base came from young progressives in that region, especially intellectuals, editors and lawyers.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR] Andrew Johnson was not elected; he moved from vice president to president after Lincoln's death in 1865.</ref>

Many Civil War veterans were still alive and Wilson used the memory of the War to build nationalism and to facilitate reunion between the North and the South. In his academic work and public comments, Wilson stressed the theoretical and constitutional causes of the war, devaluing the slavery issue and stressing the moral equality of North and South, all in the interest of lessening sectional animosity. During World War I and the struggle for the League of Nations, Wilson frequently drew comparisons between Lincoln and the Union's sacrifices to save the nation and American soldiers' sacrifices during World War I to save the world. He succeeded in overcoming Southern isolationism by convincing the middle class in the region that God had preserved the Union in the Civil War in order to spread democracy throughout the world. He appealed to Southerners to demonstrate the patriotism that many said they lacked. He was able to convince them that they could wage war for democracy abroad without endangering white supremacy at home.<ref> Anthony Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Legacy of the Civil War," ''Civil War History'' 1997 43(3): 225-242; online in [[Questia]]; Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Rise of Militant Interventionism in the South," ''Journal of Southern History'' 1999 65(4): 771-808, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2587587 in JSTOR]</ref>

Wilson drew on Southern conservatism in the development of his political philosophy and identity as a politician from the 1890s to 1921. While Wilson forged a Progressive reformist outlook that encompassed limited government intervention in social and economic matters, he embraced a conservative, organic conception of social change drawn partially from the thought of Edmund Burke and partially from a mythical vision of the Old South as a model of social stability and integration. Deeply alarmed by labor and agrarian radicalism in the 1890s, Wilson resolved to cleanse the Democratic Party of Populist influence. His political vision ultimately sought to adapt American society to the new economic conditions of the 20th century, chiefly defined by the magnification of corporate power, while retaining the race and class hierarchies of tradition. Wilson's vision of Southern conservatism as a regenerative force set the precedent for the conservative ideology that dominated American politics since the 1980s.<ref> Michael Dennis, "Woodrow Wilson and Southern Reform Conservatism," ''Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South'' 2006 13(3-4): 1-28. </ref>

==Reform governor==
As early as 1906 Wilson came under the influence of Colonel George Harvey (1864-1928), a conservative Democrat who owned a publishing empire that included the ''New York World'' and ''Harper's Weekly'' magazine, reaching the nation's intellectual elite. Harvey, with close ties to Wall Street and [[J. P. Morgan]], saw a future conservative president and promoted Wilson heavily. Wilson became the intellecual leader of the anti-Bryan, anti-Populist wing of the Democratic Party. Harvey helped convince the old-fashioned bosses in New Jersey's cities to make Wilson the Democratic nominee for gobvernor in 1910, explaining this would bring in the mioddle class vote. Wilson, frustrated at Princeton, made the move and was elected. Wilson then broke with the bosses, and Harvey, denounced Wall Street and the bosses, and electrified the nation with his Progressive reforms in the notoriously corrupt government of New Jersey. Wilson by 1912 had emerged as the cleanest, most religious, best known and most dynamic leader of the [[Progressive Movement]] in the Democratic Party.

==Election of 1912==
William Frank McCombs, a New York lawyer and a a friend from college days, instigated and managed Wilson's campaign for president in 1912. Much of Wilson's support came from the South, especially from young progressive professionals. Wilson managed to maneuver through the complexities of local politics. For example, in Tennessee the Democratic Party was divided on the issue of prohibition. Wilson was progressive and sober, but not a dry, and appealed to both sides. They united behind him to win the presidential election in the state, but divided over state politics and lost the gubernatorial election.<ref> Arthur S. S. Link, "Democratic Politics and the Presidential Campaign of 1912 in Tennessee," ''East Tennessee Historical Society's Publications'' 1979 51: 114-137</ref>

At the convention deadlock went on for over 40 ballots as a two-thirds vote was needed. A leading opponent was House Speaker [[Champ Clark]], a prominent progressive strongest in the border states. Other contenders were Judson Harmon of Ohio, and Oscar Underwood of Alabama. They lacked Wilson's charisma and dynamism. Clark was supported by publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]], a leader of the left-wing of the party. The critical role was played by [[William Jennings Bryan]], the nominee in 1896, 1900 and 1908, who blocked the nomination of any candidate who had the support of 'the financiers of Wall Street.' He finally announced for Wilson, who won on the 46th.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "The Baltimore Convention of 1912," ''American Historical Review'' 1945 50(4): 691-713 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1842698 in JSTOR]</ref>

Wilson enjoyed the support of many black leaders including [[W.E.B. DuBois]] (a liberal at the time). Wilson's speeches and letters expressed the sentiments of a defender of the underprivileged. However the rejoicing over Wilson's victory was short-lived among blacks as segregationist white Southerners took control of Congress and many executive departments.<ref> Nancy J. Weiss, "The Negro and the New Freedom: Fighting Wilsonian Segregation," ''Political Science Quarterly'' 1969 84(1): 61-79, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2147047 in JSTOR]</ref>

In the campaign Wilson promoted the "New Freedom," emphasizing limited federal government and opposition to monopoly powers--positions that he reversed on coming to office.

President [[William Howard Taft]] defeated ex-President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in a bitter contest for the Republican nomination, but Roosevelt walked out of the Republican convention and ran as a third party candidate. Wilson's success in the electoral college was assured, despite his 41.8% of the popular vote.<ref> Lewis L. Gould, ''Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics,'' (2008); Link (1947)</ref>.

==President: 1913-21==
===First term===
====Domestic policy====
[[File:Ww-prog.jpg|thumb|580px|left]]
=====Immigration=====
Wilson twice vetoed the Burnett Immigration Restriction Bill, which required a literacy test for immigrants and would have sharply reduced the number of poor immigrants from Poland, Italy and other parts of eastern and southern Europe . As a moderate progressive, Wilson believed southern and eastern European immigrants, though often poor and illiterate, to be capable of assimilation into a homogeneous middle class with other whites. He considered so-called hyphenated immigrants unacceptable because they acted as groups rather than blending into the common population. Indeed he denounced the hyphenates. Wilson sought to achieve American strength through unity, blending together the best characteristics of every nationality to create the ideal citizenry, opposing [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]'s nativist view that American civilization must be based on an Anglo-Saxon foundation. Immigration from Europe practically ended when the war began, so the issue was postponed ino the 1920s, when a quota system was set up to keep the country's ethnic balance unchanged.<ref> Hans Vought, . Division and Reunion: Woodrow Wilson, Immigration, and the Myth of American Unity. Journal of American Ethnic History; 1994 13(3): 24-50.</ref>

====Foreign Policy====
=====Mexico=====
The extremely violent civil war that broke out in Mexico in 1911 drove hundreds of thousands of refugees north across the border, and forced Wilson to intervene. [[Francisco Madero]], an idealistic reformer who came to power in 1911. Madero tried to violently upend the social order in Mexico by destroying the landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church. When Madero was overthrown and murdered by [[Victoriano Huerta]] in February 1913, days before Wilson took office, he refused to recognize the new Mexican government. Relations deteriorated between the two countries. After American sailors were arrested in Tampico in April 1914 by Huerta's soldiers, the armed conflict loomed. American soldiers occupied Vera Cruz. In July 1914 Huerta fled to Spain. In 1916 the civil war between warlords [[Venustiano Carranza]] and [[Pancho Villa]] continued, and in March Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 20 Americans.<ref>James A. Sandos, "Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson's Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered," ''Journal of Latin American Studies,'' Vol. 13, No. 2 (Nov., 1981), pp. 293-311 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/156072 in JSTOR]</ref> Wilson sent Brigadier General [[John J. Pershing]] deep into Mexico to capture Villa. Villa escaped the Americans. Despite the demands of outraged senators, Wilson did not declare war on Mexico. He ran for reelection in 1916 on the slogan, "He kept us out of war," meaning out of a war with Mexico.

====Reelection====
[[File:WW-WIN16.jpg|thumb|400px]]
====Woman suffrage====
In the 1910s, suffragists campaigned for the passage of a federal constitutional amendment that would grant women the right to vote. They argued it would purify politics because the new voters would be far less liable to corruption and saloon influences. The movement was led by Protestant Northern women, many of whom were active in the prohibition movement at the same time. Wilson, originally opposed to the amendment, was converted through the efforts of women suffragists and became an advocate of critical importance. Both the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the National Women's Party (NWP) used symbolic representations of President Wilson, conferring on him real or symbolic images of presidential power. In practice Wilson hedged, realizing that male Democrats in the bg city machines in the North and in the rural South were hostile to woman suffrage. The meaning of democracy was at issue: the NWP portrayed Wilson as a tyrant, the NAWSA depicted him as a champion of freedom. Both organizations played essential roles in the passage of the 19th Amendment. After 1919, the absence of a common goal was a contributing factor to the subsequent divisions within the woman's rights movement, as was the loss of a unique adversary.<ref> Christine A. Lunardini, and Thomas J. Knock, Woodrow Wilson and Woman Suffrage: A New Look. Political Science Quarterly; 1980-1981 95(4): 655-671, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150609 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Second term===

===Entering the war===
====Domestic policy====
====Foreign Policy====
====Russia====
Wilson's commitment to the principle of self-determination affected his decision to intervene in Russia in 1918, as the Bolsheviks (Communists) took power. Unswayed by British, French, and Japanese pressure, Wilson insisted that, unless the Russians invited them, the Allies should not interfere with Russia's internal affairs. In the summer of 1918, the president sent American troops into Siberia with the sole purpose of protecting Czechoslovak soldiers who had broken oujt of POW camps and were an independent force. Later Wilson realized that the other Allied nations were using the rescue mission as an 'anti-Bolshevik' crusade and for imperialistic motives. As a result, the president ordered US forces to withdraw.<ref> </ref> Wilson and subsequent presidents until 1933 refused to recognize the new Communist government, and Russia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference.<ref> Betty Miller Unterberger, "Woodrow Wilson and the Bolsheviks: the 'Acid Test' of Soviet-American Relations," ''Diplomatic History'' 1987 11(2): 71-90,</ref>
====Mideast====
In November 1917, Wilson endorsed the [[Zionism|pro-Zionist]] [[Balfour Declaration]] issued by Britain. Wilson's aims in this endorsement were both practical and religious. His deep Christian sentiment led him to seek 'a direct governing role in the Near East in the name of peace, democracy and, especially, Christianity. By agreeing to the use of the mandate system by which the transition governments of the Middle East were partially controlled by Britain and France after the war, Wilson was both contradicting and reaffirming his own ideals by allowing only limited self-determination of Middle-Eastern peoples while assuring some respect for property and order.<ref> Frank W. Brecher, Woodrow Wilson and the Origins of the Arab-israeli Conflict. American Jewish Archives; 1987 39(1): 23-47,</ref>

====Paris Peace Conference, 1919====
=====Fight for the League=====

==Wilson and religion==
A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, he appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into Wilsonianism.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956); Richard M. Gamble, "Savior Nation: Woodrow Wilson and the Gospel of Service," ''Humanitas'' Volume: 14. Issue: 1. 2001. pp 4+; Cooper, ''Woodrow Wilson'' (2009) p 560.</ref>

Link finds that Wilson from his earliest days had imbibed the beliefs of his denomination - in the omnipotence of God, the morality of the Universe, a system of rewards and punishments and the notion that nations, as well as man, transgressed the laws of God at their peril.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "A Portrait of Wilson," ''Virginia Quarterly Review''1956 32(4): 524-541</ref> Blum (1956) argues that he learned from [[William Gladstone]] a mystic conviction in the superiority of Anglo-Saxons, in their righteous duty to make the world over in their image. Moral principle, constitutionalism, and faith in God were among the prerequisites for alleviating human strife. While he interpreted international law within such a brittle, moral cast, Wilson remained remarkably insensitive to new and changing social forces and conditions of the 20th century. He expected too much justice in a morally brutal world which disregarded the self-righteous resolutions of parliaments and statesmen like himself. Wilson's triumph was as a teacher of international morality to generations yet unborn.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956), p p10, 197-99</ref> [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] sees Wilson's vision of world order anticipated humanity prevailing through the "Holy Ghost of Reason," a vision which rested on religious faith.<ref> David Steigerwald, ''Wilsonian Idealism in America'' (1994) p. 230.</ref>

Wilson was a Presbyterian elder and the son of a leading theologian. He read the Bible daily; he felt 'sorry for the men who do not read the Bible every day.' The Bible, he argued, was 'the one supreme source of revelation of the meaning of life.' Wilson was prone to make explicitly Christian claims about his nation, even excluding the word ''Judeo'' from his characterization of the nation's religious heritage. 'America was born a Christian nation,' he explained in a speech on "The Bible and Progress" in 1911:
"America was born to exemplify that devotion to the elements of righteousness which derived from the revelations of Holy Scripture."<ref>Arthur S. Link, ed. ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' (1977) 23:20, speech on the Bible, in Denver May 7, 1911</ref>

He held that the Bible "is the one supreme source of revelation, the revelation of the meaning of life, of the nature of God and the spiritual nature and need of men. It is the only guide of life which really leads the spirit in the way of peace and salvation."<ref> Josephus Daniels, ''The Life of Woodrow Wilson 1856-1924'' (1924) p. 359</ref>

God was central in Wilson's life and thought. His profound Presbyterian style of thinking assured him that he was following God's guidance. Wilson personified American optimism and considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a postmillenarian, and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail. He saw himself as God's messenger and statesman in a divinely predestined nation; thus he saw himself as God's agent in promoting democracy and world peace. His Fourteen Points and his Covenant of the League of Nations, were, in his view, divinely inspired paths to achieving a new world order.<ref> Malcolm D. Magee, '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008) </ref>

===China policy===
Wilson’s discussions with Presbyterian missionaries visiting Princeton shaped his diplomacy toward [[History of China|China]]. Wilson viewed Christianity as a unifying force in the world and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 as the first step toward the spread of Christianity and democracy for China. Wilson gained the admiration of the missionaries and Chinese when he prohibited US participation in a European loan to China. He moved to recognize the government of Yuan Shih-k'ai, hoping that that regime could bring stability to China favorable to the introduction of Christianity. He sought to appoint an ambassador to China who could express Christian values. During World War I, missionaries successfully urged Wilson's opposition to Japanese demands on China. Although the war and its aftermath diverted Wilson from Chinese problems, his foreign policy continued to be influenced by missionaries, particularly Dr. Samuel I. Woodbridge and the Reverend Charles E. Scott. <ref> Eugene P. Trani, "Woodrow Wilson, China, and the Missionaries, 1913-1921," ''Journal of Presbyterian History'' 1971 49(4): 328-351, </ref>

==Democracy==
''Also see Woodrow Wilson's lasting impact on the [[U.S. Constitution]]: [[Seventeenth Amendment]]''

Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, democracy, unfettered international commerce, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. Wilson framed American participation in the war as the first step in ending all wars. Although 'Wilsonian nationalism' has been blamed for the nationalistic emphasis on race and territory in Europe during the 1920's and 1930's, Wilson's policies had actually used ethnic and territorial issues to encourage self-determination and the development of democracy in postwar nations.

Woodrow Wilson's most lasting political philosophy was his view that [[democracy]] should be installed around the world. As a major player in setting the terms to end World War I, he helped to break up the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Empire]] to advance his goal of installing democracy for each ethnic subpopulation. Similar independence was granted with the breakup of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Many of these new nations were receiving self determination for the first time in centuries. Wilson's view of installing democracy worldwide has since been copied by the [[neoconservatives]]. Wilson was awarded the 1919 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his efforts to start the [[League of Nations]].

==Historiography==
Historians have been fascinated by Wilson and have vigorously defended him (Link) or attacked him (New Left). Since the collapse of the Communism in Europe in 1989, the mood had shifted in Wilson's favor. Even [[George Kennan]], a harsh critic who favored "realism" against Wilson's idealism. has changed his tune. The New Left attacks represented by Lloyd Gardner's highly critical ''A Covenant with Power'' have given way to Thomas Knock's laudatory ''To End All Wars''. The leftist tendency to trace back to Wilson a tradition of economic self-seeking and arrogant interventionism has yielded to a new impulse to see Wilsonian diplomacy as having established "a new American agenda for world affairs," as Akira Iriye writes, built upon "the ideas of economic interdependence and of peaceful settlement of disputes."<ref> see Steigerwald,(1999)</ref>

==Bibliography==
===Biography===
* Brands, H. W. ''Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-H-W-Brands/dp/0805069550/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210644&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search] 169pp; good short summary by scholar [[File:Ww-stamp.jpg|thumb|180px|left]]
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp. major new biography by leading scholar
* Cooper, John Milton. ''The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt'' (1985), fascinating double biography by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Warrior-Priest-Woodrow-Theodore-Roosevelt/dp/0674947517/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210893&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hofstadter, Richard. "Woodrow Wilson: The Conservative as Liberal" in ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), ch. 10. influential essay; at [http://humanitiesebook.org/ ACLS E-books]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson" in Henry F. Graff ed., ''The Presidents: A Reference History '' (2002) pp 365-388
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Wilson: The Road to the White House'' (1947), first volume of standard biography (to 1917); ''Wilson: The New Freedom'' (1956); ''Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915'' (1960); ''Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915-1916'' (1964); ''Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916-1917'' (1965), the last volume of standard biography; [http://humanitiesebook.org/ online at ACLS E-Books]
* Maynard, W. Barksdale. ''Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-Prof-Barksdale-Maynard/dp/0300136048/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259267777&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Woodrow Wilson'' 2 Vol. (1958); Pulitzer prize winning biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24215014 vol 1 online]; well-written but old-fashioned (it was written in the 1950s), it has been replaced by Cooper (2009).

===Domestic affairs and ideas===
[[File:$100k.jpg|250px|thumb|Wilson's image appeared on the now-withdrawn $100,000 bill]]
* Abrams, Richard M. "Woodrow Wilson and the Southern Congressmen, 1913-1916," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 22, No. 4 (Nov., 1956), pp. 417-437 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2954640 in JSTOR]
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers domestic and foreign policies; liberal tone
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Cuff, Robert D. "Woodrow Wilson and Business-Government Relations during World War I," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1969), pp. 385-407 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406552 in JSTOR]
* Curti, Merle. "Woodrow Wilson's Concept of Human Nature," ''Midwest Journal of Political Science,'' Vol. 1, No. 1 (May, 1957), pp. 1-19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2109008 in JSTOR]
* Daniel, Marjorie L. "Woodrow Wilson--Historian," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 21, No. 3 (Dec., 1934), pp. 361-374 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1897380 in JSTOR]
* Dimock, Marshall E. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader," ''The Journal of Politics,'' Vol. 19, No. 1 (Feb., 1957), pp. 3-19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2127283 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1954), remains the standard history of his first term.
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson and the Democratic Party," ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 18, No. 2 (Apr., 1956), pp. 146-156 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1405064 in JSTOR] cover 1913-14
* Livermore, Seward W. ''Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916-1918'' (1966)
* Macmahon, Arthur W. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader and Administrator," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 50, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), pp. 641-675 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1951550 in JSTOR]
* Malin, James C. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5260560 ''The United States after the World War'' ] (1930)
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson and the roots of modern liberalism'' (2005) ISBN: 0742515176' argues Wilson subverted the ideas of the Founders by his progressivism
* Pietrusza, David ''1920: The Year of the Six President''s New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007.
* Saunders, Robert M. ''In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior'' (1998)
* Turner, Henry A. "Woodrow Wilson and Public Opinion," ''Public Opinion Quarterly,'' Vol. 21, No. 4 (Winter, 1957-1958), pp. 505-520 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2746762 in JSTOR]
* Wolgemuth, Kathleen L. "Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation," ''The Journal of Negro History,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Apr., 1959), pp. 158-173 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716036 in JSTOR]
* Weinstein, Edwin A., James William Anderson and Arthur S. Link. "Woodrow Wilson's Political Personality: A Reappraisal," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' Vol. 93, No. 4 (Winter, 1978-1979), pp. 585-598 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150104 at JSTOR]
* Wolfe, Christopher. "Woodrow Wilson: Interpreting the Constitution," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), pp. 121-142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406981 in JSTOR]
* Woodward, Carl R. "Woodrow Wilson's Agricultural Philosophy," ''Agricultural History,'' Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct., 1940), pp. 129-142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3739508 in JSTOR]

===Foreign policy===
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E., “Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies,” ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43.[[File:Ww-war-1917.jpg|thumb|350px]]
* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947)
* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman'' (1999)
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers foreign policy
* Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34:1 (2004). pp 62+.
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Davis, Donald E. and Eugene P. Trani; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109328821 ''The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S.-Soviet Relations''] (2002)
* Greene, Theodore P. ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957)
* Henderson, Peter V. N. "Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico," ''The Americas'', Vol. 41, No. 2 (Oct., 1984), pp. 151-176 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1007454 in JSTOR]
* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995)
* Kimitada, Miwa. "Japanese Opinions on Woodrow Wilson in War and Peace," ''Monumenta Nipponica,'' Vol. 22, No. 3/4 (1967), pp. 368-389 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2383073 in JSTOR]
* Levin, Jr., N. Gordon ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968)
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1972) sumarizes diplomatic history
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957)
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921'' (1982)
* Magee, Malcolm D. '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/What-World-Should-Be-Faith-based/dp/1602580707/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259268113&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959)
* Trani, Eugene P. “Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia: A Reconsideration.” ''Journal of Modern History'' (1976). 48:440—61. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1878747 in JSTOR]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 online edition]
===Historiography===
[[File:Ww-cooper.jpg|thumb|280px]]
* Clements, Kendrick A. "The Papers of Woodrow Wilson and the Interpretation of the Wilson Era", ''The History Teacher,'' Vol. 27, No. 4 (Aug., 1994), pp. 475-489 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/494510 in JSTOR]
* Seltzer, Alan L. "Woodrow Wilson as 'Corporate-Liberal': Toward a Reconsideration of Left Revisionist Historiography," ''Western Political Quarterly,'' Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jun., 1977), pp. 183-212 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/447405 in JSTOR]
* Steigerwald, David. The Reclamation of Woodrow Wilson? Diplomatic History; 1999 23(1): 79-99, on foreign policy in [[EBSCO]]; notes that New Left revisionism (by William Appleman Williams and N. Gordon Levin, Jr.) claiming that Wilson's Open Door was a facade for the imperialistic extension of American economic advantage, has faded away
* Watson, Jr., Richard L. "Woodrow Wilson and His Interpreters, 1947-1957," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Sep., 1957), pp. 207-236 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1887188 in JSTOR], summarizes different interpretations as of 1957
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/wilson Extensive essay on Woodrow Wilson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]

==Primary sources==
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson: The Essential Political Writings'' (2005)
* Link, Arthur S., ed. [http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/pw.html ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' complete in 69 vol, at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of WW's letters, speeches and writings plus many letters written to him]
* Tumulty, Joseph P. ''Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him '' (1921)] memoir by chief of staff [[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8wwik10.txt online edition]
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Freedom'' (1913) 1912 campaign speeches [http://books.google.com/books?id=MW8SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:woodrow+inauthor:wilson&lr=&as_brr=1 online edition]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/whwar10h.htm Wilson, Woodrow. ''Why We Are at War'' (1917)] six war messages to Congress, Jan- April 1917
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Selected Literary & Political Papers & Addresses of Woodrow Wilson'' (3 vol 1918 and later editions)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Messages & Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' 2 vol (ISBN 1-135-19812-8)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Democracy. Presidential Messages, Addresses, and Other Papers (1913-1917)'' 2 vol 1926 (ISBN 0-89875-775-4
* Wilson, Woodrow. [http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/fourteen-points.html ''President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)''].
* [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_brr=1&lr=&as_vt=&as_auth=woodrow+wilson&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= full text of Wilson books and messages online]
==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/wilson-bio.html Nobel Prize biography]

==References==
<references/>

{{USPresidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wilson, Woodrow}}

[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Children of Clergy]]
[[Category:Progressive Era]]
[[Category:Historians]]
[[Category:Political Scientists]]
[[category:diplomacy]][[category:United States History]]
[[Category:New Jersey Governors]]
[[Category:Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Religion and Politics]]

National debt of the United States

2010-12-12T02:52:56Z

DavidBG: When was the last time this page was updated?

[[File:Obama deficits 2009-2010.JPG|275px|right|thumb|Under President Obama, the National debt is approaching 100% of [[Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP). The Greek Debt Crisis of 2010 was preciptated when Greek debt reached 115% of GDP.<ref>http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/116xx/doc11659/07-27_Debt_FiscalCrisis_Brief.pdf</ref>]]
The '''National Debt''' is the amount of money the [[United States]] government owes various [[creditors]] due to [[deficit spending]]. The current national debt is approximately 13.7 trillion dollars. <ref>http://www.treasurydirect.gov/NP/BPDLogin?application=np</ref>

==Debt of the US==
In January 20, 2001; the same year of George W. Bush's inauguration into office, the national debt of the United States was 5.7 trillion dollars and by the end of his run in office (January 19, 2009) it was at 10.6 trillion dollars. <ref>http://www.treasurydirect.gov/NP/NPGateway</ref>

==Debt to GDP Ratio==
Instead of measuring an absolute number, the debt to GDP ratio is the measurement of the national debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product. It is a measure of the debt in relation to the economy and of our capacity to carry and repay debt.<ref>[http://www.optimist123.com/optimist/2005/01/national_debt_b.html National Debt burden: Full history] 29-Jan-05 </ref> The US Debt to GDP ''ratio'' is getting larger, as the US economy's debt is growing faster than the GDP.<ref>Steve McGourty [http://www.cedarcomm.com/~stevelm1/usdebt.htm United States National Debt (1938 to Present)]May 6, 2007 </ref> This has not always been the case.

==References==
<references/>

== Further reading ==
* [http://zfacts.com/p/318.html National Debt Graph (2007 Budget data)]
* [http://www.brillig.com/debt_clock/ National Debt Clock and links to current articles]
* [http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34712.pdf The Federal Debt: An Analysis of Movements from World War II to the Present,] Mindy R. Levit, Congressional Research Service, September 17, 2010.

[[Category: Economics]][[Category: Finance]]
[[Category: Obama Administration]][[Category: Reagan Era]]

Woodrow Wilson

2010-11-25T03:00:07Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

{{President
|image=Pppq.jpg
|seq=28
|term_start=March 4, 1913
|term_end=March 4, 1921<ref>http://home.comcast.net/~sharonday7/Presidents/AP060301.htm</ref>
|party=Democratic
|vp=Thomas R. Marshall
|previous=William Howard Taft
|next=Warren G. Harding
|birth_date=December 28, 1856
|birth_place=Staunton, Virginia
|death_date=February 3, 1924
|death_place=Washington, D.C.
|spouse=Ellen Axson Wilson
|spouse2=Edith Galt Wilson
|religion=[[Presbyterian]]
}}

'''Woodrow Wilson''' (born Thomas Woodrow Wilson, 1856 - 1924), a Democrat, was elected as the 28th [[President of the United States of America]], and reelected in 1916, serving from 1913 to 1921. A Princeton president who became an intellectual leader of the [[Progressive Movement]], Wilson demonstrated his mastery over Congress by creating the [[Federal Reserve System]], lowering the tariff, and revising the [[antitrust]] laws in a way that ended most of the "trustbusting" and drew clear lineson what was allowed. In general these policies would be in line with conservative recommendations in 2009. He supported liberal policies such as raising wages of railroad workers when they threatened a nationwide strike in 1916.
Trying repeatedly and failing to broker peace during [[World War I]], Wilson in 1917 led the United States into the war. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]].

Wilson played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the Versailles Conference that set the peace terms in 1919. He was the idealist who envisioned Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, unfettered international trade, the end of militarism, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. He failed to obtain Senate approval for the Versailles treaty because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]] and a possible loss of control over the war-making power. Wilson refused to involve the Republicans in the peace-making, even though they controlled Congress, and refused the GOP compromise that would have allowed American entry into the League without giving up sovereignty.

Wilson was a very complex man filled with paradox. He was a southern conservative--an elitist with a profound distrust of radical ideas and such left-wing populists as [[William Jennings Bryan]], but became the Democratic Party's most effective advocate of advanced progressivism. His progressivism in 2009 terms is a mix of liberal and conservative ideas, with a much deper religious underpining than is seen today. He ranks with Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson and Ronald Reagan as the nation's most active and dominant chief executives. He ranks with Abraham Lincoln and Reagan as the most articulate spokesman for national values. He was a war president who largely ignored military affairs and focused on very complex diplomatic issues. He won his war, reshaped the world at the peace conference, and saw his nation reject his idealist League of Nations because he refused to work with republicans on its mechanics.

A rigid, self-exacting personality, whose uncompromising adherence to principles barred agreement on some of his most important political goals, he was a brilliant opportunist who won stunning electoral victories and led controversial laws through Congress. He understood diplomacy and dometic affairs in depth, and was the first to recognize a solution that could satisfy most of the needs of the interested parties. He was willing to negotiate endlessly, usually getting his way in the end, esopecially when his powerful rhetoric energized his backers. A devout Presbyterian who studied the Bible every day, he elevated a religious style of idealism to the central place in American diplomacy. A lonely intellectual, he had few friends, and broke one-by-one with his closest advisors, until in his last two years in office he was an invalid controlled in large part by his wife.

Wilson's idealistic foreign policy, called "Wilsonianism" sought to end militarism as a force in world affairs, vigorously promote national self determination, create international bodies to head off serious disputes, and use American resources to promote democracy. Wilsonianism (and "idealism" generally) is opposed to "realism" in foreign policy, which stresses a concern for American self-interest, especially in economic and military terms. Wilsonianism reshaped the world in the aftermath of the Great War; its values lie at the core of the foreign policy of [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2009). [[File:Ww-sargent.jpg|thumb|350px|1917 portrait by [[John Singer Sargent]]]]
Wilson was the most profoundly Christian political leader in the world in the 20th century. He felt assured that he was following God's guidance. Wilson considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a postmillenarian, and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail.

==Family==
Wilson's father Joseph Ruggles Wilson (1822-1903), born in Ohio, was a Presbyterian minister of Scotch Irish descent. Woodrow's mother Jesse was born in Carlisle, England, to a Scottish-born Presbyterian minister; her family moved to Canada in 1835 and to Ohio in 1837. Woodrow's parents moved South in 1851, owned house slaves, and identified themselves with the culture and political values of the South. The father Joseph Wilson was a theologian, defended slavery and soon emerged as a leader of the Southern Presbyterian Church and an avid supporter of the Confederacy.<ref> In the 1880s Joseph Wilson argued at length that evolution was NOT in conflict with the Bible; he was thereupon forced out as head of the Presbyterian seminary in South Carolina. See Fred Kingsley Elder, ''Woodrow: Apostle of Freedom'' (1996) [http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(199711)63%3A4%3C898%3AWAOF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O&cookieSet=1 online review]</ref>

Wilson's grandfather (Joseph Wilson's father) was James Wilson, who immigrated to the United States from northern Ireland in 1807 and was first an editor of the [[Jeffersonian Republican]] newspaper the ''Aurora'' in Philadelphia, and later published Whig newspapers in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Since his father had been ostracized by the northern relatives, Woodrow had no contact with his grandfather or uncles, who were active in antislavery Republican politics in Ohio and Pennsylvania.<ref>Francis P. Weisenburger, "The Middle Western Antecedents of Woodrow Wilson," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 23, No. 3 (Dec., 1936), pp. 375-390 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1886371 in JSTOR]</ref>

Woodrow grew up in the South during the Civil War and Reconstruction his father was a chaplain for the Confederate army. Woodrow saw the humiliation, economic ruin and shame that the loser of a war experiences and the hatred that grows from this, as well as the rampant corruption during Reconstruction in Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. A victim of childhood dyslexia, he became an avid reader. His father imparted a love of literature and politics to his son; much family activity revolved around Bible readings, daily prayers, and worship services at the father's church.

In 1885 Wilson married Ellen Louise Axson (1860 – 1914), the daughter of a Presbyterian minister in Savannah, Georgia. She was an accomplished painter and a successful hostess; they had three daughters.<ref> See [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/ew28-1.html White House biography of Ellen Louise Axson Wilson]</ref>

==Education==
Woodrow studied at Davidson College in North Carolina in 1873-1874 and at Princeton University from 1875 to 1879. he proved a exceptional student, primarily interested in debate and politics. His father always wanted him to be a minister; Wilson greatly admired the British Priome Minister [[William E. Gladstone]], a Christian in politics, and decided to emulate him. Wilson saw politics as a divine vocation--to be a statesman was an expression of Christian service, he believed, a use of power for the sake of principles or moral goals. Wilson saw the "key to success in politics" as "the pursuit of Perfection through hard work and the fulfillment of ideals." Politics would allow him to spread spiritual enlightenment to the American people.

He was an editor of the ''Princetonian'' and wrote his senior thesis on "Cabinet Government in the United States;" it was later published. The essay stressed the superior qualities of the British cabinet system and said it ought to be tried in the United States.<ref>Edward S. Corwin, "Woodrow Wilson and the Presidency," ''Virginia Law Review,'' Vol. 42, No. 6 (Oct., 1956), pp. 761-783 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1070269 in JSTOR]. It was published in a journal edited by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], who became Wilson's bitter enemy in 1919.</ref> After graduation in 1879 he studied law at the University of Virginia; he was admitted to the bar and practiced in Atlanta, in 1882. It was too boring. Wilson's scholarship led him in 1883 to enter the new Johns Hopkins University graduate school where he studied government and history, taking a PhD in 1885. Wilson is the only president to have earned a PhD.
==Academic leader==
In 1885 Wilson was appointed instructor in in history at Bryn Mawr College, an elite Quaker school for women near Philadelphia, as a salary of $1500 a year (which was enough to hire a servant). In 1888 he moved to Wesleyan University, a Methodist college in Connecticut. His reputation as an outstanding leader in political science brought him a professorship of jurisprudence and political economy at [[Princeton University]] in 1890. For the next twelve years he taught at Princeton, popular alike with students and faculty; he became the president of the school in 1902.<ref>W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref>

Henry Wilkinson Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years'' (1967)</ref>

Wilson soon emerged as the nation's foremost academic, in heavy demand in elite circle for his brilliant speeches.

At Princeton he created academic departments but otherwise downplayed the Germanic model of the PhD-oriented research university in favor of the "Oxbridge" (Oxford and Cambridge) model of intense small group discussions and one-one-one tutorials. He hired 50 young professors, called preceptors, to meet with students in small conferences, grilling them about their reading. Complaining that Princeton was dominated by "eating clubs" in which students ate with each other and ignored the professors, he sought to build Oxford-style colleges where students and faculty would eat and talk together. He failed--the eating clubs are still there.<ref>Yale and Harvard later did adopt the college model for undergraduates, but not Princeton. W. Barksdale Maynard, Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency (2008)</ref>

Wilson promote the leadership model, whereby the college focused on training a small cadre of undergraduates for national leadership, "the minority who plan, who conceive, who superintend," as he called them in his inaugural address as the university's president. "The college is no less democratic because it is for those who play a special part." He confronted the dean of the graduate school, who had the German research model in mind and outmaneuvered Wilson by obtaining outside funding for a graduate complex for serious scholarlhip that was well separated from the fun-loving undergraduates.
===Political theory===
Wilson made significant contributions to political science.<ref> he also wrote popular history of high quality, including a five-volume history of the United States and a life of George Washington.</ref> In 1885 he published his influential treatise ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics'', based on his PhD dissertation. It set a new standard in analyzing the actual workings of the federal government with striking clarity and thoroughness. Although Wilson had never visited Congress, his emphasis on the centrality of committees in Congress was a major contribution to the study of political science. Noting how the Constitution's separation of powers had been eroded since the Civil War by the increasing power of Congress, he suggested a remedy for this in a cabinet-style government of the variety proposed by [[Walter Bagehot]] in Britain. By criticizing the Constitutionalist and Federalist traditions that had characterized American politics for a century, and showing their faults, Wilson sought to open a serious debate on the political changes in the United States in the intervening century and whether the Constitution remained an adequate regulator of these. By the time he wrote ''Constitutional Government in the United States'' (1908), Wilson was advocating the need for constitutional reform that would make Congress and president more representative and, above all, the need for a strong president who could influence Congress rather than submit to it.

Wilson originated the notion that political parties, besides running campaigns, need to be responsible for clearly designed public policies, which they present to the electorate for approval. The key to responsibility was the presidency. Hegelian conceptions of monarchy strongly influenced Wilson, and his view of public opinion contrasted sharply with the Madisonian view of factionalism. Consequently Wilson viewed parties as primarily the machinery through which strong leaders interpret and pursue the public will.<ref> Scot J. Zentner, "President and Party in the Thought of Woodrow Wilson," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly''; 1996 26(3): 666-677, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551624 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Public administration===
Wilson was a founder of the study of public administration by political scientists. Wilson believed in a strong, active role for the central government and as president succeeded in establishing legislation that significantly enlarged its regulatory powers. With the publication of ''Congressional Government'' in 1885, Wilson established himself as a leader of the political reform movement of the day. The book was the first of its kind to analyze policymaking by the central government and to provide recommendations for changing the process. Wilson was one of the three most prominent public administrationists of the 1880's and 1890's. As an academician, he promoted a separate department for the study of public administration and wrote 'The Study of Adminstration' (1887), the first published essay by a university scholar on the subject, established Wilson as the leading authority in the field. During the next year he inaugurated a course in public administration at Johns Hopkins University, providing three 6-week lecture series arranged in a 3-year cycle. In 1889, Wilson published a textbook, ''The State,'' and, in 1891, he began at Hopkins a new 3-year course which was a further significant step in the development of the study of administration. He was one of the first scholars to realize fully that all government was ultimately to be administration.<ref> Richard J. Stillman, II, "Woodrow Wilson and the Study of Administration: A New Look at an Old Essay," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 67, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 582-588 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1958787 in JSTOR]; Larry Walker, "Woodrow Wilson, Progressive Reform, and Public Administration," ''Political Science Quarterly'', Vol. 104, No. 3 (Autumn, 1989), pp. 509-525 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2151276 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Football===
Wilson as president of Princeton, and [[Theodore Roosevelt]] as president of the United States, took an intense interest in the controversy over the reform of college football. In the 1890s and early 1900s, college football faced sharp of criticism over injuries and the role of athletics in college life. Roosevelt and Wilson, loyal followers of Harvard and Princeton, had defended football in the 1890s. In the fall of 1905, however, President Roosevelt called a conference of football experts at the White House to discuss brutality and unsportsmanlike conduct. Thereafter, Roosevelt worked behind the scenes to bring about sufficient reform to preserve football and insure that it would continue to be played at Harvard. In the years 1909-10, when college football again faced an injury crisis, Wilson worked with the presidents at Harvard and Yale to make reasonable reforms. Both Roosevelt's and Wilson's approaches were consistent with their strategies for national political change. In the years that followed the reforms on the gridiron, football evolved rapidly into the 'attractive' game that Wilson had advocated and a far less brutal game than the unruly spectacle that Roosevelt had tried to control.<ref>John S. Watterson, III, "Political Football: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson and the Gridiron Reform Movement," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1995 25(3): 555-564 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/27551467 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Southerner===
Wilson was the first southerner elected president since [[Zachary Taylor]] in 1848, and much of his political base came from young progressives in that region, especially intellectuals, editors and lawyers.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR] Andrew Johnson was not elected; he moved from vice president to president after Lincoln's death in 1865.</ref>

Many Civil War veterans were still alive and Wilson used the memory of the War to build nationalism and to facilitate reunion between the North and the South. In his academic work and public comments, Wilson stressed the theoretical and constitutional causes of the war, devaluing the slavery issue and stressing the moral equality of North and South, all in the interest of lessening sectional animosity. During World War I and the struggle for the League of Nations, Wilson frequently drew comparisons between Lincoln and the Union's sacrifices to save the nation and American soldiers' sacrifices during World War I to save the world. He succeeded in overcoming Southern isolationism by convincing the middle class in the region that God had preserved the Union in the Civil War in order to spread democracy throughout the world. He appealed to Southerners to demonstrate the patriotism that many said they lacked. He was able to convince them that they could wage war for democracy abroad without endangering white supremacy at home.<ref> Anthony Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Legacy of the Civil War," ''Civil War History'' 1997 43(3): 225-242; online in [[Questia]]; Gaughan, "Woodrow Wilson and the Rise of Militant Interventionism in the South," ''Journal of Southern History'' 1999 65(4): 771-808, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2587587 in JSTOR]</ref>

Wilson drew on Southern conservatism in the development of his political philosophy and identity as a politician from the 1890s to 1921. While Wilson forged a Progressive reformist outlook that encompassed limited government intervention in social and economic matters, he embraced a conservative, organic conception of social change drawn partially from the thought of Edmund Burke and partially from a mythical vision of the Old South as a model of social stability and integration. Deeply alarmed by labor and agrarian radicalism in the 1890s, Wilson resolved to cleanse the Democratic Party of Populist influence. His political vision ultimately sought to adapt American society to the new economic conditions of the 20th century, chiefly defined by the magnification of corporate power, while retaining the race and class hierarchies of tradition. Wilson's vision of Southern conservatism as a regenerative force set the precedent for the conservative ideology that dominated American politics since the 1980s.<ref> Michael Dennis, "Woodrow Wilson and Southern Reform Conservatism," ''Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South'' 2006 13(3-4): 1-28. </ref>

==Reform governor==
As early as 1906 Wilson came under the influence of Colonel George Harvey (1864-1928), a conservative Democrat who owned a publishing empire that included the ''New York World'' and ''Harper's Weekly'' magazine, reaching the nation's intellectual elite. Harvey, with close ties to Wall Street and [[J. P. Morgan]], saw a future conservative president and promoted Wilson heavily. Wilson became the intellecual leader of the anti-Bryan, anti-Populist wing of the Democratic Party. Harvey helped convince the old-fashioned bosses in New Jersey's cities to make Wilson the Democratic nominee for gobvernor in 1910, explaining this would bring in the mioddle class vote. Wilson, frustrated at Princeton, made the move and was elected. Wilson then broke with the bosses, and Harvey, denounced Wall Street and the bosses, and electrified the nation with his Progressive reforms in the notoriously corrupt government of New Jersey. Wilson by 1912 had emerged as the cleanest, most religious, best known and most dynamic leader of the [[Progressive Movement]] in the Democratic Party.

==Election of 1912==
William Frank McCombs, a New York lawyer and a a friend from college days, instigated and managed Wilson's campaign for president in 1912. Much of Wilson's support came from the South, especially from young progressive professionals. Wilson managed to maneuver through the complexities of local politics. For example, in Tennessee the Democratic Party was divided on the issue of prohibition. Wilson was progressive and sober, but not a dry, and appealed to both sides. They united behind him to win the presidential election in the state, but divided over state politics and lost the gubernatorial election.<ref> Arthur S. S. Link, "Democratic Politics and the Presidential Campaign of 1912 in Tennessee," ''East Tennessee Historical Society's Publications'' 1979 51: 114-137</ref>

At the convention deadlock went on for over 40 ballots as a two-thirds vote was needed. A leading opponent was House Speaker [[Champ Clark]], a prominent progressive strongest in the border states. Other contenders were Judson Harmon of Ohio, and Oscar Underwood of Alabama. They lacked Wilson's charisma and dynamism. Clark was supported by publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]], a leader of the left-wing of the party. The critical role was played by [[William Jennings Bryan]], the nominee in 1896, 1900 and 1908, who blocked the nomination of any candidate who had the support of 'the financiers of Wall Street.' He finally announced for Wilson, who won on the 46th.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "The Baltimore Convention of 1912," ''American Historical Review'' 1945 50(4): 691-713 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1842698 in JSTOR]</ref>

Wilson enjoyed the support of many black leaders including [[W.E.B. DuBois]] (a liberal at the time). Wilson's speeches and letters expressed the sentiments of a defender of the underprivileged. However the rejoicing over Wilson's victory was short-lived among blacks as segregationist white Southerners took control of Congress and many executive departments.<ref> Nancy J. Weiss, "The Negro and the New Freedom: Fighting Wilsonian Segregation," ''Political Science Quarterly'' 1969 84(1): 61-79, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2147047 in JSTOR]</ref>

In the campaign Wilson promoted the "New Freedom," emphasizing limited federal government and opposition to monopoly powers--positions that he reversed on coming to office.

President [[William Howard Taft]] defeated ex-President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in a bitter contest for the Republican nomination, but Roosevelt walked out of the Republican convention and ran as a third party candidate. Wilson's success in the electoral college was assured, despite his 41.8% of the popular vote.<ref> Lewis L. Gould, ''Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics,'' (2008); Link (1947)</ref>.

==President: 1913-21==
===First term===
====Domestic policy====
[[File:Ww-prog.jpg|thumb|580px|left]]
=====Immigration=====
Wilson twice vetoed the Burnett Immigration Restriction Bill, which required a literacy test for immigrants and would have sharply reduced the number of poor immigrants from Poland, Italy and other parts of eastern and southern Europe . As a moderate progressive, Wilson believed southern and eastern European immigrants, though often poor and illiterate, to be capable of assimilation into a homogeneous middle class with other whites. He considered so-called hyphenated immigrants unacceptable because they acted as groups rather than blending into the common population. Indeed he denounced the hyphenates. Wilson sought to achieve American strength through unity, blending together the best characteristics of every nationality to create the ideal citizenry, opposing [[Henry Cabot Lodge]]'s nativist view that American civilization must be based on an Anglo-Saxon foundation. Immigration from Europe practically ended when the war began, so the issue was postponed ino the 1920s, when a quota system was set up to keep the country's ethnic balance unchanged.<ref> Hans Vought, . Division and Reunion: Woodrow Wilson, Immigration, and the Myth of American Unity. Journal of American Ethnic History; 1994 13(3): 24-50.</ref>

====Foreign Policy====
=====Mexico=====
The extremely violent civil war that broke out in Mexico in 1911 drove hundreds of thousands of refugees north across the border, and forced Wilson to intervene. [[Francisco Madero]], an idealistic reformer who came to power in 1911. Madero tried to violently upend the social order in Mexico by destroying the landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church. When Madero was overthrown and murdered by [[Victoriano Huerta]] in February 1913, days before Wilson took office, he refused to recognize the new Mexican government. Relations deteriorated between the two countries. After American sailors were arrested in Tampico in April 1914 by Huerta's soldiers, the armed conflict loomed. American soldiers occupied Vera Cruz. In July 1914 Huerta fled to Spain. In 1916 the civil war between warlords [[Venustiano Carranza]] and [[Pancho Villa]] continued, and in March Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 20 Americans.<ref>James A. Sandos, "Pancho Villa and American Security: Woodrow Wilson's Mexican Diplomacy Reconsidered," ''Journal of Latin American Studies,'' Vol. 13, No. 2 (Nov., 1981), pp. 293-311 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/156072 in JSTOR]</ref> Wilson sent Brigadier General [[John J. Pershing]] deep into Mexico to capture Villa. Villa escaped the Americans. Despite the demands of outraged senators, Wilson did not declare war on Mexico. He ran for reelection in 1916 on the slogan, "He kept us out of war," meaning out of a war with Mexico.

====Reelection====
[[File:WW-WIN16.jpg|thumb|400px]]
====Woman suffrage====
In the 1910s, suffragists campaigned for the passage of a federal constitutional amendment that would grant women the right to vote. They argued it would purify politics because the new voters would be far less liable to corruption and saloon influences. The movement was led by Protesntant northern women, many of whom were active in the prohibition movement at the same time. Wilson, originally opposed to the amendment, was converted through the efforts of women suffragists and became an advocate of critical importance. Both the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the National Women's Party (NWP) used symbolic representations of President Wilson, conferring on him real or symbolic images of presidential power. In practice Wilson hedged, realizing that male Democrats in the bg city machines in the North and in the rural South were hostile to woman suffrage. The meaning of democracy was at issue: the NWP portrayed Wilson as a tyrant, the NAWSA depicted him as a champion of freedom. Both organizations played essential roles in the passage of the 19th Amendment. After 1919, the absence of a common goal was a contributing factor to the subsequent divisions within the woman's rights movement, as was the loss of a unique adversary.<ref> Christine A. Lunardini, and Thomas J. Knock, Woodrow Wilson and Woman Suffrage: A New Look. Political Science Quarterly; 1980-1981 95(4): 655-671, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150609 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Second term===

===Entering the war===
====Domestic policy====
====Foreign Policy====
====Russia====
Wilson's commitment to the principle of self-determination affected his decision to intervene in Russia in 1918, as the Bolsheviks (Communists) took power. Unswayed by British, French, and Japanese pressure, Wilson insisted that, unless the Russians invited them, the Allies should not interfere with Russia's internal affairs. In the summer of 1918, the president sent American troops into Siberia with the sole purpose of protecting Czechoslovak soldiers who had broken oujt of POW camps and were an independent force. Later Wilson realized that the other Allied nations were using the rescue mission as an 'anti-Bolshevik' crusade and for imperialistic motives. As a result, the president ordered US forces to withdraw.<ref> </ref> Wilson and subsequent presidents until 1933 refused to recognize the new Communist government, and Russia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference.<ref> Betty Miller Unterberger, "Woodrow Wilson and the Bolsheviks: the 'Acid Test' of Soviet-American Relations," ''Diplomatic History'' 1987 11(2): 71-90,</ref>
====Mideast====
In November 1917, Wilson endorsed the [[Zionism|pro-Zionist]] [[Balfour Declaration]] issued by Britain. Wilson's aims in this endorsement were both practical and religious. His deep Christian sentiment led him to seek 'a direct governing role in the Near East in the name of peace, democracy and, especially, Christianity. By agreeing to the use of the mandate system by which the transition governments of the Middle East were partially controlled by Britain and France after the war, Wilson was both contradicting and reaffirming his own ideals by allowing only limited self-determination of Middle-Eastern peoples while assuring some respect for property and order.<ref> Frank W. Brecher, Woodrow Wilson and the Origins of the Arab-israeli Conflict. American Jewish Archives; 1987 39(1): 23-47,</ref>

====Paris Peace Conference, 1919====
=====Fight for the League=====

==Wilson and religion==
A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, he appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into Wilsonianism.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956); Richard M. Gamble, "Savior Nation: Woodrow Wilson and the Gospel of Service," ''Humanitas'' Volume: 14. Issue: 1. 2001. pp 4+; Cooper, ''Woodrow Wilson'' (2009) p 560.</ref>

Link finds that Wilson from his earliest days had imbibed the beliefs of his denomination - in the omnipotence of God, the morality of the Universe, a system of rewards and punishments and the notion that nations, as well as man, transgressed the laws of God at their peril.<ref> Arthur S. Link, "A Portrait of Wilson," ''Virginia Quarterly Review''1956 32(4): 524-541</ref> Blum (1956) argues that he learned from [[William Gladstone]] a mystic conviction in the superiority of Anglo-Saxons, in their righteous duty to make the world over in their image. Moral principle, constitutionalism, and faith in God were among the prerequisites for alleviating human strife. While he interpreted international law within such a brittle, moral cast, Wilson remained remarkably insensitive to new and changing social forces and conditions of the 20th century. He expected too much justice in a morally brutal world which disregarded the self-righteous resolutions of parliaments and statesmen like himself. Wilson's triumph was as a teacher of international morality to generations yet unborn.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956), p p10, 197-99</ref> [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] sees Wilson's vision of world order anticipated humanity prevailing through the "Holy Ghost of Reason," a vision which rested on religious faith.<ref> David Steigerwald, ''Wilsonian Idealism in America'' (1994) p. 230.</ref>

Wilson was a Presbyterian elder and the son of a leading theologian. He read the Bible daily; he felt 'sorry for the men who do not read the Bible every day.' The Bible, he argued, was 'the one supreme source of revelation of the meaning of life.' Wilson was prone to make explicitly Christian claims about his nation, even excluding the word ''Judeo'' from his characterization of the nation's religious heritage. 'America was born a Christian nation,' he explained in a speech on "The Bible and Progress" in 1911:
"America was born to exemplify that devotion to the elements of righteousness which derived from the revelations of Holy Scripture."<ref>Arthur S. Link, ed. ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' (1977) 23:20, speech on the Bible, in Denver May 7, 1911</ref>

He held that the Bible "is the one supreme source of revelation, the revelation of the meaning of life, of the nature of God and the spiritual nature and need of men. It is the only guide of life which really leads the spirit in the way of peace and salvation."<ref> Josephus Daniels, ''The Life of Woodrow Wilson 1856-1924'' (1924) p. 359</ref>

God was central in Wilson's life and thought. His profound Presbyterian style of thinking assured him that he was following God's guidance. Wilson personified American optimism and considered the United States a Christian nation destined to lead the world. He was a prophet and a postmillenarian, and if idealism clashed with reality, he was certain idealism would prevail. He saw himself as God's messenger and statesman in a divinely predestined nation; thus he saw himself as God's agent in promoting democracy and world peace. His Fourteen Points and his Covenant of the League of Nations, were, in his view, divinely inspired paths to achieving a new world order.<ref> Malcolm D. Magee, '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008) </ref>

===China policy===
Wilson’s discussions with Presbyterian missionaries visiting Princeton shaped his diplomacy toward [[History of China|China]]. Wilson viewed Christianity as a unifying force in the world and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 as the first step toward the spread of Christianity and democracy for China. Wilson gained the admiration of the missionaries and Chinese when he prohibited US participation in a European loan to China. He moved to recognize the government of Yuan Shih-k'ai, hoping that that regime could bring stability to China favorable to the introduction of Christianity. He sought to appoint an ambassador to China who could express Christian values. During World War I, missionaries successfully urged Wilson's opposition to Japanese demands on China. Although the war and its aftermath diverted Wilson from Chinese problems, his foreign policy continued to be influenced by missionaries, particularly Dr. Samuel I. Woodbridge and the Reverend Charles E. Scott. <ref> Eugene P. Trani, "Woodrow Wilson, China, and the Missionaries, 1913-1921," ''Journal of Presbyterian History'' 1971 49(4): 328-351, </ref>

==Democracy==
''Also see Woodrow Wilson's lasting impact on the [[U.S. Constitution]]: [[Seventeenth Amendment]]''

Wilson advocated a new international order founded on self-determination, democracy, unfettered international commerce, and a worldwide organization of states - the League of Nations. Wilson framed American participation in the war as the first step in ending all wars. Although 'Wilsonian nationalism' has been blamed for the nationalistic emphasis on race and territory in Europe during the 1920's and 1930's, Wilson's policies had actually used ethnic and territorial issues to encourage self-determination and the development of democracy in postwar nations.

Woodrow Wilson's most lasting political philosophy was his view that [[democracy]] should be installed around the world. As a major player in setting the terms to end World War I, he helped to break up the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Empire]] to advance his goal of installing democracy for each ethnic subpopulation. Similar independence was granted with the breakup of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Many of these new nations were receiving self determination for the first time in centuries. Wilson's view of installing democracy worldwide has since been copied by the [[neoconservatives]]. Wilson was awarded the 1919 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his efforts to start the [[League of Nations]].

==Historiography==
Historians have been fascinated by Wilson and have vigorously defended him (Link) or attacked him (New Left). Since the collapse of the Communism in Europe in 1989, the mood had shifted in Wilson's favor. Even [[George Kennan]], a harsh critic who favored "realism" against Wilson's idealism. has changed his tune. The New Left attacks represented by Lloyd Gardner's highly critical ''A Covenant with Power'' have given way to Thomas Knock's laudatory ''To End All Wars''. The leftist tendency to trace back to Wilson a tradition of economic self-seeking and arrogant interventionism has yielded to a new impulse to see Wilsonian diplomacy as having established "a new American agenda for world affairs," as Akira Iriye writes, built upon "the ideas of economic interdependence and of peaceful settlement of disputes."<ref> see Steigerwald,(1999)</ref>

==Bibliography==
===Biography===
* Brands, H. W. ''Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-H-W-Brands/dp/0805069550/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210644&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search] 169pp; good short summary by scholar [[File:Ww-stamp.jpg|thumb|180px|left]]
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp. major new biography by leading scholar
* Cooper, John Milton. ''The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt'' (1985), fascinating double biography by leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Warrior-Priest-Woodrow-Theodore-Roosevelt/dp/0674947517/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259210893&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Hofstadter, Richard. "Woodrow Wilson: The Conservative as Liberal" in ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), ch. 10. influential essay; at [http://humanitiesebook.org/ ACLS E-books]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson" in Henry F. Graff ed., ''The Presidents: A Reference History '' (2002) pp 365-388
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Wilson: The Road to the White House'' (1947), first volume of standard biography (to 1917); ''Wilson: The New Freedom'' (1956); ''Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915'' (1960); ''Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915-1916'' (1964); ''Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916-1917'' (1965), the last volume of standard biography; [http://humanitiesebook.org/ online at ACLS E-Books]
* Maynard, W. Barksdale. ''Woodrow Wilson: Princeton to the Presidency'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-Prof-Barksdale-Maynard/dp/0300136048/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259267777&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Woodrow Wilson'' 2 Vol. (1958); Pulitzer prize winning biography [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24215014 vol 1 online]; well-written but old-fashioned (it was written in the 1950s), it has been replaced by Cooper (2009).

===Domestic affairs and ideas===
[[File:$100k.jpg|250px|thumb|Wilson's image appeared on the now-withdrawn $100,000 bill]]
* Abrams, Richard M. "Woodrow Wilson and the Southern Congressmen, 1913-1916," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 22, No. 4 (Nov., 1956), pp. 417-437 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2954640 in JSTOR]
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers domestic and foreign policies; liberal tone
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Cuff, Robert D. "Woodrow Wilson and Business-Government Relations during World War I," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1969), pp. 385-407 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406552 in JSTOR]
* Curti, Merle. "Woodrow Wilson's Concept of Human Nature," ''Midwest Journal of Political Science,'' Vol. 1, No. 1 (May, 1957), pp. 1-19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2109008 in JSTOR]
* Daniel, Marjorie L. "Woodrow Wilson--Historian," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 21, No. 3 (Dec., 1934), pp. 361-374 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1897380 in JSTOR]
* Dimock, Marshall E. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader," ''The Journal of Politics,'' Vol. 19, No. 1 (Feb., 1957), pp. 3-19 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2127283 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1954), remains the standard history of his first term.
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR]
* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson and the Democratic Party," ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 18, No. 2 (Apr., 1956), pp. 146-156 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1405064 in JSTOR] cover 1913-14
* Livermore, Seward W. ''Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916-1918'' (1966)
* Macmahon, Arthur W. "Woodrow Wilson as Legislative Leader and Administrator," ''American Political Science Review,'' Vol. 50, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), pp. 641-675 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1951550 in JSTOR]
* Malin, James C. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5260560 ''The United States after the World War'' ] (1930)
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson and the roots of modern liberalism'' (2005) ISBN: 0742515176' argues Wilson subverted the ideas of the Founders by his progressivism
* Pietrusza, David ''1920: The Year of the Six President''s New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007.
* Saunders, Robert M. ''In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior'' (1998)
* Turner, Henry A. "Woodrow Wilson and Public Opinion," ''Public Opinion Quarterly,'' Vol. 21, No. 4 (Winter, 1957-1958), pp. 505-520 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2746762 in JSTOR]
* Wolgemuth, Kathleen L. "Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation," ''The Journal of Negro History,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Apr., 1959), pp. 158-173 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716036 in JSTOR]
* Weinstein, Edwin A., James William Anderson and Arthur S. Link. "Woodrow Wilson's Political Personality: A Reappraisal," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' Vol. 93, No. 4 (Winter, 1978-1979), pp. 585-598 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2150104 at JSTOR]
* Wolfe, Christopher. "Woodrow Wilson: Interpreting the Constitution," ''Review of Politics,'' Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 1979), pp. 121-142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1406981 in JSTOR]
* Woodward, Carl R. "Woodrow Wilson's Agricultural Philosophy," ''Agricultural History,'' Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct., 1940), pp. 129-142 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3739508 in JSTOR]

===Foreign policy===
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E., “Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies,” ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43.[[File:Ww-war-1917.jpg|thumb|350px]]
* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947)
* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman'' (1999)
* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992), covers foreign policy
* Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34:1 (2004). pp 62+.
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009), 720 pp.
* Davis, Donald E. and Eugene P. Trani; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109328821 ''The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S.-Soviet Relations''] (2002)
* Greene, Theodore P. ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957)
* Henderson, Peter V. N. "Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico," ''The Americas'', Vol. 41, No. 2 (Oct., 1984), pp. 151-176 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1007454 in JSTOR]
* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995)
* Kimitada, Miwa. "Japanese Opinions on Woodrow Wilson in War and Peace," ''Monumenta Nipponica,'' Vol. 22, No. 3/4 (1967), pp. 368-389 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2383073 in JSTOR]
* Levin, Jr., N. Gordon ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968)
* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917'' (1972) sumarizes diplomatic history
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957)
* Link, Arthur S.; ''Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921'' (1982)
* Magee, Malcolm D. '' What the World Should Be: Woodrow Wilson and the Crafting of a Faith-Based Foreign Policy'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/What-World-Should-Be-Faith-based/dp/1602580707/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259268113&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917'' (1959)
* Trani, Eugene P. “Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia: A Reconsideration.” ''Journal of Modern History'' (1976). 48:440—61. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1878747 in JSTOR]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 online edition]
===Historiography===
[[File:Ww-cooper.jpg|thumb|280px]]
* Clements, Kendrick A. "The Papers of Woodrow Wilson and the Interpretation of the Wilson Era", ''The History Teacher,'' Vol. 27, No. 4 (Aug., 1994), pp. 475-489 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/494510 in JSTOR]
* Seltzer, Alan L. "Woodrow Wilson as 'Corporate-Liberal': Toward a Reconsideration of Left Revisionist Historiography," ''Western Political Quarterly,'' Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jun., 1977), pp. 183-212 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/447405 in JSTOR]
* Steigerwald, David. The Reclamation of Woodrow Wilson? Diplomatic History; 1999 23(1): 79-99, on foreign policy in [[EBSCO]]; notes that New Left revisionism (by William Appleman Williams and N. Gordon Levin, Jr.) claiming that Wilson's Open Door was a facade for the imperialistic extension of American economic advantage, has faded away
* Watson, Jr., Richard L. "Woodrow Wilson and His Interpreters, 1947-1957," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 44, No. 2 (Sep., 1957), pp. 207-236 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1887188 in JSTOR], summarizes different interpretations as of 1957
* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/wilson Extensive essay on Woodrow Wilson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs]

==Primary sources==
* Pestritto, Ronald J. ed. ''Woodrow Wilson: The Essential Political Writings'' (2005)
* Link, Arthur S., ed. [http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/pw.html ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' complete in 69 vol, at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of WW's letters, speeches and writings plus many letters written to him]
* Tumulty, Joseph P. ''Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him '' (1921)] memoir by chief of staff [[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8wwik10.txt online edition]
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Freedom'' (1913) 1912 campaign speeches [http://books.google.com/books?id=MW8SAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:woodrow+inauthor:wilson&lr=&as_brr=1 online edition]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/whwar10h.htm Wilson, Woodrow. ''Why We Are at War'' (1917)] six war messages to Congress, Jan- April 1917
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Selected Literary & Political Papers & Addresses of Woodrow Wilson'' (3 vol 1918 and later editions)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Messages & Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' 2 vol (ISBN 1-135-19812-8)
* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Democracy. Presidential Messages, Addresses, and Other Papers (1913-1917)'' 2 vol 1926 (ISBN 0-89875-775-4
* Wilson, Woodrow. [http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/fourteen-points.html ''President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)''].
* [http://books.google.com/books?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_brr=1&lr=&as_vt=&as_auth=woodrow+wilson&as_pub=&as_sub=&as_drrb=c&as_miny=&as_maxy=&as_isbn= full text of Wilson books and messages online]
==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/wilson-bio.html Nobel Prize biography]

==References==
<references/>

{{USPresidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wilson, Woodrow}}

[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
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[[Category:Religion and Politics]]

United Nations

2010-11-24T18:33:05Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:UN1.jpg|right|200px]]
The '''United Nations''' is a [[globalism|globalist]] organization of countries all over the world, originally created to facilitate cooperation in [[international law]], international security, economic development, and [[human rights]]. It was founded in 1945 at the signing of the United Nations Charter by 51 countries, replacing the League of Nations, founded in 1919. The UN currently has 192 members, including almost all the countries in the world. Non-members include [[Taiwan]] and [[Vatican City]]. Switzerland finally joined in 2002.<ref> [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2002/GA10041.doc.htm]</ref> The United Nations typically supports [[liberal]], [[socialist]] ideas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kincaid|first=Cliff|url=http://www.aim.org/aim-report/the-plan-for-socialist-world-government|title=The Plan For Socialist World Government|accessdate=2010-02-06|publisher=Accuracy in Media}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations|title=United Nations|accessdate=2010-02-06|work=Wikipedia|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middletownca.com/LIBERAL-EQUALS-SOCIALIST.htm|title=Liberal equals socialist equals communitarian equals fabian society equals Agenda 21|accessdate=2010-02-06|publisher=middletownca.com}}</ref>

==History==
The term "United Nations" was widely used during [[World War II]] to denote the allied powers making war against Germany and Japan, but the actual UN was created in 1945. It was designed by the U.S. State Department. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] envisaged "four policemen", Britain, United States, Soviet Union, and [[Republic of China]] to be the major forces on what later became the UN Security Council to enforce the peace worldwide. This was deemed a modern approach to replace the old [[spheres of influence]] as they were called during the age of Imperialism.

US Secretary of State Cordell Hull said at the time while selling the idea to Congress, "there will no longer be need for spheres of influence, for alliances, for balance of power, or any other of the separate alliances through which in the unhappy past the nations strove to safeguard their security or promote their interest."

American enthusiasm for the UN soured after the [[Soviet Union]] vetoed most resolutions of the Security Council. However the Soviets boycotted the UN in 1950, allowing the UN to officially sponsor the [[Korean War]]. In practice, the U.S. made all the decisions for the UN regarding that war. When the Soviets returned in 1951, soo too did stalemate, and the UN played a minor role in the [[Cold War]].

The western military alliance of [[NATO]] began in 1949 and played a much greater role in US foreign policy commitments and decisions during the [[Cold War]] than the UN ever did. The one exception was the [[Korean War]], which was fought under UN auspisces since theSoviet Union was boycotting the UN in 1950.
===Third World issues===
In its earliest years, the United Nations was not dominated by the Asian and African "Third World" nations which ultimately poisoned the organization, but was of only limited use in controlling international conflict.

By the 1960s, the General Assembly, although powerless, became a shrill sounding board for anti-American sentiment.

===China===

==Organization==
[[Image:Int Atomic Ag.jpg|thumb|Flag of the International Atomic Energy Agency]]
The main deliberative organ is the '''General Assembly''' which usually meets annually in September with representation by all member states. The General Assembly votes on the annual budget of the United Nations, elects members to other UN organs and committees, and makes non-binding recommendations to member states through resolutions.

The '''[[Security Council]]''' handles matters relating to international peace and stability. It consists of five permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia and PR China), and ten temporary members, which are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. The Security Council decides by vote. On substantive issues, nine members must support the proposal, including all five permanent members, giving each permanent member an effective veto power. The chair of the Security Council rotates each month among its members, in alphabetic order.
===International Court of Justice===
The '''International Court of Justice''', based in [[The Hague]], was founded to settle conflicts and disputes over questions arising from the [[international law|interpretation of treaties]] among member states. It only may entertain <ref> International Court of Justice, [http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&p2=6 How the Court works], retrieved 26 April 2007.</ref> cases where all parties to the case in question have agreed to recognize the jurisdiction of the Court. The Court also advices other organs and agencies of the United Nations on questions of the interpretation of treaties.
===Other Sections===
The '''United Nations Economic and Social Council''' is a deliberative and advisory organ dedicated to promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. It cooperates with the [[International Monetary Fund]], the World Bank Group and similar international agencies.

The '''United Nations Secretariat''' is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the UN system. The head of the Secretariat is the [[Secretary-General]], who is nominated by the Security Council and appointed by the General Assembly for renewable five-year terms. The current Secretary-General is [[Ban Ki-moon]], the former Foreign Minister of the Republic of Korea. It is customary to let the position rotate among the different world regions.

==Criticism==
The U.N. has at various times in its history been accused of inefficiency and waste, which some critics have attributed to its cumbersome and excessive bureaucracy. Probably the most controversial issue with the United Nations is the Oil-for-Food scandal.

As a meeting place for many different nations, the UN can only act as a mechanism for international consensus. The UN has been unable to act in a clear and decisive way when confronted crises in which this consensus is not present. Recent examples include the [[Iran]]ian nuclear program and the genocides in Darfur, Sudan and Rwanda. Because each of the five permanent members of the Security Council have a veto, and because they often disagree, many times no action can be agreed upon. Typically but not always this division includes the [[United States]] on one side with either [[China]], [[Russia]] or both on the other. Other times the Security Council has been able to agree but lacks the will or means to enforce its resolutions. A recent example is the 2006 Israel-Lebanon Crisis, where no action has been taken to enforce the provisions of Resolution 1559 and Resolution 1701 to disarm terrorist organizations such as Hezbollah. There usually are no consequences for violating a Security Council resolution.

Inclusion on the old United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) of nations such as Sudan and Libya, whose leaderships have dubious records on human rights, and Libya's chairmanship of this Commission, has been a highly controversial issue.
[[Image:un_building.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The UN headquarters, on the east side of Manhattan, opened its doors on January 10th, 1951.]]

The U.N. has been accused of hypocritical conduct and double standards. The U.N. condemns Israel for its conduct toward the Palestinians, yet it refuses to condemn China for its conduct toward the Tibetans. <ref>[http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=C0058CAB-F932-4EB8-B2C1-2C8CABB01F53 The U.N.'s Hypocrisy in Tibet], [[Joseph Klein]], ''[[Front Page Magazine]]'', March 28, 2008</ref>

The United Nations has on many occasions ignored the plight of people across the world, especially in parts of Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Current examples include the UN's inaction toward the Sudanese government in Darfur, the Chinese government's ethnic cleansing in Tibet, and the Israel-Arab conflict. <ref> IBD Editorial, [http://www.ibdeditorials.com/IBDArticles.aspx?id=291423057524689 U.N. Fiddles As China Torches Tibet], retrieved 30 March 2008.</ref>

During the Rwandan genocide the UN did not authorize UNAMIR to intervene or use force to prevent or halt the killing.

===Promoting Abortion===
The Committee for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) pushes countries to promote [[abortion]].
<ref>[http://www.lifenews.com/int620.html United Nations Committee Pushes Countries to Promote Abortion in CEDAW Mtg], [[Samantha Singson]], ''[[Life News]]'', February 15, 2008</ref>

===Arab-Israel dispute===
[[File:Bnai-brith.jpg|thumb|300px|''B'nai B'rith'' magazine gives a Jewish view of the UN, [http://mydigimag.rrd.com/publication/?i=25994 winter 2009 online]]] A General Assembly resolution led to the partition of Palestine in 1947, but the UN was useless in preventing armed Arab aggression against the new State of Israel in 1948. Increasingly the General Assembly became a foum for Arab attacks on [[Israel]]

The UN has taken a one-sided approach to issues relating to the [[Israel]]-Arab conflict. Israel has consistently been singled out by the UN for uniquely critical treatment. In 1975 the General Assembly passed a resolution declaring that "Zionism is racism" <ref>[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/a06f2943c226015c85256c40005d359c/761c1063530766a7052566a2005b74d1!OpenDocument 16/12/1991, A/RES/46/86, Elimination of racism and racial discrimination/Zionism]</ref>, and UN-sponsored meetings supposedly opposing [[racism]] have criticized Israel (which grants equal political and religious rights to Arabs) while suppressing all criticism of those Arab countries (where non-Muslims are second-class citizens and [[anti-Semitism]] enjoys state support).

Unlike other refugee groups, the Palestinian Arabs have their own agency within the United Nations, and are beneficiaries of special events such as an "International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People."<ref>[http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/palestinian/ UN Web Site for International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, retried June 29, 2007]</ref> Israel was excluded from membership in any of the UN's regional groups until 2000. In effect, this meant Israel was forbidden from serving on UN bodies such as the Security Council. Israel's recent permission to participate more fully within the UN as a member of the Western European and Others regional group is temporary and subject to renewal. Israel is allowed to participate only in the New York operations of the UN and is excluded from the UN offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Rome and Vienna which handle such issues as human rights and arms control. Censure of Israel has apparently been instituted as a routine agenda item for various UN bodies such as the Human Rights Council. The 1975 Resolution 3379 qualified Zionism as a form of racism (later revoked with Resolution 4686).

===Defending Islam===
The United Nations Secretary General [[Ban Ki-moon]] condemned [[Geert Wilders]]'s controversial film "[[Fitna]]", while stating "freedom of expression is not at stake here." <ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN2844232220080328?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews&rpc=22&sp=true U.N.'s Ban condemns Dutch film as anti-Islamic], ''[[Reuters]]'', March 28, 2008.</ref>

The U.N.'s Human Rights Council passed a resolution that directs the body’s expert on free speech to report on “individuals and news media for negative comments on Islam.” <ref>[http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=F00A83C1-8D4A-4A7B-9545-9A63091D8294 The United Nations: Islam’s Gestapo], [[Stephen Brown]], ''[[Front Page Magazine]]'', April 11, 2008</ref> This suppression of free speech at an organization purporting to fairly represent the world's nations in a common forum is one of numerous actions in the past decade that has undermined U.N. credibility.

===Contemporary US Criticism===
Some American critics view the UN as an agent for eroding the [[Sovereignty]] of the [[United States]] and instead promoting forms of [[One-world government|world government]]. Some claim that President [[Bill Clinton]] rejected and ignored the position of the United Nations when he ordered U.S. military "police actions" in foreign countries. President [[George W. Bush]] also rejected the inaction of the UN when he authorized military action against the regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]] for ignoring various UN resolutions. Some commentators now feel that it has since devolved into a radical debating society which has ironically blocked most of the goals for which it has been formed. <ref>[http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030501faessay11217/michael-j-glennon/why-the-security-council-failed.html Why the Security Council Failed], Michael J. Glennon, ''Foreign Affairs'', May/June 2003.</ref>

==UN Peacekeepers Child Sexual Abuse==
The United Nations since its founding has been enmeshed in various scandals.

In July 1997 the UN announced an investigation into [[United Nations Peacekeeping Force]]s in [[Cote d'Ivoire]] on charges of widespread sexual abuse with a large number of underage girls. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/africa/07/21/un.ivory.coast.reut/ U.N. suspends peacekeepers amid sex abuse charges], CNN, July 21, 2007.</ref> More than 300 members of UN peacekeeping missions around the world have been investigated for sexual exploitation and abuse since 2004, including some stationed in [[Congo]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Haiti]]. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6909664.stm UN probes 'abuse' in Ivory Coast], BBC, July 23, 2007.</ref>

=== Incidents ===
*1998 - Bosnia <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml;jsessionid=YVWZRGS4V2AGJQFIQMGSFGGAVCBQWIV0?xml=/news/2002/04/25/wbos25.xml Teenagers 'used for sex by UN in Bosnia'], By Stewart Payne, London Telegraph, 25/04/2002.</ref>
*2003 - Nepalese troops accused of sexual abuse while serving in DR Congo. Six are later jailed
*2004 - Two UN peacekeepers repatriated after being accused of abuse in Burundi
*2005 - UN troops accused of rape and sexual abuse in Sudan <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/01/03/wsudan03.xml UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan], By Kate Holt in Juba and Sarah Hughes, London Telegraph, 04/01/2007.</ref>
*2006 - UN personnel accused of rape and exploitation on missions is Haiti and Liberia
*2007 - UN launches probe into sexual abuse claims in Ivory Coast

==Notable roles of U.S. Ambassadors to the U.N.==
* 1981-1985, Jeane Kirkpatrick - Denunciated the Soviet Union for the Sept. 1, 1983 shootdown of [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] in international airspace just west of [[Sakhalin]] Island.

==Further reading==
* Pubantz, Jerry, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the United Nations'' (2nd ed. 2008), useful basic guide to all activities
* Weiss, Thomas G., and Sam Daws, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations'' (2009), 848pp; articles by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-United-Nations-Handbooks/dp/0199560102/ref=pd_sim_b_1 excerpt and text search]
* Weiss, Thomas G. ''The United Nations and Changing World Politics'' (6th ed. 2009), 504pp; solid college textbook [http://www.amazon.com/United-Nations-Changing-World-Politics/dp/0813344352/ref=pd_sim_b_3cerpt and text search]
==External links==

*[http://www.nysun.com/article/56061 UNDP Officials Said To Hamper Probe Into Counterfeit Cash], By Benny Avni, ''The New York Sun'', June 7, 2007.
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HR00972:@@@D&summ2=m& H.R. 972 Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005] - Title I: Combatting International Trafficking in Persons - (Sec. 101); Directs the U.S. Secretary of State, prior to voting for a peacekeeping mission, to notify the appropriate Congressional committees respecting measures taken to prevent Peacekeeping personnel from involvement in human trafficking or sexual exploitation.

==See Also==
*[[Previous Breaking News/United Nations|Articles about the '''United Nations''' from previous "In the news" ]]

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/ United Nations] - Official site
*[http://www.unausa.org/site/pp.asp?c=fvKRI8MPJpF&b=1813833 All about the United Nations Budget] June 2006
*[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticleNew.asp?xfile=data/theuae/2007/May/theuae_May569.xml&section=theuae&col UN General Assembly President Shaikha Haya Rashed Al Khalifa calls for Islamic texts re-interpretation,]Khaleej Times Online, 19 May 2007.
*[http://www.rescue007.org/ International Committee for the Rescue of KAL 007 Survivors]

===Sites critical of the U.N.===
*[http://www.unwatch.org UN Watch]
*[http://www.unisevil.com/temp213.htm UN is Evil]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/united-nations/ What Liberals Say - Category: United Nations], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[category:United Nations]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[category:diplomacy]]
[[category:Cold War]]
[[category:Human Rights]]

==See Also==
*[[Jeane Kirkpatrick]]

==References==
<references/>

Examples of Bias in Wikipedia: Anti-Christianity

2010-11-15T02:50:52Z

DavidBG: Adding bias example

This article lists examples of [[Bias in Wikipedia]], related to Anti-[[Christianity]] and favoritism to other religions/atheism:
# Wikipedia has millions of obscure entries, but deletes or omits entries about [[conservatives]] and/or [[Christians]]. For example, conservative congressional candidate [[Ruth McClung]] has no entry at all on Wikipedia, despite being far more notable than many of its entries; likewise, broadcaster Al Gross's entry<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Gross_%28broadcaster%29</ref> has been tagged for deletion despite having a notable and continuing career in broadcasting.
# Wikipedia's article on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Theological_Seminary Westminster Theological Seminary] demonstrates its anti-Christian bias when it states "with the vision of continuing the theological tradition of Princeton Theological Seminary '''in a militant and explicitly polemical manner''', from which the Westminster founders felt Princeton was departing."
# It's apparently okay to cast doubt on well-known evangelical Christian's claims of being former atheists, as was recently done repeatedly to Kirk Cameron's Wikipedia article<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kirk_Cameron&diff=262633707&oldid=262591086</ref><ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kirk_Cameron&diff=263109644&oldid=263063442</ref><ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kirk_Cameron&diff=263670595&oldid=263666117</ref>, but similar edits regarding claims made by famous atheists of being former Christians would never be tolerated (e.g. PZ Myers' Wikipedia article<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pz_myers</ref>).
# Wikipedia's article on the [[French Revolution]] censors the central role [[atheism]] played in causing the mass murders of the [[Reign of Terror]].<ref>See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution</ref>
# Wikipedia omits an entry on [[Biblical scientific foreknowledge]], and instead ignores the foreknowledge with a pathetically abbreviated section entitled "History and advocacy" under "Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts."<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_foreknowledge_in_sacred_texts</ref>
# Wikipedia's article on [[Thanksgiving]] is a clearcut attempt to mitigate the meaning of Thanksgiving; from giving thanks to God as the holiday is meant to be, and instead changing history by claiming the day has become a politically correct "secular holiday." Wikipedia's [[political correctness]] is an attempt to change truth in order to appeal more closely with [[atheists]].
#[[Isaac Newton]] ''translated'' parts of the [[Bible]], and considered this effort to be the source of his scientific insights, yet Wikipedia's 10,000-word entry completely omits this.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton . Newton also felt that everyone else who translated the Bible were also able to have insights.</ref>
#Wikipedia uses anti-religious examples for its entry on "argumentum ad populum" (Latin for claiming that something is true if it is popular). Conspicuously absent from Wikipedia's examples are atheistic arguments based on popular opinion, such as misleading people into thinking the [[evolution|theory of evolution]] must be true if others accept it.
#Wikipedia's article about [[Bernhard Riemann]], perhaps the greatest modern mathematician, contains little discussion of Riemann's [[faith]] and tries to downplay his fundamentalism as though it were merely a passing interest as a teenager.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann</ref><ref>http://www.answers.com/topic/bernhard-riemann</ref>
#In its entry on the heavily Christian Gothic architecture,<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_architecture</ref> [[Wikipedia]] credits [[Islam]] before [[Christianity]], does not even mention Christianity until after more than 1500 words, and then does not mention Christianity again.
# Wikipedia's article on [[atheism]] fails to mention that [[United States|American]] [[atheist]]s [[Atheism and Uncharitableness|give significantly less to charity than American theists on a per capita basis even when church giving is not counted for theists]].<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism</ref> In addition, Wikipedia's article on atheism fails to mention [[Atheism and deception|how key proponents of atheism have been deceptive]]. Wikipedia's article on [[atheism]] also fails to mention that [[Christianity and Science|Christianity and not atheism was foundational in regards to the development of modern science]]. Wikipedia's article attempts to associate atheism with scientific progress.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism</ref> In addition, Wikipedia's article on atheism fails to mention that [[Atheism and suicide|atheism is a causal factor for suicide]].
#Wikipedia's entry about the [[Christian]] martyr at [[Columbine]] refuses to admit that she was murdered by an [[atheist]] as she was expressing her [[faith]] in [[God]], as confirmed by multiple witnesses.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassie_Bernall</ref><ref>http://www.truthorfiction.com/rumors/c/cassie.htm</ref> Wikipedia is dominated by atheistic [[public school]] students who would be particularly biased against this truth.
#*Version of May 12, 2009:
#*:Initial reports suggested that one of the assailants, either Eric Harris or Dylan Klebold, asked Bernall if she believed in God moments before fatally shooting her. She was reported to have answered "yes". [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cassie_Bernall&oldid=289313205]
#Despite extensive evidence for the existence of God, Wikipedia lists theism as an example of the so-called [[Tinkerbell effect]]. <ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tinkerbell_effect&oldid=390319255</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Bias in wikipedia}}
[[category:wikipedia]]

Elaine Chao

2010-11-15T00:56:59Z

DavidBG: Adding marriage status

[[Image:480px-Elaine Chao.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Elaine Chao''' was the [[Secretary of Labor]] in the cabinet of the [[Bush]] administration. She is the first Asian-American woman to be appointed to a U.S. Cabinet position. From 1996 to her appointment in 2001, she was a Distinguished Fellow at the [[Heritage Foundation]], and from 1992 to 1996, she was president of the United Way of America. She is currently married to [[Mitch McConnell]].

==External links==
*[http://www.dol.gov/_sec/aboutosec/chao.htm Biography] at the U.S. Dept. of Labor
*[http://unionreports.gov Union Reports, Other Reports, and Collective Bargaining Agreements]

[[Category:Conservatives|Chao, Elaine]]
[[Category:Heritage Foundation|Chao, Elaine]]
[[Category:Political Figures|Chao, Elaine]]
[[Category:Republican Party|Chao, Elaine]]
[[Category:United States Appointed Officials|Chao, Elaine]]

Mitch McConnell

2010-11-15T00:55:03Z

DavidBG: Capitalizing

{{Officeholder
|name=Mitch McConnell
|image=McConnell.jpg
|party=[[Republican]]
|spouse=[[Elaine Chao]]
|religion=Baptist
|offices=
{{Officeholder/senator
|state=Kentucky
|terms=January 3, 1985 - Present
|preceded=[[Walter Huddleston]]
|former=n
|succeeded=
}}
}}

'''Addison Mitchell "Mitch" McConnell, Jr.''', born February 20, 1942 (age {{age|1942|2|20}}), is the senior [[Republican]] United States Senator from [[Kentucky]] and the Senate [[Minority Leader]] in the 111th [[Congress]].

==Early Life==

McConnell was born in [[Tuscumbia]], [[Alabama]] to Julia Shockley and Addison Mitchell McConnell and raised in south [[Louisville]], Kentucky, he attended duPont Manual High School and graduated from the [[University of Louisville]] College of Arts and Sciences with honors in 1964, where he was student body president and member of Phi Kappa Tau. He graduated in 1967 from the [[University of Kentucky]] College of Law, where he was elected president of the Student Bar Association. McConnell gained experience on Capitol Hill as an intern under Senator [[John Sherman Cooper]], later as an assistant to Senator [[Marlow Cook]], and was a Deputy Assistant Attorney General under President [[Gerald R. Ford]].

==U.S. Senate==

McConnell was elected to the Senate in 1984 when he defeated two-term [[Democratic]] Senator Dee Huddleston. Since then he has been reelected four times. After the 2006 elections, he was unanimously elected Senate Minority Leader, previously serving as Majority Whip. He is married to former Secretary of Labor [[Elaine Chao]]. McConnell has been very involved in Republican party politics. He was chairman of the [[National Republican Senatorial Committee]] during the 1998 and 2000 election cycles. In both, Republicans maintained control of the [[Senate]]. McConnell is viewed as a [[conservative]] on nearly all issues, receiving an 89% lifetime rating from the [[American Conservative Union]]. <ref>http://www.acuratings.org/2008all.htm#KY</ref> However, he was one of just three Senate Republicans who voted against a Constitutional ban on [[Flag Desecration Amendment|flag desecration]]. <ref>http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=109&session=2&vote=00189</ref>

McConnell offered offshore [[oil]] drilling resolutions on the Senate floor in July 2008. He was intent on setting a trigger to initiate drilling if the price exceeds a certain mark. First he offered to drill if gas prices hit $4.50 a gallon. This was rejected by Democrats. Then he offered a trigger at $5.50 a gallon. Rejected by [[Democrats]]. Next he offered a trigger if gas prices hit $7.50 a gallon. Rejected by Democrats. Lastly, if the price of gas hits $10 per gallon, this would trigger offshore drilling to commence. Again, Democrats rejected the motion. At $10 per gallon, Democrats are still not interested in in expanding oil drilling. <ref>[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27826 Breaking: Dems like $10 per Gallon Gasoline] Human Events, July 31, 2008</ref>

Mitch McConnell managed to hold onto his senate seat in the 2008 elections, which saw a Democratic surge, just short of a supermajority. Mitch McConnell is widely regarded within the Republican Party as an adept Minority Leader. The filibuster strategy used by the Democrats was first pushed by McConnell.

==External Links==

[http://mcconnell.senate.gov Sen. McConnell's Official Web Site]

==References==
<references/>
{{DEFAULTSORT:McConnell, Mitch}}
[[Category:United States Senators]]
[[Category:Republican Party]]
[[Category: 110th United States Congress]]
[[Category:111th United States Congress]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]
[[Category:The 100 Americans The Left Hates Most]]

Bart Stupak

2010-11-10T21:00:59Z

DavidBG: Removing extra "]" thingy

{{Officeholder
|name=Bart Stupak
|image=Bartstupak.jpg‎
|party=[[Democrat]]
|spouse=Laurie Ann Stupak
|religion=Roman Catholic
|offices=
{{Officeholder/representative
|state=Michigan
|district=1st
|terms=January 3, 1993 – Present
|preceded=[[John Conyers]]
|former=
|succeeded=
}}
}}

'''Bartholomew Thomas "Bart" Stupak''' (born February 29, 1952) has served as a [[Democrat]]ic U.S. Representative from [[Michigan]]'s 1st congressional district since 1993. He is a member of the Committee on Energy and Commerce and chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigation. His high-profile [[Abortion betrayal|betrayal]] of the [[pro-lifer]]s resulted in the creation of a new word: "Stupaked".

He is a graduate from Northwestern Michigan College, Saginaw Valley State University, and earned a [[Juris Doctor]] from Thomas Cooley Law School. Stupak served as a Michigan State Trooper from 1973 to 1984. After being injured in the line of duty he retired, and was elected to the Michigan House in 1988. In 1990 he lost a race for the State Senate. He was elected to the [[House of Representatives]] in 1992 and has been easily reelected ever since.

Stupak claimed to be [[pro-life]] regarding [[abortion]], but then caved in to [[liberal pressure]] by the [[pro-aborts]] and agreed to vote yes on the health care bill. In 2006, he received a 100% rating from the [[National Right to Life Committee]], but another time voted against defunding [[Planned Parenthood]]. <ref>http://www.ontheissues.org/MI/Bart_Stupak.htm</ref> He voted for banning [[partial-birth abortion]]s and supported [[President George W. Bush]]'s veto of embryonic-stem-cell-research.

Stupak endorsed [[John Edwards]] in the 2008 Democratic primaries. <ref>http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Bart_Stupak</ref>

==ObamaCare==
In 2009, Stupak co-wrote the Stupak–Pitts Amendment, which prohibits funds from being "used to pay for any abortion or to cover any part of the costs of any health plan that includes coverage of abortion, except in the case where a woman suffers from a physical disorder, physical injury,
or physical illness." <ref>http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getpage.cgi?dbname=2009_record&page=H12921&position=all</ref> He led a small group of twelve prolife representatives in the House to thwart legislation unless abortion was removed. It was removed, the group voted for reform and the bill was sent to the Senate.

The Senate would strip the bill of abortion limitations while claiming abortion funding was not included. The bill must again be approved by the House for the changes made by the Senate. Stupak is sticking to his original request for no abortion funding. Obama and the [[Senate]] want Stupak to sign off on the bill through [[reconciliation]] whereby they vote for the legislation and then go back and make changes, such as abortion terms. Since the administration will stop at nothing to pass their bill, it is expected that Stupak will be the deal-clincher or deal-breaker yet again. He stated, "I'm more optimistic than I was a week ago" that abortion will be removed form healthcare reform legislation. Stupak would reiterate, "Everyone’s going around saying there’s a compromise—there’s no such thing." He will not agree to a promise to fix the bill in the future. Stupak emphasized, "My numbers remain firm at 12. These are 12 who voted for it [in November] who will not vote for it unless we resolve this issue." <ref>[http://www.weeklystandard.com/blogs/stupak Stupak: There's No Deal, And I Won't Agree to a Promise to Fix the Bill in the Future, Weekly Standard, March 9, 2010]</ref>

Bart caves in to Obama and [[Pelosi]], strikes a deal with an after the vote executive order. Stupak is mistaken that an executive order will suffice, it does not have the force of law that legislation would provide. "One man can sign an executive order and one man can repeal that again, the president of the United States," said Rep. [[Paul Ryan]], R-Wis. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/03/21/stupak-says-health-care-deal-looming-abortion-funding/ Stupak Announces Deal With White House on Abortion Funding Ban, FOX News, March 21, 2010]</ref>

An arrogant Stupak holds a press conference after the successful vote for universal healthcare in which he shames [[Republican]]s and touts pro-life Democrats. "Republicans don't want to cover 32 million uninsured," “The Executive Order will have the full force of law.” Which is in fact a bold face lie. It was such a bad deal that the Susan B. Anthony List rescinded its' “Defender of Life” award to Stupak. <ref>[http://liveshots.blogs.foxnews.com/2010/03/22/stupaks-deal-enforceable-or-empty/ Stupak’s Deal: Enforceable or Empty?, Fox news, March 22, 2010]</ref>

==See Also==

*[[Stupak Amendment]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.house.gov/stupak/ Official Website]
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=s001045 Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress]

== References ==
<references/>
{{DEFAULTSORT:Stupak, Bart}}
[[Category: 111th United States Congress]]
[[Category: United States Representatives]]
[[Category: Democratic Party]]

Gin

2010-11-10T01:50:33Z

DavidBG: Adding links

:''The word "gin" can also mean a machine, particularly a snare or trap. It is closely related to the word "engine." Whitney's [[Cotton gin]] is one example of this use. The lines "Oh, thou who didst with pitfall and with gin/Beset the road I was to wander in," from the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, are another.''
'''Gin''' is an [[alcoholic beverage]] made by distilling the mash of fermented [[grain]]. The resulting spirit is then [[flavor]]ed by the addition of herbal extracts, primarily [[juniper]] berries. The main producers of gin are [[England]], [[Ireland]] and the [[Netherlands]].

==History==

Gin was invented in the Netherlands during the 17th century, and became very popular in [[England]] during the late 17th and early 18th century. This was the first time that an alcoholic [[spirit]] had been made available cheaply in England, and gin became very popular with the poor in London, leading to widespread drunkenness, and concerns about [[morality]] and [[addiction]]. This subject was highlighted in [[William Hogarth]]'s famous satirical engraving, "Gin Lane".

==England and Ireland==
In England there are two distinct types, [[London]] dry gin and [[Plymouth]] gin. Ireland produces [[Cork]] gin (named after the city not the bark of the cork oak tree). Gin used be to a popular intoxicant of the working classes and the [[artist]] [[Hogarth]] produced a series of prints on the theme of gin. A popular euphemism for gin in England is ''Mother's Ruin''. Although gin may be consumed neat, it is mainly consumed in mixed drinks, such as the '''gin and tonic''' and the '''martini'''.

===Gin & Tonic===
It is alleged that the origin of gin and tonic is from the [[British Army]] in colonial [[India]]. It had been discovered that [[quinine]] had anti-malarial properties and it was prescribed to the soldiers. However, the taste was very bitter and the British [[soldier]]s found that it was much more palatable when mixed with gin. Having built up a popular following for the [[cocktail]], quinine water was later commercialised as effervescent Indian [[Tonic Water]]. It should be noted that the present levels of quinine in tonic water are low and it requires the consumption of copious amounts to have any [[prophylactic]] effect.

==Netherlands==
In the Netherlands gin is known as jenever with two distinct varieters, jonge and oude (young and old). The flavor of [[Dutch]] jenever is much more pungent than the English and Irish varieties. Dutch gin is normally drunk neat and chilled.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Alcoholic Beverages]]

Talk:Euthyphro

2010-11-02T21:59:00Z

DavidBG: Oops, forgot to sign...

In Plato's early dialogues, Socrates typically argues by cross-examining someone's claims in order to draw out a contradiction among them. For example, in the Euthyphro, Socrates asks Euthyphro to provide a definition of piety. Euthyphro replies that the pious is that which is loved by the gods. But, Socrates also has Euthyphro agreeing that the gods are quarrelsome and their quarrels, like human quarrels, concern objects of love or hatred. Therefore, Socrates reasons, at least one thing exists that certain gods love but other gods hate. Again, Euthyphro agrees. Socrates concludes that if Euthyphro's definition of piety is acceptable, then there must exist at least one thing that is both pious and impious (as it is both loved and hated by the gods)—which, Euthyphro admits, is absurd. Thus, Euthyphro is brought to a realization by this dialectical method that his definition of piety cannot be correct. This particular example has become known as the Euthyphro dilemma: is something good because it is willed by God (or the gods), or is it willed by God because it is good? It shows that, underneath what appears as a simple contradiction due to prejudice and ignorance, issues much deeper and more difficult to resolve involving the nature of ultimate reality remain.

:I think I've got a solution. The Bible says, ''"In the beginning, the Word was with God and the Word '''was''' God."'' In other words, moral law doesn't control God, and God doesn't control moral law, God is moral law, and therefore defines it. Does this seem like a viable solution? [[User:DavidBG|David]] [[User talk:DavidBG|Talk]] 16:20, 2 November 2010 (EDT)

::Good question, but I think it's a false dilemma. [[Unificationism]] defines good and evil in terms of benifits (or harm) to other people. It's good to benefit another person, and especially noble to do so self-sacrificially: "Greater love hath no man than to lay down his life for ..." While evil would be to exploit another person for one's own benefit.

::Moreover, God has willed us (human beings) to lead a good life, as conceived by Him for our benefit and his delight (see Gen. 1:28). --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 17:16, 2 November 2010 (EDT)

:::So should this be put on the page? [[User:DavidBG|David]] [[User talk:DavidBG|Talk]] 17:59, 2 November 2010 (EDT)

Talk:Euthyphro

2010-11-02T21:58:41Z

DavidBG: Replying

Talk:Euthyphro

2010-11-02T20:20:12Z

DavidBG: Possible solution?

St. Joseph

2010-11-02T20:10:42Z

DavidBG: Making this a bit easier to understand

[[Image:St. Joseph..jpg|left]]

''[[God]] in His Wisdom chose '''St. Joseph''' a descendant of the house of [[David]] to be the most chaste spouse of the Blessed [[Virgin Mary]] and the foster father of Our Lord [[Jesus Christ]]. Joseph was a just man, who worked as a carpenter to look after Mary and the holy infant Jesus.'' <ref>[http://www.theworkofgod.org/saints/Lives/Joseph.htm Saint Joseph] The Work of God Apostolate </ref> ([[The Holy Family]])

'''Joseph of Nazareth''', often known as "St. Joseph," was the spouse of the [[Virgin Mary]] and the foster-father of [[Jesus Christ]]. His life is known primarily through the early chapters of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]], and a rich oral tradition. He was of the house and lineage of [[King David]], with his family home in [[Bethlehem]]. After his betrothal to Mary, he learned that she was pregnant. He was going to put her away quietly but was visited by an angel in a vision that told him to continue with the marriage and that the child conceived in her was from the [[Holy Spirit]]. Joseph brought his family down for the census ordered by [[Augustus Caesar]] and fled into [[Egypt]] with his family when Jesus' life was in danger due to an edict by King Herod to kill all the newborn children in Bethlehem. Only returning to Bethlehem after Herod had passed away.

According to Matthew 13:55 and [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 6:3, Joseph was a tekton, which means a mechanic in general and a carpenter in particular. The oral tradition, accepted since the earliest times, was that Joseph was indeed a carpenter by trade, and it is likely that [[Jesus]] initially followed in his footsteps.

It is assumed that Joseph was deceased by the time of [[Jesus]]'s preaching and [[Passion]], as there is no mention of him after Jesus' childhood. It was common for a husband to be substantially older than a wife and for women to live longer than men. [[Catholics]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] believe that Mary remained a virgin.

==Roman Catholicism==
Feast:''' 19th of March

In the Roman [[Catholic]] Church, he is the patron saint of workers and of several places.

 
==Prayer to St. Joseph==
[[Image:St. Joseph...jpg|200px|right]]
''Guardian of virgins and Father, Holy Joseph, to whose faithful care Christ Jesus, innocence itself, and Mary, Virgin of Virgins, were committed: I pray and beseech Thee, by these dear pledges, Jesus and Mary, that free from all uncleanness, and with spotless mind, pure heart and chaste body, you make me ever more chastely familiar with Jesus and Mary, all the days of life. [[Amen]].''

''Remember us, O Blessed Joseph, and aid us by your powerful intercession with Him who allowed himself to be called your son; make also gracious to us your most Blessed Virgin Spouse, the Mother of Him, who with the Father and the Holy Ghost, lives and reigns for ever and ever. Amen.''
== External links ==
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/654/000101351/ St. Joseph] NNDB.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08504a.htm St. Joseph] Catholic Encyclopedia.

== References ==

<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Joseph, Father of Jesus}}

[[Category:Biblical Persons]]
[[Category:Early Christians]]
[[Category:Saints]]

False messiah

2010-11-02T20:08:53Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:Obama messiah.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Cover of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' Magazine, one of many published "halo-effect" photos of Barack Obama during 2008 emphasizing the claims of "messiahship" held by many.]]
'''False messiah''' is a term from the [[Bible]] describing a person who either unintededly or willfully pretends to be the real Messiah, or behaves in a manner which would suggest to many that he is the Messiah, often ending in disaster. Although the title is religious in origin, it has been given to many secular leaders past and present, among them [[Benito Mussolini]], [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Kim Jong Il]], and most recently, [[Barack Obama]].

==Biblical origins==
In Matthew 24, Jesus is describing to his disciples the conditions of the last days of earth prior to his return, and a notable feature of this time is the appearence of many false messiahs who lead many astray:

:''"Then if any man shall say unto you, Lo, here is Christ, or there; believe it not."''
:''"For there shall arise false Christs, and false prophets, and shall shew great signs and wonders; insomuch that, if it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect."''
:''"Behold, I have told you before."''
:''"Wherefore if they shall say unto you, Behold, he is in the desert; go not forth: behold, he is in the secret chambers; believe it not." (Matthew 24:23-26, King James Version)''

[[Category:Eschatology]]

Pope

2010-05-18T19:34:28Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''The Pope''' (from Greek papas, father) is the head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. His Catholic titles include being the Bishop of Rome, where he is the successor of [[Saint Peter|St. Peter]]. The Pope is the chief pastor of the whole Church, the Vicar of Christ upon earth.<ref> Until 1870 he also was the secular ruler of an independent country in central Italy, the Papal States. Since 1929 the Pope rules Vatican City, an independent country inside the city of Rome.</ref> ''Pontifex summus'' is a title of dignity. He appoints all the cardinals and bishops, but otherwise has limited control over them. Catholics consider him infallible in certain proclamations, and cite the Bible:
:''Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona: because flesh and blood hath not revealed it to thee, but my Father who is in heaven. And I say to thee: That thou art Peter; and upon this rock (Cepha) I will build my Church.'' Matthew 16:17-19. ''Be the shepherd of my sheep.'' John 21:16.

The Pope ecclesiastical jury is called the [[Holy See]]. Since 1059 The Pope has always been chosen by the Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church meeting in secret. When they have not reached a decision they burn the ballots and black smoke emerges; when a pope is chosen the smoke is white.

[[Image:XVI.jpg|right|His Holiness Benedict XVI|thumb]]

== Insignia ==
* '''Tiara'''
The pope is distinguished by the use of the tiara or triple crown. At what date the custom of crowning the pope was introduced is unknown. It was certainly previous to the forged donation of Constantine, which dates from the commencement of the ninth century, for mention is there made of the pope's coronation. The triple crown is of much later origin. (it remains only a symbol)

No pope has worn an actual triple tiara since [[Pope Paul VI]] at the end of the [[Second Vatican Council]] in 1965.

*'''Cross'''
The pope moreover does not, like ordinary bishops, use the bent pastoral staff, but only the erect cross. This custom was introduced before the reign of [[Pope Innocent III]] (1198-1216) (cap. un. X de sacra unctione, I, 15).

* '''Pallium'''

He further uses the [[pallium]] at all ecclesiastical functions, and not under the same restrictions as do the [[archbishop]]s on whom he has conferred it.
<ref> [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm The Pope] Catholic Encyclopedia </ref>

* '''Fisherman's Ring'''
It is a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net.

== Benedict XVI ==
[[Image:BENEDETTO XVI.jpg|right]]
Today the Pope is [[Pope Benedict XVI]]. On May 11, 2007 he [[canonized]] [[Brazil]]'s first native-born [[saint]]. During the ceremonies he said that today's world "needs transparent lives, clear souls, pure minds"; Christians, must resist the temptation to think of their lives as "mere objects of pleasure."

''Gerald Fogarty, a [[Jesuit]] priest and professor at the University of Virginia, said that some Catholics were disappointed with Ratzinger's selection because he symbolized the conservative side of the church's ideological split, especially in the United States''.<ref> [http://www.cfr.org/publication/10595/ Benedict XVI: Conservative]</ref>

== Controversy ==

The Pope is claimed to be infallible in matters of doctrine (see [[Dictatus Papae]]). The concept of [[Papal Infallibility]] (1870) is used to proclaim articles of faith, which are essential to adhere to be considered a Catholic. These articles are therefore considered to be a Dogmatic definition. Such pronouncements are rare, and the concept does not mean that Catholics are to believe everything that the Pope says is correct. The last issue was asserting the [[Assumption of Mary]].

[[The First Vatican Council]], of 1870, anathematized all who dispute the Pope's primacy of honor and of jurisdiction (it is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution). [[The Second Vatican Council]] of 1965 '''modified''' many of the dictates of 1870.

Critics of the papacy claim that past Popes who claimed successorship to St. Peter, such as [[Pope Callixtus III]] and [[Pope Alexander VI]] from the Borgia family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power. An just and loving [[God]], they claim, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the Catholic Church. Opponents of these critics reply that even the worst Popes failed to wreck the traditions of the Church.

==History==
The '''history of the papacy''' is a major factor in European history, especially the Middle Ages.

The Pope has been the head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] for over 1600 years. The Eastern orthodox churches reject his claims to primacy. Even more vigorously the Protestant Reformation reject the Papacy and theology of the Roman Catholic Church. As a secular leaders the Popes controlled Rome and the Papal States in central Italy until 1870, and especially in the 16th century were notable patrons of the arts, turning St. Peter's Church in Rome into an architectural wonder, especially notable for the artwork in its Sistine Chapel.<ref> Famous patrons of the arts include Sixtus IV (1471-1484), [[Julius II]] (1503-1513), and Clement VII (1523-1534)</ref>

Since 1929 the Pope controls only the small Vatican city-state (located inside Rome), but has diplomatic relations with most nations. The Pope's power comes from his appointment of all the bishops in the Catholic Church, and from his ability (since 1870) to proclaim a theological doctrine infallibly. The history of the Popes is interwoven with the history of the Catholic Church and the history of Europe. In terms of personalities and morality, the 262 Popes were saints and sinners who ranged very widely indeed.<ref>They were all men. The story of Joan who disguised herself as a man and became Pope sometime between 850 and 1050 was exposed as a false myth in 1650, but still circulates. Kelly (1998) 331-32. </ref>In recent centuries most have been holy men and in recent decades they have been linguists able to speak to Catholics in many languages. In recent centuries most Popes have been scions of Italian nobility; notable exceptions are Pope John Paul II (1978-2005) the first Polish Pope, and Benedict XVI (2005- ) the first German since 1523.

===Traditions===
Catholic tradition argues that Christ told Peter to found a church, and that he built one in Rome, that all Popes descend from him, and the bishop of Rome has divine authority to rule over the Church. Protestants say the Biblical texts are too short and obscure to bear the weight of an elaborate infrastructure that was erected many centuries after Christ, and that the Papacy interferes with the direct relationship between Christ and the sinner. Indeed, the history of the [[Reformation]] is the history of the rejection of the Papacy, while the history of the [[Counter-Reformation]] is the history of its reform and partial restoration to power using moral authority, diplomacy, and orders such as the [[Jesuits]].

====Biblical texts====
Catholics emphasize that Jesus told [[Simon Peter]]:
:thou art Peter; and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth it shall be bound also in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven.<ref>Gospel of Matthew: Chapter 16, Verse 18; see also 1 Corinthians 3:11, Ephesians 2:20, [[1 Peter]] 2:5–6, and Revelations 21:14.</ref>

Peter (and Paul) did found a church in Rome in 42 A.D. and served as the bishop for 25 years until 67 A.D. when he was martyred. However, as Duffy points out, "wherever we turn, the solid outlines of the Petrine succession at Rome seem to blur and dissolve."<ref> Duffy, p. 2</ref> That is, the primacy of the bishop of Rome in the Western Roman Empire was not established for several centuries, and even then was rejected by eastern bishops who formed the Eastern Orthodox Church under the leadership of the Patriarch of Constantinople.

===Early history to 350===

===Early Middle Ages: 350-1000===

===Late Middle Ages: 1000-1500===
The 14th century was the scene of dramatic humiliations that reduced the secular power and religious prestige of the of the papacy. The French king made his man Pope and moved the papal court to Avignon in France, 1309-1377. During the "Babylonian Captivity" of the papacy, seven French popes were seen as mere tools of France. Avignon was not a holy city, like Rome, and the men there were scarcely concerned with holiness; the papal entourage demanded bribes and fees to deal with terns of thousands of petitions that flooded in. As the paperwork and expenses multiplied and the prestige of the Papacy slipped.<ref> Ullmann (2002) p. 287</ref> The return to Rome in 1378 was followed by an even greater catastrophe. A split between French and Italian factions in the Curia resulted in the "Great Schism" of 1378-1417, during which Rome and Avignon each had their own series of popes, who claimed legitimacy and authority over the church. After enormous confusion the decision was made to appeal to a church council. The Council of Constance healed the schism in 1415.

The Council issued the decree ''Sacrosancta,'' (April 1415) asserting that in matters touching the faith and the unification and reform of the Church, a general council stood above all other authority, including papal. Another decree ''Frequens,'' (October 1417) tried to set controls on the pope and cardinals and proposed that a new council meet within five years and be convened regularly every ten years thereafter. The Church was on the verge of a constritutional revolution that would have shifted power from the pope to the bishops. However the papal forces fought back and by defeating the Council of Basel (1431-1449) regained control.

It took years to rebuild the neglected infrastructure of the city of Rome. The papacy never regained the secular power it had lost, and the loosened religious authority allowed an opening for radical reformers such as [[John Wycliffe]] and the Hussites.

===Reformation and Counter-Reformation: 1500-1700===
Frommel (1986) shows the popes did not provide a coordinated policy for Roman urban development. Rather, they had their own building agendas, driven by an egocentric spontaneity to outdo predecessors and eternalize family glory. Their agendas did reflect papal prominence in the city and created an imperial aura.

===1700-1815===
The Pope confronted [[Gallicanism]] in France, which reduced the Pope's power over the bishops. The Gallican argument was that the pope was supreme in spiritual matters, but that temporal affairs were the province of the government. The main issue was the selection of bishops, who had powerful temporal roles in terms of ownership of lands and churches. "Royal Gallicanism" emphasized the powers of the king. "Ecclesiatical Gallicanism" emphasized the powers of the bishops vis-a-vis the pope.
====French Revolution====
Much worse was the [[French Revolution]] in the 1790s, which disestablished the Church, forced many priests and bishops into exile, and seized vast landholdings.

====Napoleon====
Religion had been a major issue during the [[French Revolution]], and Napoleon resolved most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the [[Concordat of 1801]] (signed with Pope [[Pius VII]]), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights between the government and Church ended. Protestants and atheists were tolerated.<ref> Donald Sutherland. ''The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order'' (2003) ch 11</ref>

===1815 to 1914===
====Pius VII====
Pius VII (1800-23) was stripped of powers by [[Napoleon]] but made a striking comeback after Napoleon's fall in 1815. Pius VII was a deeply religious Benedictine, and a theologian; he lived simply and avoided nepotism. His unusually able Secretary of State Cardinal Consalvi won the restoration to the Pope of most of the territories in Italy which Napoleon had seized. He reinvigorated numerous monastic orders and helped create new societies for men and women, especially those engaged in teaching and missionary work.
Most important was the restoration of the Jesuits in 1814; they had been suppressed in most countries. They grew larger and even more influential in the 19th century.

====Conservatism====
After 1800 the Papacy became the center of conservatism in Europe in reaction against the liberalism of the French Revolution and its admirers. The Papacy recognized that throughout Europe millions of peasants and poor folk were devoted to the saints and traditions of the Church; the Popes responded energetically by promoting new Marian devotions (such as the rosary). Rome had fallen into disrepair and Pius VII began the restoration of the city's artistic glories, an enterprise that continues into the 21st century. <ref> Kelly (1999); Duffy (2006); Latourette (1958) vol 1. </ref> Much like other heads of state, popes can have political leanings, which tend to be conservative, especially on issues of abortion. However, on some issues popes have been known to hold more liberal opinions; for example, Pope John Paul II was against the coalition action to free Iraq from tyranny.

====Ultramontane vs Gallican====
The "ultramontane" tendency in the Church centralized more power and authority in the Papacy. It was opposed by the "Gallican" tendency, especially in France, to give national churches more control over their affairs. The ultramontine forces generally won out, especially with the declaration of papal infallability at the First Vatican Council in 1870. The ultramontane forces cited the old doctrines of [[Robert Bellarmine]] (1542-1621) and [[Francisco de Suárez]] (1548-1617) to bolster the papal claim to absolute power in spiritual matters.

Gallicanism in France was damaged by the rise of ultramontanism in the 1850s and the devotional revolution that shifted piety to devotions sponsored by Rome. Gallicanism was officially suppressed by the First Vatican Council in 1870, which established the paramount authority of the pope as a matter of dogma. However informal manifestations of Gallicanism continue in some countries, especially China. In Canada, the Irish clergy fought for ultramontanism against the French clergy, who were Gallican. The [[Catholicism in Ireland|Irish]] won out with the support of the Vatican.

After Vatican II, 1962-65, the multiple and often confused controversy over papal authority and infallibility ended quietly.

====Facing Modernity====
Despite dire predictions, the Church adapted to modernity in its own way and increased its role in people's lives in the 19th century. The Church escaped irrelevance by using the same means as did emerging nation-states; establishing more administrative and doctrinal centralization in Rome; establishing a homogeneous culture, aided especially by universal use of Latin; promoting new rites and folk devotions, especially those focused on Mary and other favored saints; promoting pilgrimages to holy sites; encouraging clergy to endorse and lead regional nationalist movements that focused on historic languages and cultures; creating many new teaching orders and establishing Catholic schools and colleges; supporting intellectuals and publishing houses; enhancing papal power; and cultivating an image of both theologiocal canonical and moral superiority. Of special importance was the missionary activity, based especially in Germany, that was in competition with Protestant missions in China, India, Africa and other non-Christain lands. The Jesuits proved highly adept at promoting the Papal cause. The Pope thereby became less symbolic and more powerful. There was internal dissent among some Catholic intellectuals, such as historian [[Lord Acton]] in Britain and theologian Ignaz von Döllinger in Germany, who opposed the declaration of the dogma of papal infallibility.

====Facing Liberalism====
Burns (1990) takes a sociological perspective on the Papacy's long battle with liberalism. He shows how the papacy, in reaction to the rise of the liberal states of the 19th and 20th centuries, gradually reformulated Catholic ideology within the limited autonomy they possessed and carefully subordinated social and political issues to more purely religious and moral issues as they constructed an ideological opposition to liberalism.

In Germany in the 1840s the ultramontane movement used mass meetings and pilgrimages to combat the growth of liberalism and modernism. However the abnti-clerical liberal press attacked these mass meetings, and in response a large number of Catholic newspapers emerged in Germany starting in the 1840s. To ensure their own survival, these newspapers championed the liberal idea of press freedom. In addition, local clubs were established to mobilize the Catholic working class. These clubs tried to end discrimination against ordinary Catholics by working to establish freedom of religion and freedom of thought and by entering the electoral process. With the unification of Germany in 1870, the new nation faced the problems of consolidation, one of which was secularization. The laws dealing with secularization opened a poltical battle between Bismark and the Protestants and liberals on one side, and the Catholics on the other, called the "Kulturkampf." The Catholics organized their own political parties and protected their interests by voting as a bloc into the 1930s, when the Nazis closed down all other parties.
====Syllabus of Errors====
The [[Syllabus of Errors]] of Pope [[Pius IX]] in 1864 rejected the liberal doctrines of the modern world.<ref> see text at [http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius09/p9syll.htm]</ref> It denounced pantheism, naturalism, nationalism, indifferentism, socialism, communism, freemasonry, and other modern views. The Pope claimed for the Catholic Church total control over science and culture. The liberals viewed this as a declaration of war by the Church on modern civilization. Its repercussions within France, the U.S., Britain and other countries were resounding, nearly destroying the liberal Catholic movement and furnishing a powerful weapon to the anticlerical faction, or (in the U.S.) to anti-Catholic Protestants. Opponents stressed the Papacy had become intolerant and medieval and largely political in nature.<ref> Latourette (1958) vol 1 ch. 6</ref>

====Freemasons====
In many countries the Church faced off against the Freemasons, a secret society that was politically active in numerous countries. The Papacy coordinated a counterattack. For example in Brazil, the religious question in the 1870s centered on the Masonic controversy and the struggle between regalist and ultramontane forces. One method of counterattack was to found Catholic universities. Thus Mgr. Ignace Bourget, second bishop of Montreal, Canada, founded Laval University, as a Catholic reaction to a liberal and secularist outburst in Quebec. Bourget said the university would be the principal instrument for "wresting the elite from the clutches of liberalism."

====Women====
Camp (1990) traces the treatment of women. In the late 19th century the papacy began to revise its public teachings about the proper role of women in the Church and society. From Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) to Pope John Paul II (1978-2005), papal social pronouncements reveal an evolution in attitudes toward a woman's proper "place" from the view that women are passive subordinates to men in all spheres of life to the current teaching that lay and clerical women are equal but complementary partners with men in religious, political, economic, and social endeavors. However, the papacy has remained firm in the conviction that ordination to the priesthood is for men only.

===Since 1914===
Student and youth groups were formed in major countries, with Papal blessing. For example the French Federation of Catholic Students (FFEC) was formed in 1922 to keep college graduates within the orbit of the Church, shield them from hostile ideological and political influences, and deepen their spiritual experience. It was a conservative movement, ultramontane in outlook; and boasted 16,000 members in 1939. During the Vichy years 1940-42 it was politically active at first in support of Vichy before being won over by nationalist ideology at the instigation of spiritual leaders and joining the underground resistance movement.

John XXIII (1958-63) enjoyed uniformly favorable, if sometimes puzzled, treatment from the English-language media. Initially, the focus was on his wit and warm personality. His unexpected calling of Vatican Council II and his major encyclicals - ''Mater et Magistra'' and ''Pacem in Terris'' - transformed his image into that of a bold innovator. In the end, it was his concern for world peace at the height of the Cold War and his effort to reach beyond Catholics to address all people of good will that won Pope John XXIII universal praise and affection.

====Holocaust issues====
Coppa (2005) reassesses the attitudes and policies toward Nazi racism of Pope Pius XI (1922-1939). Although Pius XI accepted and practiced religious anti-Judaism, he consistently opposed racial anti-Semitism on theological grounds throughout his papacy. As a result, he resisted the course of accommodation and conciliation favored by others within the Catholic Church, including Eugenio Pacelli (1876-1958), who served as papal secretary of state from 1930 prior to succeeding Pius XI as Pope Pius XII in 1939. Between 1933 and 1939 Pius XI waged a campaign against Nazi and Fascist racism and anti-Semitism that included public speeches and published condemnations denouncing the division of humanity on the basis of race as well as the commission of a "secret" encyclical on the incompatibility of racism and Catholicism that remained unpublished until 1995. His confrontational stance therefore sharply contrasted with the silence of Pope Pius XII during the Holocaust.

== External links ==

*[http://www.cwnews.com/index.cfm Catholic World News] Conservative updates and commentary.
*[http://freeforumzone.leonardo.it/viewmessaggi.aspx?f=65482&idd=431&p=97 Papa Ratzinger Forum]
*[http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/b/benedict_xvi/index.html?inline=nyt-per Times Topics] Benedict XVI in ''The New York Times''

==Bibliography==
===Surveys===
* ''Catholic Encyclopedia,'' "The Pope" (1913) [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm online edition] many articles on related topics
* Coppa, Frank J., ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Vatican and Papacy.'' Greenwood, 1998. 473 pp.
* Duffy, Eamon. ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes,'' (3rd ed 2006), 496pp; Yale University Press; heavily illustrated history by leading Catholic scholar
* LaDue, William J. ''The Chair of Saint Peter: A History of the Papacy.'' Orbis Books, 1999. 374 pp.
* Levillain, Philippe, ed. ''The Papacy: An Encyclopedia.'' Routledge, 2001. 1780 pp.
* ''New Catholic 'Encyclopedia'' (1967), numerous articles
* Steimer, Bruno and Parker, Michael G., ed. ''Dictionary of Popes and the Papacy.'' Crossroad, 2001. 278 pp.

===Specialized studies===
* Baumgartner, Frederic J. ''Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections.'' Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. 272 pp.
* Brown, Peter. ''The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity 200-1000 AD'' (2002), 640pp
* Ralph J. Capio; "The Papacy: A Case Study in Organizational Longevity," ''Journal of European Studies,'' Vol. 26, 1996. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5002278435 online edition]
* Carlen, Claudia. ed. ''Papal Pronouncements, a Guide, 1740-1978: Vol. 1: Benedict XIV to Paul VI.'' and ''Papal Pronouncements, a Guide, 1740-1978: Vol. 2: Paul VI to John Paul I.'' Pierian, 1990.
* Chadwick, Owen. ''The Popes and European Revolution.'' Oxford U. Press, 1981. 646 pp.
* Daniel-Rops, Henri. ''The Church in the Eighteenth Century'' (1964)
* Daniel-Rops, Henri. ''The Church in an Age of Revolution'' (1965).
* Frommel, Christoph L. "Papal Policy: The Planning Of Rome During The Renaissance." ''Journal Of Interdisciplinary History,'' 1986 17(1): 39-65. Issn: 0022-1953 Fulltext: in Jstor
* Hales, E. E. Y. ''Revolution and Papacy, 1769-1846,'' (1960)
* Logan, F. Donald. ''A History of the Church in the Middle Ages.'' 2002. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102805754# online edition]
* Mullett, Michael A. ''The Catholic Reformation,'' (1999), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102890994 online edition]
* Pastor, Ludwig von. ''History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages'', (1894-1930), 16 vol, older Catholic history [http://books.google.com/books?spell=1&lr=&q=pastor+history+popes&as_brr=1 online from books.google.com]
* Ullmann, Walter. ''A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages,'' (2002), 393pp, [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107602176 online edition]
* Wright, A. D. ''The Early Modern Papacy: From the Council of Trent to the French Revolution 1564-1789.'' Longman, 2000. 335 pp.

===Specific Popes===
* ''Catholic Encyclopedia,'' "The Pope" (1913) [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm online edition] many articles on all the Popes and related topics
* Collins, Jeffrey. ''Papacy and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Rome: Pius VI and the Arts.'' Cambridge U. Press, 2004. 355 pp.
* Coppa, Frank J., ed. ''Great Popes through History: An Encyclopedia.'' Greenwood, 2002. 600 pp.
* Gouwens, Kenneth and Reiss, Sheryl E., ed. ''The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture.'' Ashgate, 2005. 437 pp.
* Kelly, J.N.D. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes'' (1988). 349pp; scholarly short biographies; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54850171 online edition]

===Since 1815===
* Burns, Gene. "The Politics of Ideology: The Papal Struggle with Liberalism." ''American Journal of Sociology,'' 1990 95(5): 1123-1152. Issn: 0002-9602 fulltext: in Jstor and Ebsco
* Camp, Richard L. "From Passive Subordination To Complementary Partnership: The Papal Conception of a Woman's Place in Church and Society since 1878." ''Catholic Historical Review,'' 1990 76(3): 506-525. Issn: 0008-8080 Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Chadwick, Owen. ''A History of the Popes, 1830-1914.'' (1998), 616pp; a standard recent history. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=12355195 online edition],
* Coppa, Frank J. ''The Modern Papacy since 1789.'' Longman, 1998. 296 pp.
* Coppa, Frank J. "Between Anti-Judaism and Anti-Semitism, Pius XI's Response to the Nazi Persecution of the Jews: Precursor to Pius XII's "Silence"?" ''Journal of Church and State'' 2005 47(1): 63-89. Issn: 0021-969x Fulltext: in Ebsco
* Gillis, Chester, ed. ''The Political Papacy: John Paul II, Benedict XVI, and Their Influence.'' Paradigm, 2006. 208 pp.
* Holland, Joe. ''Modern Catholic Social Teaching: The Popes Confront the Industrial Age 1740-1958.'' Paulist Press, 2003. 404 pp.
* Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'' 5 Vol'' (1958), a detailed history of Chritianity 1800-1950 by a fair-minded Protestant scholar. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101463833 vol 1 online edition]
* Packard, Jerrold M. ''Peter's Kingdom: Inside the Papal City.'' Scribner's, 1985. 352 pp.
* Pollard, John F. ''Money and the Rise of the Modern Papacy: Financing the Vatican, 1850-1950.'' Cambridge U. Press, 2005. 265 pp.
* Rittner, Carol and Roth, John K., ed. ''Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust.'' Leicester U. Press, 2002. 291 pp.

== References ==

<references/>

==List of Popes==

Following the name of each Pope is the year of their accession.
[[File:Papa Benedetto XVI PD WC.jpg|thumb|330px|Pope Benedict XVI]]
#[[Saint Peter]] (30?)
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Confirmation bias

2010-05-18T19:02:21Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''Confirmation bias''' is the tendency to accept evidence confirming what one already feels justified in believing while ignoring, downplaying, or even rejecting evidence that might tend to contradict one's beliefs.

The best scientists consciously strive to overcome this psychological tendency, while advertisers, partisans and many journalists try exploit it.

[[Ronald Bailey]] wrote:
*Once a particular notion becomes conventional wisdom, evidence and stories confirming that conventional wisdom are easily accepted and published—and reported in the media. Those that contradict the prevailing views have a much harder time getting a hearing. [http://www.reason.com/news/show/34939.html]

The opposite of [[bias]] and [[prejudice]] is objectivity and even [[skepticism]]. Scientists who are open minded avidly seek out data which might potentially contradict their theories - or at least the theories of their colleagues. Ideally, if collected data contradict a prediction made by any theory, then the theory must be reevaluated or even discarded.

Confirmation bias sabotages scientific objectivity by discarding or ignoring data which challenges the prevailing consensus. This often leads to the situation in which an entire generation of scientists must grow old and die before the next generation comes up which is willing to examine newly discovered ideas; see [[Paradigm shift]]. It is unfortunate that advocates of [[global warming]] and [[evolution]] fall prey to confirmation bias, or even willfully allow it to cloud their judgment.

==See also==
*[[Scientific method]]
*[[Evolution syndrome]]
[[category:psychology]]
[[category:Liberal Traits]]

Antarctica

2010-05-13T15:17:24Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:Antarctica.gif|thumb|right|Antarctica]]
[[Image:Antarctic region pol02.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Territorial claims on the Antarctic continent]]
'''Antarctica''' is the southernmost [[continent]] on Earth, covering the region of the [[South Pole]], the coldest continent on the earth, and the last continental landmass to be discovered by man. Although its northernmost part has gotten slightly warmer in recent years (see [[Antarctic Peninsula]]), overall it has been getting colder and accumulating more ice, contradicting the [[global warming theory]].

==Etymology==
"Antarctica" comes from ''antarktikos'' (Greek ''ανταρκτικός''), which means "opposite of the Arctic," and may have been based on the myths of the "Southern Land" (''Terra Australis'') which explorers have speculated about since ancient times and have long sought.

==Antarctic Environment==
Antarctica is composed of two major, geologically distinct parts bridged by a vast ice sheet. East Antarctica, the larger of the two, is roughly the size of the U.S. and is composed of continental crust covered by an ice sheet that averages 1.6 miles thick. Rock exposures are limited to isolated coastal regions and to alpine elevations in the 2,000-mile long Transantarctic Mountains. West Antarctica, the smaller portion, is a mosaic of small blocks of continental crust covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet and an Andean-like mountain chain forming the Antarctic Peninsula. Most of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is grounded below sea level, in places over 1.5 miles below sea level.

The continent itself is depressed more than half-a-mile to near sea level under the tremendous load of the ice sheet, with some regions well below sea level. The highest mountains rise to elevations of over 14,000 ft. about the height of the U.S. Rocky Mountains.

The present Antarctic ice sheet accounts for 90 percent of Earth's total ice volume. The ice sheet at the Pole, nearly two miles thick, is constantly shifting, carrying the Amundsen/Scott Research Facility at the Pole along with it at the rate of about 30 feet a year. Nearly 90 percent of the ice flowing across West Antarctica converges into ice streams that are the most dynamic, and perhaps unstable, components of the ice sheet. Recent glaciological observations have yielded evidence that some of these West Antarctic ice streams may be responding to climatic and sea level changes of the recent past, changes that could lead to more rapid retreat and global sea-level rise in the future. A few active volcanoes may also affect the ice sheet's behavior.

The Antarctic climate offers a formidable challenge to those who venture there in quest of scientific knowledge. It is the coldest, driest, highest (on average) and windiest continent on Earth. Absolute humidity is lower than on the Sahara. Annual snowfall in much of the interior is less than two inches. Winds that flow down the surface of the ice sheet toward the coast (katabatic winds) commonly reach speeds of 80 miles per hour, and maximum measured wind speeds have exceeded 180 miles per hour. Changes in the weather are dramatic: winds shift from calm to full-gale in a brief period of time. A drop of 65°F was once recorded in 12 minutes. Earth's lowest surface temperature (-126.9°F) was recorded at Russia's Vostok Station in the interior of Antarctica. Coastal locations in summer occasionally rise above the freezing point.

A lake (Lake Vostok) buried 11,000 ft. under the ice is the size of North America's Lake Huron.

Offshore cyclones occur with little warning. Winds typically reach hurricane strength within an hour and persist for several days. A concentration of storm formation and/or intensification occurs at approximately 50°S latitude and is associated with some of the most violent seas in the world ("the roaring forties"). The stretch of ocean between Antarctica and the tip of South America is considered the most hostile in the world and has claimed numerous ships over the centuries.

Meteorological observations have been recorded only in recent decades, and then only in scattered localities, so long-term temperature trends remain uncertain. The longest instrumental temperature records come from the relatively warm Antarctic Peninsula region, referred to by the "Frozen Chosen" as the "Banana Belt" of Antarctica. In historical time the fronts of the Larsen and George VI ice shelves, the two largest ice shelves in the region, have retreated at rates of nearly one-half mile per year. Another smaller ice shelf, the Wordie Ice Shelf, has completely vanished during the past several decades. Whether these changes are due to induced global warming or to natural (perhaps regional) climatic cycles remains uncertain.

Millions of square miles of sea ice surround Antarctica; the extent annually experiences a five-fold increase and decrease, with the winter maximum more than doubling the entire Antarctic region's area of ice coverage. Icebergs larger than the State of Connecticut have been observed. The temperature gradient associated with Antarctica's sea-ice zone is one of the strongest on Earth, and the seasonal variability in the extent of sea ice is an important regulator of the climate of the Southern Hemisphere. This is primarily because of the significant difference between sea ice and water in reflecting the sun's energy (albedo) and because the sea ice serves as a barrier to energy exchange between atmosphere and ocean. The extent of sea ice around Antarctica also regulates (and stimulates) primary productivity of microorganisms in surface waters, and the sea ice zone is one of the most dynamic biological systems on Earth. Global warming could cause a significant reduction in the extent of the sea ice; the potential climatic and biological impacts of a change remain problematic.

Ocean circulation and water mass production in the Antarctic region are unique owing to the strong influence of sea ice and ice shelves on temperature and salinity and to a virtual absence of geographic obstacles to circulation around the continent. A key ingredient of the global ocean is the very cold, saline water that forms in regions of the Antarctic's continental shelf. This water is supercooled by exposure to ice shelves (floating glacial ice still attached to the land), and its salinity is increased by salt that is expelled from freezing sea water during annual sea ice production. This water flows off the Antarctic continental shelf and into the global ocean as Antarctic Bottom Water, the coldest and saltiest water mass in the deep ocean and a primary driver in global ocean circulation. Elsewhere around Antarctica, relatively warm water masses flow onto the continental shelf and melt the undersides of ice shelves. This feedback between water masses and ice shelves is still not well understood.

==Antarctic life==
Life forms on the Antarctic continent are sparse because of the severe climate. Nevertheless, biologists have found bacteria and yeast growing just 183 miles from the South Pole. A lichen was found in a sunny canyon 210 miles from the Pole, and a blue-green alga was observed in a frozen pond 224 miles from the Pole. Microbes related to lichens colonize in green and brown layers just beneath the surface of rocks facing the Sun. Mosses and liverworts grow in some ice-free areas along the coast. Two species of [[flowering plant]]s a grass and an herb grow along the Antarctic Peninsula.

The native land animals are limited to arthropods (insects and the like), of which 76 species have been discovered. Nearly all of these species are found only in Antarctica. These springtails, midges and mites generally live along the coast among plant colonies. The southernmost known animal, a mite, has been found 315 miles from the South Pole.

Sea life, in contrast to the land, is bounteous. The immense numbers of birds and seals that live in Antarctica are, properly speaking, sea animals. They spend most of their time in or over the water, where they get their food. These animals come ashore only to breed.

About 45 species of birds live south of the Antarctic Convergence. Of the seven penguin species, the emperor and the Adélie are distributed widely around the entire coastline. Gentoo and chinstrap penguins occupy Antarctic Peninsula coasts. The population of birds in the Antarctic is estimated to be 350 million, of which about half are penguins. The total weight of birds is estimated in excess of 400,000 tons greater than the combined weight of Antarctic seals and whales.

Four species of seals breed almost exclusively in the Antarctic: the Weddell, crabeater, leopard, and Ross. Other species include the fur seal and the huge elephant seal. Most populous is the crabeater, estimated at 50 million to 75 million. Leopard and Weddell seals number 250,000 to 500,000 each.

Fishes peculiar to the Antarctic include the Antarctic cod and the icefish. These and other fishes have developed proteins in their blood that enable them to live in sea water as cold as 28°F that is, below the freezing temperature of fresh water. There is abundant and varied bottom life (starfish, urchins, shellfish) in most coastal waters.

Aside from phytoplankton (marine plants), a singularly important member of the Antarctic marine food chain is krill. This crustacean looks like a small shrimp and exists in huge numbers; vast swarms stretching several miles in length have been observed from ships, and some biologists believe the krill population may exceed 5 billion tons. Krill eat phytoplankton and small marine animals and in turn are eaten in great numbers by squid, birds, seals, and whales. There is evidence that depletion of the ozone layer affects phytoplankton productivity, and may therefore affect krill and the entire southern ocean food chain.

==History==
Remote, inaccessible, and inhospitable, Antarctica was the last continent to be discovered, and knowledge of the south polar region was accumulated slowly. Until the present century the interior of Antarctica was unknown, and even the continental margins had been seen in only a few places. Of the world's 61,000 nonfiction papers and books published about the Antarctic since the earliest papers dating from the 1600s, 91 percent have been published since 1951. However, the historian Kenneth J. Bertrand (Americans in Antarctica 1775-1948, American Geographical Society, 1971) writes that "the success of recent operations in unveiling Antarctica with the aid of modern technology does not negate the importance of earlier efforts. Present accomplishments have been built on the past, developed step by step since 1674, sometimes haltingly and sometimes failing."

====Explorations====
Explorations have been conducted for a variety of motives and sometimes accidentally, as was the case of the first discovery south of the Antarctic Convergence (where temperate and polar waters meet) of South Georgia in the 1670s when a commercial ship was blown off course. The true nature of the Antarctic as a frigid region of ice and snow was convincingly proved for the first time by the second voyage of the English navigator, Captain James Cook, between 1772 and 1775. Until then, there was general belief in a large, still undiscovered continent in the southern hemisphere suitable for European settlement. Cook circumnavigated Antarctica, much of his course south of 60°S, and crossed the Antarctic Circle in three places. He failed to sight any part of the Antarctic continent, but disproved conclusively the existence of the mythical continent "Terra Australis Incognita" at latitudes north of 60°S. Mariners who followed Cook into high southern latitudes were attracted to the harsh environment by his reports of great numbers of whales and seals, particularly the latter.

In 1820-1821 the American sealer Nathaniel B. Palmer of Stonington, Connecticut, saw the Antarctic Peninsula from his sloop Hero and met the Russian Captain Thaddeus Bellingshausen commanding the two ships Vostok and Mirnyy on a major national expedition that circumnavigated Antarctica eastward. Three other great national expeditions were made between 1819 and 1843 by the French Admiral Dumont d'Urville, who discovered the Adélie and Clarie coasts in 1840; by U.S. Navy Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, who mapped 1,500 miles of Antarctica's coast south of Australia in 1839-1840, proving Antarctica a continent; and by Britain's Sir James Clark Ross, who discovered the Ross Sea, Ross Island, and the Ross Ice Shelf in 1841.

Historians have not settled the question of who was first to see land in Antarctica. British, Russian, and U.S. ships all were in the Antarctic Peninsula area in the early 1820s, and the first sighting occurred during that time. The first documented landing on the continent was on 24 January 1895, when the Norwegian whaling ship Antarctic landed a party at Cape Adare on the northern Ross Sea. The party consisted of Captain Leonard Kristensen, second mate Carstens Borchgrevinck, and H. J. Bull, who wrote a book about their adventure. Bull called being first on the Antarctic mainland "both strange and pleasurable," although he thought the crew would have preferred to find a Right Whale "even of small dimensions."

In 1895 a resolution by the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London promoted Antarctic exploration and set into motion a series of expeditions known now as the "Heroic Era." Before World War I halted this activity, 16 exploring expeditions from Australia, Belgium, England, France, Germany, Japan, Norway, Scotland and Sweden (but not the U.S.) had visited Antarctica. This activity is exclusive of whalers, discussed below. The magnitude of this activity was unprecedented for Antarctica, and, considering the state of technology and size of the world's population and wealth, it probably was greater than that of the mechanical age that followed and comparable to the operations initiated with the International Geophysical Year (IGY), 1957-1958. The best known of the Heroic Age expeditions were those led by Roald Amundsen (Norway) and Robert F. Scott (England), who separately reached the geographic South Pole (and were the first to do so) a few weeks apart on 14 December 1911 and 17 January 1912, respectively.

U.S. Antarctic activity in this century began with Richard E. Byrd's hugely popular, privately financed, expeditions in 1928-1930 and 1933-1935. Byrd's success led to Congressional appropriations of $10,000 in 1939 and $340,000 in 1940 (totaling about $4.1M in 1997 dollars) for the U.S. Antarctic Service, organized as a civilian entity under four cabinet agencies. Intended to be permanent but curtailed to a single winter and two summers because of World War II, the field work in 1939-1941 nevertheless was the largest Antarctic expedition up to that time, and it produced discoveries in a number of research disciplines.

After the War the U.S. Navy Antarctic Developments Project (Operation Highjump) in 1946-1947 was then (and remains) by far the largest Antarctic expedition, with more than 4,700 naval and marine personnel, 44 observers, 13 ships, and a number of aircraft. The expedition sighted more than 1.5-million square miles of Antarctica, half of it previously unexplored, and took 15,000 aerial trimetrogon (mapping) photographs. The following season the U.S. Navy Second Antarctic Developments Project (Operation Windmill) used ship-based helicopters to get geodetic ground control for the Highjump photographs. The expedition contributed to production of the first medium-scale maps of the region and influenced decisions regarding locations of stations for the International Geophysical Year the following decade. At a time when other nations had embarked on programs of permanent bases, the U.S. Navy Second Antarctic Developments Project also was a vehicle for continuing the U.S. presence in Antarctica.

====Whaling, Sealing, Fishing====
British sealers first crossed the Antarctic Convergence in 1778, and Americans in about 1792. Profits were enormous. Around 1797 the Neptune of New Haven, a ship worth perhaps $3,000, gathered 45,000 skins at the Falklands and Juan Fernandez, sold them for $90,000 in Canton, bought Chinese goods there and sold them for $260,000 in New York. As subantarctic seals were decimated the sealers pushed farther south. In 1820-1821, at least 30 American, 24 British, and 1 Australian vessels were hunting seals in the South Shetlands. The next year the numbers were perhaps doubled. Landings were said to have been made on the Antarctic Peninsula, the South Orkney Islands were discovered, and at least one and maybe three Americans traveled as far south as 66°S on the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula. James Weddell (British) discovered the Weddell Sea. Fur seals and then elephant seals (for their oil) were reduced almost to extinction by the mid-1800s, at which point the sealers for all practical purposes abandoned this activity. In 1978 the Antarctic Treaty nations agreed to prohibit the taking of fur, elephant and Ross seals, and to limit the annual catch of various other species. No seal hunting has taken place in the Antarctic since 1964 and the populations of fur and elephant seals have significantly regenerated themselves in the last half of the 20th century.

Whaling began in Antarctic waters in the 19th century. The industry enlarged greatly in the early 1900s, when steamships, harpoon guns, and shore processing stations (notably at South Georgia) were introduced. During the 1912-1913 season 10,760 whales were caught. After that time nearly all the whales caught in the world were taken in Antarctic waters. In 1931, the peak year, 40,199 whales were caught in the Antarctic, while 1,124 were caught in the rest of the world. The whaling industry declined after 1960. In the 1980-1981 season fewer than 6,000 whales were caught in the Antarctic; all were Minke whales, a relatively small-sized species. In 1994 the member nations of the International Whaling Commission declared Antarctic waters a whale sanctuary in which no commercial whaling is allowed.

====International Geophysical Year====
The IGY, 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958, was a cooperative endeavor by scientists throughout the world to improve their understanding of the Earth and its environment. Much of the field activity took place in Antarctica, where 12 nations established some 60 research stations. Laurence M. Gould, who was Richard E. Byrd's chief scientist in Antarctica in the 1920s and 1930s and later chaired the National Academy of Sciences Polar Research Board and served on the National Science Board, called the IGY the most comprehensive scientific program ever undertaken and the first attempt at a total study of the environment. "No field of geophysics," he wrote in 1958, "can be understood or complete without specific data available only from this vast continent and its surrounding oceans."

The U.S. established six Antarctic IGY research stations: Little America (on the Ross Ice Shelf), Hallett (in Victoria Land), South Pole and Byrd (in Marie Byrd Land), plus Wilkes (on the coast of Wilkes Land, East Antarctica) and Ellsworth (on the Filchner Ice Shelf). Naval Air Facility, McMurdo Sound (now McMurdo Station), was set up as a logistics base from which to supply South Pole. Studies were directed toward geophysics and upper atmospheric physics and complemented simultaneous observations around the globe. Long traverses were made to collect data in glaciology, seismology, gravimetry, and meteorology. Geological and biological samples were also collected, although these disciplines were not formally part of the IGY.

====Antarctic Treaty of 1959====
International cooperation in the IGY stimulated the Antarctic Treaty [http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4700.htm], signed by the 12 Antarctic IGY nations at Washington, D.C., in 1959 and entered into force in 1961. The treaty establishes a legal framework for the area south of 60°S, which includes all of Antarctica. There are two types of Antarctic Treaty parties. Consultative nations, now 26 in number, are empowered to meet periodically and to influence operation of the treaty. Acceding nations, of which there now are 17, agree to abide by the treaty, but, not being among the original signatories and not having substantial programs in Antarctica, do not participate in the consultative process.

The treaty provides that Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only; it prohibits military operations except in support of peaceful activities. It provides that freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue and that nations shall exchange program plans, personnel, observations, and results. The treaty seeks to resolve the issue of territorial claims by simply not recognizing, disputing, or establishing claims; and it prohibits assertion of new claims. It prohibits nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive waste. It guarantees access by any treaty nation to inspect others' stations and equipment. Appendix VI further summarizes the treaty.

The consultative meetings provided for by the treaty have generated a series of recommendations, most of which have been formally adopted by the treaty nations, that provide rules for operating on and around the continent. One of the most significant is the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora, ratified by the U.S. as Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978. Other advances have included the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals and the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. A failed recommendation of significance is the 1988 Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities, which would have permitted mining if the proponent were to demonstrate that the environment would not be damaged. Instead, a 1991 Antarctic Treaty meeting adopted a protocol for improved environmental protection that prohibits mining; the U.S. signed this protocol into law (PL104-227) in October 1996 and is preparing to deposit its instrument of ratification with the Antarctic Treaty system. The U.S. and other Antarctic Treaty nations are complying with the protocol on a voluntary basis pending its entry into force, which will occur only after all 26 of the nations initially signing the 1991 agreement ratify it.

==Territorial Claims==
Seven nations have asserted claims to pie-shaped sectors of Antarctica bounded by longitudinal lines: Great Britain (claim made formally in 1926), New Zealand (1923), Australia (1936), Norway (1939), Chile (1940), Argentina (no formal date), and France (1924). The initial claims were based on discovery, adjacency, or decree, and all but one of the claims extend from north of the coast to the South Pole. Three claims overlap. One sector is unclaimed. The claims occasionally have led to conflict; on 2 February 1952 the Argentine navy fired on the British when they tried to land at Hope Bay. Conflicts over other remote areas have not been unknown, including the U.K./Argentina war over the Falklands as recently as 1982. Other nations have acted to make claims, but not asserted them; for example, Germany sent an expedition for this purpose in 1938, and in 1939 Lincoln Ellsworth, heading his second Antarctic expedition (the first was a transantarctic flight in 1935), dropped from his plane a brass cylinder containing a note claiming territories for the U.S. "so far as this act allows."

Other than the claimant states, most nations do not recognize Antarctic claims. U.S. non-recognition, a cornerstone of the nation's Antarctic policy, dates to 1924, when Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes wrote that discovery of lands unknown to civilization "does not support a valid claim of sovereignty unless the discovery is followed by an actual settlement of the discovered country." In 1934 the Assistant Secretary of State added: "I reserve all rights which the U.S. or its citizens may have with respect to this matter." President Franklin D. Roosevelt reaffirmed the U.S. stance in 1939: "The U.S. has never recognized any claims of sovereignty over territory in the Antarctic regions asserted by any foreign state." In 1947 Dean Acheson, then Under Secretary of State, wrote that the U.S. "has not recognized any claims of any other nations in the area and has reserved all rights which it may have in the area."

In spite of the Antarctic Treaty provision, which states that "no acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting, or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica," some signatories have taken what appear to be assertive steps. For example, both Argentina and Chile publish their claimed Antarctic sectors on their official national maps, and both have established hotels and post offices. Chile has placed whole families in residence at its Antarctic stations, with schools, banks, and other evidence of "effective occupation," including the birth of a child. An Argentinian child was born at Argentina's Esperanza Station in the late 1970s.

==Links==
*[http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4700.htm The Antarctic Treaty, from the U.S. State Dept. website]
*[http://terraweb.wr.usgs.gov/TRS/projects/Antarctica/ Antarctica resources on the Internet, from the USGS]
*[http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/obop/spo/livecamera.html NOAA's "South Pole Live" camera]
==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Continents]]

Antarctica

2010-05-13T15:15:15Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:Antarctica.gif|thumb|right|Antarctica]]
[[Image:Antarctic region pol02.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Territorial claims on the Antarctic continent]]
'''Antarctica''' is the southernmost [[continent]] on Earth, covering the region of the [[South Pole]], the coldest continent on the earth, and the last continental landmass to be discovered by man. Although its northernmost part has gotten slightly warmer in recent years (see [[Antarctic Peninsula]]), overall it has been getting colder and accumulating more ice, contradicting the [[global warming theory]].

==Etymology==
"Antarctica" comes from ''antarktikos'' (Greek ''ανταρκτικός''), which means "opposite of the Arctic," and may have been based on the myths of the "Southern Land" (''Terra Australis'') which explorers have speculated about since ancient times and have long sought.

==Antarctic Environment==
Antarctica is composed of two major, geologically distinct parts bridged by a vast ice sheet. East Antarctica, the larger of the two, is roughly the size of the U.S. and is composed of continental crust covered by an ice sheet that averages 1.6 miles thick. Rock exposures are limited to isolated coastal regions and to alpine elevations in the 2,000-mile long Transantarctic Mountains. West Antarctica, the smaller portion, is a mosaic of small blocks of continental crust covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet and an Andean-like mountain chain forming the Antarctic Peninsula. Most of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is grounded below sea level, in places over 1.5 miles below sea level.

The continent itself is depressed more than half-a-mile to near sea level under the tremendous load of the ice sheet, with some regions well below sea level. The highest mountains rise to elevations of over 14,000 ft. about the height of the U.S. Rocky Mountains.

The present Antarctic ice sheet accounts for 90 percent of Earth's total ice volume. The ice sheet at the Pole, nearly two miles thick, is constantly shifting, carrying the Amundsen/Scott Research Facility at the Pole along with it at the rate of about 30 feet a year. Nearly 90 percent of the ice flowing across West Antarctica converges into ice streams that are the most dynamic, and perhaps unstable, components of the ice sheet. Recent glaciological observations have yielded evidence that some of these West Antarctic ice streams may be responding to climatic and sea level changes of the recent past, changes that could lead to more rapid retreat and global sea-level rise in the future. A few active volcanoes may also affect the ice sheet's behavior.

The Antarctic climate offers a formidable challenge to those who venture there in quest of scientific knowledge. It is the coldest, driest, highest (on average) and windiest continent on Earth. Absolute humidity is lower than on the Sahara. Annual snowfall in much of the interior is less than two inches. Winds that flow down the surface of the ice sheet toward the coast (katabatic winds) commonly reach speeds of 80 miles per hour, and maximum measured wind speeds have exceeded 180 miles per hour. Changes in the weather are dramatic: winds shift from calm to full-gale in a brief period of time. A drop of 65°F was once recorded in 12 minutes. Earth's lowest surface temperature (-126.9°F) was recorded at Russia's Vostok Station in the interior of Antarctica. Coastal locations in summer occasionally rise above the freezing point.

A lake (Lake Vostok) buried 11,000 ft. under the ice is the size of North America's Lake Huron.

Offshore cyclones occur with little warning. Winds typically reach hurricane strength within an hour and persist for several days. A concentration of storm formation and/or intensification occurs at approximately 50°S latitude and is associated with some of the most violent seas in the world ("the roaring forties"). The stretch of ocean between Antarctica and the tip of South America is considered the most hostile in the world and has claimed numerous ships over the centuries.

Meteorological observations have been recorded only in recent decades, and then only in scattered localities, so long-term temperature trends remain uncertain. The longest instrumental temperature records come from the relatively warm Antarctic Peninsula region, referred to by the "Frozen Chosen" as the "Banana Belt" of Antarctica. In historical time the fronts of the Larsen and George VI ice shelves, the two largest ice shelves in the region, have retreated at rates of nearly one-half mile per year. Another smaller ice shelf, the Wordie Ice Shelf, has completely vanished during the past several decades. Whether these changes are due to induced global warming or to natural (perhaps regional) climatic cycles remains uncertain.

Millions of square miles of sea ice surround Antarctica; the extent annually experiences a five-fold increase and decrease, with the winter maximum more than doubling the entire Antarctic region's area of ice coverage. Icebergs larger than the State of Connecticut have been observed. The temperature gradient associated with Antarctica's sea-ice zone is one of the strongest on Earth, and the seasonal variability in the extent of sea ice is an important regulator of the climate of the Southern Hemisphere. This is primarily because of the significant difference between sea ice and water in reflecting the sun's energy (albedo) and because the sea ice serves as a barrier to energy exchange between atmosphere and ocean. The extent of sea ice around Antarctica also regulates (and stimulates) primary productivity of microorganisms in surface waters, and the sea ice zone is one of the most dynamic biological systems on Earth. Global warming could cause a significant reduction in the extent of the sea ice; the potential climatic and biological impacts of a change remain problematic.

Ocean circulation and water mass production in the Antarctic region are unique owing to the strong influence of sea ice and ice shelves on temperature and salinity and to a virtual absence of geographic obstacles to circulation around the continent. A key ingredient of the global ocean is the very cold, saline water that forms in regions of the Antarctic's continental shelf. This water is supercooled by exposure to ice shelves (floating glacial ice still attached to the land), and its salinity is increased by salt that is expelled from freezing sea water during annual sea ice production. This water flows off the Antarctic continental shelf and into the global ocean as Antarctic Bottom Water, the coldest and saltiest water mass in the deep ocean and a primary driver in global ocean circulation. Elsewhere around Antarctica, relatively warm water masses flow onto the continental shelf and melt the undersides of ice shelves. This feedback between water masses and ice shelves is still not well understood.

==Antarctic life==
Life forms on the Antarctic continent are sparse because of the severe climate. Nevertheless, biologists have found bacteria and yeast growing just 183 miles from the South Pole. A lichen was found in a sunny canyon 210 miles from the Pole, and a blue-green alga was observed in a frozen pond 224 miles from the Pole. Microbes related to lichens colonize in green and brown layers just beneath the surface of rocks facing the Sun. Mosses and liverworts grow in some ice-free areas along the coast. Two species of [[flowering plant]]s a grass and an herb grow along the Antarctic Peninsula.

The native land animals are limited to arthropods (insects and the like), of which 76 species have been discovered. Nearly all of these species are found only in Antarctica. These springtails, midges and mites generally live along the coast among plant colonies. The southernmost known animal, a mite, has been found 315 miles from the South Pole.

Sea life, in contrast to the land, is bounteous. The immense numbers of birds and seals that live in Antarctica are, properly speaking, sea animals. They spend most of their time in or over the water, where they get their food. These animals come ashore only to breed.

About 45 species of birds live south of the Antarctic Convergence. Of the seven penguin species, the emperor and the Adélie are distributed widely around the entire coastline. Gentoo and chinstrap penguins occupy Antarctic Peninsula coasts. The population of birds in the Antarctic is estimated to be 350 million, of which about half are penguins. The total weight of birds is estimated in excess of 400,000 tons greater than the combined weight of Antarctic seals and whales.

Four species of seals breed almost exclusively in the Antarctic: the Weddell, crabeater, leopard, and Ross. Other species include the fur seal and the huge elephant seal. Most populous is the crabeater, estimated at 50 million to 75 million. Leopard and Weddell seals number 250,000 to 500,000 each.

Fishes peculiar to the Antarctic include the Antarctic cod and the icefish. These and other fishes have developed proteins in their blood that enable them to live in sea water as cold as 28°F that is, below the freezing temperature of fresh water. There is abundant and varied bottom life (starfish, urchins, shellfish) in most coastal waters.

Aside from phytoplankton (marine plants), a singularly important member of the Antarctic marine food chain is krill. This crustacean looks like a small shrimp and exists in huge numbers; vast swarms stretching several miles in length have been observed from ships, and some biologists believe the krill population may exceed 5 billion tons. Krill eat phytoplankton and small marine animals and in turn are eaten in great numbers by squid, birds, seals, and whales. There is evidence that depletion of the ozone layer affects phytoplankton productivity, and may therefore affect krill and the entire southern ocean food chain.

==History==
Remote, inaccessible, and inhospitable, Antarctica was the last continent to be discovered, and knowledge of the south polar region was accumulated slowly. Until the present century the interior of Antarctica was unknown, and even the continental margins had been seen in only a few places. Of the world's 61,000 nonfiction papers and books published about the Antarctic since the earliest papers dating from the 1600s, 91 percent have been published since 1951. However, the historian Kenneth J. Bertrand (Americans in Antarctica 1775-1948, American Geographical Society, 1971) writes that "the success of recent operations in unveiling Antarctica with the aid of modern technology does not negate the importance of earlier efforts. Present accomplishments have been built on the past, developed step by step since 1674, sometimes haltingly and sometimes failing."

====Explorations====
Explorations have been conducted for a variety of motives and sometimes accidentally, as was the case of the first discovery south of the Antarctic Convergence (where temperate and polar waters meet) of South Georgia in the 1670s when a commercial ship was blown off course. The true nature of the Antarctic as a frigid region of ice and snow was convincingly proved for the first time by the second voyage of the English navigator, Captain James Cook, between 1772 and 1775. Until then, there was general belief in a large, still undiscovered continent in the southern hemisphere suitable for European settlement. Cook circumnavigated Antarctica, much of his course south of 60°S, and crossed the Antarctic Circle in three places. He failed to sight any part of the Antarctic continent, but disproved conclusively the existence of the mythical continent "Terra Australis Incognita" at latitudes north of 60°S. Mariners who followed Cook into high southern latitudes were attracted to the harsh environment by his reports of great numbers of whales and seals, particularly the latter.

In 1820-1821 the American sealer Nathaniel B. Palmer of Stonington, Connecticut, saw the Antarctic Peninsula from his sloop Hero and met the Russian Captain Thaddeus Bellingshausen commanding the two ships Vostok and Mirnyy on a major national expedition that circumnavigated Antarctica eastward. Three other great national expeditions were made between 1819 and 1843 by the French Admiral Dumont d'Urville, who discovered the Adélie and Clarie coasts in 1840; by U.S. Navy Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, who mapped 1,500 miles of Antarctica's coast south of Australia in 1839-1840, proving Antarctica a continent; and by Britain's Sir James Clark Ross, who discovered the Ross Sea, Ross Island, and the Ross Ice Shelf in 1841.

Historians have not settled the question of who was first to see land in Antarctica. British, Russian, and U.S. ships all were in the Antarctic Peninsula area in the early 1820s, and the first sighting occurred during that time. The first documented landing on the continent was on 24 January 1895, when the Norwegian whaling ship Antarctic landed a party at Cape Adare on the northern Ross Sea. The party consisted of Captain Leonard Kristensen, second mate Carstens Borchgrevinck, and H. J. Bull, who wrote a book about their adventure. Bull called being first on the Antarctic mainland "both strange and pleasurable," although he thought the crew would have preferred to find a Right Whale "even of small dimensions."

In 1895 a resolution by the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London promoted Antarctic exploration and set into motion a series of expeditions known now as the "Heroic Era." Before World War I halted this activity, 16 exploring expeditions from Australia, Belgium, England, France, Germany, Japan, Norway, Scotland and Sweden (but not the U.S.) had visited Antarctica. This activity is exclusive of whalers, discussed below. The magnitude of this activity was unprecedented for Antarctica, and, considering the state of technology and size of the world's population and wealth, it probably was greater than that of the mechanical age that followed and comparable to the operations initiated with the International Geophysical Year (IGY), 1957-1958. The best known of the Heroic Age expeditions were those led by Roald Amundsen (Norway) and Robert F. Scott (England), who separately reached the geographic South Pole (and were the first to do so) a few weeks apart on 14 December 1911 and 17 January 1912, respectively.

U.S. Antarctic activity in this century began with Richard E. Byrd's hugely popular, privately financed, expeditions in 1928-1930 and 1933-1935. Byrd's success led to Congressional appropriations of $10,000 in 1939 and $340,000 in 1940 (totaling about $4.1M in 1997 dollars) for the U.S. Antarctic Service, organized as a civilian entity under four cabinet agencies. Intended to be permanent but curtailed to a single winter and two summers because of World War II, the field work in 1939-1941 nevertheless was the largest Antarctic expedition up to that time, and it produced discoveries in a number of research disciplines.

After the War the U.S. Navy Antarctic Developments Project (Operation Highjump) in 1946-1947 was then (and remains) by far the largest Antarctic expedition, with more than 4,700 naval and marine personnel, 44 observers, 13 ships, and a number of aircraft. The expedition sighted more than 1.5-million square miles of Antarctica, half of it previously unexplored, and took 15,000 aerial trimetrogon (mapping) photographs. The following season the U.S. Navy Second Antarctic Developments Project (Operation Windmill) used ship-based helicopters to get geodetic ground control for the Highjump photographs. The expedition contributed to production of the first medium-scale maps of the region and influenced decisions regarding locations of stations for the International Geophysical Year the following decade. At a time when other nations had embarked on programs of permanent bases, the U.S. Navy Second Antarctic Developments Project also was a vehicle for continuing the U.S. presence in Antarctica.

====Whaling, Sealing, Fishing====
British sealers first crossed the Antarctic Convergence in 1778, and Americans in about 1792. Profits were enormous. Around 1797 the Neptune of New Haven, a ship worth perhaps $3,000, gathered 45,000 skins at the Falklands and Juan Fernandez, sold them for $90,000 in Canton, bought Chinese goods there and sold them for $260,000 in New York. As subantarctic seals were decimated the sealers pushed farther south. In 1820-1821, at least 30 American, 24 British, and 1 Australian vessels were hunting seals in the South Shetlands. The next year the numbers were perhaps doubled. Landings were said to have been made on the Antarctic Peninsula, the South Orkney Islands were discovered, and at least one and maybe three Americans traveled as far south as 66°S on the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula. James Weddell (British) discovered the Weddell Sea. Fur seals and then elephant seals (for their oil) were reduced almost to extinction by the mid-1800s, at which point the sealers for all practical purposes abandoned this activity. In 1978 the Antarctic Treaty nations agreed to prohibit the taking of fur, elephant and Ross seals, and to limit the annual catch of various other species. No seal hunting has taken place in the Antarctic since 1964 and the populations of fur and elephant seals have significantly regenerated themselves in the last half of the 20th century.

Whaling began in Antarctic waters in the 19th century. The industry enlarged greatly in the early 1900s, when steamships, harpoon guns, and shore processing stations (notably at South Georgia) were introduced. During the 1912-1913 season 10,760 whales were caught. After that time nearly all the whales caught in the world were taken in Antarctic waters. In 1931, the peak year, 40,199 whales were caught in the Antarctic, while 1,124 were caught in the rest of the world. The whaling industry declined after 1960. In the 1980-1981 season fewer than 6,000 whales were caught in the Antarctic; all were Minke whales, a relatively small-sized species. In 1994 the member nations of the International Whaling Commission declared Antarctic waters a whale sanctuary in which no commercial whaling is allowed.

====International Geophysical Year====
The IGY, 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958, was a cooperative endeavor by scientists throughout the world to improve their understanding of the Earth and its environment. Much of the field activity took place in Antarctica, where 12 nations established some 60 research stations. Laurence M. Gould, who was Richard E. Byrd's chief scientist in Antarctica in the 1920s and 1930s and later chaired the National Academy of Sciences Polar Research Board and served on the National Science Board, called the IGY the most comprehensive scientific program ever undertaken and the first attempt at a total study of the environment. "No field of geophysics," he wrote in 1958, "can be understood or complete without specific data available only from this vast continent and its surrounding oceans."

The U.S. established six Antarctic IGY research stations: Little America (on the Ross Ice Shelf), Hallett (in Victoria Land), South Pole and Byrd (in Marie Byrd Land), plus Wilkes (on the coast of Wilkes Land, East Antarctica) and Ellsworth (on the Filchner Ice Shelf). Naval Air Facility, McMurdo Sound (now McMurdo Station), was set up as a logistics base from which to supply South Pole. Studies were directed toward geophysics and upper atmospheric physics and complemented simultaneous observations around the globe. Long traverses were made to collect data in glaciology, seismology, gravimetry, and meteorology. Geological and biological samples were also collected, although these disciplines were not formally part of the IGY.

====Antarctic Treaty of 1959====
International cooperation in the IGY stimulated the Antarctic Treaty [http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4700.htm], signed by the 12 Antarctic IGY nations at Washington, D.C., in 1959 and entered into force in 1961. The treaty establishes a legal framework for the area south of 60°S, which includes all of Antarctica. There are two types of Antarctic Treaty parties. Consultative nations, now 26 in number, are empowered to meet periodically and to influence operation of the treaty. Acceding nations, of which there now are 17, agree to abide by the treaty, but, not being among the original signatories and not having substantial programs in Antarctica, do not participate in the consultative process.

The treaty provides that Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only; it prohibits military operations except in support of peaceful activities. It provides that freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue and that nations shall exchange program plans, personnel, observations, and results. The treaty seeks to resolve the issue of territorial claims by simply not recognizing, disputing, or establishing claims; and it prohibits assertion of new claims. It prohibits nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive waste. It guarantees access by any treaty nation to inspect others' stations and equipment. Appendix VI further summarizes the treaty.

The consultative meetings provided for by the treaty have generated a series of recommendations, most of which have been formally adopted by the treaty nations, that provide rules for operating on and around the continent. One of the most significant is the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora, ratified by the U.S. as Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978. Other advances have included the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals and the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. A failed recommendation of significance is the 1988 Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities, which would have permitted mining if the proponent were to demonstrate that the environment would not be damaged. Instead, a 1991 Antarctic Treaty meeting adopted a protocol for improved environmental protection that prohibits mining; the U.S. signed this protocol into law (PL104-227) in October 1996 and is preparing to deposit its instrument of ratification with the Antarctic Treaty system. The U.S. and other Antarctic Treaty nations are complying with the protocol on a voluntary basis pending its entry into force, which will occur only after all 26 of the nations initially signing the 1991 agreement ratify it.

==Territorial Claims==
Seven nations have asserted claims to pie-shaped sectors of Antarctica bounded by longitudinal lines: Great Britain (claim made formally in 1926), New Zealand (1923), Australia (1936), Norway (1939), Chile (1940), Argentina (no formal date), and France (1924). The initial claims were based on discovery, adjacency, or decree, and all but one of the claims extend from north of the coast to the South Pole. Three claims overlap. One sector is unclaimed. The claims occasionally have led to conflict; on 2 February 1952 the Argentine navy fired on the British when they tried to land at Hope Bay. Conflicts over other remote areas have not been unknown, including the U.K./Argentina war over the Falklands as recently as 1982. Other nations have acted to make claims, but not asserted them; for example, Germany sent an expedition for this purpose in 1938, and in 1939 Lincoln Ellsworth, heading his second Antarctic expedition (the first was a transantarctic flight in 1935), dropped from his plane a brass cylinder containing a note claiming territories for the U.S. "so far as this act allows."

Other than the claimant states, most nations do not recognize Antarctic claims. U.S. non-recognition, a cornerstone of the nation's Antarctic policy, dates to 1924, when Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes wrote that discovery of lands unknown to civilization "does not support a valid claim of sovereignty unless the discovery is followed by an actual settlement of the discovered country." In 1934 the Assistant Secretary of State added: "I reserve all rights which the U.S. or its citizens may have with respect to this matter." President Franklin D. Roosevelt reaffirmed the U.S. stance in 1939: "The U.S. has never recognized any claims of sovereignty over territory in the Antarctic regions asserted by any foreign state." In 1947 Dean Acheson, then Under Secretary of State, wrote that the U.S. "has not recognized any claims of any other nations in the area and has reserved all rights which it may have in the area."

Despite the Antarctic Treaty provision that "no acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting, or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica," some signatories have taken what appear to be assertive steps. For example, both Argentina and Chile publish their claimed Antarctic sectors on their official national maps, and both have established hotels and post offices. Chile has placed whole families in residence at its Antarctic stations, with schools, banks, and other evidence of "effective occupation," including the birth of a child. An Argentinian child was born at Argentina's Esperanza Station in the late 1970s.

==Links==
*[http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4700.htm The Antarctic Treaty, from the U.S. State Dept. website]
*[http://terraweb.wr.usgs.gov/TRS/projects/Antarctica/ Antarctica resources on the Internet, from the USGS]
*[http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/obop/spo/livecamera.html NOAA's "South Pole Live" camera]
==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Continents]]

Colosseum

2010-05-13T15:13:42Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:Colosseum.jpg|thumb|The Colosseum]]The '''Colosseum''', known in Antiquity as the '''Flavian Amphitheater''' is an amphitheater in the center of [[Rome]] that is capable of seating 50,000 people. It was built by the ruler [[Vespasian]] on the remains of the "Golden House" that the previous emperor, [[Nero]], was attempting to build.

The colosseum was spared final destruction in the 18th century when it was declared a sacred site by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], due to the martyrdoms that took place there.

[[Category:Tourist Attractions]]
[[category:Ancient World Wonders]]

Pornography

2010-05-13T15:03:34Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

{{etymology|[[Greek]] πορνή (''porné'')) a prostitute and γράΦω (''grapho'') I write}}[[Image:Pornography.jpg|200px|right]]
'''Pornography''' is the explicit representation of the human body or sexual activity used for the intent of stimulation.
It usually consists of images depicting the satisfaction of the sort of "unnatural lust" which leads to damnation. ({{Bible ref|book=Jude|chap=1|verses=6-7}}) It destroys the mind as [[gambling]] does and, even worse, '''pornography''' leads to terrible crimes against women and children.<ref>http://www.un.org/rights/dpi1772e.htm</ref>

* When Christ said "any man who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart," He made it clear that chastity -- and unchastity -- don't begin with what we do, but rather in what we think. And deliberately seeking such stimulation outside a committed marriage, even via the imagination, constitutes a sin against [[chastity]].<ref> [http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/sexuality/se0051.html Banishing Unchaste Thoughts]</ref>

Pornographic images have been proliferating at a remarkable rate. What was a $5 million-a-year enterprise merely 25 years ago has boomed to a $7 billion to $10 billion-a-year industry today... the fastest growing sectors of the industry are pornographic DVDs, cable television, and phone sex. Pornography is no longer confined to the seedier sections of town. With the advent of the Internet, it has become readily available to all, including children, and in the privacy of our own homes.<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=759 Censorship or Education?]</ref>

==Human psychology==
Dr. [[Jerry Bergman (scientist)|Jerry Bergman]] (Ph.D.) wrote:

:Pornography distorts the natural development of personality. If the early stimulus is pornographic photographs, the [[adolescent]] can be [[conditioning|conditioned]] to become aroused through photographs. Once this pairing is rewarded a number of times, it is likely to become permanent. The result to the individual is that it becomes difficult for the person to seek out relations with appropriate persons.<ref> Jerry Bergman, Ph.D., The Influence of Pornography on Sexual Development: Three Case Histories, IX ''Family Therapy'' 3, 1982, pg. 265. </ref>

==Illusion and addiction==

Pornography provides the illusion of intimacy,<ref>[http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-f016.html (Christian Answers)] </ref> but this is a [[satan]]ic trap (see [[sexual addiction]]).

*Pornography consumption is not something that can easily be stopped. Once the appetite for it has developed, it actually increases. In his 1988 study ''Pornography Effects: Empirical and Clinical Evidence'', [[Victor Cline]], then with the [[University of Utah]]'s Department of Psychology noted that studies show pornography is progressive and addictive for many. It often leads to the user acting out his fantasy.
*The Internet is the "crack cocaine" of sexual addiction.<ref>[http://www.soundvision.com/Info/life/porn/pornfacts.asp]</ref>

"People often act in accordance with the images and patterns they find around them,"<ref>At the crux of this issue is whether written pornography might have a causal effect in eroticizing criminal activities. One case that dealt with this issue indirectly is American Booksellers Association v. Hudnut, ... the court conceded that it saw some evidence of a causal relationship between pornography and anti-social behaviors.... People often act in accordance with the images and patterns they find around them. . . . Depictions of subordination tend to perpetuate subordination." 771 F.2d at 328-29.</ref> so looking at pornography is a dangerous practice; although being around a loving Christian family for most of the day, and instead acting in accordance with those images and patterns seems to negate this.

Porn says that happiness is found by having the same experience over and over again with lots of different women; true ''eros'' says that happiness is found by having different experiences over and over again with the same person.<ref>[http://nopornnorthampton.org/2007/05/02/schwyzer-on-porn-pursuit-of-novelty-is-enemy-of-relationship.aspx]</ref>

==Departure from the norm==
Viewing or reading pornography day in and day out has a negative effect. It desensitizes a person, makes him more withdrawn, and makes him view others (of the opposite sex) like objects rather than the people they are.
Although some people have argued that "erotica" is okay, in the history of erotic literature it is rare to find any depiction of normal marital relations.

Cary Tennis wrote:
:And naturally whether you approve of porn in theory or not, its effect will be to displace you. Like crack, it tends to take over, to push out other hungers that tend to nurture the human community by making us dependent on one another. Since we are dependent on each other we must be civil and loving. If we are not dependent on each other then we needn't be civil and loving. We needn't have community and family.<ref>[http://www.salon.com/mwt/col/tenn/2007/04/11/porn/ (Salon magazine)]</ref>

There is debate whether it is truly moral to be 'civil and loving' purely because it is necessary, as Cary Tennis seems to say here. Other Christians argue that to be 'civil and loving' purely because we are dependent on others is actually immoral and manipulative. These Christians argue that to be self-contained, independent and yet still warm and loving is a greater virtue.

Debbie Nathan wrote:
:Porn is everywhere today, everyone is looking, and the media responds with little more than gloom-and-doom talk about evils like Internet sex addiction, or rah-rah promotion of Brazilian waxing and Jenna Jameson’s fame and fortune. Meanwhile, few know the real history of this explosive media, or the truth about its business practices, working conditions, politics and actual effects on people. [http://debbienathan.com/buy-the-books/ Pornography: A Groundwork Guide.]

==Legal aspects==
Due to a series of [[liberal]] decisions beginning with the [[Warren Court]], pornography is aggressively sold and distributed in the United States without meaningful law enforcement. It is a $7-10 billion industry that affects and harms 40 million Americans. Pornography destroys relationships and exploits young people.<ref>''National Catholic Register'' p. 8 (Apr. 22, 2007).</ref><ref>http://internet-filter-review.toptenreviews.com/internet-pornography-statistics.html</ref> The [[ACLU]] has also opposed any limits on the availability of pornographic content, as well as the [[Child Online Protection Act]], which would have placed restrictions on how accessible pornography would be to minors on the internet.

==References==
<references/>

==See Also==
*[[Anthony Comstock]]
*[[ACLU#Pornography|ACLU]]
*[[Social effects of pornography]]

==External links==
*[http://unitedfamilies.org/default.asp?contentID=34 Guide to Family Issues: The Harms of Pornography] : United Families Intl
*[http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-f016.html How can I tell if I'm getting addicted to sex or pornography?] - ChristianAnswers.Net
*[http://www.soundvision.com/Info/life/porn/getrid.asp Pornography & Islam] : A 12-step guide To Fight Pornography Addiction
*[http://nopornnorthampton.org/ NoPornHampton] - an anti-pornography organization with an extensive, blog-style website
*[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=759 Censorship or Education? Feminist Views on Pornography]
*[http://www.ldsmag.com//LDSMariageNetwork/090306woman.html What's A Woman To Do? How Pornography Affects Women and What They Can Do], Geoff Steurer, ''Meridian Magazine''
*[http://www.obscenitycrimes.org/news/HowAdultPornographyHarmsChildren.pdf How Adult Pornography Contributes To Sexual Exploitation of Children], by Robert Peters, President of Morality in Media (September 2009)

[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:Pornography]]
[[Category:Social Problems]]

Mutagen

2010-05-12T18:55:05Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

A '''mutagen''' is a substance that causes [[mutation]]s to [[DNA]] and an organism's genome. This causes a number of diseases and is closely related to [[Carcinogen|Carcinogenic]] substances. In some cases, things like radioactive materials, can cause both cancer, as well as birth defects.

A mutagen can be natural or man-made agent, and physical or chemical, as long as it has the potential to alter the sequence or structure or sequence of DNA.

== See also ==

*[[Spontaneous mutation]]

[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:genetics]]
[[Category:autism]]

Amy Bishop

2010-05-12T16:14:55Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''Amy Bishop''' is a professor at the University of [[Alabama]], Huntsville, who is best known for [[Professor values|fatally shooting three colleagues]] and wounding three others at a faculty meeting after she was denied tenure.<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,586024,00.html</ref>

She also fatally shot her brother while a teenager, although charges were never filed against her, and the records of the incident have now gone missing.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/02/13/amy-bishop-killed-brother_n_461512.html</ref>

A student rating Bishop on the website RateMyProfessor.com has stated that she is a [[socialist]].<ref>[http://www.ratemyprofessors.com/ShowRatings.jsp?tid=392617&page=1 ratemyprofessors.com]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Liberalism}}

[[Category: Liberal Professors]]
[[Category:Socialists]]

Statism

2010-05-12T16:10:51Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''Statism''' is a political or economic position in which the role of the [[state]] is deemed to be paramount. This could - for example - manifest itself in directly state-controlled enterprises or economic planning directed by the [[government]].

{{cquote|'''A statist system—whether of a [[Communist]], fascist, [[Nazi]], [[socialist]] or “welfare” type—is based on the . . . government’s unlimited power, which means: on the rule of brute force. The differences among statist systems are only a matter of time and degree; the principle is the same. Under statism, the government is not a policeman, but a legalized criminal that holds the power to use physical force in any manner and for any purpose it pleases against [[Gun control|legally disarmed]], defenseless victims.'''

'''Nothing can ever justify so monstrously evil a theory. Nothing can justify the horror, the brutality, the plunder, the destruction, the starvation, the slave-labor camps, the torture chambers, the wholesale slaughter of statist dictatorships. -- “War and Peace,”
The Objectivist Newsletter, Oct. 1962, 44.''' <ref>[http://aynrandlexicon.com/lexicon/statism.html The Objectivist Newsletter, Oct. 1962]</ref> }}

==Examples of Statist Nations and Regimes ==
* [[People's Republic of China]]
* [[Venezuela]]
* [[North Korea]]

== Also See ==
* [[Gun control]]
* [[Socialism]]
* [[Dictatorship]]
* [[Progressives]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Liberalism}}
[[Category: Politics]]
[[Category: Socialism]]

Hancock (movie)

2010-05-11T18:42:08Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

The movie '''Hancock''' is about a superpowered homeless man, brilliantly played by [[Will Smith]], who somehow manages to be less than heroic. He's a drunk, sleeps on a bench, and manages to antagonize everyone around him.

[[Category:Movies]]

Debate:Who created God?

2010-05-10T18:21:21Z

DavidBG: Replying

If there exist a God/superior being who created this being. When I ask this question I get " God created himself". How is this logical?-Ros

Why is it necessary for God to have been created? God could always have existed. [[User:jdstarrett|jdstarrett]]

:I'm sure Philip will get involved here—and believe you me, he is far more qualified to answer this question—but I'm going to take a stab at it. The problem that most can't get past is the notion that God "is, was, and ever shall be," the alpha and omega, so on and so forth. God supersedes time; he in fact ''created'' time according to the Judeo-Christian theology. There was no past before God/YHWH. Nothing needed to come before him, because he is the source of all things, including time itself. It gets complicated there because it's hard to imagine a universe without time; though technically, there wasn't a universe at all until he created it (once again, according to Judeo-Christian theology or at least my best knowledge of it). I'm going to let Philip chime in here and correct any mistakes I've made, and maybe give you a bit more concise explanation as I'm sure he—or one of the many others here—have come across this question far more often than I have. [[User:JLauttamus|Jeffrey W. Lauttamus]][[User_talk:JLauttamus|Discussion]] 12:00, 27 September 2008 (EDT)

Typical Darwin lover know-it-all question. Ok smart guy, tell me where space ends and I will tell you who created God.-- [[Image:50 star flag.png|14px]] [[User:Jpatt|jp]] 12:12, 27 September 2008 (EDT)

: Okay, Jeffrey W. Lauttamus invited me here to comment, so here I am. God is an uncreated being, so it is nothing more than a nonsense question to ask who created an uncreated being.
: That likely then raises the question about how He could be uncreated, to which there are at least two replies:
:* As Jeffrey explained, God exists outside of time. He created time; He is not subject to it. A beginning implies a point in time, but as God is outside of it, that He had a beginning doesn't follow.
:* ''Something'' (or someone) ''must be'' eternal. If it's not God, it might be this universe. But science now has good reason to think that the universe is not eternal, which begs the question of who or what created the universe. (And the universe, by the way, is known as the space/time continuum; time itself began with the universe.) Ultimately, as you go back, the only option left is something or someone that is eternal. And as the laws of physics don't allow for something physical to be eternal, then that something/someone must be non-physical, or spiritual.
: [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 12:25, 27 September 2008 (EDT)

Ok... That makes since. We cannot bound God to logic because he created it. Thanks for clearing that up.-Ros

: Huh? [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 09:45, 28 September 2008 (EDT)

This is an interesting subject. One of the most common argument's for God's existence is some form of the 'watchmaker' analogy - I.E. that the existence of the universe implies that it was created & therefore the existence of a creator (God). Does the existence of God also imply that He was created? And if not, why not? [[User:Sideways|Sideways]] 10:04, 28 September 2008 (EDT)
: The watchmaker analogy is referring to something that was obviously designed because of it's complexity of multiple interacting parts that would not occur naturally. God is not a complexity of multiple interacting parts, so the same argument does not apply to him. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 10:09, 28 September 2008 (EDT)
::There are many examples of complex interacting ecosystems occurring naturally. But of course the watchmaker analogy would suggest that these are in fact created. That is the problem with the waychmaker argument - it suggest that what seems to occur naturally actually doesn't occur naturally. It cannot be disproved, but it only proves itself if it assumes itself to be true. [[User:Sideways|Sideways]] 10:21, 28 September 2008 (EDT)
::: No, it's not a circular argument at all. It is arguing from what we observe (that complex things such as watches and other machinery do not occur without a designer) to what we don't observe (the origin of living things). That sort of deduction is perfectly valid, even if not absolute proof. And we are talking about the ''origin'' of living things, so I dispute that they do "seem" to occur naturally. Being unobserved, they don't "seem" anything. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 10:28, 28 September 2008 (EDT)

::::See my problem is that I don't understand why something or someone "must be" eternal. Why could the universe have not 'just happened'? Sure it might be unlikely but maybe it isn't. I just don't see the need for God in a logical argument about the existence of anything. [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 10:47, 29 September 2008 (AEST)
::::: See my problem is that I don't understand how something could have 'just happened' out of absolutely nothing. If you want to fantasize that absolutely nothing can become something for no reason, then I can't stop you, but that is the realm of fantasy and blind faith, whereas I prefer to stick to reason and observation (we ''observe'' that everything that happens has a cause). That something must be eternal is a deduction from that. The logic for God is that this physical universe must have had a beginning, all events have a cause, the cause of all of physical reality must be something non-physical (i.e. supernatural), therefore there must be a God. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 01:21, 29 September 2008 (EDT)

::::::Haha oh how I have missed debating against you. OK. Well I don't quite see it as that. I don't think that something can come from absolutely nothing either. But I cannot postulate a God to solve that problem because God himself is complex. Certainly we cannot see or examine him to prove how complex he is physically. But an omniscient, omnipotent being that created the entire universe and life itself? That cannot be anything BUT complex. And something that complex has to have a starting point because only something simple, incredibly simple can come about by chance. Something like a singularity. Note that I'm not saying that the Big Band did come around by chance, only that it is far more likely then God coming about by chance. I admit that this is not as scientific or provable as I would like it to be, it does involve some blind faith, however I think that you're position involves more blind faith then mine.
::::::I do take issue with your assertion that "the cause of all of physical reality must be something non-physical (i.e. supernatural)". Why do you say that? I cannot see how you reached that conclusion. [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 22:49, 29 September 2008 (AEST)

::::::: God is not complex: He is not composed of parts. See an [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Talk:Extraterrestrial_life&diff=504256&oldid=504017 earlier post] of mine.
::::::: If the cause of all physical reality was something physical, then something physical must have existed before something physical existed. This is an impossibility, so the only option left is that the cause of all physical reality must be something ''non''-physical.
::::::: [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 10:17, 29 September 2008 (EDT)
Actually thats the only option the bible leaves open, just because its the only possiblitiy you believe in doesn't mean its the truth. Logiclly there is no 'truth' nothing can ever really proven to be 'right' only that it cannot be proven wrong. Its why everything is considered a 'theory' including my claim i just made. You simply leave out the fact that you have absolutely no proof whatsoever that the universe can be of something that can rationally be explained without help of a greater being. Your saying that we cannot examine the thing that started the universe, and yet somehow you were able to magically understand that it created the universe. Before you can claim something you need to prove it. Just because some people are ignorant and dont understand the thinkings of logic and reason doesn't mean everyone will, your claim only pulls us further into the question of what created the non-physical then? What is the non-physical? If it doesn't consist of atoms than what does it consist of? how did this nothingness create something? [[User:ChillinBM]]

:I might not have put it as bluntly as Chillin did, but he's certainly made a clear point. For me, the claim that God is not complex seems to be supportless other then by continuous assertion that it is the case. All I have seen is "God is not complex. Why? Because we can't understand him." and maybe I have missed an important point.
:You're argument there is one of infinite regress and there is a problem with that. Just because you seem to have an infinite regress does not mean that you need invoke something supernatural as a terminator. For example, it was long wondered what would happen if you cut iron into the smallest possible pieces, and then cut it in half again. Surely, by logic, you could continue to halve the pieces infinately. In fact, the once you reach a single atom of iron, the regress has a natural terminator, if you cut the atom in half, whatever is left is no longer iron, it is some other element. I do not know what natural terminator solves the cause and effect regress however I feel justified in not assuming a supernatural terminator for this regress. [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 8:34, 1 October 2008 (AEST)

::No, ChillnBM, it is not the Bible that leaves only that option, but logic. But perhaps I was remiss in not explaining myself properly. I was working on the basis that there is the ''natural'' (or physical) and the ''supernatural'' (or non-physical). That is, ''physical'' and ''non-physical'' are, between them, all-encompassing. There can be nothing that is neither physical nor non-physical. So having eliminated one, you are left with the other.
:: If "logically there is no truth", then that statement itself is not true. So logically, there ''must'' be "truth". What you are getting confused with is ''scientific proof''. In that you are correct; science can only ''disprove'', it can't ''prove''. But that's different to ''truth'', which ''must'' exist. See also sections 1 and 2 of my [[essay: Accuracy vs. neutrality on Conservapedia]].
:: I can't prove ''scientifically'' that God exists, but I can prove it ''logically'' by eliminating the alternatives. Science has eliminated an eternal universe, which means that the universe had a beginning, but has not explained (and cannot explain) what caused the universe to begin. Logically, the beginning of the universe (all of physical reality) must have a non-physical (i.e. supernatural) cause.
:: We know that the ''physical'' must have had a beginning, but we don't know that the ''supernatural'' must have had a beginning, so there is no necessity to explain how the supernatural began. Furthermore, science also shows that ''time'' is an integral part of the universe, so without the universe, i.e. in the realm of that deduced supernatural, ''time'' does not exist. Which means that talking about a ''beginning'' for the supernatural is a bit of nonsense anyway.
:: Deducing that ''something'' supernatural must have created the universe is not at all contradictory to saying that science can't ''study'' the supernatural, so there's no "magic" involved.
:: "''Before you can claim something you need to prove it.''": And yet you didn't bother to prove that claim before you made it. Or prove it afterwards either. Furthermore, you yourself said that things ''can't'' be proved.
:: I don't have to explain every point of something in order to claim the basic point. That is, I can legitimately claim that there must be a supernatural creator without having to explain what He is made of or how He created. And by the way, your final question was a loaded one, referring to the supernatural as "nothingness". Being non-physical doesn't mean that it is "nothingness". In fact, it is ''you'' who has this problem. If you discount God (the supernatural), then you are left with the Big Bang, which is ''nothing'' exploding and becoming everything. So I ask ''you'', "how did this nothingness create something?".

:: Bolly, the quote that I linked to was not just "continuous assertion", and neither was it "because we can't understand him". Admittedly that quote didn't go into much detail, but it indicated that there's been plenty of study of this matter (and ''study'' implies something more than "continuous assertion" or "because we can't understand him") and it also briefly explained some of the rationale.
:: Your "satisfaction" in not assuming a supernatural terminator seems mere wishful thinking, given that you've found a ''different'' infinite regress case that didn't need one. That's not a solid argument at all.
:: [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 23:25, 30 September 2008 (EDT)

:::I do not find that rationale convincing at all, and I still feel that it has little substance. From what I can understand, you outline the reasons why people like me think that God must be complex and they seem to me to be fairly convincing. In return you seem to say "how do you know that he cannot be complex?". Which is true, i don't 'know' that, however it is no real argument, simply a statement.
:::It's not wishful thinking to posit a natural terminator when there are situations in which a former infite regress is shown to have a natural terminator. I agree that it is not a perfect analogy, and certainly not 'proof'. But I would argue that it is a lot more simple and more likely considering that the evidence for any form of supernatural activity, being or event seems to be very limited. So while we 'know' that natural things can exist, we cannot have the same certainty about anything supernatural. I apologise if my argument is not concise but I think you can understand where I am coming from. [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 22:06, 1 October 2008 (AEST)

:::: Is the evidence for the supernatural really that limited? Or is it just that you choose to not believe it? Or haven't looked for it? What sort of evidence would you expect? Even apart from the origin of the universe, there is the matter of the origin of life, and the incredible design and information evident in it. We know from observation that design requires a designer, and information requires an intelligence. We have no viable naturalistic explanation for the origin of life. I would consider that to be evidence for the supernatural. Then there is historical documentary evidence, i.e. the Bible. It records various supernatural events. True, one cannot ''scientifically'' test those claims, but one ''can'' look at the source of those claims and conclude that the source is a very reliable one. So again, that becomes ''evidence'' (albeit not scientific proof) of supernatural activity. So I reject your claim that there is very limited evidence. [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 09:58, 1 October 2008 (EDT)

:::::I think it is. No, because although you might laugh at this claim, I have an open mind. If the evidence is there I am more then willing to look at it, examine it, and then accept it if it's satisfactory. Ah, the design = designer argument. You are correct that 'design' requires a designer, however it can be easy to mistake complexity for design. I don't think they're the same thing. I think evolution more the adequately explains the complexity of life. Leaving that aside, you are correct that the beginning of the universe and the origin of life are two events that we have almost no knowledge of, or evidence based theory for. However lack of a naturalistic explanation does not automatically mean that it must have been supernatural. And the bible. While I don't wish to start this argument again because it stalemates so easily and neither of us achieves anything, I do not accept the bible as anything more then a collection of anecdotes with some small historical accuracy, that only comes from an event that is recorded several generations after its occurence. That's not to say that the bible is worthless, only that you cannot use it on its own to support supernaturalism. For example, some conspiracy theorist whos name sounded dutch but I cannot remember it, claimed that the story of Sodom was actually about an alien civilisation nuking the city. Ridiculous? Almost certainly, but his "theory" almost perfectly explained the origin of that bible story. I'm definately not saying that he was correct, just that the bible can prove a lot of things if you want it to. [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 9:52, 2 October 2008 (AEST)

:::::: Almost everybody thinks that they have an open mind, so thinking it is not much in the way of evidence.
:::::: Is it truly easy to mistake complexity for design? What complexity do you know of that wasn't designed? Of course, if you mention ''life'', you are begging the question, and evolution ''can't'' explain it.
:::::: The origins of the universe and of life are not simply things for which there is a "lack of a naturalistic explanation", but for which the naturalistic explanation is ''against''. For example, experiments, such as Stanley and Miller’s(?), show that life ''could not'' occur naturally. I'm not saying that such experiments rule out all possible explanations; rather, I'm saying that the experiments not only did not support naturalistic origins of life, but also provided reasons ''against'' a naturalistic explanation. To provide an example of that example, life requires optically-pure amino acids, whereas their experiment produced a mixture of left- and right-handed amino acids. That is, their experiments produced a ''problem'' for naturalistic explanations to explain. In summary, the available evidence is not simply ''missing'', but ''opposed'' to a naturalistic explanations.
:::::: The Bible has far more than just "small historical accuracy", and most of it is eye-witness accounts, not "recorded several generations after its occurence".
:::::: Are you thinking of Von Daniken? Without knowing his "explanation", I can't comment much, but most explanations I’ve seen of biblical events simply ignore large parts of what the Bible actually says. A good example is the claim that the flooding of the Black Sea is the origin of the Bible's flood account.[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3392]
:::::: [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 23:01, 1 October 2008 (EDT)

(unindent) You are right of course, but I still like to think so!

I think it is. You're correct that if I say 'life' it does beg the question but what about something like the water cycle? You know, evaporation over the sea, condensations in the clouds, precipitation over land or sea and it all starts again. Sure its not really complex but many tribes and civilisations over the years have worshipped a rain god or something like that. I already know that you're objection to evolution is that you think that mutations destroy genetic information. I fail to understand how you can think this when, while mutations will often destroy some information it instantle 'creates' new information. If GVA mutates to GHA, then the V has been destroyed and the H has been created. Massive, massive oversimplification I know but I still think it shows my point.

I agree that Stanley and Miller's (I think thats right) experiment did not support a naturalistic explanation however I think you overestimate the magnitude of the 'problems' it places in front of it. Life ''as we know it'' requires optically-pure amino acids, but that may be only because life very quickly evolved to be able to produce its own pure amino acids and thus no longer needed to rely on impure, left and right handed, amino acids. Over time we lost the ability to use these impure acids. Look I know that may sound far-fetched but it didn't take much effort to show that their experiment really simply failed to provide any evidence either way.

Von Daniken! Thats him! Thankyou, yes I love that guys writing, sure it's probably all completely wrong, but its great fun to read. No, because, if I remember correctly, his explanation actually didn't ignore anything that the bible said about the story. It explained everything I think, like why Lot's wife became a pillar of salt, and why the angel hurried them out of the city, and why that city was chosen to be nuked or something. And while I definately don't believe any of it is true, it has just as much evidence to support it as the bibles version of events does which casts some doubt onto the Bible's claim to historical accuracy. As for Noah's ark, I still think it has something to do with the end of the last ice age or something like that. I can't prove it, I know. But most civilisations have different flood myths, and you'd think they'd all have the same if a worldwide complete flooding had happened and everyone on earth was descended from Moses. By the way, minor unimportant question, If Adam and Eve had two sons, one of whom killed the other, how did Cain have children? Sorry, it's just kinda bothered me ever since I heard that story... [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 07:12, 2 October 2008 (EDT)

: Yeah, I like to think I'm open-minded too, but I know plenty would disagree with that!
: Your example of the water cycle fails because, like life, you haven't shown that it ''did'' occur naturally (without design). I could also object on another ground, but that would be tantamount to defining complexity as something that can't occur naturally, which is a valid argument, but perhaps I won't use it right now.
: Your mutation example (also) fails because of a misunderstanding of what "information" is. [[Information]] is something that conveys ''meaning''. Words are information. So if you "mutate" "my name is Philip" to "my nsme is Philip", what new ''information'' is created? None. Rather, the information has been ''damaged'' (if not destroyed) (ignoring that our brains are smart enough to figure out what must have been intended). (And by the way, I created that mutation by "chance", by closing my eyes, cursoring back a few characters, and randomly pressing a key. I possibly ''could have'' created new information if I had ''intelligently designed'' the "mutation".) It is false to say that any change constitutes new information.
: Regarding Stanley and Miller's experiment, I already acknowledged that it doesn't rule out all possible explanations. But the point is that it is positive ''evidence'' opposed to the naturalistic position. Yes, perhaps it only rules out life ''as we know it'', but then it is this ''life that we know'' that we are talking about. It's an interesting characteristic of believers in naturalism that they claim to be scientific, but when scientific evidence is presented that opposes their ideas, they resort to ''ad hoc'' speculation to explain away the evidence. So, it's inaccurate to say that the experiment failed to produce any evidence either way. It didn't absolutely ''prove'' anything (and "scientific proof' is an oxymoron anyway), but it did produce ''evidence'' against a naturalistic explanation.
: Forgive me for being sceptical, but I don't give your claim that "his explanation actually didn't ignore anything that the bible said" much credibility when it is clear that your knowledge of the biblical account is somewhat lacking. See the following comments.
: As for Noah's flood, you wouldn't expect all the stories to be identical, as stories that are retold and retold verbally tend to change, often inadvertently, but sometimes deliberately (parents telling children using locations, creatures, etc. that they are familiar with rather than having to explain unfamiliar concepts). But it's still the case that there is a lot of similarity; too much to explain other than with a common origin. See [[Great Flood]] for more on this. And everybody on Earth is descended from ''Noah'', not Moses.
: The Bible records that after Cain killed Abel, they had another son, named Seth. So there's three sons, not two. Further, it also says that they had "other sons and daughters", so there's a lot more (Jewish tradition is two or three dozen of each, I believe), including potential wives for Cain. (How did he have children? The same way everyone else does: The Bible says that "Cain lay with his wife, and she became pregnant".) Now that may well raise another question in your mind, in which case I recommend that you read [http://creationontheweb.com/images/pdfs/cabook/chapter8.pdf this].
: [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 09:15, 2 October 2008 (EDT)

::Don't know about open-minded, but I see you as a decent person, and what more can you do?
::True. Very true. I'm making assumptions. Well in that case I ask, what do you need for me to prove, as much as is possible, that it is indeed not designed. For example I can point to a water molecule and show that its properties allow it to exist easily as a liquid and a lighter than air gas. Hydrogen bonding and so on, gravity causing it to fall and so on. Also I can talk about Mars, and how it has been discovered that it snows there, which is part of the water cycle, and thus say that if it had been designed for Earth, why does it also work on Mars? Yet I'm not sure if this will satisfy you.
::Again, true. I apologise for misrepresenting your argument. You are right, however genetic information doesn't work like that either. Because genetic information creates proteins, a mutation of that gene could result in a protein with differing properties. Mostly these probably make little difference, however sometimes the difference is significant, or it is a significant difference (I didn't just repeat myself, I did reread it to check) and so it has an affect on the organism. You know that, or at least some of it and you don't believe the rest. So changing the information isn't the same as changing a letter in a sentence. It's more like changing an ingredient or an instruction in a recipe. It changes the taste, or the appearance (yeast in bread) but it is still relevant and the cake, or the bread, or the animal is different. Sometimes worse, sometimes better.
::Yeh I did kinda start postulating. Alright, I admit defeat on that one, Stanley and Miller's experiment did provide some evidence against a naturalistic explanation for the creation of life. I still believe that a naturalistic explanation is the best one, but I cannot argue against you here.
::Touche. Noah, not Moses. I apologise, that wasn't a mistake based on lack of knowledge or familiarity, but rather an honest slip. A stupid, honest slip. So I don't blame you. But I maintain that Von Danikin's story, myth, etc, was just as well supported by the Bible's evidence as the Christian story is. If you don't believe me, then don't, it doesn't bother me because I don't actually subscribe to Von Danikin's beliefs. But if you ever have the time to read his books, I do recomend them as they are great fun.
::Yes they wouldn't be identical, but I would at least expect them all to mention an ark, and remember the name 'Moses' as their ancestor and so on. I think the differences in the stories are far to great to allow for a single event, rather they point to a rise of sea levels or something similar that occurred around the world and affected a variety of peoples.
::Ok thanks, I read the link, that explains it. Well not the whole link, but it answered my questions anyway. Thanks for taking the time to explain that. [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 09:50, 2 October 2008 (EDT)

::Further experiments similar to the Urey-Miller experiments have been performed since then. Perhaps it's best to start with those, /recent/ studies than couching an entire argument in an experiment that we know today was not without flaws. It may also be best not to take out of context what the experiment meant to prove; that the building blocks of life could be created under circumstances (then) believed to be similar to those of ancient Earth. In this regard they were right; all that comes after is beyond the scope of the study in question.[[User:Jirby|Jirby]] 16:12, 2 October 2008 (EDT)

If you would like to play the logic game, heres a fun point of view. And your logic is still flawed.

1. The Creation of the universe is the most marvellous achievement imaginable.

2. The merit of an achievement is the product of its intrinsic quality and the ability of its creator.

3. The greater the disability of the creator, the more impressive the achievement.

4. The most formidable handicap for a creator would be non-existence.

5. Therefore if we suppose that the universe is the product of an existing creator we can conceive a greater being - namely one who created everything while not existing.

6 An existing God therefore would not be a being greater than which a greater cannot be conceived because an even more formidable and incredible creator would be a God which did not exist.

7. God does not exist.

Just to clear some things up, Nothing can be considered to be PROVEN in the term that a theory is only true until it is proven wrong. People like to say that things such as the big bang theory and evolution aren't true because they are just a theory. When in actuality, everything is a theory. Secondly you didn't seem to have read my other point, i said it can't be proven right, but also it continues to work until it is proven WRONG. In which case, you haven't proven my theory wrong, you pointed out that i dont have evidence, but the truth is, its true until proven wrong. My claim simply says that you need evidence before you can prove another theory wrong, or to prove yours is right. My evidence, look at the whole reason for debates and the scientific process. They are meant to find information on their subject and back it up so that it is evident that what they are saying is in fact logically possible or right.

Secondly, the big bang unlike God is something that has been debated and studied by scientists who spend their lives trying to understand the origins of the universe. The 'Nothingness' inside the singularity that started the big bang, has been recorded in other places in the universe, such as black holes. Its simple, the spec where the everything was inside was so infinity dense, that in technical terms is 'nothing'.

Science cannot study the 'supernatural' because it doesn't 'exist'. You claim that you cannot study god, and yet SOMEHOW the people that wrote the bible understood him? And Adam and Eve?

With your logic there we can say that since science cannot examine my imagination, im imagining that the world is a giant pillow. Since you can't go into my imagination and specifically EXAMINE the aspects of my realm, you cannot prove that its not real, therefore the world is but one giant pillow.

[[User:ChillinBM]]

:Haha I like that logic, although its not very hard for a creationist to dismiss. I think though, despite the fact that I agree with you Chillin, you are more likely to get your point across if you put it a bit less aggressively. Christians are humans too! In all seriousness though, a debate is a lot more enjoyable if everyone is courteous despite disagreements. [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 22:30, 3 October 2008 (EDT)

== Break to assist editing ==

To '''Bolly''':

How can you prove that the water cycle is not designed? You can't, because you were not there when it began, and neither do you know of anybody who was (except God, but we're ignoring him for this exercise). What you need to do is to find an example where its origin ''was'' observed, so that there is documentation of just how it came about. Now don't even think of claiming that there are no examples of complex things forming without anybody being there to observe them, because there are plenty being formed all the time, such as machines, books (the arrangement of letters is complex), and so on. Yeah, okay, they are things that humans have created, so they don't count as being undesigned—''but that's the point: all the examples we '''know''' of were designed''!

The difference between English (for example) words and genetic information doesn't change things. I'll explain. In English, words can be any (reasonable) length, and not all combinations of letters are used. This is unlike DNA where each "word" is three characters, and all 64 combinations are used. However, this is not the whole story. In English, it's not just the letters that have to be right, but the words, sentences, and paragraphs. Just suppose that every possible "mutation" of an English word produced another English word. That "mutated" word will still not make sense in the sentence. Similarly with DNA. A mutation will form another "word" (rather than nonsense), which will equate to a particular amino acid, but will the resulting protein make sense? Or the molecule which incorporates that protein? No. So you haven't really solved the problem.

Some changes are indeed like changing an ingredient in a recipe. The genes for recognising smells and viruses work this way I believe. But that's because the recipe for the fruit cake can accept any fruit. It can't accept rat poison being substituted for raisins, for example.

As for mentioning Moses when Noah was meant, I can understand and accept a simple mistake (and that's one that many make). (But then you made the ''same'' mistake in your reply!) However, it wasn't just that simple mistake, but ''also'' the mistake of claiming that Adam and Eve only had two sons. One simple mistake—a simple slip. Two mistakes, with one being more than just the wrong name—I question your familiarity.

I think that you expect too much in what you would expect the flood legends to include, and especially if you think that they would have the same words for them. The word "ark", from memory, basically means "box". The Greek account on the [[Great Flood]] page refers to a "chest". Is that really any different, when you allow for different languages, cultures, and etc.? And the Hawaiian account has "Nuu" in place of "Noah". That could easily be a version of the same name. And by the way, that page only has a small sampling of the similarities. Yet even so, there are some parallels that I consider remarkable. Why would independently-invented flood stories have a bird being sent out to see if the flood had subsided? That doesn't even seem to make that much sense, except in the case of Noah's Ark which may not have offered a view of the surroundings. Yet a number of stories have it. One of the birds that Noah sent out was a dove, and at least one of the other accounts specifically has a dove. And why the promise of the rainbow? It's understandable that a rainbow might be associated with a flood story, and even that the rainbow might be a ''reminder'' of the flood. But why would the rainbow be a sign that a similar flood would not happen again, per the Australian aboriginal account quoted?

To '''Jirby''':

Do any of those more recent studies actually show anything more substantial? And in one point you are right: the experiments were done assuming certain conditions then believed to be the case on ancient Earth. Specifically, they assumed an oxygen-free atmosphere, because that was the belief, because an atmosphere containing oxygen would have destroyed the molecules being formed. But the view now is that the atmosphere had oxygen, which means that the experiment showed that they wouldn't get the right amino acids ''even assuming an atmosphere more favourable than would have existed''.

To '''ChillinBM''':

As Bolly says, your logic is easy to dismiss. Points 5 and 6 are pure nonsense, and even if true, point 7 doesn't follow from the previous points.

A theory is not "true" until it is proven wrong. It cannot (correctly) be proven wrong unless it ''is'' wrong, in which case it could not have also been ''true''. And no, not ''everything'' is a theory. Some things are merely hypotheses, and some things are fact (such as my name being Philip).

Yes, some people do like to say that evolution is "just a theory", but this argument ''is specifically rejected by leading creationists''[http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/2996/84/#just_theory] (and I hope Ajkgordon will bother to clarify his misleading claims in that regard).

God has also been debated and studied by many people, including scientists, so the Big Bang is not "unlike God" in that respect at all.

Black holes are not "nothingness"; they are ''something''. Note in the following view from Big Bang expert (he invented one of the Big Bang versions) Alan Guth it does not say that stuff came from black holes or anything similar, but from "absolutely nothing":
{{QuoteBox|The universe burst into something from absolutely nothing—zero, nada. And as it got bigger, it became filled with even more stuff that came from absolutely nowhere.[http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/2507]}}

Science cannot study the supernatural because the scientific method and its tools are only capable of studying ''physical'' stuff; not because the supernatural doesn't exist. I didn't say that you cannot study God. I said that ''science'' can't study God. But science is not the only way to learn things. We can study God because He has told us much about Himself, and because He came to Earth in human form 2000 years ago, and in other similar ways. And Adam and Eve, who had freshly-created brains without any flaws, knew Him personally.

Your last paragraph is illogical, and not the same logic I'm using. There are two flaws, if I understand you correctly. First, you seem to be arguing that because I can't examine ''your imagination'', therefore I can't examine ''the world'' to see if your imagination is providing correct information. This is nonsense. Second, not being able to prove that something is not real doesn't mean that it ''is'' real. I'm not claiming that God is real simply because you can't prove He's not. If that's what you think, you've read your own preconceptions into what I said.

[[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 09:27, 5 October 2008 (EDT)

:Im sorry if i came out...hastily before, i dont mean to have anybody pissed off...well unless i dont like them of course, lol :D.
Anyway...you can't prove that the supernatural ect. Cannot be understood, because if it cannot be examined, obviously, it doesn't have any way to reach us. In which case, it doesn't affect us.

:Steps 6 and 7 are very simple.

:- God is the most powerful being, so he had to have had the greatest handicap in the creating of the universe, because if not, there is something that is more powerful than that.

:- If god existed while creating the universe, then he didn't make the most impossible achievement, because the greatest would have been creating the universe from non-existence.

:- God doesn't exist.

:Another simple point i'd like to make. Claiming that science cannot examine something makes no logical sense at all. Even if science couldn't examine something, there would be adequate debates on how the topic couldn't be studied and why it cannot. In which case, there is no EVIDENCE whatsoever that it exists. If you would like to argue about this, please try it at [http://richarddawkins.net/forum/viewtopic.php?f=3&t=58941] Though i myself like to debate against such things, im not as far in the subject as most of the people on the forum.

:Anyway, im sorry about the theory thing, i was just paraphrasing and basing off what i can remember, im not exact, and im not very far in the studies of science or theology, though im still doing what i can to study both.

:[[User:ChillinBM]]

:: "''Anyway...you can't prove that the supernatural ect. Cannot be understood..''": I don't claim that the supernatural can't be understood, so I don't have to prove it.
:: "''...if it cannot be examined...''": But it ''can'' be examined, if it chooses to reveal itself to us. Which God has, Christians believe.
:: "''God is the most powerful being, so he had to have had the greatest handicap in the creating of the universe, because if not, there is something that is more powerful than that.''": No, that's a non-sequitur.
:: "''...the greatest would have been creating the universe from non-existence.''": That's still simply nonsense.
:: "''Claiming that science cannot examine something makes no logical sense at all. Even if science couldn't examine something, there would be adequate debates on how the topic couldn't be studied and why it cannot.''": There is ''likely'' to be such debates (and there is in the case of the supernatural), but it's not a given that there necessarily ''will be'' such debates.
:: "''In which case, there is no EVIDENCE whatsoever that it exists.''": Huh?
:: "''If you would like to argue about this, please try it at [http://richarddawkins.net/forum/viewtopic.php?f=3&t=58941]''": No, ''you'' raised it, so I will debate it with ''you''.
:: "''Anyway, im sorry about the theory thing, i was just paraphrasing and basing off what i can remember, im not exact, and im not very far in the studies of science or theology, though im still doing what i can to study both.''": Then can I suggest that you ''do'' study the Christian view, instead of trying to refute something that you haven't studied enough to know what you are talking about?
:: [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 22:36, 5 October 2008 (EDT)

:::Ahh! Noah/Moses! I do apologise again. That was just plain ridiculous. Maybe the very fact I got it wrong once means I was more likely to get it wrong again? I don't know. Well you don't have to believe me, and it has been a while since I did last read it, maybe I'm becoming forgetful.....maybe I have Moses on my brain. I wonder why?

:::Chillin does actually have a point though. He's using the ontological argument against itself, which, if you don't buy into that argument, is pointless.

:::The recipe analogy does work though, because a cake made from rat poison would not 'survive'. A fruit cake could indeed have chocolate substituted and it might still work and be tasty. The protein doesn't have to 'make sense' because it only has to perform a simple function, with complex results. Regardless of how it performs, or fails to perform, its task, it still has an affect on the organism. So any viable permutation of the DNA will have a 'meaning'. [[User:Bolly|Bolly]] 00:14, 7 October 2008 (EDT)

Arguing with me is fine, but i wont be able to show the evidence as well as the people on the forum i just submited as well because i do not study the topics as well as them. If you dont want to go there, its you choice, but it shows that you dont want to deal with who really knows more information. Just so you know, I study both, i've seen the christian view, went to church and christian school for my elementary years. Just doesn't seem logical to me, too many contradictions.

By the model of god put from the bible god should be omnipotent, and omniscience, there should be NOTHING that exists that can be more powerful than him. In which case, he cannot exists, because if he did exist, he wouldn't have the most power, because if something were to create the universe from a nonexistance, it would be more powerful than him.

By the way, I love your responses, quoting everything i say and put a simple 'nonsense' or 'doesn't make sense' next to it. Maybe thats how we should explain everything in the world.

Science is the simple step of anylizing anything. In this case, this 'anything' is supposedly nothing. I have a question for those who say that we cannot examine god. If it cannot be examed, how can it happen? Logically, if something is afflicted by god, god has to use something existing, or physical to alter what is happening in the physical world, in which case, non of it has been found nor detected in any manner.

And we seem to still miss the question, If god has been here from the beginning of time, who created time? Who created God? How come people can always say 'well what happend before the big bang?' but yet they cant face thier own problem of 'well what happend before god?'

:As mentioned above, there was nothing before God, for two reasons. Firstly, God is eternal. Secondly, God invented and created the timestream. "Before" refers to something that existed in the timestream before God, but God is outside of the timestream entirely, therefore this question doesn't apply to him. [[User:DavidBG|David]] [[User talk:DavidBG|Talk]] 14:21, 10 May 2010 (EDT)

[[User:ChillinBM]]
[[Category:Conservapedia Debates]]

Flood

2010-05-10T15:51:14Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

A '''flood''' is a [[natural disaster]] wherein an overabundance of water encroaches upon a given area of land where it is normally dry. While entirely natural in many areas, its impact on humans can range from mild to devastating, depending on severity and preparedness.

Floods have often affected both global and national history. According to [[Flood geology|Flood geologists]], the [[Great Flood]] of Noah's time is responsible for much of the [[geology]] of the [[Earth]]'s surface. The [[Johnstown flood]] of 1889 (also referred to locally as the "Great Flood" in reference to the biblical flood) did much to highlight dam safety (or lack thereof) in the [[United States]]. Flooding along the [[Mississippi River]] in 1993 caused millions of dollars in infrastructure damage and agricultural loss.

==See Also==
*[[Great Flood]]
*[[Natural disaster]]

[[Category:Natural Disasters]]

Al Gore

2010-05-10T15:15:17Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

{{President
|image=Al Gore VP portrait 1994.jpg
|seq=45
|office=vice
|term_start=January 20, 1993
|term_end=January 20, 2001
|party=Democratic
|pres=Bill Clinton
|previous=Dan Quayle
|next=Dick Cheney
|birth_date=March 31, 1948
|birth_place=Washington, D.C.
|death_date=
|death_place=
|spouse=[[Tipper Gore]]
|spouse2=
|religion=[[Baptist]]
}}

'''Albert Arnold "Al" Gore, Jr.''' ( born March 31, 1948) was the 45th [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]] of the [[United States]] (1993-2001), succeeding [[Dan Quayle]] and succeeded by [[Dick Cheney]], following service in the [[House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate|Senate]], spanning 1977-85 and 1985-93, respectively. He is a Nobel-prize winner for his work on [[global warming]]; Gore spreads [[alarmist]] [[propaganda]], proclaiming the end of the world. Gore likes to say that, "The Earth has a fever," <ref>http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/GlobalWarming/story?id=2110628&page=1</ref> and is making millions of dollars through his fraud scheme.<ref>http://newsbusters.org/node/11149</ref> He has no degree in atmospheric sciences, meteorology, physics, chemistry, biology, or climatology. Gore took two science classes as an undergraduate, scoring a "C+" in one and a "D" in the other. <ref>http://www.larryelder.com/Gore/goredubiousrecord.htm</ref>

Gore was the [[Democratic Party]]'s candidate for President in the 2000 election, running on a ticket with Sen. [[Joe Lieberman|Joseph Lieberman]] of [[Connecticut]].

In his early life, Gore attended [[Harvard University]] and (briefly) [[Vanderbilt University]]. He also served in the [[United States Army]] and worked as a war correspondent during the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>Kennedy,William V. ''The Military and the Media: Why the Press Cannot Be Trusted to Cover a War''. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 1993. <http://com.hilbert.edu/students/papers/carolina-1999/1999vietnam.html></ref> He is married to activist [[Tipper Gore]].

__TOC__

==Political career==

[[Al Gore]] followed his father, [[Albert Gore, Sr.]] a prominent [[Democratic]] Senator from [[Tennessee]], into [[Congress]]. His father was a supporter of the [[New Deal]] who was finally defeated in 1970, despite having sent his son to [[Vietnam]] in order to bolster his campaign.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2000/democracy/gore/stories/gore/</ref>

Al Gore was initially somewhat [[conservative]] on social issues, supporting [[Clarence Thomas]] for the [[Supreme Court]] and, along with his wife, opposing offensive lyrics in rock music. But as his presidential aspirations grew, Gore became increasingly [[liberal]].

Gore ran for president in 1988 but was defeated in the primary by [[Michael Dukakis]]. Gore then continued to serve in the Senate.<ref>While serving in the Senate, Gore introduced the High-Performance Computing Act of 1991, signed December 9, 1991, which his supporters claim helped develop the Internet and the National Research and Education Network. [http://www.congress.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:SN00272:@@@L&summ2=m&] [http://www.computerhistory.org/internet_history/internet_history_90s.shtml] When Gore himself bragged about creating the internet, he was referring to prior legislation (see quotations below).</ref>

In the [[United States presidential election, 1992|1992 Presidential Election]], Democratic nominee [[Bill Clinton]] selected Gore as his running mate. They won the election, and Gore was sworn in as Vice President on January 20, 1993. Clinton and Gore were elected to a second term in [[United States presidential election, 1996|1996]]. Gore had little influence in the Clinton Administration, and almost nothing of significance is attributed to him.

As is often the case for incumbent Vice Presidents, Gore was nominated as his party's candidate in the [[United States presidential election, 2000|2000 Presidential Election]]. He lost to [[George W. Bush]] in the [[Electoral College]] after a close vote, in which Gore received more popular votes than Bush, but fewer electoral votes. Gore contested the results in Florida. On December 13, 2000, after an extensive court battle ([[Bush v. Gore]]), Gore accepted Bush's election to the presidency.<ref>Leip, David. "2000 Presidential General Election Results." David Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. 2005. 18 Mar. 2007 <http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=2000>.</ref>

== Al Gore and uncharitableness ==

''See also'': [[Liberal politicians and uncharitableness]] and [[Barack Obama and uncharitableness]]

The political magazine the ''[[American Spectator]]'' declared:
{{cquote|The last two Democratic Party nominees for President have come up short on the charity scale. Al Gore has been famously stingy when it comes to actually giving his own money to charities. In 1998 he was embarrassed when his tax returns revealed that he gave just $353 to charity...<ref>http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=1c5_1238044126&c=1</ref>}}

==Supporters==
[[Image:20001025 xnjdo FredGoreFiny.jpg|thumb|180px|left|From left to right: Fred Phelps, Al Gore, and former Kansas Gov. Joan Finney.]]
In 1988 Gore courted the support of controversial [[activist]] [[Fred Phelps]] of the [[Westboro Baptist Church]] in Topeka, Kansas. In appreciation for Phelps' help and support of Gore, Phelps was provided tickets to the [[inauguration]] of [[President Clinton]] in 1992 and 1996.<ref>[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=15559 Gore sought help from anti-homosexual group], 'God hates fags' creator preaches 'hate because the Bible preaches hate', By Jon E. Dougherty, ''WorldNetDaily.com'', October 25, 2000.</ref> Phelps has since changed his opinion about Gore when he joined Bill Clinton on the 1992 presidential ticket. Phelps turned on him and claimed Gore was a conservative icon of the Democratic Party that sold out on some critical social issues. Phelps also demonstrated against Clinton and Gore during the 1997 inaugural. <ref> http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID={91058469-F6DE-4615-8B2A-73CDF3E8FCAC} </ref>
<ref> http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4179/is_20001104/ai_n11753681 </ref>

==Current activities==
Gore has started an [[Ponzi scheme|investment firm]] to invest in environmentally sustainable technology and industries and a cable channel (Current TV), and is an adviser to [[Google]]. He was also mentioned as a possible [[2008 presidential election|2008 presidential candidate]].
[[File:GoreFireBreathing.jpg|right|150px]]
Gore and the ''Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change'' shared the 2007 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his work on [[climate change]].<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,312024,00.html</ref>

Gore is the author of ''The [[Assault on Reason]]''. He also starred in the 2006 film about [[global warming]] entitled, ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]],'' which won an [[Academy Award]]. In 2007, the British High Court directed teachers to inform students to whom they show the film that it "is a political work and promotes only one side of the argument" and to draw attention to eleven specific inaccuracies. Furthermore, the court advised, "If teachers present the Film without making this plain they may be in breach of ... the Education Act 1996 and guilty of political [[indoctrination]]."<ref>Sheppard, Noel. "Court Identifies Eleven Inaccuracies in Al Gore’s ‘An Inconvenient Truth’." [Weblog NewsBusters] 08 Oct 2007. Newsbusters. 9 Oct 2007 <[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/noel-sheppard/2007/10/09/court-identifies-eleven-inaccuracies-al-gore-s-inconvenient-truth http://newsbusters.org/blogs/noel-sheppard/2007/10/09/court-identifies -eleven-inaccuracies-al-gore-s-inconvenient-truth]>.</ref> Despite the errors, the judge also concluded "four main scientific hypotheses, each of which is very well supported by research published in respected, peer-reviewed journals and accords with the latest conclusions of the IPCC.” <ref> http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,301067,00.html</ref>

Speaking in Manhattan to the fourth annual Clinton Global Initiative, Gore wants to use "civil disobedience" to combat the construction of coal power plants without the ability to capture carbon. <ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,427421,00.html Al Gore Urges 'Civil Disobedience' Toward Coal Plants] Fox News, September 24, 2008</ref> Civil disobedience or the call for intentional violation of laws is an extremist point of view. It is believed that he was speaking in regards to Western nation coal plants. No mention of China and their coal production. The gravest threat from coal pollution comes from China, in which two plants are constructed per week and 500 more plants over the next 10 years. <ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9947668 China's Coal-Fueled Boom Has Costs] NPR, May 2, 2007</ref>

==Quotes==
* Gore said, '''''"I took the initiative in creating the Internet."''''' <ref>Blitzer, Wolf. Transcript: Vice President Gore on CNN's 'Late Edition'. CNN. 9 March 1999. 2 June 2007 <[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/03/09/president.2000/transcript.gore/ http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/03/09/president.2000 /transcript.gore/]></ref>

* Gore falsely claimed that he discovered problems in Love Canal and fixed them. He said:

:"I called for a congressional investigation and a hearing. I looked around the country for other sites like that. I found a little place in upstate New York called Love Canal. Had the first hearing on that issue."<ref>http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/1999/12/02/politics/main72638.shtml</ref>

:"That was the one that started it all. ... We made a huge difference and it was all because one high school student got involved."

:"I love [[Van Jones]]. I love his work. I love his heart and his commitment and his intellect. I love his mission. He has wisely picked a part of this set of interwoven challenges that should have been addressed much more forcefully by me and others long ago.”<ref>http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/01/12/090112fa_fact_kolbert?currentPage=all</ref>

* During an interview with ''Slate'', regarding the Climate Research Unit at East Anglia University, a question was asked concerning a sense from the [[Climategate]] e-mails and from data that was "hidden and hoarded." These truths are the opposite of the case Al Gore made in his book about having an open and fair debate. Gore responded with a lack of command of the most basic details of anything related to Earth and climate. He said,
{{cquote|I haven’t read all the e-mails, but the most recent one is more than 10 years old. [...] So an e-mail exchange more than 10 years ago including somebody’s opinion that a particular study isn’t any good is one thing [...] but where the scientific consensus is concerned, it’s completely unchanged. What we’re seeing is a set of changes worldwide that just make this discussion over 10-year-old e-mails kind of silly.<ref>http://wattsupwiththat.com/2009/12/08/al-gore-cant-tell-time-thinks-most-recent-climategate-email-is-more-than-10-years-old/</ref><ref>http://www.slate.com/id/2237789/</ref>}}
:The most recent emails in Climategate were from November 12, 2009.

* In an interview aired on the ''[[CBS]]'' ''Early Show'', Al Gore read his global warming poem to Harry Smith.<ref>Noel Sheppard. [http://newsbusters.org/blogs/noel-sheppard/2009/12/15/al-gore-reads-poem-harry-smith-says-wow-i-m-happy-hear-it-your-voice Gore Reads Poem, Harry Smith Swoons: 'Wow...I’m Happy to Hear it in Your Voice'], ''[[NewsBusters]]'', December 15, 2009.</ref><ref>[[Rush Limbaugh]]. [http://www.rushlimbaugh.com/home/daily/site_120709/content/01125109.guest.html Algore's Idiotic Poem and All the Latest from the ClimateGate Stack], RushLimbaugh.com, December 7, 2009.</ref>

{{Cquote|
:''One thin September soon''
:''A floating continent disappears''
:''In midnight sun''

:''Vapors rise as''
:''Fever settles on an acid sea''
:''Neptune's bones dissolve''

:''Snow glides from the mountain''
:''Ice fathers floods for a season''
:''A hard rain comes quickly''

:''Then dirt is parched''
:''Kindling is placed in the forest''
:''For the lightning's celebration''

:''Unknown creatures''
:''Take their leave, unmourned''
:''Horsemen ready their stirrups''

:''Passion seeks heroes and friends''
:''The bell of the city''
:''On the hill is rung''

:''The shepherd cries''
:''The hour of choosing has arrived''
:''Here are your tools''}}

==Criticism==
[[Image:Al and GW.png|thumb|400px|Cartoon by Greg Sheffield]]
[[Ann Coulter]] claims Gore exaggerated his military service record: "Al Gore endlessly bragged to the media about his service in Vietnam. 'I took my turn regularly on the perimeter in these little firebases out in the boonies. Something would move, we'd fire first and ask questions later,' he told Vanity Fair. And then we found out Gore had a personal bodyguard in Vietnam, the most dangerous weapon he carried was a typewriter, and he left after three months."<ref>http://www.anncoulter.com/cgi-local/welcome.cgi</ref>

In 2007, Al Gore received criticism for his high electricity use. When it was discovered that Gore's electric utility bill is 20 times higher than the average American's<ref>[http://stoptheaclu.com/archives/2007/02/26/al-gore-hypocrite/ Al Gore - Electric consumption bill]</ref> many of his detractors accused him of not living up to his own standards. In the year since the 2007 criticism, energy use at Gore's mansion increased 10%.<ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewCulture.asp?Page=/Culture/archive/200806/CUL20080619a.html</ref>
Gore's defenders claim that the majority of that power came from "green", or environmentally friendly, power sources such as solar and wind power. These power sources are much more expensive than traditional power sources such as coal and nuclear power.{{Fact}}

Also, some conservatives have pointed to Gore's use of a private jet while spreading the message about the dangers of [[global warming]].<ref>[http://www.gnn.tv/articles/2332/More_Inconvenient_Truths_About_Al_Gore More Inconvenient Truths About Al Gore]</ref>

Attention has also been called to Gore's profits from mining royalties, specifically the mining of zinc adjacent to his property that he leased in Tennessee, which has released millions of pounds of potentially toxic substances into the environment.<ref>[http://www.tennessean.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=200770316074 Tennessee Mine Enriched Gore, Scarred Land]</ref> The mine has been closed since 2003. New owner Strategic Resource Acquisition is planning to re-open the mine. From ''The Tennessean'' (3/12/07):
<blockquote>
"Last week, Gore sent a letter asking the company to work with Earthworks, a national [[Environmentalist|environmental group]], to make sure the operation doesn’t damage the environment.

'We would like for you to engage with us in a process to ensure that the mine becomes a global example of environmental best practices,' Gore wrote."
</blockquote>
However, this was after he had already made $500,000 from the mining operations.<ref>http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/ic/2007/3/17/93301.shtml?s=ic</ref>

Al Gore's fondness for using [[buzzword]]s became the focus of a prank played on Gore by students at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1996. MIT students distributed a [[bingo]] card containing meaningless buzzwords Gore was known for peppering his speeches with, including "infobahn", "knowledge worker", "vector", "high confidence", and "information marketplace". Sure enough, during Gore's speech at MIT, a commotion erupted in the audience when enough buzzwords were said to complete the Bingo card.<ref>http://hacks.mit.edu/by_year/1996/gore/</ref>. Gore's current favorite buzzword is "unified national smart grid", which he promotes in conjunction with his catastrophic global warming prophecies, earning him ridicule as "The Goracle" in a ''[[Washington Post]]'' article by Dana Milbank.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/28/AR2009012803318_pf.html</ref> [[Bjorn Lomborg]] has additionally criticized Al Gore for framing global warming using buzzword terms as some sort of transcendent generational quest, as when Gore called the so-called "climate crisis" the "chance to experience...a generational mission, the exhileration of a compelling moral purpose, a shared and unifying cause, the thrill of...the restless human need for transcendence."<ref>Lomborg, Bjorn. ''Cool It''. New York: Vintage Books, 2008.</ref>

==Fabrications and blunders==
*On February 20, 2000, Gore claimed he has “always, always, always” supported [[Roe v. Wade]]. However, in 1977, he voted for the Hyde Amendment, which says that [[abortion]] “takes the life of an unborn child who is a living human being,” and that there is no constitutional right to abortion. He cast many other votes favorable to the pro-life cause and earned an 84 percent rating over the course of his entire U.S. House career (1977 to 1984) from the National Right to Life Committee.<ref>http://www.gargaro.com/lifequotes.html</ref>

*On February 4, 2000, Gore claimed, “We had a huge event with 3,000 people at [[Ohio State University]].” In reality, “Officials at that rally said the room where it had taken place did not hold more than 1,200 people, and, given the area needed for the staging erected for the occasion, they estimated the crowd at 500,” according to known [[liberal]] media source the ''[[New York Times]]''.{{fact}}

*On February 2, 2000, on [[Good Morning America]] Al Gore claimed, “We won in every single [[demographic category]]” in the [[New Hampshire]] [[primary]]. In reality [[Bill Bradley]] carried [[male]] voters and voters aged 18-29, according to exit polls.{{fact}}

Gore's comment that he "took the initiave in creating the [[Internet]]" was criticized in the ''St. Petersburg Times'' (Florida):

:This was not the first time Gore has overreached. A year ago Gore told reporters that he and his wife, [[Tipper Gore|Tipper]], at the time when they were college sweethearts, were the inspiration for the novel "[[Love Story]]." That came as news to the befuddled author, [[Erich Segal]]. [http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_10/wiggins/]

Gore wrote an opinion piece in the New York Times in which he said "[he] genuinely wishes [[global warming]] was an illusion," claiming it is very real. This despite mountains of fraud uncovered by [[ClimateGate]]. [[Fred Thompson]] replied, "Hey, Al... the genie says you still have two wishes left." <ref>[http://twitter.com/fredthompson/status/9876626632 Fred Thompson, Twitter feed, March 2, 2010</ref>

==See also==
*[[Previous Breaking News/Al Gore|Al Gore on Breaking News]]

==External links==
*[http://www.algore.com/ Official website]
*[http://www.ibdeditorials.com/IBDArticles.aspx?id=276476942822261 Al Gore, Ignoble Laureate], ''Investor's Business Daily'', October 5, 2007
*[http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/g/al_gore/index.html Al Gore News and Commentary] from the ''New York Times''
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/author/al-gore/ What Liberals Say - Al Gore], [[Accuracy In Media]]
*[http://www.compeaus.com/frozen.html Yearly Frozen Gore Ice Sculpture In Alaska]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{USVicePresidents}}

[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Peace]]
[[Category:Liberal Activists]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gore, Al}}

Neoliberalism

2010-05-10T01:27:34Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''Neoliberalism''' is a new form of the old economic liberalism laid out in [[Adam Smith]]'s famous capitalist manifesto, ''The Wealth of Nations'', which was published soon after the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Neoliberals believe regulation should not be an impediment to manufacturing or commerce, and that high tariffs can be harmful. These ideas were ''liberal'' in the sense of advocating loose controls. In neoliberalism, profits are sought by lowering costs through improvements in the productive powers of labor. There should be reduced costly and unnecessary government regulation without sacrificing environmental protection and job safety.

[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Political Terms]]

George Washington's Thanksgiving Proclamation

2010-05-07T13:01:17Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:GWashingtonThanksgiving.jpg|thumb|300px|right|George Washington's Thanksgiving Proclamation]]
President [[George Washington]] signed the first [[Thanksgiving]] proclamation, setting aside Thursday, November 26, 1789 as "A Day of Publick[sic] Thanksgiving and Prayer...to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many and signal favors of Almighty God." Although not the first such observance in American history, this holiday as designated by Washington represents the first official observance by the new United States.

Signed by Washington on October 3, 1789, the text of the first Thanksgiving Proclamation was printed in the Massachusetts ''Centinel'' on Wednesday, October 14, 1789.

==Text of George Washington's Thanksgiving Proclamation==
By the President of the United States of America, a Proclamation.

Whereas it is the duty of all Nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey his will, to be grateful for his benefits, and humbly to implore his protection and favor-- and whereas both Houses of Congress have by their joint Committee requested me to recommend to the People of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many signal favors of Almighty God especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness.

Now therefore I do recommend and assign Thursday the 26th day of November next to be devoted by the People of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being, who is the beneficent Author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be-- That we may then all unite in rendering unto him our sincere and humble thanks--for his kind care and protection of the People of this Country previous to their becoming a Nation--for the signal and manifold mercies, and the favorable interpositions of his Providence which we experienced in the course and conclusion of the late war--for the great degree of tranquility, union, and plenty, which we have since enjoyed--for the peaceable and rational manner, in which we have been enabled to establish constitutions of government for our safety and happiness, and particularly the national One now lately instituted--for the civil and religious liberty with which we are blessed; and the means we have of acquiring and diffusing useful knowledge; and in general for all the great and various favors which he hath been pleased to confer upon us.

and also that we may then unite in most humbly offering our prayers and supplications to the great Lord and Ruler of Nations and beseech him to pardon our national and other transgressions-- to enable us all, whether in public or private stations, to perform our several and relative duties properly and punctually--to render our national government a blessing to all the people, by constantly being a Government of wise, just, and constitutional laws, discreetly and faithfully executed and obeyed--to protect and guide all Sovereigns and Nations (especially such as have shewn kindness unto us) and to bless them with good government, peace, and concord--To promote the knowledge and practice of true religion and virtue, and the increase of science among them and us--and generally to grant unto all Mankind such a degree of temporal prosperity as he alone knows to be best.

Given under my hand at the City of New York the third day of October in the year of our Lord 1789.

G. Washington

----
''Text is in the public domain, from the Library of Congress'' [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/GW/gw004.html]

[[Category:American State Papers]][[Category:George Washington]]

User:DavidBG

2010-05-07T13:00:38Z

DavidBG: Removing unwanted statement

Hey there. I'm David. I've got over 1,000 edits worth of experience on other wikis, and I hope to transfer that wiki-experience to Conservapedia. Blessings!

==Userboxes==

Don't forget to click the links!

{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Christianity|†]]|This user is a Christian}}
{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Protestantism|&]]|This user is a Protestant}}
{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Conservatism|√]]|This user is a conservative}}
{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Ronald Reagan|RR]]|This user is a fan of Ronald Reagan}}
{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Capitalism|$]]|This user is a capitalist}}
{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Special:Random|(•)]]|This user thinks that if you click on the dot, you will be directed to a page that needs your help... RIGHT NOW!}}
{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Humor|:P]]|This user has more edits than fingers}}
{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Intelligent Design|IQ]]|This user believes in intelligent design as the cause of the universe}}
{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Andy Schlafly|AS]]|This user is a fan of Andy Schlafly}}
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{{Userbox|orange|red|[[Teenager|14]]|This user is a teenager}}

Newsweek

2010-05-06T17:16:10Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[File:Newsweek logo.jpg|right|250px]]
'''Newsweek''' is a weekly newsmagazine, started in 1933. It is perhaps most famous for its now-debunked article<ref>[http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=44923 Debunking another Gitmo myth]</ref> about an incident at [[Guantanamo Bay]] in which a [[Koran]] was allegedly flushed down the toilet. The story was eventually proved false, and ''Newsweek'' was harshly criticized for it.

The criticism stemmed from the fact that ''Newsweek'' enjoys a nationwide audience and some degree of respect as a member of the [[Mainstream Media]], and as such is expected to maintain a certain level of factual accuracy.

The Washington Post Company announced on May 5, 2010 that it is putting ''Newsweek'' up for sale because the company can foresee no path to profitability for the money-losing magazine. The Post's magazine group, of which Newsweek is the biggest piece, lost $29.3 million in 2009 after losing $16.1 million the previous year. <ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/05/AR2010050502285.html Washington Post Co. puts Newsweek magazine up for sale]</ref>

==See Also==
*[[Time magazine]]

==References==
<References/>

[[Category:Magazines]]
[[Category: Media]]
[[Category: Liberalism]]

Harrison Ford

2010-05-05T14:27:30Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''Harrison Ford''' is an American film actor. He was born in 1942 and made his first movie appearance in 1966. He is most famous for starring in the [[Indiana Jones]] and [[Star Wars]] films.

[[Image:Han Solo blaster.jpg|200 px|right|thumb|Harrison Ford as [[Han Solo]] in Star Wars.]]

==External Links==
[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000148/ Harrison Ford at IMDB]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ford, Harrison}}
[[Category:Actors]]

China

2010-05-05T14:25:05Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

{{Country
|name =中华人民共和国 中華人民共和國 Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
|map =China rel01.jpg
|map2 =China location.png
|flag =Flag_of_the_PRC.png‎
|arms =Arms of PR China.png
|capital =Beijing
|capital-raw =
|government =Communist
|government-raw =
|language =Mandarin Chinese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|chairman =Hu Jintao
|premier =Wen Jiabao
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =3,704,427 sq mi
|pop =1,317,000,000 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$10 trillion (2007)
|gdp-pc =$7,600 (2007)
|currency =Yuan
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''China''' (formally, '''The People's Republic of China'''), is the world's largest country by population, with a rapidly growing economy. With thousands of years of continuous traditions, in three decades it has dramatically changed itself from a poor backward nation to a world power, and to the top of the world's economies. It has emerged as a major regional power in East Asia, averaging over 9% economic growth per year since 1978 when it introduced a market-based economic system with many elements of capitalism, to replace its old socialism. Foreign businesses have flocked to invest in China, Americans and others rush to buy its cheap factory output, Chinese exports flooded the world. It has vast reserves of dollar holdings. China is modernizing its military, has joined numerous regional and international institutions, and plays an increasingly visible role in international politics.

The nation is under control from the [[Chinese Communist Party]], which encompasses mainland China, albeit with many border disputes. The PRC claims [[Taiwan]], the [[Republic of China]], as its own province, but the ROC maintains its sovereignty.

[[Hong Kong]] was transferred back to Chinese control by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1997, and [[Macau]] was handed over by [[Portugal]] in 1999. Both territories are now [[Special Administrative Region]]s and have autonomy over local affairs. Since the 1950s China has increasing asserted brutal control over [[Tibet]].

The next 5 years represent a critical period in China's development. To investors and firms, especially following China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, China represents a vast market that has yet to be fully tapped and a low-cost base for export-oriented production. Educationally, China is forging ahead as partnerships and exchanges with foreign universities have helped create new research opportunities for its students. China used the Summer Olympics in 2008 to showcase to the world its amazing gains of the past two decades. The new leadership is committed to generating greater economic development in the interior and providing more services to those who do not live in China's coastal areas, goals that form the core of President Hu's concepts of a "harmonious society" and a "spiritual civilization." However, there is still much that needs to change in China.

For more information on China, see [[World History Lecture Three]].

==People==
===Ethnic Groups===
{| align=right border=3 cellspacing=0 style="border-width: 5px; border-color: #c0c0c0; background: #e0e0e0; margin: 2em;"
| style="text-align: center; padding: 10px 40px 10px 40px;" | [[Previous_Breaking_News/China| Previous Breaking News: China]]
|}
China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups. The largest ethnic group is the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.9% of the total population. The remaining 8.1% are Zhuang (16 million), Manchu (10 million), Hui (9 million), Miao (8 million), [[Uighur]] (7 million), Yi (7 million), Mongolian (5 million), Tibetan (5 million), Buyi (3 million), Korean (2 million), and other ethnic minorities.

In July 2009 large scale rioting erupted as the [[Uighur]] minority fought Chinese riot police in major cities in China's western Xinjiang province. Hundreds are dead..<ref> See [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/world/asia/07kadeer.html?ref=world Wrik Eckholm, "China Points to Another Leader in Exile," ''New York Times'' July 6, 2009]</ref> Uighurs are angry at political, cultural and religious persecution as well as the growing presence in the region of Han Chinese - China's main ethnic group. Han now predominate in the cities, and Uighurs in the countryside. This is the first major violent unrest in China in two decades.

===Language===
There are seven major Chinese dialects and many subdialects. [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (or Putonghua), the predominant dialect, is spoken by over 70% of the population. It is taught in all schools and is the medium of government. About two-thirds of the Han ethnic group are native speakers of Mandarin; the rest, concentrated in south and southeast China, speak one of the six other major Chinese dialects. Non-Chinese languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur and other Turkic languages (in Xinjiang), and Korean (in the northeast).

All Chinese dialects use the same written character sets. In mainland China, the [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]] characters have been in use since 1949.

====The Pinyin System of Romanization====
On January 1, 1979, the Chinese Government officially adopted the [[Hanyu pinyin|pinyin]] system for spelling Chinese names and places in Roman letters. A system of Romanization invented by the Chinese, pinyin has long been widely used in China on street and commercial signs as well as in elementary Chinese textbooks as an aid in learning Chinese characters and for common character input systems. Variations of pinyin also are used as the written forms of several minority languages.

Pinyin has now replaced other conventional spellings in China's English-language publications. The U.S. Government also has adopted the pinyin system for all names and places in China. For example, the capital of China is now spelled "Beijing" rather than "Peking."

In 2008 the anti-Communist government of Taiwan finally adopted the pinyin system, replaces the old [[Wade-Giles]] system which was increasingly ignored by the Chinese diaspora.

==Religion==
A February 2007 survey concluded that 31% of Chinese citizens ages 16 and over, representing 300 million persons, are religious believers.<ref> This is approximately three times the official figure reported by the Government in April 2005.See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108404.htm U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

There are reportedly more than 100,000 officially recognized sites for religious activities, 300,000 officially recognized clergy, and more than 3,000 officially recognized religious organizations.

The Government officially recognizes five main religions: [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Islam]], [[Catholicism]], and [[Protestantism]]. There are five state-sanctioned "Patriotic Religious Associations" (PRAs) that manage the activities of the recognized faiths. The Russian Orthodox Church operates in some regions, particularly those with large populations of Russian expatriates or with close links to Russia. Foreign residents in the country who belonged to religious faiths not officially recognized by the Government were generally permitted to practice their religions.

It is difficult to estimate the number of Buddhists and Taoists, because they do not have congregational memberships and many practice exclusively at home.

The Government estimated that there are 16,000 Buddhist temples and monasteries, 200,000 Buddhist monks and nuns, more than 1,700 reincarnate lamas, and 32 Buddhist schools. Most believers, particularly ethnic Han Buddhists, practice Mahayana Buddhism, while the majority of Tibetans and ethnic Mongolians, as well as a growing number of ethnic Chinese, practice Tibetan Buddhism, a Mahayana adaptation. Some ethnic minorities in southwest Yunnan Province practice Theravada Buddhism, the dominant tradition in parts of neighboring Southeast Asia.

There are more than 25,000 Taoist priests and nuns, more than 1,500 Taoist temples, and 2 Taoist schools. Traditional folk religions (worship of local gods, heroes, and ancestors) are practiced by hundreds of millions of citizens and are often affiliated with Taoism, Buddhism, or ethnic minority cultural practices.

The government says there are twenty million Muslims. Independent estimates range as high as fifty million or more. There are more than 40,000 Islamic places of worship (more than half of which are in the XUAR), more than 45,000 imams nationwide, and 10 Islamic schools. The country has ten predominantly Muslim ethnic groups, the largest of which is the Hui, estimated to number more than ten million. The Hui are centered in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, but there are significant concentrations of Hui throughout the country, including in Gansu, Henan, Qinghai, Yunnan, and Hebei Provinces, as well as in the TAR and the XUAR. Hui Muslims slightly outnumber Uighur Muslims, who live primarily in the XUAR. According to an official 2005 report, the XUAR had 23,900 mosques and 27,000 clerics at the end of 2004, but fewer than half of the mosques were authorized to hold Friday prayer and holiday services. The country also has more than one million Kazakh Muslims and thousands of Dongxiang, Kyrgyz, Salar, Tajik, Uzbek, Baoan, and Tatar Muslims.

Officials from the Three-Self Patriotic Movement/China Christian Council (TSPM/CCC), the state-approved Protestant religious organization, estimated that at least twenty million citizens worship in official churches. Government officials stated that there are more than 50,000 registered TSPM churches and 18 TSPM theological schools. The Pew Research Center estimates that between 50 million and 70 million Christians practice without state sanction. The World Christian Database estimates that there are more than 300 unofficial house church networks.

The Catholic Patriotic Association (CPA) reports that 5.3 million persons worship in its churches and it is estimated that there are an additional 12 million or more persons who worship in unregistered Catholic churches that do not affiliate with the CPA. According to official sources, the government-sanctioned CPA has more than 70 bishops, nearly 3,000 priests and nuns, 6,000 churches and meeting places, and 12 seminaries. There are thought to be approximately 40 bishops operating "underground," some of whom are in prison or under house arrest. During the reporting period, at least three bishops were ordained with papal approval. In September 2007 the official media reported that Liu Bainian, CPA vice president, stated that the young bishops were to be selected to serve dioceses without bishops and to replace older bishops. Of the 97 dioceses in the country, 40 reportedly did not have an acting bishop in 2007, and more than 30 bishops were over 80 years of age.
===Religious discrimination===
The Government restricts legal religious practice to government-sanctioned organizations and registered religious groups and places of worship, and seeks to control the growth and scope of the activity of both registered and unregistered religious groups, including "house churches." Government authorities limit proselytism, particularly by foreigners and unregistered religious groups, but permit proselytism in state-approved religious venues and private settings.

In 2008, the Government's repression of religious freedom intensified in some areas, including in Tibetan areas and in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Unregistered Protestant religious groups in Beijing reported intensified harassment from government authorities in the lead up to the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. Media and China-based sources reported that municipal authorities in Beijing closed some house churches or asked them to stop meeting during the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and Paralympic Games. During the reporting period, officials detained and interrogated several foreigners about their religious activities and in several cases alleged that the foreigners had engaged in "illegal religious activities" and cancelled their visas. Media reported that the total number of expatriates expelled by the Government due to concerns about their religious activities exceeded one hundred. Officials in the XUAR, the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), and other Tibetan areas tightly controlled religious activity. The Government sought the forcible return of several Uighur Muslims living abroad, some of whom had reportedly protested restrictions on the Hajj and encouraged other Muslims to pray and fast during Ramadan. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism, including those in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region and most Tibetan autonomous areas, faced more restrictions on their religious practice and ability to organize than Buddhists in other parts of the country. "Patriotic education" campaigns in the TAR and other Tibetan regions, which required monks and nuns to sign statements personally denouncing the Dalai Lama, and other new restrictions on religious freedom were major factors that led monks and nuns to mount peaceful protests at a number of monasteries on March 10, 2008. The protests and subsequent security response gave way to violence in Lhasa by March 14 and 15.

"Underground" Roman Catholic clergy faced repression, in large part due to their avowed loyalty to the Vatican, which the Government accused of interfering in the country's internal affairs. The Government continued to repress groups that it designated as "cults," which included several Christian groups and Falun Gong.

Religious and ethnic minority groups such as Tibetan Buddhists and Uighur Muslims experienced societal discrimination not only because of their religious beliefs but also because of their status as ethnic minorities with distinct languages and cultures. After the March 2008 protests in Lhasa and other Tibetan areas there were reports of increased tensions between Tibetan Buddhists and Hui Muslims.

The [[Falun Gong]] is a self-described spiritual movement that blends aspects of Taoism, Buddhism, and the meditation techniques and physical exercises of qigong (a traditional Chinese exercise discipline), with the teachings of Falun Gong leader Li Hongzhi. There are estimated to have been at least 2.1 million adherents of Falun Gong before the Government banned the group in 1999. Hundreds of thousands may practice Falun Gong privately.

==Population Policy==
[[Image:China Mex RGarciaOrtiz.jpg|right|Chinese at Mexico]]
{{main|One-child Policy}}

With a population officially just over 1.3 billion and an estimated growth rate of about 0.6%, China is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted with mixed results to implement a strict birth limitation policy. The government permits one child per family, with allowance for a second child under certain circumstances (such as twins), especially in rural areas, and with guidelines looser for ethnic minorities with small populations. Enforcement varies, and relies largely on "social compensation fees" to discourage extra births. Official government policy opposes forced [[abortion]] or sterilization, but in some localities there are instances of forced [[abortion]]. The government's goal is to stabilize the population in the first half of the 21st century, and current projections are that the population will peak at around 1.6 billion by 2050. Boys are highly prized, and because screening of fetuses is done to determine gender, selective abortion has resulted in 119 boys born for every 100 girls. By 2020, 24 million men of marrying age will find themselves without wives.

==Government==
The People's Republic of China is an authoritarian state in which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) constitutionally is the paramount source of power. Party members hold almost all top government, police, and military positions. Ultimate authority rests with the 25-member political bureau (Politburo) of the CCP and its nine-member standing committee. '''[[Hu Jintao]]''' holds the three most powerful positions as CCP general secretary, president, and chairman of the Central Military Commission. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces.

===Chinese Communist Party===
The 71 million member CCP, authoritarian in structure and ideology, continues to dominate government. Nevertheless, China's population, geographical vastness, and social diversity frustrate attempts to rule by fiat from Beijing. Central leaders must increasingly build consensus for new policies among party members, local and regional leaders, influential non-party members, and the population at large.

In periods of greater openness, the influence of people and organizations outside the formal party structure has tended to increase, particularly in the economic realm. This phenomenon is most apparent today in the rapidly developing coastal region. Nevertheless, in all important government, economic, and cultural institutions in China, party committees work to see that party and state policy guidance is followed and that non-party members do not create autonomous organizations that could challenge party rule. Party control is tightest in government offices and in urban economic, industrial, and cultural settings; it is considerably looser in the rural areas, where the majority of the people live.

Theoretically, the party's highest body is the Party Congress, which traditionally meets at least once every 5 years. The 17th Party Congress is expected to take place in the fall of 2007. The primary organs of power in the Communist Party include:
*The Politburo Standing Committee, which currently consists of nine members (one seat is vacant following the June 2, 2007 death of Huang Ju);
*The Politburo, consisting of 24 full members, including the members of the Politburo Standing Committee;
*The Secretariat, the principal administrative mechanism of the CCP, headed by the General Secretary;
*The Central Military Commission;
*The Discipline Inspection Commission, which is charged with rooting out corruption and malfeasance among party cadres.
===State Structure===
The Chinese Government has always been subordinate to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP); its role is to implement party policies. The primary organs of state power are the National People's Congress (NPC), the President (the head of state), and the State Council. Members of the State Council include Premier Wen Jiabao (the head of government), a variable number of vice premiers (now four), five state councilors (protocol equivalents of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios), and 22 ministers and four State Council commission directors.

Under the Chinese constitution, the NPC is the highest organ of state power in China. It meets annually for about 2 weeks to review and approve major new policy directions, laws, the budget, and major personnel changes. These initiatives are presented to the NPC for consideration by the State Council after previous endorsement by the Communist Party's Central Committee. Although the NPC generally approves State Council policy and personnel recommendations, various NPC committees hold active debate in closed sessions, and changes may be made to accommodate alternate views.

When the NPC is not in session, its permanent organ, the Standing Committee, exercises state power.
===Principal Government and Party Officials===
*President--Hu Jintao
*Vice President--Zeng Qinghong
*Premier, State Council--Wen Jiabao
*NPC Chair--Wu Bangguo
*Vice Premiers--Wu Yi, Zeng Peiyan, Hui Liangyu
*Politburo Standing Committee--Hu Jintao (General Secretary), Wu Bangguo, Wen Jiabao, Jia Qinglin, Zeng Qinghong, Wu Guanzheng, Li Changchun, Luo Gan
*Other Politburo Members--Cao Gangchuan, Guo Boxiong, He Guoqiang, Hui Liangyu, Liu Qi, Liu Yunshan, Wang Lequan, Wang Zhaoguo, Wu Yi, Yu Zhengsheng, Zeng Peiyan, Zhang Dejiang, Zhang Lichang, Zhou Yongkang, Wang Gang (alternate)
*Alternate Politburo Members--Wang Gang
*Chairman, Central Military Commission--Hu Jintao
*Foreign Minister--Yang Jiechi
*Minister of Commerce--Bo Xilai
*Minister of Finance--Jin Renqing
*Minister of Agriculture--Sun Zhengcai
*Minister of Information Industry--Wang Xudong
*Governor, People's Bank of China--Zhou Xiaochuan
*Minister, State Development and Reform Commission--Ma Kai
*Ambassador to U.S.--Zhou Wenzhong
*Ambassador to UN--Wang Guangya

===Foreign Relations===
[[Image:Chinese painting.jpg|thumb|Chinese painting.]]
Since its establishment, the People's Republic has worked vigorously to win international support for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including Hong Kong, Macau, and [[Taiwan]]. In the early 1970s, Beijing was recognized diplomatically by most world powers. [[Beijing]] (Pekin) assumed the China seat in the [[United Nations]] in 1971 and has since become increasingly active in multilateral organizations. Japan established diplomatic relations with China in 1972, and the United States did so in 1979. As of July 2007, the number of countries that have diplomatic relations with Beijing had risen to 167, while 24 maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan.

After the founding of the P.R.C., China's foreign policy initially focused on solidarity with the Soviet Union and other communist countries. In 1950, China sent the People's Liberation Army into North Korea to help North Korea halt the UN offensive that was approaching the Yalu River. After the conclusion of the Korean conflict, China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other Third World countries, particularly in Southeast Asia.

In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. Following the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position.

In late 1978, the Chinese also became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over Laos and Cambodia. In response to the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought a brief border war with Vietnam (February-March 1979) with the stated purpose of "teaching Vietnam a lesson."

Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the Soviet Union's December 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border and in Mongolia--the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations.

In the 1970s and 1980s China sought to create a secure regional and global environment for itself and to foster good relations with countries that could aid its economic development. To this end, China looked to the West for assistance with its modernization drive and for help in countering Soviet expansionism, which it characterized as the greatest threat to its national security and to world peace.

China maintained its consistent opposition to "superpower hegemony," focusing almost exclusively on the expansionist actions of the Soviet Union and Soviet proxies such as Vietnam and Cuba, but it also placed growing emphasis on a foreign policy independent of both the U.S. and the Soviet Union. While improving ties with the West, China continued to follow closely economic and other positions of the Third World nonaligned movement, although China was not a formal member.

In the immediate aftermath of Tiananmen crackdown in June 1989, many countries reduced their diplomatic contacts with China as well as their economic assistance programs. In response, China worked vigorously to expand its relations with foreign countries, and by late 1990, had reestablished normal relations with almost all nations. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991, China also opened diplomatic relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union.

In recent years, Chinese leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and China has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other multilateral organizations. Closer to home, China has made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia, hosting the Six-Party Talks on North Korea's nuclear weapons program, cultivating a more cooperative relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum. China has also taken steps to improve relations with countries in South Asia, including India. Following Premier Wen's 2005 visit to India, the two sides moved to increase commercial and cultural ties, as well as to resolve longstanding border disputes. The November 2006 visit of President Hu was the first state visit by a Chinese head of state to India in 10 years.

China has likewise improved ties with Russia, with Presidents Putin and Hu exchanging visits to Beijing and Moscow in April 2006 and March 2007. A second round of Russia-China joint military exercises is scheduled for fall 2007. China has played a prominent role in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), a regional grouping that includes Russia and the Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Beijing has resolved many of its border and maritime disputes, notably including a November 1997 agreement with Russia that resolved almost all outstanding border issues and a 2000 agreement with Vietnam to resolve differences over their maritime border, though disagreements remain over islands in the South China Sea. Relations with Japan improved following Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's October 2006 visit to Beijing, although longstanding and emotionally charged disputes over history and competing claims to portions of the East China Sea remain sources of tension.

While in many ways Sudan's primary diplomatic patron, China has played a constructive role in support of peacekeeping operations in Southern Sudan and pledged to contribute an engineering unit in support of UN operations in Darfur. China has stated publicly that it shares the international community's concern over Iran's nuclear program and has voted in support of UN sanctions resolutions on Iran. Set against this has been an effort on the part of China to maintain close ties to countries such as Iran, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Venezuela, which are sources of oil and other resources and which welcome China's non-conditional assistance and investment.

==Political Conditions==
===Legal System===
The government's efforts to promote rule of law are significant and ongoing. After the Cultural Revolution, China's leaders aimed to develop a legal system to restrain abuses of official authority and revolutionary excesses. In 1982, the National People's Congress adopted a new state constitution that emphasized the rule of law under which even party leaders are theoretically held accountable.

Since 1979, when the drive to establish a functioning legal system began, more than 300 laws and regulations, most of them in the economic area, have been promulgated. The use of mediation committees--informed groups of citizens who resolve about 90% of China's civil disputes and some minor criminal cases at no cost to the parties--is one innovative device. There are more than 800,000 such committees in both rural and urban areas.

Legal reform became a government priority in the 1990s. Legislation designed to modernize and professionalize the nation's lawyers, judges, and prisons was enacted. The 1994 Administrative Procedure Law allows citizens to sue officials for abuse of authority or malfeasance. In addition, the criminal law and the criminal procedures laws were amended to introduce significant reforms. The criminal law amendments abolished the crime of "counter-revolutionary" activity, although many persons are still incarcerated for that crime. Criminal procedures reforms also encouraged establishment of a more transparent, adversarial trial process. The Chinese constitution and laws provide for fundamental human rights, including due process, but these are often ignored in practice. In addition to other judicial reforms, the Constitution was amended in 2004 to include the protection of individual human rights and legally-obtained private property, but it is unclear how those provisions will be implemented. Although new criminal and civil laws have provided additional safeguards to citizens, previously debated political reforms, including expanding elections to the township level, and other legal reforms, including the reform of the reeducation through labor system, have been put on hold.

==Military==
Establishment of a professional military force equipped with modern weapons and doctrine was the last of the "Four Modernizations" announced by Zhou Enlai and supported by Deng Xiaoping. In keeping with Deng's mandate to reform, the People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the strategic nuclear forces, army, navy, and air force, has demobilized millions of men and women since 1978 and introduced modern methods in such areas as recruitment and manpower, strategy, and education and training.

Following the June 1989 Tiananmen crackdown, ideological correctness was temporarily revived as the dominant theme in Chinese military affairs. Reform and modernization appear to have since resumed their position as the PLA's priority objectives.

The Chinese military is in the process of transforming itself from a land-based power, centered on a vast ground force, to a smaller, mobile, high-tech military eventually capable of mounting limited operations beyond its coastal borders.

China's power-projection capability is limited but has grown over recent years. China has acquired some advanced weapons systems from abroad, including Sovremmeny destroyers, SU-27 and SU-30 aircraft, and Kilo-class diesel submarines from Russia, and continued to develop domestic production capabilities, such as for the domestically-developed J-10 fighter aircraft. However, much of its air and naval forces continues to be based on 1960s-era technology. As the Defense Department's Quadrennial Defense Review, released February 2006, noted, the U.S. shares with other countries a concern about the pace, scope, and direction of China's military modernization. We view military exchanges, visits, and other forms of engagement are useful tools in promoting transparency, provided they have substance and are fully reciprocal. Regularized exchanges and contact also have the significant benefit of building confidence, reducing the possibility of accidents, and providing the lines of communication that are essential in ensuring that episodes such as the April 2001 EP-3 aircraft incident do not escalate into major crises. During their April 2006 meeting, President Bush and President Hu agreed to increase officer exchanges and to begin a strategic nuclear dialogue between STRATCOM and the Chinese military's strategic missile command. U.S. and Chinese militaries are also considering ways in which we might cooperate on disaster assistance relief.

===Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control Policy ===
In 1955, Mao Zedong's Chinese Communist Party decided to proceed with a nuclear weapons program; it was developed with Soviet assistance until 1960. After its first nuclear test in October 1964, Beijing deployed a modest but potent ballistic missile force, including land- and sea-based intermediate-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles.

China became a major international arms exporter during the 1980s. Beijing joined the Middle East arms control talks, which began in July 1991 to establish global guidelines for conventional arms transfers, but announced in September 1992 that it would no longer participate because of the U.S. decision to sell F-16A/B aircraft to Taiwan.

China was the first state to pledge "no first use" of nuclear weapons. It joined the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1984 and pledged to abstain from further atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons in 1986. China acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1992 and supported its indefinite and unconditional extension in 1995. In 1996, it signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) and agreed to seek an international ban on the production of fissile nuclear weapons material. To date, China has not ratified the CTBT.

In 1996, China committed not to provide assistance to un-safeguarded nuclear facilities. China became a full member of the NPT Exporters (Zangger) Committee, a group that determines items subject to IAEA inspections if exported by NPT signatories. In September 1997, China issued detailed nuclear export control regulations. China began implementing regulations establishing controls over nuclear-related dual-use items in 1998. China also has committed not to engage in new nuclear cooperation with Iran (even under safeguards), and will complete existing cooperation, which is not of [[proliferation]] concern, within a relatively short period. In May 2004, with the support of the United States, China became a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

Based on significant, tangible progress with China on nuclear nonproliferation, President Clinton in 1998 took steps to bring into force the 1985 U.S.-China Agreement on Peaceful Nuclear Cooperation.

===Missiles===
Although it is not a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), the multinational effort to restrict the proliferation of missiles, in March 1992 China undertook to abide by MTCR guidelines and parameters. China reaffirmed this commitment in 1994, and pledged not to transfer MTCR-class ground-to-ground missiles. In November 2000, China committed not to assist in any way the development by other countries of MTCR-class missiles. However, in August 29, 2003, the U.S. Government imposed missile proliferation sanctions lasting two years on the Chinese company China North Industries Corporation (NORINCO) after determining that it was knowingly involved in the transfer of equipment and technology controlled under Category II of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) Annex that contributed to MTCR-class missiles in a non-MTCR country.

In December 2003, the P.R.C. promulgated comprehensive new export control regulations governing exports of all categories of sensitive technologies.

==Economy ==
China's economy, based on rice and wheat farming, was generally prosperous until the 18th century. Population pressures, and failure to adopt new technology led to an impoverished nation by 1900.

After Mao's death the policy of modernization along Western lines has led to a remarkable rate of economic growth in the industrial cities, which have pulled in millions of peasants from the still poor rural areas. Slack environmental standards have led to serious pollution problems.

The modern Chinese economy has benefited from investments from Taiwan and Hong Kong. They jumped far ahead of China by 1970 in terms of technology, and in recent years have invested in mainland industries.

These two factors have changed Chinese economy, from a command economy to a more socialist state, with the Chinese economy increasingly in the hands of privately-owned businesses, not state- or military-run enterprises. The 2001 declaration by Jiang Zemin (former leader of the Communist Party) of the "theory of three represents" -- that the CCP represents not only workers, but also intellectuals and entrepreneurs -- was an explicit affirmation of what had been a trend for the previous years

Since 1980 China has enjoyed the highest economic growth rates in the world. Suddenly in mid-2008, the growth rate slowed sharply from 11% a year to only 5.5%. Much of the economy was geared to exports, and building factories for exports to the United States and Japan. When the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] hit, exports fell off and prices for industrial products like steel fell in half. Many factories were shut down. The decline has especially hit steel, cement and the construction industry. The government in November 2008 announced a $586 billion stimulus program to build roads, dams, electric grids and other infrastructure projects that are designed to supplement the international market.<ref> David Barboza, "Great Engine of China Slows ," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/business/worldbusiness/26chinasteel.html?_r=1 ''New York Times'' Nov. 25, 2008] </ref>

Since 1979, China has largely rejected socialism and embraced capitalism, while maintaining Communist party rule. Private ownership of the means of production has dramatically reduced poverty and increased wealth, especially in the cities but also in rural areas. Nationally the GDP (in 2007 prices) has exploded from 2 trillion yuan in 1980 to 25 trillion in 2007.

As late as 1980 60% of the people in rural China lives in poverty; by 2007 fewer than 5% did. Grain production has grown 300 to 500 tons per person, and rural income per person has soared from a few hundred yuan in 1980 to over 4000.<ref>See ''Economist'' Dec. 13, 2008</ref>

The reforms reformed and opened its economy. The Chinese leadership has adopted a more pragmatic perspective on many political and socioeconomic problems, and has reduced the role of ideology in economic policy. China's ongoing economic transformation has had a profound impact not only on China but on the world. The market-oriented reforms China has implemented over the past two decades have unleashed individual initiative and entrepreneurship. The result has been the largest reduction of poverty and one of the fastest increases in income levels ever seen. China today is the fourth-largest economy in the world. It has sustained average economic growth of over 9.5% for the past 26 years. In 2006 its $2.76 trillion economy was about one-fifth the size of the U.S. economy.

In the 1980s, China tried to combine central planning with market-oriented reforms to increase productivity, living standards, and technological quality without exacerbating inflation, unemployment, and budget deficits. China pursued agricultural reforms, dismantling the commune system and introducing a household-based system that provided peasants greater decision-making in agricultural activities. The government also encouraged nonagricultural activities such as village enterprises in rural areas, and promoted more self-management for state-owned enterprises, increased competition in the marketplace, and facilitated direct contact between Chinese and foreign trading enterprises. China also relied more upon foreign financing and imports.

During the 1980s, these reforms led to average annual rates of growth of 10% in agricultural and industrial output. Rural per capita real income doubled. China became self-sufficient in grain production; rural industries accounted for 23% of agricultural output, helping absorb surplus labor in the countryside. The variety of light industrial and consumer goods increased. Reforms began in the fiscal, financial, banking, price-setting, and labor systems.

By the late 1980s, however, the economy had become overheated with increasing rates of inflation. At the end of 1988, in reaction to a surge of inflation caused by accelerated price reforms, the leadership introduced an austerity program.

China's economy regained momentum in the early 1990s. During a visit to southern China in early 1992, China's paramount leader at the time, Deng Xiaoping, made a series of political pronouncements designed to reinvigorate the process of economic reform. The 14th Party Congress later in the year backed Deng's renewed push for market reforms, stating that China's key task in the 1990s was to create a "socialist market economy." The 10-year development plan for the 1990s stressed continuity in the political system with bolder reform of the economic system.

China's economy grew at an average rate of 10% per year during the period 1990-2004, the highest growth rate in the world. China's gross domestic product (GDP) grew 10.0% in 2003, and even faster, 10.1%, in 2004, and 9.9% in 2005 despite attempts by the government to cool the economy. China's total trade in 2006 surpassed $1.76 trillion, making China the world's third-largest trading nation after the U.S. and Germany. Such high growth is necessary if China is to generate the 15 million jobs needed annually--roughly the size of Ecuador or Cambodia--to employ new entrants into the job market.

Nevertheless, serious imbalances exist behind the spectacular trade performance, high investment flows, and high GDP growth. High numbers of non-performing loans weigh down the state-run banking system. Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are still a drag on growth, despite announced efforts to sell, merge, or close the vast majority of SOEs.

Social and economic indicators have improved since reforms were launched, but rising inequality is evident between the more highly developed coastal provinces and the less developed, poorer inland regions. According to World Bank estimates, more than 152 million people in China in 2003--mostly in rural areas of the lagging inland provinces--still live in poverty, on consumption of less than U.S. $1 a day.

Following the Chinese Communist Party's Third Plenum, held in October 2003, Chinese legislators unveiled several proposed amendments to the state constitution. One of the most significant was a proposal to provide protection for private property rights. Legislators also indicated there would be a new emphasis on certain aspects of overall government economic policy, including efforts to reduce unemployment (now in the 8-10% range in urban areas), to rebalance income distribution between urban and rural regions, and to maintain economic growth while protecting the environment and improving social equity. The National People's Congress approved the amendments when it met in March 2004. The Fifth Plenum in October 2005 approved the 11th Five-Year Economic Program aimed at building a "harmonious society" through more balanced wealth distribution and improved education, medical care, and social security.

===Agriculture===
China is the world's most populous country and one of the largest producers and consumers of agricultural products. Roughly half of China's labor force is engaged in agriculture, even though only 10% of the land is suitable for cultivation and agriculture contributes only 13% of China's GDP. China's cropland area is only 75% of the U.S. total, but China still produces about 30% more crops and livestock than the U.S. because of intensive cultivation, China is among the world's largest producers of rice, corn, wheat, soybeans, vegetables, tea, and pork. Major non-food crops include cotton, other fibers, and oilseeds. China hopes to further increase agricultural production through improved plant stocks, fertilizers, and technology. Incomes for Chinese farmers are stagnating, leading to an increasing wealth gap between the cities and countryside. Government policies that continue to emphasize grain self-sufficiency and the fact that farmers do not own--and cannot buy or sell--the land they work have contributed to this situation. While this was the case in China before Communism, many other countries have since embrace individual ownership while China has not. In addition, inadequate port facilities and lack of warehousing and cold storage facilities impede both domestic and international agricultural trade.

===Industry===
Industry and construction account for about 46% of China's GDP. Major industries are mining and ore processing; iron; steel; aluminum; coal, machinery; textiles and apparel; armaments; petroleum; cement; chemicals; fertilizers; consumer products including footwear, toys, and electronics; automobiles and other transportation equipment including rail cars and locomotives, ships, and aircraft; and telecommunications.

China has become a preferred destination for the relocation of global manufacturing facilities. Its strength as an export platform has contributed to incomes and employment in China. The state-owned sector still accounts for about 40% of GDP. In recent years, authorities have been giving greater attention to the management of state assets--both in the financial market as well as among state-owned-enterprises--and progress has been noteworthy.

===Regulatory Environment===
Though China's economy has expanded rapidly, its regulatory environment has not kept pace. Since Deng Xiaoping's open market reforms, the growth of new businesses has outpaced the government's ability to regulate them. This has created a situation where businesses, faced with mounting competition and poor oversight, will be willing to take drastic measures to increase profit margins, often at the expense of consumer safety. This issue has recently acquired more prominence, with a number of restrictions being placed on problematic Chinese exports by the U.S. The Chinese Government recognizes the severity of the problem, recently concluding that up to 20% of the country's products are substandard or tainted.

===Energy===
Together with strong economic growth, China's demand for energy is surging rapidly. In 2003, China surpassed Japan to become the second-largest consumer of primary energy, after the United States. China is the world's second-largest consumer of oil, after the United States, and for 2006, China's increase in oil demand represented 38% of the world total increase in oil demand. China is also the third-largest energy producer in the world, after the United States and Russia. China's electricity consumption is expected to grow by over 4% a year through 2030, which will require more than $2 trillion in electricity infrastructure investment to meet the demand. China expects to add approximately 15,000 megawatts of generating capacity a year, with 20% of that coming from foreign suppliers.

Coal makes up the bulk of China's energy consumption (70% in 2005), and China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world. As China's economy continues to grow, China's coal demand is projected to rise significantly. Although coal's share of China's overall energy consumption will decrease, coal consumption will continue to rise in absolute terms. China's continued and increasing reliance on coal as a power source has contributed significantly to putting China on the path to becoming the world's largest emitter of acid rain-causing sulfur dioxide and green house gases, including carbon dioxide.

The 11th Five-Year Program, announced in 2005, calls for greater energy conservation measures, including development of renewable energy sources and increased attention to environmental protection. Moving away from coal towards cleaner energy sources including oil, natural gas, renewable energy, and nuclear power is an important component of China's development program. China has abundant hydroelectric resources; the Three Gorges Dam, for example, will have a total capacity of 18 gigawatts when fully on-line (projected for 2009). In addition, the share of electricity generated by nuclear power is projected to grow from 1% in 2000 to 5% in 2030. China's renewable energy law, which went into effect in 2006, calls for 10% of its energy to come from renewable energy sources by 2020.

Since 1993, China has been a net importer of oil, a large portion of which comes from the Middle East. Net imports are expected to rise to 3.5 million barrels per day by 2010. China is interested in diversifying the sources of its oil imports and has invested in oil fields around the world. Beijing also plans to increase China's natural gas production, which currently accounts for only 3% of China's total energy consumption. Analysts expect China's consumption of natural gas to more than double by 2010.

In May 2004, then-Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with China's National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) that launched the U.S.-China Energy Policy Dialogue. The Dialogue has strengthened energy-related interactions between China and the United States, the world's two largest energy consumers. The U.S.-China Energy Policy Dialogue builds upon the two countries' existing cooperative ventures in high energy nuclear physics, fossil energy, energy efficiency and renewable energy and energy information exchanges. The NDRC and the Department of Energy also exchange views and expertise on Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Technologies, and we convene an annual Oil and Gas Industry Forum with China.

===Environment===
[[Image:Tianmenshan mountain.jpg|left|300px]]
One of the serious negative consequences of China's rapid industrial development has been increased pollution and degradation of natural resources. China is widely expected to surpass the United States as the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases sometime in 2007 or 2008. A World Health Organization report on air quality in 272 cities worldwide concluded that seven of the world's 10 most polluted cities were in China. According to China's own evaluation, two-thirds of the 338 cities for which air-quality data are available are considered polluted--two-thirds of them moderately or severely so. Respiratory and heart diseases related to air pollution are the leading cause of death in China. Almost all of the nation's rivers are considered polluted to some degree, and half of the population lacks access to clean water. By some estimates, every day approximately 300 million residents drink contaminated water. Ninety percent of urban water bodies are severely polluted. Water scarcity also is an issue; for example, severe water scarcity in Northern China is a serious threat to sustained economic growth and the government has begun working on a project for a large-scale diversion of water from the Yangtze River to northern cities, including Beijing and Tianjin. Acid rain falls on 30% of the country. Various studies estimate pollution costs the Chinese economy 7%-10% of GDP each year.

China's leaders are increasingly paying attention to the country's severe environmental problems. In 1998, the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) was officially upgraded to a ministry-level agency, reflecting the growing importance the Chinese Government places on environmental protection. In recent years, China has strengthened its environmental legislation and made some progress in stemming environmental deterioration. In 2005, China joined the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development, which brings industries and governments together to implement strategies that reduce pollution and address climate change. During the 10th Five-Year Plan, China plans to reduce total emissions by 10%. Beijing in particular is investing heavily in pollution control as part of its campaign to host a successful Olympiad in 2008. Some cities have seen improvement in air quality in recent years.

China is an active participant in climate change talks and other multilateral environmental negotiations, taking environmental challenges seriously but pushing for the developed world to help developing countries to a greater extent. It is a signatory to the Basel Convention governing the transport and disposal of hazardous waste and the Montreal Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, as well as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and other major environmental agreements.

The question of environmental impacts associated with the Three Gorges Dam project has generated controversy among environmentalists inside and outside China. Critics claim that erosion and silting of the Yangtze River threaten several endangered species, while Chinese officials say the dam will help prevent devastating floods and generate clean hydroelectric power that will enable the region to lower its dependence on coal, thus lessening air pollution.

The United States and China are members of the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP). The APP is a public-private partnership of six nations--Australia, China, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the United States--committed to explore new mechanisms to meet national pollution reduction, energy security and climate change goals in ways that reduce poverty and promote economic development. APP members have undertaken cooperative activities involving deployment of clean technology in partner countries in eight areas: cleaner fossil energy, renewable energy and distributed generation, power generation and transmission, steel, aluminum, cement, coal mining, and buildings and appliances.

The United States and China have been engaged in an active program of bilateral environmental cooperation since the mid-1990s, with an emphasis on clean energy technology and the design of effective environmental policy. While both governments view this cooperation positively, China has often compared the U.S. program, which lacks a foreign assistance component, with those of Japan and several European Union (EU) countries that include generous levels of aid.

===Science and Technology===
Science and technology have always preoccupied China's leaders; indeed, China's political leadership comes almost exclusively from technical backgrounds and has a high regard for science. Deng called it "the first productive force." Distortions in the economy and society created by party rule have severely hurt Chinese science, according to some Chinese science policy experts. The Chinese Academy of Sciences, modeled on the Soviet system, puts much of China's greatest scientific talent in a large, under-funded apparatus that remains largely isolated from industry, although the reforms of the past decade have begun to address this problem.

Chinese science strategists see China's greatest opportunities in newly emerging fields such as biotechnology and computers, where there is still a chance for China to become a significant player. Most Chinese students who went abroad have not returned, but they have built a dense network of trans-Pacific contacts that will greatly facilitate U.S.-China scientific cooperation in coming years. The U.S. space program is often held up as the standard of scientific modernity in China. China's small but growing space program, which successfully completed their second manned orbit in October 2005, is a focus of national pride.

The U.S.-China Science and Technology Agreement remains the framework for bilateral cooperation in this field. A 5-year agreement to extend the Science and Technology Agreement was signed in April 2006. The Agreement is among the longest-standing U.S.-China accords, and includes over eleven U.S. Federal agencies and numerous branches that participate in cooperative exchanges under the S&T Agreement and its nearly 60 protocols, memoranda of understanding, agreements and annexes. The Agreement covers cooperation in areas such as marine conservation, renewable energy, and health. Biennial Joint Commission Meetings on Science and Technology bring together policymakers from both sides to coordinate joint science and technology cooperation. Executive Secretaries meetings are held biennially to implement specific cooperation programs. Japan and the European Union also have high profile science and technology cooperative relationships with China.
====Internet====
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has criticized Chinese censorship and restrictions on the Intrernet, and China is pushing back since the Communist Party considers Internet control essential if it is to keep power and avoid elections. The government has denied suggestions by Google that a major, sophisticated assault on Google in late 2009 was sponsored by the government. The attack targeted email accounts used by dissidents, the weak point in China's political dictatorship. Google is threatening to ignore the censorship policies demanded by the government, and perhaps leave the country. The Communist Party promotes Internet use for commerce, but heavily censors content it deems pornographic, anti-social or politically subversive and blocks many foreign news and social media sites, including Twitter Facebook, and YouTube.

===Poor Medical care===
China, like most Communist countries, gives low priority to medicine and medical care. China only spends 1% of GDP on health care, ranking #156 out of 196 nations surveys by the World Health Organization. Many people rely on traditional practitioners, having more faith in acupuncture than modern science. In any case few have the opportunity to receive modern drugs or treatment with advanced devices. The local clinic has only a thermometer and stethoscope for instrumentation, and very few modern drugs. Only one in six medical personnel have a college degree, and those degrees are not high quality. The ordinary people want more medical care but that hardly matters, for in a dictatorship violence matters, but not public opinion. <Ref> Gordon Fairclaugh, "In China, Rx for Ailing Health System," ''Wall Street Journal,'' Oct. 15, 2009</ref>

===Trade===
China's merchandise exports totaled $969.3 billion and imports totaled $791.8 billion in 2006. Its global trade surplus surged from $32 billion in 2004 to $177.5 billion in 2006. China's primary trading partners include Japan, the EU, the United States, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. According to U.S. statistics, China had a trade surplus with the U.S. of $232.6 billion in 2006.

China has taken important steps to open its foreign trading system and integrate itself into the world trading system. In November 1991, China joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group, which promotes free trade and cooperation in the economic, trade, investment, and technology spheres. China served as APEC chair in 2001, and Shanghai hosted the annual APEC leaders meeting in October of that year.

China formally joined the WTO in December 2001. As part of this far-reaching trade liberalization agreement, China agreed to lower tariffs and abolish market impediments. Chinese and foreign businessmen, for example, gained the right to import and export on their own, and to sell their products without going through a government middleman. By 2005, average tariff rates on key U.S. agricultural exports dropped from 31% to 14% and on industrial products from 25% to 9%. The agreement also opens up new opportunities for U.S. providers of services like banking, insurance, and telecommunications. China has made significant progress implementing its WTO commitments, but serious concerns remain, particularly in the realm of intellectual property rights protection.

While accession does not guarantee smaller trade deficits, full implementation of all WTO commitments would further open China's markets to--and help level the playing field for--U.S. exports. China is now one of the most important markets for U.S. exports: in 2006, U.S. exports to China totaled $55.2 billion, almost triple the $19 billion when China joined the WTO in 2001 and up 32% over 2005. U.S. agricultural exports have increased dramatically, making China our fourth-largest agricultural export market (after Canada, Japan, and Mexico). Over the same period (2001-2006), U.S. imports from China have risen from $102 billion to $287.8 billion.

Export growth continues to be a major driver of China's rapid economic growth. To increase exports, China has pursued policies such as fostering the rapid development of foreign-invested factories, which assemble imported components into consumer goods for export, and liberalizing trading rights. In its eleventh Five-Year Program, adopted in 2005, China placed greater emphasis on developing a consumer demand-driven economy to sustain economic growth and address global imbalances.

The United States is one of China's primary suppliers of power generating equipment, aircraft and parts, computers and industrial machinery, raw materials, and chemical and agricultural products. However, U.S. exporters continue to have concerns about fair market access due to strict testing and standards requirements for some imported products. In addition, a lack of transparency in the regulatory process makes it difficult for businesses to plan for changes in the domestic market structure. The April 11, 2006 U.S.-China Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade (JCCT) produced agreements on key U.S. trade concerns ranging from market access to U.S. beef, medical devices, and telecommunications; to the enforcement of intellectual property rights, including, significantly, software. The JCCT also produced an agreement to establish a U.S.-China High Technology and Strategic Trade Working Group to review export control cooperation and facilitate high technology trade.

===Foreign Investment===
China's investment climate has changed dramatically in 24 years of reform. In the early 1980s, China restricted foreign investments to export-oriented operations and required foreign investors to form joint-venture partnerships with Chinese firms. Foreign direct investment (FDI) grew quickly during the 1980s, but stalled in late 1989 in the aftermath of Tiananmen. In response, the government introduced legislation and regulations designed to encourage foreigners to invest in high-priority sectors and regions. Since the early 1990s, China has allowed foreign investors to manufacture and sell a wide range of goods on the domestic market, and authorized the establishment of wholly foreign-owned enterprises, now the preferred form of FDI. However, the Chinese Government's emphasis on guiding FDI into manufacturing has led to market saturation in some industries, while leaving China's services sectors underdeveloped. China is now one of the leading recipients of FDI in the world, receiving almost $80 billion in 2005 according to World Bank statistics.

As part of its WTO accession, China undertook to eliminate certain trade-related investment measures and to open up specified sectors that had previously been closed to foreign investment. New laws, regulations, and administrative measures to implement these commitments are being issued. Major remaining barriers to foreign investment include opaque and inconsistently enforced laws and regulations and the lack of a rules-based legal infrastructure.

Opening to the outside remains central to China's development. Foreign-invested enterprises produce about half of China's exports, and China continues to attract large investment inflows. Foreign exchange reserves were $1.1 trillion at the end of 2006, and have now surpassed those of Japan, making China's foreign exchange reserves the largest in the world.
===Higher education===
Despite fears that China may be outpacing the United States in turning out engineers, the number of college students in China who study engineering is on the decline, according to ''Global Times'', a Chinese newspaper. Fewer than one in 10 college graduates in 2009 majored in engineering. Instead, students are turning to economics, finance, and management, which pay more and carry more social status. "Engineering usually makes people think of factories, while factories often give people an impression of hard work, low wages, and layoffs," the newspaper quoted one professor as saying.

Meanwhile China is building universities overnight, and sending graduate students to the U.S. for PhD's so they can become professors.

The exodus of Chinese undergraduate and graduate students continues; as 180,000 left in 2008, about 25% percent more than in 2007, as more families were able to pay overseas tuition. For every four students who left in the past decade, only one returned; those with American PhDs in science or engineering the least likely to return. The intellectual vitality, quality of science, pay scales and political climate is much more attractive in the West. Those who return to China risk being shunned as "foreigners".<ref> [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/world/asia/07scholar.html?hp Sharon LaFraniera, "Fighting Trend, China Is Luring Scientists Home," ''New York Times'' Jan. 6. 2010]</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of China}}

Although archaeologists have found settlements in China dating to [[5000 BC]], the earliest nation that can be dated in the area of modern China is the [[Shang Dynasty]], approximately [[2000 BC]].

Dynasty followed dynasty, as old regimes would lose the "mandate of heaven;" it was believed that each emperor ruled only with the approval of heaven, and a ruler who was unfit to rule would curse the nation until replaced. In addition, the Chinese capital would occasionally be overrun by "barbarians," who invariably would start a new dynasty in the Chinese capital, integrating their nations into the former dynasty.

Chinese had an advanced artistic culture and well-developed science and technology. However, its science and technology stood still after 1700 and in the 21st century very little survives outside museums, except in for the popular forms of traditional medicine.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by large-scale civil wars, major famines, military defeats by Britain and Japan, regional control by powerful warlords and foreign intervention such as the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1900. In 1911 the revolution deposed the [[Qing Dynasty]] and a republic was proclaimed.

Under the leadership of the [[KMT]] (Kuomintang), headed by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (1887-1975), the central government finally suppressed the local warlords who effectively controlled many provinces. The KMT tried to destroy the Communists under [[Mao Zedong]], but they escaped in the "Long March" of 1934-35. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China was allied with the U.S. and Britain against Japan, and at war's end joined the United Nations as a permanent member of the 5-nation Security Council, with a veto.

In 1945-46, the U.S. attempted to force a negotiated settlement between the KMT and the Communists, but failed. In the face of economic collapse the Communists won the civil war in 1949 under [[Mao Zedong]] established a dictatorship, driving the KMT to Taiwan. Taiwan is recognized as an integral part of China in theory, but in practice has been independent since 1949.

Mao liquidated millions of opponents, fought the United States in the bloody [[Korean War]] (1950-53), and around 1960 broke bitterly with the Soviet Union over the issue of who best represented the Marxist orthodoxy. Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people.

After 1978, Mao's successor [[Deng Xiaoping]] focused on market-oriented economic development, and by 2000 output had quadrupled, population growth ended (by imposing a one-child policy), and good relations were secured with the West. For much of the population, living standards have improved dramatically and the room for personal choice has expanded, yet political controls and Internet censorship remain tight.

China's economy during the last quarter century has changed from a centrally planned system that was largely closed to international trade, to a more market-oriented economy that has a rapidly growing private sector and is a major player in the global economy.

== Human Rights ==
Under Mao millions of Chinese were killed by famines or government action against the middle classes. The "[[Cultural Revolution]]" in the 1960s was a counterattack against intellectuals endorsed by Mao; it set back China by decades until his death in 1975.

After the mid-1980s the new leader [[Deng Xiaoping]] promoted rapid modernization. While Mao's memory was still revered, most of his brutal policies were ended and much economic freedom--and a dash of political liberalization--was allowed. Intellectuals were encouraged to speak out again and to share in a new spirit of "democratization." However Communist party leaders in 1986 warned that modernization must not be used as an excuse to introduce "bourgeois philosophies and social doctrines." By late 1986 student groups began to demonstrate demanding more student participation in local government, a greater degree of democracy, and better living conditions. As demonstrations escalated Hu Yaobang, the general secretary of the party, resigned, confessing that he had made major mistakes and would take responsibility for them. It was a setback to political and economic liberalization, though Hu remained, out of office, a symbol of the potential for democracy. Hu's death in April 1989, sparked widespread public rallies in favor of broad social changes in Beijing, Shanghai, and other major cities. Tens of thousands of students defied a government clampdown to demonstrate in May in [[Tiananmen Square]] central Beijing. The Party moved to kill dissent, sending uneducated rural troops into square on June 3-4; hundreds of demonstrators were killed, wounded, or arrested. The world was appalled. Following the savage repression of democrats in all major cities Deng Xiaoping appeared to be even more firmly in control.

The China country reports in the U.S. State Department's 2009 Human Rights Practices and International Religious Freedom Reports<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm U.S. State Department, ''2008 Human Rights Report: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)'' Feb. 25, 2009] </ref> noted China's well-documented and continuing abuses of human rights in violation of internationally recognized norms, stemming both from the authorities' intolerance of dissent and the inadequacy of legal safeguards for basic freedoms. Reported abuses have included arbitrary and lengthy incommunicado detention, forced confessions, torture, and mistreatment of prisoners as well as severe restrictions on freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, religion, privacy, worker rights, and coercive birth limitation. In 2006, China continued the monitoring, harassment, intimidation, and arrest of journalists, Internet writers, defense lawyers, religious activists, and political dissidents. The activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), especially those relating to the rule of law and expansion of judicial review, continue to be restricted.

In 2008 China loosened its restrictions somewhat for the Summer Olympics. The government arbitrarily closes down Internet access to prevent the people from learning about the world.

Human rights failures remain a major concern. Abatement of pollution and improvements in systems to ensure food, drug, and product safety are major concerns, especially after notorious episodes of exporting poisoned pet food, toothpaste and infant formula.
===Repression in 2008===
In 2008 China's human rights record remained poor and worsened in some areas. During the year the government increased its severe cultural and religious repression of ethnic minorities in Tibetan areas and the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR), increased detention and harassment of dissidents and petitioners, and maintained tight controls on freedom of speech and the Internet. Abuses peaked around high-profile events, such as the Olympics and the unrest in Tibet. As in previous years, citizens did not have the right to change their government. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), both local and international, continued to face intense scrutiny and restrictions. Other serious human rights abuses included extrajudicial killings, torture and coerced confessions of prisoners, and the use of forced labor, including prison labor. Workers cannot choose an independent union to represent them in the workplace, and the law does not protect workers' right to strike. The government continued to monitor, harass, detain, arrest, and imprison journalists, writers, activists, and defense lawyers and their families, many of whom were seeking to exercise their rights under the law.<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm U.S. State Department, ''2008 Human Rights Report: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)'' Feb. 25, 2009] </ref>
===Execution Controversy===
In December 2009, China executed a man named Akmal Shaikh for drug smuggling. There is evidence that Shaikh was mentally ill, but he was not given a psychological exam of any sort before the trial. He was not given an examination because the Chinese government declared that neither Shaikh or his family could prove he was mentally ill through documentation or family history. The British government made many requests for clemency, including at an eleventh-hour meeting with the Chinese ambassador, but they were consistently ignored.<ref>http://www.latimes.com/news/nation-and-world/la-fg-britain-china30-2009dec30,0,4153003.story</ref>

==Further reading==
* Chow, Gregory C. ''China's Economic Transformation'' (2nd ed. 2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Economic-Transformation-Gregory-Chow/dp/1405156244/ref=pd_sim_b_img_3 excerpt and text search]
* Eberharad, Wolfram. ''A History of China'' (2005), 380 pages' [http://books.google.com/books?id=5LgjunIn1CEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:china&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=k1CgHXYb6jQ6BgdwVpUWngov7So full text online free]
* Entwisle, Barbara, and Gail E. Henderson, eds. ''Re-Drawing Boundaries: Work, Households, and Gender in China,'' U of California Press, 2000; on 1990; [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt938nd0k8/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. ''China: A New History.'' (1998). 546 pp.
* Gries, Peter Hays. ''China's New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, and Diplomacy,'' U of California Press, (2004); recent history [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt9290249r/?&query=&brand=ucpress online edition free]
* Kang, David C. ''China Rising: Peace, Power, and Order in East Asia'' (2007), argues a strong China stabilizes East Asia
* Naughton, Barry. ''The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth'' (2007), important new survey
*Ogden S. (ed) ''China.'' (2006)
* Oi, Jean C. ''Rural China Takes Off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform,'' U of California Press, (1999) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8j49p1hv/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Perkins, Dorothy. ''Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture.'' (1999). 662 pp.
* Rawski, Thomas G. and Lillian M. Li, eds. ''Chinese History in Economic Perspective,'' University of California Press, 1992 [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6489p0n6/?&query=&brand=ucpress online free]
* Roberts, J. A. G. ''A Concise History of China.'' (1999). 341 pp.
* Schoppa, R. Keith. ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History.'' (2000). 356 pp. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-columbia-guide-to-modern-chinese-history-by-r-keith-schoppa.jsp online edition]
* Shambaugh, David. ''China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation'' (2009)
* Shambaugh, David. ''Modernizing China's Military: Progress, Problems, and Prospects'' U of California Press, (2003) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/kt4779q33t/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free]
* Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China'' (1991), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1980s [http://www.amazon.com/Search-Modern-China-Jonathan-Spence/dp/0393307808/ref=pd_sim_b_title_2 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98946348 complete edition online]
* Wang, Ke-wen, ed. ''Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.'' (1998). 442 pp.

==See also==
*[[Chinese History]]
*[[Great Wall of China]]
*[[Oriental art]]
*[[Previous Breaking News/China|Articles about '''China''' from previous "Breaking News"]]

==References==
<references/>

==External link==
*[http://www.chinadetail.com/Nation/ All About China]
*[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/china/home.html People's Daily: China at a Glance]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1287798.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: China'']
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html CIA World Factbook - ''China'']
*[http://www.monthlyreview.org/1105wu.htm "Rethinking ‘Capitalist Restoration’ in China"] by Yiching Wu
*[http://www.gov.cn/ The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China]
*[http://www.china.org.cn/ China's Official Gateway for News & Information]
*[http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=341 The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power] February 11, 2005.
*[http://www.china-profile.com/history/hist_list_1.htm History of The People's Republic of China] Timeline of Key Events since 1949.
*[http://www.danwei.org/ Media, advertising, and urban life in China.]
*[http://www.chinastudygroup.org/index.php?action=front2&type=view&id=152 China's Neoliberal Dynasty] by Peter Kwong, originally published in [[The Nation]] October 2, 2006.

[[Category:Asian Countries]]
[[Category:China]]
[[Category:Communist States]]

Islam

2010-05-04T18:35:40Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''Islam''' is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]], a seventh century [[Arab]] merchant, prophet and the founder of the religion. The word "Islam" means "submission" (to Allah) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

A follower of Islam is called a "[[Muslim]]" or "Moslem", a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older terms "Mohammedan" or "Muhammedan" ("follower of Muhammad"), is offensive and has fallen out of use.<ref> Additional archaic terms for Muslims include "Hagarene", and "Saracen". Saracen as a term for muslims was limited to the crusade era, although it makes frequent re-appearances in pre-modern polemics. Hagarene was a more common term in pre-modern works, as it denotes the biblical connection of Hagar the mother of Ishmael who is reported as the patriarch of Islam. Additional names for Muslims in pre-modern and Medieval works are generally derived from misspellings.</ref>

==Theology==
There are no clergy, but there are religious teachers, or Imams, who have their followings. All Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) last and greatest [[prophet]]. The teachings of Muhammad are transmitted through the [[Qur'an]], the Hadith, and the Sunnah. The Sunnah is a general term for "the life and doings of the Prophet", which all Muslims are called on to replicate. The faith teaches that the Archangel [[Gabriel]] appeared to Muhammad in a cave reciting verbatim a revelation from Allah. The first word that Gabriel says to Muhammad is "Iqra" or "Recite/Poclaim",which is found in the 96th Sura of the Qur'an.

Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an (or Koran) to Muhammad. The key miracle of Islam comes from the historical condition of the illiterate and uneducated Muhammad, as the Qur'an is composed in an erudite and complex form of Arabic prose and poetry<ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The Qur'an was not written down in a systemised fashion until a decade after Muhammad died, preferable transmission being through oral recenscion.The Qur'an is considered to be the pure and holy word of God, uncreated and eternal. In Islamic theology the term uncreated is very important, as it implies that there is no author for the Qur'an, only the delivering ot the word to Muhammad who delivered it to the Sahab and the Salaf (The Companions and the Pure), who delivered it to the scribe delegated to record it in the reign of the Caliph Uthman bin Affan.
==Origins==
Like [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], Islam originated in the [[Middle East]]. Islam traces its roots back to [[Abraham]]. Like Christianity and Judaism, Islam originated in the Middle East. Islam claims to trace its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets that followed as recorded in the lost books of the Tawrat and Injil.

Based upon this belief, the Bible, Old and New Testament, is believed to have become corrupted through the translations and misinterpretations accumulated over several millenia. The criticism of the Torah centers around the reconstruction of the existing Biblical text required after the "Babylonian captivity". The criticism of the New Testament centers in the many disputed gnostic texts which contradict the orthodox biblical canon. Interestingly, Islamic jurisprudence accepts that the Injil was complete and whole up until the revelation of Muhammad. Therefore there is some inconsistency in the claims made against the New Testament. For more information, see [[The Bible versus the Qur'an]].
[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], one of the holy cities of Islam.]]

==Today==
Islam is the worlds second largest religion, with over 1.6 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to conversions, highbirth rates, and redefinitions of the term 'Muslim'. Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but cannot keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

Only a small extremist sect of Muslims participate in this activity, using the concept of "[[Jihad]]" (Holy War), to justify their actions.

==Historical Background==

See [[History of the Muslim World]] or [[History of Islam]]

According to Islamic belief, in approximately 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], located in the Hijaz (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] (or Jibreel) to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgment day.

The message to Muhammad was to be God's last and fullest revelation, a direct copy of the Umm Al Khitab, the mother of all books located in heaven next to God; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or the city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Muhammad's forces, composed of the sahaba (companions) from Mecca ,and the Ansar (allied tribes from Yathrib) started attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632.
[[File:Islam750.jpg|thumb|590px]]

Tribal elders in a traditional council called the "Shura" elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through conquest and negotiation into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], South-east and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

The Muslim armies conquered and superseded the ancient Sassanid and Byzantine empires which had ruled before. Within a generation of Muhammad's death Muslim armies occupied an empire stretching from the Nile river to the far off Iranian province of khorasan. Reasons for the rapid conquest are varied and obscure. The Arab armies were more akin to tribal war bands raiding and settling where and when they could. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been at war for centuries. The constant simmering conflict between Constantinople and Persia reached a climax in the early 7th century. The Sassanids conquered briefly Egypt and the Levant threatening the central Byzantine heartland of Anatolia. Under the military reforms of the emperor Heraclius, the Byzantine army consolidated and counter attacked, recapturing all that they had lost and capturing the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 628.

This brief end of the Roman-Persian wars disrupted the frontier areas which had predicated their economies on raiding and mercenary activities. Two major areas in Arabia were directly affected. The Lackmid tribe and the Gassanid tribe both acted as mercenaries for the Persians and Romans. The official religion of both tribes analogically mirrored that of their overseers. Monophysite Christianity was common, particularly of the Jacobite sect. The death of Muhammad and the subsequent Ridda wars occupied these warrior tribes until the reign of Caliph Umar. Additionally, there was great religious unrest in the levant and Egypt. These areas resented the ruinous taxes and the harsh orthodoxy imposed by the emperor in Constantinople.

The same climate was present in the Sassanid realm with the rise of the dualism of the Manicheans. Under the Caliph Umar ,the Arab tribes which had concluded the infighting following the death of Muhammad were allowed to raid into the Byzantine and Sassanid fronteirs. The weakened state of both regimes from both military and economic exhaustion and religious unrest made them fertile picking grounds for the tribal warbands. The Arabs were chiefly successful in holding these areas in that they upheld a lightweight regime of low taxes based in the Islamic laws and distant government. Rather than employing an army of bureaucrats and nobility, the early Arab empire was more favorable towards maintaining the existing government structures under the leadership of Arab tribes. In this atmosphere it is hardly surprising to note the reports from both Muslim and Christian sources of peaceful capitulation and invitation of the invading forces.

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name possibly derived from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Qur'an as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salman Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.

The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Qur'an that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. The Qur'an is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Qur'an as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.

Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Qur'an and able to offer commentaries on Qur'anic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Qur'an or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Qur'an, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''[[Salat]] (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners. It is hard to know the truth. Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Qur'an and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise. Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Qur'an, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Qur'an and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.

====Women in Islam====

In pre-Islamic times women's rights were defined by tribal laws which differed amongst the tribes. Some women had absolute equity and the ability to hold power, some women were treated worse than chattel, bride prices, unlimited polygamy, and female infanticide were a common theme. Islamic law gave women rights they had never had in the ancient world; namely, inheritance, ownership, legal standing (however diminished it is in Sharia law), education rights, and the ability to divorce. That was over a thousand years ago and there has been little progress since. The reality of traditional Sharia law as applied in the modern era has shocked the modern conscience. <ref>Linda Rae Bennett, ''Women, Islam and Modernity'' (2005)</ref>.

Women are treated as inferiors to men. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Qur'an 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is imposed as a protection of female status. Hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and western street clothes may be acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque [[Burqa]] was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of restrictive garb. [[Honor killing]] is winked at.

Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.

Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.

Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, though these are the countries were traditional Islam is strongest. They point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, ignoring the efforts of traditionalists in Turkey to end the freedoms women enjoy.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men control and oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect women from predatory men.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the [[Dome of the Rock]] mosque. According to the Qur'an (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are proscribed from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect interest.

====Non-Muslim Practices====
Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Qur'an, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is [[honor killing]], in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribalistic pagan in origin.

==Islam and Christianity==
see [[Dhimma]]

While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the resurrection, they consider him and his mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshipping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that non-believers will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified (same as similar statements in the Bible and the Torah):

{{cquote|Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."
}}
::(Qur'an 5:73-75)

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], some believe Islam has its roots in an earlier polytheistic system.<ref>[http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam/]</ref> By this thinking God is linked to an earlier moon deity, although it should be brought up that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, where Allah is cited as the God of [[Abraham]].<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}

Sharia law is used in many modern Islamic theocracies and prescribes very harsh treatments for acts, that, in the western world, are relatively minor. For example, under sharia law, converting from Islam is punishable by death.<ref>[http://www.ntpi.org/html/whyoppose.html]</ref>
==Terminology==
Additional archaic terms for Muslims include , but are not limited to, "Hagarene" and "Saracen". The term Hagarene was more common in post-crusade Europe as it made specific reference to the biblical mother of Ishmael. Ishmael in the Muslim faith plays an analogous theological role to Isaac.{{citation needed}} Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, (1992)</ref>

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

<ref>''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back] </ref>

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]
==Further reading==
* Armour, Rollin. ''Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-Christianity-West-Troubled-History/dp/1570754071/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]
* Armstrong, Karen. ''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-Modern-Library-Chronicles/dp/081296618X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Berkey, Jonathan P. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Formation-Islam-Religion-Society-600-1800/dp/0521588138/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Campo, Juan Eduardo. ''Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2009), basic introduction
* Esposito, John J. ''The Oxford History of Islam'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-Islam-John-Esposito/dp/0195107993/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Glasse, Cyril. ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' ( 2nd ed. 2008)
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East'' (2001), by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-People-Events-Middle/dp/0812695186/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, Richard C. et al. ''Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World'' (2003), more advanced
* Newby, Gordon. ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-Encyclopedia-Islam-Gordon-Newby/dp/1851682953/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342942&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Robinson, Chase F. ed. ''The New Cambridge History of Islam'' (Volume 1) (2009), summarizes advanced scholarship
* Ruthven, Malise, and Azim Nanji. ''Historical Atlas of Islam'' (2004)
* Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. (1992)
* Sonn, Tamara and Mary Williamsburg. ''A Brief History of Islam'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Blackwell-Histories-Religion/dp/1405109009/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Infidels-History-Conflict-Between-Christendom/dp/0812972392/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Qur'an online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta (Hadith collection) online in English]
* Congressional Research Service, "Islam: A Primer", Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain and the source of part of this article [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]

Hypocrisy

2010-05-04T14:48:34Z

DavidBG: Adding section

'''Hypocrisy''' literally means criticism of others, by a standard one does not apply to oneself. It is hypocritical to use a [[double standard]] which strictly applies a rule to one group of people, while exempting or excusing another group.

For example: Suppose a politician criticizes an opponent for "catering to special interests," rather than saying and doing things which benefit every constituent. If this politician is also "in the pocket" of special interests, it would be hypocritical to critique an opponent for doing the same.

Yet charges of hypocrisy are not so often directed against practices as against people. It is not that the critic really opposes "catering to special interests", but that they just want that particular politician to be silenced or removed from office.

* A mere accusation of hypocrisy can halt a debate by silencing the accused, forcing him off-topic to defend himself against the tangential charge of hypocrisy. This is how and why so many talking-head shows quickly degenerate into everyone accusing everyone else of hypocrisy, with nothing of substance actually discussed.<ref>[http://www.communistvampires.com/articles/hypocrisy.htm The False and Lazy Charge of Hypocrisy]</ref>

* The treatment by the nation's news gatekeepers and liberal groups of racist or bigoted behavior varies wildly depending on whether the presumed guilty party is a Republican or a Democrat (or conservative or a liberal). [http://spectator.org/archives/2010/01/12/bigots-and-the-press]

* Some conservatives have pointed to Gore's use of a private jet while spreading the message about the dangers of [[global warming]].<ref>[http://www.gnn.tv/articles/2332/More_Inconvenient_Truths_About_Al_Gore More Inconvenient Truths About Al Gore]</ref>

Hypocrisy is a common fault in many individuals of many affiliations. Ironically, many people are quick to accuse other affiliations of hypocrisy, while refusing to consider the idea that they might be so themselves. <ref>[http://bible.cc/matthew/7-3.htm Matthew 7:3]</ref>

The [[Bible]] strongly and repeatedly condemns hypocrisy.<ref>[http://www.blueletterbible.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=hypocri*&t=KJV&page=1 Instances of "hypocrite" and forms thereof in the King James Bible]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[category:psychology]]
[[Category:Sin]]
[[Category:Liberal Traits]]

Regent University

2010-05-04T14:17:50Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

Regent University is a Christian University founded in 1978 by [[Pat Robertson]]. It is located in Virginia Beach, Virgina and has an annual enrollment of around 4500 students.

Regent University, its undergraduate school and its graduate and laws schools are accredited or certified by standard national accrediting agencies. Tuition is well below the average for private colleges, at $420 per credit hour.

The law school boasts it has produced students that have beat more prestigious colleges such as Harvard and Yale on several occasions at moot court competitions. The Bush administration thought very highly of Regent law students and hired over a hundred of them during the administration. <ref>http://www.regent.edu/acad/schlaw/</ref>

==External links==
* [http://www.regent.edu/ Home page]
* [http://www.regent.edu/academics/catalog.cfm#undergrad Undergraduate catalog]

==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Virginia Universities]]

Iapetus (moon)

2010-05-04T14:16:47Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

{{Planet
|image=Iapetus dark ridge.jpg
|caption=Iapetus, showing Cassini Regio and the equatorial ridge, taken by [[Cassini-Huygens Mission|Cassini]]
|date=October 25, 1671<ref name=usgs>"[http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/append7.html Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Planetary Body Names and Discoverers]." US Geological Survey, Jennifer Blue, ed. March 31, 2008. Accessed April 17, 2008.</ref>
|discname=Giovanni Domenico Cassini<ref name=usgs/><ref name=Hamilton>Hamilton, Calvin J. "[http://www.solarviews.com/eng/iapetus.htm Entry for Iapetus]." ''The Views of the Solar System'', 2004. Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref>
|origname=A Titan, god of mortality and wounding
|primary=Saturn
|order=22
|periapsis=3,460,515 km<ref name=calc>Calculated</ref>
|apoapsis=3,662,085 km<ref name=calc/>
|semimajor=3,561,300 km<ref name=saturnsatfact>Williams, David R. "[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturniansatfact.html Saturnian Satellite Fact Sheet]." National Space Science Data Center, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], November 23, 2007. Accessed June 4, 2008.</ref>
|eccentricity=0.0283<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|sidereal=79.330183 da<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|orbitspeed=3.27 km/s<ref name=Hamilton/>
|inclination=14.72°<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|siderealday=79.330183 da<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|rotatespeed=0.000658 km/s<ref name=calc/>
|axialtilt=0°<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|mass=1.81 * 1021 kg<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|density=1090 kg/m³<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|meanradius=718 km<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
|equatorradius=748 km<ref name=Thomas>Thomas, P.C., Burns, J.A., Helfenstein, P., ''et al.'' "[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WGF-4NDMNGC-4&_user=10&_coverDate=10%2F31%2F2007&_rdoc=21&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236821%232007%23998099997%23668725%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6821&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=29&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=8101cb113c75c3b948580ff1b4750474 Shapes of the saturnian icy satellites and their significance]." ''Icarus'' 190(2):573-584, October 2, 2007. {{doi|10.1016/j.icarus.2007.03.012}} Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref>
|polarradius=712.6 km<ref name=Thomas/>
|surfacegrav=0.234 m/s²<ref name=calc/>
|escapespeed=0.579 km/s<ref name=calc/>
|surfacearea=6,478,266 km²<ref name=calc/>
|mintemp=70 K<ref name=tempimg>"[http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA07004 Catalog Page for PIA07004: Iapetus Thermal Radiation Image]." JPL Photojournal, [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]], [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], January 10, 2005. Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref>
|meantemp=100 K<ref name=tempimg/>
|maxtemp=130 K<ref name=tempimg/>
|composition=Water ice and small amounts of rock
|compauth=<ref name=Hamilton/>
|color=Light and dark gray
|albedo=0.5<ref name=saturnsatfact/>
}}'''Iapetus''' or '''Japetus''' or '''Saturn VIII''' is the twenty-second [[moon]] of [[Saturn]], the second moon of Saturn to be discovered, and one of the most remarkable objects in all the [[Solar system]].

== Discovery and naming ==
[[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] discovered Iapetus in 1671. However, he noted that he could reliably observe Iapetus only on the western side of [[Saturn]], and never on the eastern side. In 1705 he observed Iapetus on the eastern side, with an improved telescope, and noted that it was two visual magnitudes dimmer on that side.

After his discovery of Iapetus, Cassini discovered three other moons ([[Tethys (moon)|Tethys]], [[Dione (moon)|Dione]], and [[Rhea (moon)|Rhea]]) in the ensuing years, during the reign of "Sun-King" [[Louis XIV]] of [[France]].<ref name=usgs/> Cassini named these moons the "Sidera Lodoicea" in honor of the king. Later generations (especially after the French Revolution) would not retain such regal flattery.<ref name=Boulay>Boulay, J. C. "[http://jcboulay.free.fr/astro/sommaire/astronomie/univers/galaxie/etoile/systeme_solaire/saturne/satellites/page_saturne_satellites1.htm Saturne: les satellites]." ''Astronomie-astronautique''. Accessed June 5, 2008.</ref>

Sir John Herschel, son of the astronomer [[William Herschel]], suggested the current names of the seven largest satellites of Saturn, including Iapetus. [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] received a generic name, and the other six received names of the Titans of mythology. Iapetus was one of four brothers who conspired with Kronos or Cronus to depose Uranus, father of all the gods.<ref name=Lasell>Lassell, William. "[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/seri/MNRAS/0008//0000042.000.html Satellites of Saturn]." ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'', 8(3):42-43, January 14, 1848. Accessed June 4, 2008.</ref>

== Orbital characteristics ==
Iapetus is in an eccentric orbit around Saturn, at an average distance of 3,561,300 km. This distance is nearly three times the average distance of [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] and 2.5 times the average distance of [[Hyperion (moon)|Hyperion]]. Its sidereal month is about 79.33 days.

The orbit of Iapetus is inclined to Saturn's equator by more than 14 degrees, more than any of the other large moons of Saturn. Only the much smaller irregular moons of Saturn have orbits more inclined than that of Iapetus.

== Rotational characteristics ==
Iapetus is in [[tidal lock]] with Saturn.

== Physical characteristics ==
Iapetus is slightly more dense than [[water]]. It therefore is likely composed of water ice with a small mineral component.

=== Two colors ===
Iapetus is best known for the surprisingly different colors of its leading and trailing hemispheres. Its leading hemisphere has an albedo of about 0.05, while the trailing hemisphere has an albedo as high as 0.6. The dark region is named Regio Cassini, in honor of the discoverer, and the bright region is named Roncevaux Terra. The boundary between these two regions is sharp, but not perfectly so. In the border between the two regions, the dark material often covers only one side of a crater or fills the floor of another.<ref name=Arnett>Arnett, Bill. "[http://www.nineplanets.org/iapetus.html Entry for Iapetus]." ''The <s>Nine</s> 8 Planets'', May 13, 2005. Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref>

The origin of the dark material remains unsettled. Some astronomers speculate that the material came from [[Phoebe]], a member of the [[Norse group]] of moons. Yet the colors of Phoebe and the dark region of Iapetus are not alike.<ref name=Arnett/><ref name=Hamilton/>

The dark material is either several meters thick or else is constantly renewed. Cassini Regio has no bright-rimmed craters consistent with erosion of the dark material.<ref name=Hamilton/>

=== Shape and surface features ===
Iapetus is an oblate spheroid.<ref name=Thomas/> The observed oblateness is far more pronounced than astronomers would expect of a body having a sidereal day of more than 79 Earth days. Moreover, Iapetus has a ridge of mountains, 20 km high, along its equator. To assume such a shape, Iapetus ought to have had a sidereal day of 10 hours, slowing later to 16 hours. Its crust would then have had to freeze and thicken over a period of 100 million to 900 million years, according to [[uniformitarianism|uniformitarian]] theories. But during this time, Iapetus would have required a source of internal heat sufficient to melt a vast quantity of water ice. Astronomers who have considered the problem believe that this internal heat source was radioactive decay, specifically of 26[[Aluminum|Al]] and 60[[iron|Fe]].<ref name=Cowen>Cowen, Ron. "[http://www.sciencenews.org/view/feature/id/8823/title/Idiosyncratic_Iapetus Idiosyncratic Iapetus]." ''Science News'' 172:104-106, August 14, 2007. Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref>

The ridge system itself is an enigma. Astronomers have suggested at least two models for its formation:
# It formed during the process described above, as the crust buckled from the rapid rotation as the body cooled.<ref name=Kerr>Kerr, Richard A. "[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/311/5757/29 How Saturn's Icy Moons Get a (Geologic) Life]." ''Science'' 311(5757):29, January 6, 2006. {{doi|10.1126/science.311.5757.29}} Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref>
# Iapetus initially had rings, which then collapsed onto the equator and persist today as the ridge.<ref name=Ip>Ip, Wing-Huen. "[http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2006/2005GL025386.shtml On a ring origin of the equatorial ridge of Iapetus]." ''Geophys. Res. Lett.'' 33(L16203), 2006. {{doi|10.1029/2005GL025386}} Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref>

The ridge and all the rest of the surface is covered with multiple impact craters that show little or no erosion. These include a 400-kilometer-wide basin within Regio Cassini at about 30 degrees north latitude,<ref name=basinimg>"[http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA06166 PIA06166: Encountering Iapetus]." JPL Photojournal, [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]], [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], 2005. Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref> and a 450-kilometer-wide basin in Roncevaux Terra at about 50 degrees south latitude.<ref name=basinimg2>"[http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA08384 PIA08384: The Other Side of Iapetus]." JPL Photojournal, [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]], [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]], September 10, 2007. Accessed June 16, 2008.</ref> Iapetus has nine such very large impact basins in all.

=== Temperature range ===
[[Image:Iapetus temps.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Iapetus temperature map]]Temperatures on the leading (dark) hemisphere reach 130 K at local noon, because the dark material in the Regio Cassini can absorb more heat. Temperatures do not reach more than 100 K on the trailing hemisphere.<ref name=tempimg/>

== Problems for uniformitarian theories posed by Iapetus ==
The marked inclination of the orbit of Iapetus from the equatorial plane of Saturn defies explanation. According to the [[nebula hypothesis]], all the regular satellites of Saturn ought to remain in or near the same plane. But Iapetus is not likely to be a captured object. Its orbit, though eccentric, is still not consistent with such a model.

The markedly oblate shape of Iapetus, and its equatorial ridge, are inconsistent with its long sidereal day. Astronomers have modeled the possible evolutionary arrest of Iapetus shortly after its formation. But those same astronomers admit that the required sequence of events would have had to be exact, with virtually no tolerance for error.<ref name=Cowen/>

== Observation and Exploration ==
[[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2]] each made rendezvous with Iapetus and took photographs. Those photographs revealed the first details of the contrasting colors of Iapetus's leading and trailing hemispheres.

The [[Cassini-Huygens Mission]] Orbiter has made the closest rendezvous with Iapetus. Its camera first revealed the equatorial ridge, and its infrared sensors provided the first insights into the temperature on Iapetus.

No further rendezvous are currently planned.

== In fiction ==
One of the most remarkable appearances of Iapetus (or ''Japetus'' as the author spelled it) was in [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s [[novel]] ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', based on the [[motion picture]] of the same name. This novel had as its theme the origins of [[human]] intelligence and a supposed history of contact with [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial scientists]] in [[deep time]].<ref name=2001SO>Clarke, Arthur C. ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', reprint. Penguin Group USA, 2005. ISBN 9780451452733. Paperback.</ref> The author took especial note of Cassini's original astounding finding of radically different albedos on its different hemispheres. In this novel, either Iapetus was an artificial construct, or else extraterrestrial expeditionaries had seared the leading hemisphere and polished the trailing hemisphere to make it brilliant white. In the center of the white hemisphere the expeditionaries built a hyperspatial connecting "gateway" to their own dimension. They completed this project two million years ago and then waited with unfathomable patience for the first human [[astronaut]] to explore Iapetus and pilot a small vessel through their "gate."

The first edition of this novel appeared in the 1970s. The direct observation of Iapetus by Voyagers 1 and 2 rendered this speculation moot.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Iapetus Mercator.jpg|Iapetus in Mercator projection
Image:Iapetus ridge overflight.jpg|Iapetus' equatorial ridge at close approach
Image:Iapetus spotted.jpg|Iapetus with impact craters filled with dark material at the edge of Regio Cassini
Image:Iapetus bright.jpg|Roncevaux Terra region of Iapetus, by Cassini
Image:Iapetus dark.jpg|Cassini regio region of Iapetus, by Cassini
</gallery>

== Video gallery ==
* [http://www.godtube.com/view_video.php?viewkey=db6e6784c6f1868e8d60 Iapetus ridge overflight] (<http://godtube.com/>)

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Solarsystem}}

Conservative parables

2010-05-03T16:41:28Z

DavidBG: Adding a parable

'''Conservative parables''' are stories that illustrate a [[conservative]] insight. The stories may or may not have actually occurred.

== The Desperate Smoker==
[[Image:Ashtray.jpg|thumb|150px|Is charity really charity if it just goes up in [[cigarette|smoke]]?]]
A smoker was in a drug store to purchase a pack of [[cigarette]]s. Short on cash, he went to the cheapest cigarette store he could find and emptied all his pockets in order to scrounge up with every last penny he had. The cashier counted all the change and but found it was ten cents short of the total required for the cheapest pack of cigarettes.

The smoker desperately turned to the man standing behind him and asked him for a dime. The bystander clearly had a spare dime.

Should the bystander give the smoker a dime so he can purchase the pack of cigarettes?

The bystander, who is generous by nature, did something more difficult for him: he denied the request and instead urged the smoker to "kick the habit."

The smoker then gathered all his change and left the store.

This parable actually happened.

== The Fasting Woman ==
A women had been fasting for several days, and was quite weak. It was Sunday morning, and she wondered whether she had enough strength to attend church. It would have been easy to justify not going, as she had already shown her love and devotion to God that week. But she decided to attend the services anyway. Without eating any breakfast, she prepared herself for the late morning service. She got dressed, gathered her purse and belongings, and drove off to the church.

The church was filled for the late-morning service, with many hundreds of worshipers. The woman sat near the back and watched the pews fill up with members of the community, young and old. The service was about to begin. The woman then heard an unusual commotion outside, including several loud noises and shouts. She turned around several times to look at the door to the church. Her intuition told her something was wrong.

Suddenly, a large man burst through the door and began shooting at the hundreds of worshipers, children and all. The woman mustered all her strength and pulled out her gun from bag. She then shot the intruder. Stunned, and expecting to die from her shot, the intruder killed himself. The worshipers in the church were all saved. Afterwards, the woman said that she had been "praying to God that he direct me" in what to do in life.<ref>[http://www.thedenverchannel.com/news/14817480/detail.html ''God Guided Me And Protected Me.''] 7 News: The Denver Channel</ref>

== The Troubled Pregnancy ==

A pregnant woman was doing missionary work in the Philippines. Due to contaminated drinking water in an impoverished area, the woman contracted amoebic dysentery while pregnant. This required that she take strong medications in order to recover.

The woman's doctor told her that the medication inevitably caused irreversible damage to the developing unborn child in her womb. The doctor advised the woman to have an [[abortion]]. The doctor told the woman that she would be burdened with a disabled child and it would be better to get rid of the unborn child now through [[abortion]].

The woman refused to have the [[abortion]] and subsequently gave birth to a baby boy, whom she named Timothy.

Twenty years later, [[Tim Tebow]] was recognized as the best college football player in the [[United States]] by winning the [[Heisman Trophy]], the first to win that prestigious award as only a sophomore.

<ref>This parable is based on the birth and life of Tim Tebow. [http://www.lifesitenews.com/ldn/2007/dec/07121108.html]</ref>

== The Lost $40 ==

One day a teenager received $40 from his father. The teenager then had to drive somewhere, and put the $40 on the seat of his car. After going in and out of the car several times, and driving with the windows open, the $40 was gone. He searched and searched for it, but could not find it anywhere.

He then spent dozens of hours agonizing over the lost $40, obsessed with having lost it. It bothered him for weeks, even months. He still remembered it years later.

One day he realized that, based on the prevailing wage for teenagers of $8 per hour, that $40 was worth no more than about 6 hours of his time (after taxes). If he had simply worked rather than worry, he would have quickly "found" the $40 and accomplished something in the process.

== The Flop ==

A skinny young man having limited athletic ability had a determination to do his very best and win. He picked the high jump event, but could only clear about 5' 3", nowhere near what was needed to win any competitions. But he worked tirelessly, trying all known techniques for jumping over a bar. Still, he could not improve to the point where he could win.

Yet he did not give up, and harnessed his competitive spirit to invent a revolutionary style of jumping back-first over the bar. Though lacking the athletic gifts of his competitors, the young man improved his jumping ability by a foot and more. He began to win.

His peculiar style attracted mockery and name-calling, as people derided his technique as the "flop". But that did not faze him, and he continued to jump in the direction opposite to all his competitors. Despite winning the national college high jump event, experts still considered his success to be a fluke and his approach to be a joke.

When it came time for the [[Olympics]], no one considered the young man to have a chance, and his more athletic competitors were favorites to win the high jump event. The whole world was riveted to the television screen as the young man flawlessly cleared every height as the bar was raised again and again. When the bar was finally raised to an Olympic record height of 7' 4 1/4", only the young man and his "flop" were able to jump over it. He had won the gold medal.

Virtually immediately everyone else, including those who had mercilessly mocked him, began praising and imitating his style. To this day it is known as the "Fosbury Flop."<ref>http://www.usatf.org/halloffame/TF/showBio.asp?HOFIDs=57</ref>

== The Difficult Science Problem ==

Physics 401 was the most difficult course in the entire college, having problem sets that would take many hours to complete each week. The students often worked on the homework together, as allowed and even encouraged by the professor. Students were also able to consult books and online resources in solving problems.

As the course progressed, the problems became increasingly difficult and complex. Some students were better than others at solving the problems. Reputations developed about which students had answers, and which ones did not.

Near the end of the course, the teacher assigned a particularly difficult problem to the class. The night before it was due, the students gathered as they had been throughout the course, and worked as hard as they could to find the answer. One student who had a reputation for not being as smart claimed he had the answer, and started to explain it to the others. But the smarter students quickly rejected his approach to the problem and told him to be quiet. Despite trying several times to describe his answer, he was ignored.

The next day the students handed in their homeworks, and the following week the professor returned their graded papers. He said that only one student had answered the difficult problem correctly. That student was the one who had tried to explain it to the others, but they would not listen.

The student having the correct answer had found it in a book not used by the other students.

== The Wall ==

The leader of a nation traveled to a distant land, and planned to deliver a speech there. This leader was not known for having great intelligence, and in fact was often ridiculed within his own country. He wondered what he should say in the foreign country while he was there.

For decades, there had been a massive wall in this foreign land which denied its inhabitants the freedom to travel and visit relatives, or simply move to places having greater opportunity. Inhabitants who tried to surmount the wall were shot and killed. Inside the wall the system of communism was imposed; outside the wall capitalism and freedom existed.

The leader began to focus on the wall in connection with his planned speech, and proposed uttering the bold command, "tear down this wall."

But his top advisers, who were very experienced in politics and foreign policy, were adamantly against such a bold statement. They insisted on removing it from the speech. As each draft circulated these experts took the phrase out, but each time the leader inserted this phrase back in. The experts felt the phrase made the leader look foolish and hopelessly naive, and could not possibly have the intended effect. The experts were sure it would subject their leader to even more ridicule than he already endured.

But the leader did not care about the potential for ridicule, and he wanted to say what he felt was best for his audience. He ignored his experts and delivered the bold command as part of his speech.

The leader's advisers were horrified when they heard the words delivered in the actual speech. They braced for a backlash and criticism.

But two years later, to the amazement of the entire world, this wall that had stood for decades was torn down exactly as the leader courageously suggested.<ref>http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/070610/18speeches.htm</ref>

== Welfare ==

So, I was talking to this little girl Catherine, the daughter of some friends, and she said she wanted to be President some day.

Both of her parents, [[liberal]] [[Democrats]], were standing there with us - and I asked Catherine - "If you were President what would be the first thing you would do?"

Catherine replied - "I would give houses to all the homeless people."

"Wow - what a worthy goal you have there, Catherine." I told her, "You don't have to wait until you're President to do that, you can come over to my house and clean up all the dog poop in my back yard and I will pay you $5. Then we can go over to the grocery store where the homeless guy hangs out, and you can give him the $5 to use for a new house."

Catherine thought that over for a second, while her mom looked at me seething, and Catherine replied, "why doesn't the homeless guy come over and clean up the dog poop and you can just pay him the $5?"

And I said, "Welcome to the [[Republican Party]]."

==The University Assignment==

A young student studying his first [[Politics]] assignment picked to answer the question - "Have we reached the end of political ideology?" The young student, as this was his first paper, studied hard and long to argue that there has been a rise in [[conservative]] thought in recent years as a response to growing [[globalization]] and encroaching [[liberalism]]. The lecturer gave the paper low marks despite solid referencing and an extensive bibliography. The young student felt slighted by this as he had put in many hours work. Instead of bowing down and re-writing the assignment according to [[professor values|his lecturer's standards]], the student petitioned the head of department to have his paper and final mark reviewed and also got several others to back him. In the end the student got an A grade.

This parable actually happened.

==The Conservative Conference==

A [[conservative]] conference was scheduled for Sept. 25, 2001, expecting most attendees to travel by air. Unfortunately, on Sept. 11, 2001 there was the [[9/11]] terrorist hijacking of airplanes and a national crisis resulting in the grounding of airplanes for a week and widespread panic.

As a result, most conferences were cancelled, and the few that were held were poorly attended. Airplanes flew nearly empty for weeks once they were allowed to fly at all.

Though he expected few others to attend, one [[conservative]] rejected the objections of his family and flew out to the conference. He saw only two other passengers on his 140-seat airplane. He checked into the hotel and felt that at least he could cheer up the conference organizers when no one else showed up.

But to his great surprise, everyone else showed up. The other attendees concluded that both [[logic]] and [[faith]] weighed in favor of traveling to the conference. There was no logical reason for staying home, and [[faith]] eliminated any anxiety. In fact, the [[conservatives]] did not even waste time discussing their decisions to attend, at a time when nearly all other travelers acted irrationally and avoided airplanes.

This parable actually happened.

== The Convert ==

Born in 1910, this child suffered from a physical handicap as a youngster and could not attend regular school. He had to wear leg braces and was eventually enrolled in a school for "physical defectives." But that school was managed by the same organization that ran the school for "mental defectives" and, as he later explained, there was "some overlapping in the curriculum." As a result,
he spent his days in basket-weaving classes, and was deprived of any formal academic instruction until age 10.

But he worked hard, and eventually found his way to the [[London School of Economics]], the top school of its kind in the world.

He was an avid [[socialist]], as were most of his fellow students. But in his senior year, he happened to take an [[economics]] seminar taught by Professor [[Arnold Plant]]. That course was devoted to the "[[invisible hand]]." It did not have any readings, and focused on stimulating discussions instead.

This young man's prior educational background may not have given him as much knowledge as his classmates, but it did give him an open mind. This single course changed his life, as he embraced the logic and power of the free market.

Later he immigrated to the United States and became an economics professor. But unlike most of his colleagues, he avoided mathematical equations and formulae, bucking the modern trend in his field.

His extraordinary insight was that the free market always reaches the most efficient level of productive activity, in the absence of [[transaction costs]].

In 1991, he was the sole recipient of the Nobel Prize in Economics. His name is [[Ronald Coase]]. To this day [[liberals]] fail to give him the recognition he earned.<ref>[http://www.jpands.org/vol12no2/schlafly.pdf The Coase Theorem: The Greatest Economic Insight of the 20th Century]</ref>

== The Little Red Hen - Ronald Reagan Version ==
'''''"About a year ago I imposed a little poetry on you. It was called "The Incredible Bread Machine" and made a lot of sense with reference to matters economic. You didn't object too much so having gotten away with it once I'm going to try again. This is a little treatise on basic economics called 'The Modern little Red Hen.'"''''' <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=wS6LcPIDRFIC&lpg=PA381&dq=%22Ronald%20Reagan%3A%20the%20power%20of%20conviction%20and%20the%20success%20of%20his%20presidency%22%20%22Little%20Red%20Hen%22&pg=PA380#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''Ronald Reagan'' By Peter J. Wallison]</ref>

----

Once upon a time there was a little red hen who scratched about the barnyard until she uncovered some grains of wheat. She called her neighbors and said 'If we plant this wheat, we shall have bread to eat. Who will help me plant it?'

"Not I, " said the cow.

"Not I," said the duck.

"Not I," said the pig.

"Not I," said the goose.

"Then I will," said the little red hen. And she did. The wheat grew tall and ripened into golden grain. "Who will help me reap my wheat?" asked the little red hen.

"Not I," said the duck.

"Out of my classification," said the pig.

"I'd lose my seniority," said the cow.

"I'd lose my unemployment compensation," said the goose.

"Then I will," said the little red hen, and she did.

At last the time came to bake the bread. "Who will help me bake bread?" asked the little red hen.

"That would be overtime for me," said the cow.

"I'd lose my welfare benefits," said the duck.

"I'm a dropout and never learned how," said the pig.

"If I'm to be the only helper, that's discrimination," said the goose.

"Then I will," said the little red hen.

She baked five loaves and held them up for the neighbors to see.

They all wanted some and, in fact, demanded a share. But the little red hen said, "No, I can eat the five loaves myself."

"Excess profits," cried the cow.

"Capitalist leech," screamed the duck.

"I demand equal rights," yelled the goose.

And the pig just grunted.

And they painted "unfair" picket signs and marched round and around the little red hen shouting obscenities.

When the government agent came, he said to the little red hen, "You must not be greedy."

"But I earned the bread," said the little red hen.

"Exactly," said the agent. "That's the wonderful free enterprise system. Anyone in the barnyard can earn as much as he wants.
But under our modern government regulations productive workers must divide their products with the idle."

And they lived happily ever after, including the little red hen, who smiled and clucked, "I am grateful, I am grateful."

But her neighbors wondered why she never again baked any more bread....

== Socialism ==
A Parable about Socialism

A young woman was about to finish her first year of college. Like so many others her age, she considered herself to be a very liberal Democrat, and among other liberal ideals, was very much in favor of higher taxes to support more government programs, in other words, redistribution of wealth.

She was deeply ashamed that her father was a rather staunch Conservative, a feeling she openly expressed. Based on the lectures that she had participated in, and the occasional chat with a professor, she felt that her father had for years harbored an evil, selfish desire to keep what he thought should be his.

One day she was challenging her father on his opposition to higher taxes on the rich and the need for more government programs. The self-professed objectivity proclaimed by her professors had to be the truth and she indicated so to her father. He responded by asking how she was doing in school.

Taken aback, she answered rather haughtily that she had a 4.0 GPA, and let him know that it was tough to maintain, insisting that she was taking a very difficult course load and was constantly studying, which left her no time to go out and party like other people she knew. She didn't even have time for a boyfriend, and didn't really have many college friends because she spent all her time studying.

Her father listened and then asked, 'How is your friend Audrey doing?' She replied, 'Audrey is barely getting by. All she takes are easy classes, she never studies, and she barely has a 2.0 GPA. She is so popular on campus; college for her is a blast. She's always invited to all the parties and lots of times she doesn't even show up for classes because she's too hung over.'

Her wise father asked his daughter, 'Why don't you go to the Dean's office and ask him to deduct 1.0 off your GPA and give it to your friend who only has a 2.0. That way you will both have a 3.0 GPA and certainly that would be a fair and equal distribution of your GPA.'

The daughter, visibly shocked by her father's suggestion, angrily fired back, 'That's a crazy idea, how would that be fair! I've worked really hard for my grades! I've invested a lot of time, and a lot of hard work! Audrey has done next to nothing toward her degree. She played while I worked my tail off!'

The father slowly smiled, winked and said gently, 'Welcome to the conservative's philosophy.'

== The Mouse Tower ==
There was once a cruel and greedy bishop who ruled over the town of Mainz. His name was Hatto.

One year, there was a famine and all the crops died. Day after day, the people banged on his castle doors, crying for food.

Eventually, Hatto tired of the people coming to his doors day after day, begging for food. So, he came out on his balcony to deliver a speech.

"I've changed my mind," he said. "I am going to give you all enough food to fill your stomachs to the top!" The people cheered.

Hatto led the people into one of his largest barns, which was empty at the time. He told the people to go inside.

As soon as all the people were inside, Hatto closed and locked the doors.

The people were expecting Hatto to start distributing food, but instead, they heard his cruel chuckle.

"You have pestered me like rats, and now you shall die like rats." He set a torch to the base of the barn, and it began to burn.

The people began to scream for mercy, but Hatto couldn't have cared less. "Hear the mice squeak!", he said, and then saddled his horse and galloped off to his castle.

The barn burned to the ground. Not one peasant survived the flames.

Several weeks later, Hatto sent a servant to the ashes to dispose of the bodies. Not a sign of the peasants could be found anywhere.

When the servant reported this to Hatto, he simply shrugged. "Good riddance. Dust to dust."

That night, Hatto's sleep was troubled by squeaking and scrabbling.

When he woke up the next morning, there was a rat on his pillow. He shooed it away.

There were rats in his shoes. He kicked them out.

When he sat down to eat, there was rats in his food. Rats in his clothes. Rats in his stables. This went on for three long days.

On the fourth day, a servant ran in fear to Hatto. "Look, my lord! An army of rats is besieging the castle!"

Hatto ran to look out the window. A swarm of rats was heading right for his castle, from the ruins of the burned barn!

He called to his servants, and they pulled up the drawbridge. Hatto smiled to himself, and went to bed.

Something caused him to wake up in the night. Looking out the window, he saw thousands of rats swarming across the moat!

Screaming in terror, he ran to the castle's highest tower, and barricaded the door. He opened the tower windows and threw out bread and cheese to satisfy the ravenous horde.

The rats ignored the food, for they hadn't come for it. They had come for something else.

Hatto sat down in the tower, and waited. It wasn't a long wait. From the other side of the tower door came the sound of gnawing...

Several days later, a few servants dared to look inside of the ruined tower. They found untouched bread, cheese and wine, but no sign of Hatto...

= Other Parables =

== The Drowning Man ==

A conservative and a liberal are walking along the beach when they see a man drowning a hundred feet off shore. The conservative throws him a 50 foot rope and shouts to the victim "You provide the other fifty feet." The liberal throws the man a 200 foot rope...and lets go of both ends.

== The Missing Child ==
A little girl is late home from school one day. Her mother becomes increasingly worried and after 15 minutes have passed is beside herself with anxiety. Afraid to leave the house in case the child returns, and desperate to go look for her, she is on the verge of telephoning the police when the child waltzes in through the door as though nothing is amiss. Relieved and angry the mother cries: "Where have you been?! I've been so worried!"

The child answers that she had been with the woman who lived just next door, who had very recently lost her husband. "What have you been doing bothering the poor lady next door?" the mother asks crossly.

"I haven't been bothering her, I've been comforting her," says the little girl.

"Comforting her? You're just a child, what could you do to comfort her?"

"I sat in her lap and I cried with her."

Sometimes there are ''no'' solutions, no smart come-backs, no quick fixes that can be determined through intellectual reasoning or policy making. As Dreher says: '''Politics and economics won’t save us; if our culture is to be saved at all, it will be by faithfully living by the Permanent Things, conserving these ancient moral truths in the choices we make in our everyday lives.'''<ref>Dreher, Rod. "A Crunchy Con Manifesto" [http://crunchycon.nationalreview.com/about/ National Review Online]. 26 December 2007.</ref><ref>Cottrell, Stephen. ''I Thirst.'' (Zondervan; Grand Rapids, [[Michigan]]; 2003.) ISBN 0-310-25069-2</ref>

== The Atheist and the Believer ==
An atheist and a believer were having a discussion. "I don't believe in anything I can't understand!" cried the atheist. "Ah," said the believer gently. "Then your beliefs must be very small."

== Communism ==

"How do you tell a communist? Well, it's someone who reads Marx and Lenin. And how do you tell an anti-Communist? It's someone who ''understands'' Marx and Lenin." <ref>[http://listverse.com/2009/02/21/20-great-quotes-from-ronald-reagan/ Ronald Reagan; Communism]</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Conservative]]

== See also ==

*[[Essay:Greatest Conservative Parables]]
{{Conservatism}}

The Walt Disney Company

2010-05-03T15:49:18Z

DavidBG: Adding mini-phrase concerning Disney's atheism

[[File:656px-The WaltDisney Company-Logo.png|right|250px]]
The '''Walt Disney Company''' is an atheistic company founded by [[Walt Disney]] and his brother Roy in 1923. A huge company, it includes making movies, the themeparks of [[Disneyland]] and [[Disney World]], and merchandizing stores as well as buying out many other companies. The scope and size of the company has grown considerably since Walt's death.

Disney's movie stable includes:
*[[Walt Disney Pictures]] - maker of family films and cartoons for children
*[[Miramax Films]] - for more mature audiences (acquired 1993)
*[[Touchstone Pictures]] - many R-rated films, including anti-Catholic, pro-gay "[[The Priest]]" (established 1984)
*[[Hollywood Pictures]]
*[[Pixar Animation Studios]] - acquired recently

[[TV networks]] it owns include:
*[[ABC]]
*[[ESPN]]
*[[The Disney Channel]]

Disney themeparks include:
*[[Disney World]] ([[Florida]])
**Animal Kingdom
**Epcot
**Hollywood Studios
**Magic Kingdom
*[[Disneyland]] ([[California]])

[[Category:Corporations]]
[[Category: Entertainment]]

Cosecant

2010-05-03T15:33:43Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

The '''cosecant''' is a [[trigonometric function]] describing the [[ratio]] of the [[hypotenuse]] to the opposite side in a [[right triangle]]. It is often abbreviated as ''cosec'' or ''cose''.

<math>\csc \theta = \sec \left(\frac{\pi}{2} - \theta \right) = \frac{1}{\sin \theta}\,</math>

[[Category:Trigonometry]]

Genesis

2010-05-03T15:32:59Z

DavidBG: Deleting link to redlink page

[[Image:Creation of the sun.JPG|right|thumb|250px|''Creation of the Sun'', by [[Michelangelo]]]]

'''Genesis''' [Hebrew: '''בראשית'''] ([[Greek]]: "birth", "origin"), is the 'book of beginnings', and the first book of both the [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Torah]] and the [[Bible]], recounts the beginning of the [[universe]], living things including [[homo sapiens|mankind]], and mankind's [[Society|social]] and [[Culture|cultural]] formations. It stands as the introduction of the entire body of the Bible, of the creation of the original nation of [[Israel]], and of the earliest promises of the coming [[Jesus Christ|Redeemer]].

The Hebrew word for God is plural, and the creation of man was by a plural form of God (Genesis 1:26: "And God said, Let '''us''' make man in '''our''' image, after '''our''' likeness"). The meaning of the plural form was not fully understood until the emergence of Christianity and the acceptance of the [[Holy Trinity]].<ref>http://www.bible.ca/trinity/trinity-oneness-unity-plural-nouns-pronouns-verbs-adverbs.htm</ref>

==Name==
The [[Hebrews]] had called the first book of [[Moses]] by the name of ''bereisheet'', meaning "in the beginning", based on the three words which start Genesis. The [[Septuagint]], the ancient Greek-language translation of the [[Old Testament]], rendered this title under the name ''he biblos geneseos'', from which came the current title of ''Genesis'', meaning "origin".<ref>Unger, 1966, p.396</ref>

==Overview==
The fifty chapters of the book of Genesis can be divided into two parts: the early, primeval history of man from the [[Creation]] to the fall of the [[Tower of Babel]], and the [[Patriarchs|Patriarchal History of Israel]] from [[Abraham]] and his son [[Isaac]], grandson [[Jacob]], and Jacob's sons, primarily [[Joseph]], although there is a continuous genealogy connecting both parts.

===The Creation===
''For more detailed treatments, see [[creation week]], [[creation story]], and [[Biblical creation account]].''

''In the beginning, God [[creation|created]] the [[heaven]]s and earth''. This is one of the most famous statements in the Bible, and it starts the account of God's creation. Genesis 1:1 through 2:3 involved the first seven days in history:<ref>Not all Christians accept that the days were literal days. See also [[Creation Week]], [[Gap theory]], and [[Old Earth Creationism]].</ref>
*The first day, the creation of the heavens and the Earth, and light ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|1-5}}).
*The second day, the creation of a "firmament" or ''expanse'', separating the waters ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|6-8}}).
*The third day, the creation of dry earth and plant life ({{Bible ref|Genesis|1|9-13}}).
*The fourth day, the creation of the Sun, the moon, and the stars, to mark the seasons ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|14-19}}).
*The fifth day, the creation of the creatures of the sea and the fowl of the air ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|20-23}}).
*The sixth day, the creation of the animals of the land, and the creation of Man ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|24-31}}).
*The seventh day, on which God rested from his task of creating ({{bible ref|Genesis|2|1-3}}).

The rest of chapter 2 through to the end of chapter 4 tell the story of Adam and Eve, the [[Garden of Eden]], and Adam and Steve's sons [[Cain]], [[Abel]], and [[Seth]].

The fall of mankind into [[sin]] began when the serpent questioned one of God's commands, namely not to eat of the [[tree of knowledge of good and evil]], and convinced Eve to eat the fruit, followed by [[Adam]]. The result of disobeying this command resulted in the driving away of Adam and Eve from the Garden to live a life of subsistence farming, and eventually dying. Eve was additionally cursed with painful childbearing, and to be subservient to Adam. All of these curses were also applied to Adam and Eve's descendants. {{bible ref|Genesis|3|15}} is cited as being the first reference to the coming [[Messiah]].

Chapter 5 is a [[chronogenealogy]] from Adam to [[Noah]] and his sons.

===The Flood===
Chapters 6 to 9 tell the story of the [[great flood]].

The wickedness of mankind becomes so great that God 'repents' of His creation and decides to destroy it all through a [[flood]]. Only Noah is righteous before God, and He instruct Noah to build an [[Noah's Ark|ark]] to carry himself, his family, and pairs of every creature on earth and in the air. God then destroys the earth with [[water]], the ark riding the waves until the waters abate and it comes to rest at the mountains of [[Ararat]]. God makes a promise never to destroy the earth by flood again, and shows Noah the sign of that covenant, a [[rainbow]].

Noah is also the first planter of a [[vineyard]], and during a drunken sleep one of his sons ([[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]]) sees him naked. Noah awakes with the knowledge as to what he had done, and places a curse upon Ham's son Canaan, declaring that Canaan and his descendants would be slaves to the his brothers [[Shem]] and [[Japheth]]. All three sons would have their names and their descendants listed on the [[Table of Nations]], which is contained in chapter 10.

===Abraham===
Chapters 11 to 23 and the start of chapter 25 tells the story of Abram

Abram leaves the city of [[Ur]] with his wife, Sarai, on a journey towards [[Canaan]], where God has shown him what He was going to do: ''I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who curses you I will curse; and by you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves.''

Sarai, being unable to have children, tells Abram to take [[Hagar]], his [[Egypt]]ian maid, as his [[wife]]. Hagar becomes pregnant with [[Ishmael]], and God makes a promise that the child will be "a wild ass of a man, his hand against every man and every man's hand against him," with descendants beyond number.

God also makes a covenant with Abram: Abram will have many descendants as well as possession of the land of Canaan. Abram's name is changed to "[[Abraham]]”, and Sarai becomes "[[Sarah]]." A sign of the new covenant is the [[circumcision]] of all males. Abraham is also told that Sarah will bear a son who will be named [[Isaac]], and it is through Isaac and his descendants that the covenant will be established; although Ishmael is to be a great nation, he is left out of God’s covenant.

Two [[angel]]s appeared to Abraham and told him that Sarah, barren for years, will bear a son. They also tell him that the wickedness of the cities of [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorrah]] is very great, and God will shortly punish them.
Abraham asks if the cities can be spared if so much as ten righteous men are found inside.

The two angels are received by Abraham's nephew [[Lot]], much to the consternation of the townspeople who surround the house and demand sexual acts with the strangers.
The townspeople are blinded, and the angels warn Lot and his family to flee immediately for the mountains and never look back. Both Sodom and Gomorrah are consumed by [[fire]] and [[brimstone]].
Lot’s wife turns back to look and is turned to a pillar of salt.

Sarah gives birth to Isaac, and at her insistence demands that Hagar and Ishmael are driven into the wilderness. While Ishmael is near dying, an angel speaks to Hagar and promises that God will not forget them, and will make the descendants of Ishmael a great nation.

God puts Abraham to the test by demanding the sacrifice of Isaac. Abraham sets out to obey God by carrying out is request.
But just as he is about to thrust the knife into Isaac, God restrains him, and promises descendants beyond numbering. Abraham dies later, "full of years", and is laid to rest in the Tomb of Machpelah in [[Hebron]], which he had purchased shortly before as a place of rest for Sarah.

===Isaac and Jacob===
Isaac had prayed to God that He would give his wife [[Rebekah]] a child, even though Rebekah was unable to get [[pregnancy|pregnant]]. God grants Isaac's request, and Rebekah gives birth to the twins [[Esau]] and [[Jacob]]
However, prior to the birth God predicted division between the two, with the elder serving the younger. Esau, the elder, despised his own birthright and sold it to Jacob for a bowl of red porridge, allowing Jacob to enter his father’s tent and deceitfully take the blessing intended for Esau. He flees to [[Haran]], the home of his uncle [[Laban]]. Along the way he has a dream of a ladder to Heaven, where God tells him of prosperity for himself and his descendants. Jacob names the spot [[Bethel]] in commemoration.

Jacob had two wives, [[Leah]] and [[Rachel]], and two [[concubine]]s, [[Zilpah]] (Leah's handmaid), and [[Bilhah]] (Rachel's handmaid). Together they bore Jacob twelve sons:
*From Leah: [[Reuben]], [[Simeon]], [[Levi]], [[Judah]], [[Issachar]], [[Zebulun]].
*From Rachel: [[Joseph]], [[Benjamin]].
*From Zilpah: [[Gad]], [[Asher]].
*From Bilhah: [[Dan]], [[Naphtali]].

===Joseph===
Joseph was Jacob's favorite son and was given a special colorful [[coat]], which provoked jealousy in his brothers, who were also angered by Joseph's dreams indicating his brothers would bow down before him.
So his brothers took the opportunity one day to sell him into [[slavery]] and claim to a distraught Jacob that Joseph was killed by a wild animal.

His ability to explain [[dream]]s while a slave in Egypt came to the attention of [[Pharaoh]], who was troubled by a dream of seven skinny [[cattle|cows]] and withered stalks of [[corn]] which ate seven fat cows and healthy stalks of corn. Joseph interpreted the dream as that of Egypt going through seven years of plentiful [[harvest]]s, followed by seven years of severe [[famine]], and followed it up by recommending that Pharaoh appoint a wise man over Egypt to ensure enough is collected and stored during the plentiful years to act as a hedge against the years of famine. Pharaoh responds by appointing Joseph himself to this position.
During the famine "all the earth came to Egypt to Joseph to buy grain, because the famine was severe over all the earth."

Jacob, not knowing Joseph was still alive, sent his sons to buy [[grain]] in Egypt. The brothers appeared before Joseph, but did not recognize him.
Joseph however, recognized them, and after a series of tests which convinced Joseph their characters had changed, revealed himself to them, convinces them that what happened in the past was God’s plan, and told them to bring Jacob and their families to live in Egypt.

Genesis ends with the blessing of Jacob’s children, his death, and the death of Joseph, who exhorts his brothers to carry his bones to the [[Promised Land]] when they eventually reach there.

==Authorship==
Biblical tradition within and without the [[Old Testament]], [[Jesus]] in the [[New Testament]], as well as extra-Biblical writers such as [[Josephus]], [[Origen]], the early church fathers and many others, have claimed [[Moses]] as the author of Genesis, written during the time of the [[Hebrew]] wanderings in the Wilderness, between 1440-1400 B.C. Certainly, Moses was well able to have written Genesis in Hebrew, [[Akkadian]], or Egyptian. He was well educated and trained in the Egyptian court. [[Archaeology]] demonstrates that such a man would have the education necessary to accomplish this during that time in history. <ref>Unger, pp. 35-35</ref>

The higher critical view is that Moses did not write Genesis. Some biblical scholars identified five separate authors of the five 'books of Moses'<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_tora.htm Who Wrote The Pentateuch, The Five Books of Moses?]</ref><ref>[http://lectionary.org/EXEG-English/OT/EOT01-Gen/Authorship-Genesis%20&%20Pentateuch.html Introduction to Genesis & the Pentateuch]</ref>. This idea is called the ''Documentary Hypothesis''. Although unidentified, each of these authors has been given the name of a letter:
* J who calls God ''YHWH'' (the ''Jehovist'' account), and who possibly wrote in the south of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], written c. 850 B.C.
* E who uses ''Elohim'' ('the gods', 'the spirits') as God's name, and possibly wrote in [[Ephraim]], written c. 750 B.C.
* D who wrote the book of [[Deuteronomy]], about 650 B.C.
* P who wrote an alternate history in what was called the ''Priestly Code'', about 550 B.C.
* R who joined the writings of J, E, D and P to form a single work.
**(Though recent Scholarship has moved toward a four source hypothesis, with the Priestly writer functioning as final contributor and editor.)
Under this hypothesis, looking at the Creation story
* Genesis 1:1 through 2:3 were written by P.
* Genesis 2:4 was written by R
* Genesis 2:5 through 4:26 were written by J.
This idea has gained in popularity among critics since it was first proposed in the late 19th century. However, it is inevitably a product of modern rationalistic research and the application of literary criteria. Opponents of this research point to the fact that it is difficult to reconcile with the historical, miraculous, and prophetic elements which they claim to be basic to the first five books of the Bible.<ref>Unger, p. 397; Young, pp. 183-276</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Sistine Chapel]]
*[[Dead Sea scrolls]]
*[[Midrash]] for the treatment in Jewish literature of the offering by Abraham of his son Isaac.
*[[Genesis (Translated)]]

{{Old Testament Books}}

==References==

<references/>

==Sources==
*Holy Bible, King James Version (''Thompson Chain Reference''), B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co. Indianapolis, IN 1982.
*Unger, Merril F. ''Unger's Bible Dictionary'', Moody Press, Chicago, IL 1966.
*Unger, Merril F. ''Unger's Bible Handbook'', Moody Press, Chicago, IL 1967.
*Young, Edward J. ''Introduction to the Old Testament'', W.B. Eardmans Pub. Co. Grand Rapids, MI 1949.

==Links==
*[http://www.creationapologetics.org/table.html Table of Nations chart]
*[http://www.creationapologetics.org/creation.html Creation timeline]

[[Category:Old Testament Books| 1]]
[[Category:Book of Genesis| ]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Genesis

2010-05-03T15:31:57Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:Creation of the sun.JPG|right|thumb|250px|''Creation of the Sun'', by [[Michelangelo]]]]
''For the rock band Genesis, please see [[Genesis (band)]]''

'''Genesis''' [Hebrew: '''בראשית'''] ([[Greek]]: "birth", "origin"), is the 'book of beginnings', and the first book of both the [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Torah]] and the [[Bible]], recounts the beginning of the [[universe]], living things including [[homo sapiens|mankind]], and mankind's [[Society|social]] and [[Culture|cultural]] formations. It stands as the introduction of the entire body of the Bible, of the creation of the original nation of [[Israel]], and of the earliest promises of the coming [[Jesus Christ|Redeemer]].

The Hebrew word for God is plural, and the creation of man was by a plural form of God (Genesis 1:26: "And God said, Let '''us''' make man in '''our''' image, after '''our''' likeness"). The meaning of the plural form was not fully understood until the emergence of Christianity and the acceptance of the [[Holy Trinity]].<ref>http://www.bible.ca/trinity/trinity-oneness-unity-plural-nouns-pronouns-verbs-adverbs.htm</ref>

==Name==
The [[Hebrews]] had called the first book of [[Moses]] by the name of ''bereisheet'', meaning "in the beginning", based on the three words which start Genesis. The [[Septuagint]], the ancient Greek-language translation of the [[Old Testament]], rendered this title under the name ''he biblos geneseos'', from which came the current title of ''Genesis'', meaning "origin".<ref>Unger, 1966, p.396</ref>

==Overview==
The fifty chapters of the book of Genesis can be divided into two parts: the early, primeval history of man from the [[Creation]] to the fall of the [[Tower of Babel]], and the [[Patriarchs|Patriarchal History of Israel]] from [[Abraham]] and his son [[Isaac]], grandson [[Jacob]], and Jacob's sons, primarily [[Joseph]], although there is a continuous genealogy connecting both parts.

===The Creation===
''For more detailed treatments, see [[creation week]], [[creation story]], and [[Biblical creation account]].''

''In the beginning, God [[creation|created]] the [[heaven]]s and earth''. This is one of the most famous statements in the Bible, and it starts the account of God's creation. Genesis 1:1 through 2:3 involved the first seven days in history:<ref>Not all Christians accept that the days were literal days. See also [[Creation Week]], [[Gap theory]], and [[Old Earth Creationism]].</ref>
*The first day, the creation of the heavens and the Earth, and light ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|1-5}}).
*The second day, the creation of a "firmament" or ''expanse'', separating the waters ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|6-8}}).
*The third day, the creation of dry earth and plant life ({{Bible ref|Genesis|1|9-13}}).
*The fourth day, the creation of the Sun, the moon, and the stars, to mark the seasons ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|14-19}}).
*The fifth day, the creation of the creatures of the sea and the fowl of the air ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|20-23}}).
*The sixth day, the creation of the animals of the land, and the creation of Man ({{bible ref|Genesis|1|24-31}}).
*The seventh day, on which God rested from his task of creating ({{bible ref|Genesis|2|1-3}}).

The rest of chapter 2 through to the end of chapter 4 tell the story of Adam and Eve, the [[Garden of Eden]], and Adam and Steve's sons [[Cain]], [[Abel]], and [[Seth]].

The fall of mankind into [[sin]] began when the serpent questioned one of God's commands, namely not to eat of the [[tree of knowledge of good and evil]], and convinced Eve to eat the fruit, followed by [[Adam]]. The result of disobeying this command resulted in the driving away of Adam and Eve from the Garden to live a life of subsistence farming, and eventually dying. Eve was additionally cursed with painful childbearing, and to be subservient to Adam. All of these curses were also applied to Adam and Eve's descendants. {{bible ref|Genesis|3|15}} is cited as being the first reference to the coming [[Messiah]].

Chapter 5 is a [[chronogenealogy]] from Adam to [[Noah]] and his sons.

===The Flood===
Chapters 6 to 9 tell the story of the [[great flood]].

The wickedness of mankind becomes so great that God 'repents' of His creation and decides to destroy it all through a [[flood]]. Only Noah is righteous before God, and He instruct Noah to build an [[Noah's Ark|ark]] to carry himself, his family, and pairs of every creature on earth and in the air. God then destroys the earth with [[water]], the ark riding the waves until the waters abate and it comes to rest at the mountains of [[Ararat]]. God makes a promise never to destroy the earth by flood again, and shows Noah the sign of that covenant, a [[rainbow]].

Noah is also the first planter of a [[vineyard]], and during a drunken sleep one of his sons ([[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]]) sees him naked. Noah awakes with the knowledge as to what he had done, and places a curse upon Ham's son Canaan, declaring that Canaan and his descendants would be slaves to the his brothers [[Shem]] and [[Japheth]]. All three sons would have their names and their descendants listed on the [[Table of Nations]], which is contained in chapter 10.

===Abraham===
Chapters 11 to 23 and the start of chapter 25 tells the story of Abram

Abram leaves the city of [[Ur]] with his wife, Sarai, on a journey towards [[Canaan]], where God has shown him what He was going to do: ''I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who curses you I will curse; and by you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves.''

Sarai, being unable to have children, tells Abram to take [[Hagar]], his [[Egypt]]ian maid, as his [[wife]]. Hagar becomes pregnant with [[Ishmael]], and God makes a promise that the child will be "a wild ass of a man, his hand against every man and every man's hand against him," with descendants beyond number.

God also makes a covenant with Abram: Abram will have many descendants as well as possession of the land of Canaan. Abram's name is changed to "[[Abraham]]”, and Sarai becomes "[[Sarah]]." A sign of the new covenant is the [[circumcision]] of all males. Abraham is also told that Sarah will bear a son who will be named [[Isaac]], and it is through Isaac and his descendants that the covenant will be established; although Ishmael is to be a great nation, he is left out of God’s covenant.

Two [[angel]]s appeared to Abraham and told him that Sarah, barren for years, will bear a son. They also tell him that the wickedness of the cities of [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorrah]] is very great, and God will shortly punish them.
Abraham asks if the cities can be spared if so much as ten righteous men are found inside.

The two angels are received by Abraham's nephew [[Lot]], much to the consternation of the townspeople who surround the house and demand sexual acts with the strangers.
The townspeople are blinded, and the angels warn Lot and his family to flee immediately for the mountains and never look back. Both Sodom and Gomorrah are consumed by [[fire]] and [[brimstone]].
Lot’s wife turns back to look and is turned to a pillar of salt.

Sarah gives birth to Isaac, and at her insistence demands that Hagar and Ishmael are driven into the wilderness. While Ishmael is near dying, an angel speaks to Hagar and promises that God will not forget them, and will make the descendants of Ishmael a great nation.

God puts Abraham to the test by demanding the sacrifice of Isaac. Abraham sets out to obey God by carrying out is request.
But just as he is about to thrust the knife into Isaac, God restrains him, and promises descendants beyond numbering. Abraham dies later, "full of years", and is laid to rest in the Tomb of Machpelah in [[Hebron]], which he had purchased shortly before as a place of rest for Sarah.

===Isaac and Jacob===
Isaac had prayed to God that He would give his wife [[Rebekah]] a child, even though Rebekah was unable to get [[pregnancy|pregnant]]. God grants Isaac's request, and Rebekah gives birth to the twins [[Esau]] and [[Jacob]]
However, prior to the birth God predicted division between the two, with the elder serving the younger. Esau, the elder, despised his own birthright and sold it to Jacob for a bowl of red porridge, allowing Jacob to enter his father’s tent and deceitfully take the blessing intended for Esau. He flees to [[Haran]], the home of his uncle [[Laban]]. Along the way he has a dream of a ladder to Heaven, where God tells him of prosperity for himself and his descendants. Jacob names the spot [[Bethel]] in commemoration.

Jacob had two wives, [[Leah]] and [[Rachel]], and two [[concubine]]s, [[Zilpah]] (Leah's handmaid), and [[Bilhah]] (Rachel's handmaid). Together they bore Jacob twelve sons:
*From Leah: [[Reuben]], [[Simeon]], [[Levi]], [[Judah]], [[Issachar]], [[Zebulun]].
*From Rachel: [[Joseph]], [[Benjamin]].
*From Zilpah: [[Gad]], [[Asher]].
*From Bilhah: [[Dan]], [[Naphtali]].

===Joseph===
Joseph was Jacob's favorite son and was given a special colorful [[coat]], which provoked jealousy in his brothers, who were also angered by Joseph's dreams indicating his brothers would bow down before him.
So his brothers took the opportunity one day to sell him into [[slavery]] and claim to a distraught Jacob that Joseph was killed by a wild animal.

His ability to explain [[dream]]s while a slave in Egypt came to the attention of [[Pharaoh]], who was troubled by a dream of seven skinny [[cattle|cows]] and withered stalks of [[corn]] which ate seven fat cows and healthy stalks of corn. Joseph interpreted the dream as that of Egypt going through seven years of plentiful [[harvest]]s, followed by seven years of severe [[famine]], and followed it up by recommending that Pharaoh appoint a wise man over Egypt to ensure enough is collected and stored during the plentiful years to act as a hedge against the years of famine. Pharaoh responds by appointing Joseph himself to this position.
During the famine "all the earth came to Egypt to Joseph to buy grain, because the famine was severe over all the earth."

Jacob, not knowing Joseph was still alive, sent his sons to buy [[grain]] in Egypt. The brothers appeared before Joseph, but did not recognize him.
Joseph however, recognized them, and after a series of tests which convinced Joseph their characters had changed, revealed himself to them, convinces them that what happened in the past was God’s plan, and told them to bring Jacob and their families to live in Egypt.

Genesis ends with the blessing of Jacob’s children, his death, and the death of Joseph, who exhorts his brothers to carry his bones to the [[Promised Land]] when they eventually reach there.

==Authorship==
Biblical tradition within and without the [[Old Testament]], [[Jesus]] in the [[New Testament]], as well as extra-Biblical writers such as [[Josephus]], [[Origen]], the early church fathers and many others, have claimed [[Moses]] as the author of Genesis, written during the time of the [[Hebrew]] wanderings in the Wilderness, between 1440-1400 B.C. Certainly, Moses was well able to have written Genesis in Hebrew, [[Akkadian]], or Egyptian. He was well educated and trained in the Egyptian court. [[Archaeology]] demonstrates that such a man would have the education necessary to accomplish this during that time in history. <ref>Unger, pp. 35-35</ref>

The higher critical view is that Moses did not write Genesis. Some biblical scholars identified five separate authors of the five 'books of Moses'<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_tora.htm Who Wrote The Pentateuch, The Five Books of Moses?]</ref><ref>[http://lectionary.org/EXEG-English/OT/EOT01-Gen/Authorship-Genesis%20&%20Pentateuch.html Introduction to Genesis & the Pentateuch]</ref>. This idea is called the ''Documentary Hypothesis''. Although unidentified, each of these authors has been given the name of a letter:
* J who calls God ''YHWH'' (the ''Jehovist'' account), and who possibly wrote in the south of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], written c. 850 B.C.
* E who uses ''Elohim'' ('the gods', 'the spirits') as God's name, and possibly wrote in [[Ephraim]], written c. 750 B.C.
* D who wrote the book of [[Deuteronomy]], about 650 B.C.
* P who wrote an alternate history in what was called the ''Priestly Code'', about 550 B.C.
* R who joined the writings of J, E, D and P to form a single work.
**(Though recent Scholarship has moved toward a four source hypothesis, with the Priestly writer functioning as final contributor and editor.)
Under this hypothesis, looking at the Creation story
* Genesis 1:1 through 2:3 were written by P.
* Genesis 2:4 was written by R
* Genesis 2:5 through 4:26 were written by J.
This idea has gained in popularity among critics since it was first proposed in the late 19th century. However, it is inevitably a product of modern rationalistic research and the application of literary criteria. Opponents of this research point to the fact that it is difficult to reconcile with the historical, miraculous, and prophetic elements which they claim to be basic to the first five books of the Bible.<ref>Unger, p. 397; Young, pp. 183-276</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Sistine Chapel]]
*[[Dead Sea scrolls]]
*[[Midrash]] for the treatment in Jewish literature of the offering by Abraham of his son Isaac.
*[[Genesis (Translated)]]

{{Old Testament Books}}

==References==

<references/>

==Sources==
*Holy Bible, King James Version (''Thompson Chain Reference''), B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co. Indianapolis, IN 1982.
*Unger, Merril F. ''Unger's Bible Dictionary'', Moody Press, Chicago, IL 1966.
*Unger, Merril F. ''Unger's Bible Handbook'', Moody Press, Chicago, IL 1967.
*Young, Edward J. ''Introduction to the Old Testament'', W.B. Eardmans Pub. Co. Grand Rapids, MI 1949.

==Links==
*[http://www.creationapologetics.org/table.html Table of Nations chart]
*[http://www.creationapologetics.org/creation.html Creation timeline]

[[Category:Old Testament Books| 1]]
[[Category:Book of Genesis| ]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]

Doom (video game series)

2010-05-03T15:28:23Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''Doom''' (Officially spelled "DOOM") ([[ESRB]] ratings: M) is a first-person shooting [[violent video games|violent video game]] series, it was created by [[Id Software]] and is one of the most well known of its genre due to its innovative graphics. It features vast amounts of [[violence]], [[blood]], [[demon]]ic imagery and [[gore]].

There are three games in the series as well as a series of [[expansion pack]]s.

==See Also==
*[[Video game controversy]]

[[Category: Video Games]]

Cleveland Browns

2010-05-03T15:26:34Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:ClevelandBrowns1.jpg‎ |thumb|340px|]]
The '''Cleveland Browns''' are a [[National Football League]] [[franchise]]. They are part of the [[American Football Conference]] and play in the North division. The team was formed on 1946 by owner [[Arthur McBride]], who held a newspaper contest to pick out the name for the team. The winning name for the team, the "Browns", was based on the name of popular Cleveland [[Coach (sport)|coach]] [[Paul Brown]].

After the 1995 season, owner [[Art Modell]] decided to move the team to [[Baltimore]] for financial reasons, even though the team had an extremely loyal following in Cleveland and had sold out every home game for the previous 20 years. Cleveland was later awarded an expansion team that began playing in 1999. In a unique move, the new team was allowed to retain the team name, logos, and history of the Browns, while the original team that relocated started fresh as the [[Baltimore Ravens]].
==Roster==
===Quarterbacks===
*3 - [[Derek Anderson]]
*11 - Ken Dorsey
*7 - Bruce Gradkowski
*10 - [[Brady Quinn]]

===Running Backs===
*31 - [[Jamal Lewis]]
*35 - Jerome Harrison
*28 - Allen Patrick
* - Noah Herron

===Fullbacks===
*47 - Lawrence Vickers
*41 - Charles Ali

===Wide Receivers===
*17 - [[Braylon Edwards]]
*16 - Joshua Cribbs
* - David Patten
*18 - [[Donte Stallworth]]
*12 - Syndric Steptoe
*88 - Kevin Kaspar

===Tight Ends===
*87 - Darnell Dinkins
*82 - [[Steve Heiden]]
* - Robert Royal
*86 - Martin Rucker

===Offensive Tackles===
*73 - [[Joe Thomas]]

===Guards===
*68 - Seth McKinney
*61 - Isaac Sowells
*65 - Eric Steinbach
*62 - Lennie Friedman
*72 - Ryan Tucker
* - Floyd Womack

===Centers===
*66 - Hank Fraley
*70 - Rex Hadnot
*64 - Ryan Pontbriand

===Defensive Ends===
*91 - Shaun Smith
*98 - Robaire Smith

===Defensive Tackles===
*93 - Louis Leonard
* - C.J. Mosley
*92 - Shaun Rogers
*71 - Ahtyba Rubin
*97 - [[Santonio Thomas]]
*99 - Corey Williams

===Linebackers===
* - Eric Barton
*58 - Beau Bell
*59 - Titus Brown
*53 - Kris Griffin
*96 - Alex Hall
*52 - D'Qwell Jackson
*55 - Willie McGinest
*51 - Shantee Orr
*94 - Leon Williams
*95 - [[Kamerion Wimbley]]
*56 - Antwan Peek

===Cornerbacks===
*25 - Terry Cousin
* - Corey Ivy
*30 - Gerard Lawson
*22 - Brandon McDonald
* - Hank Poteat
*24 - Eric Wright
*39 - Daven Holly

===Safeties===
*42 - Hamza Abdullah
*20 - Mike Adams
*21 - Brodney Pool

===Kickers===
*4 - Phil Dawson

===Punters===
*15 - [[Dave Zastudil]]

==See also==
*[[Pittsburgh Steelers]]
*[[Cincinnati Bengals]]
*[[Baltimore Ravens]]
*[[American Football Conference]]
*[[National Football Conference]]

== Related Websites ==

*[http://www.clevelandbrowns.com/ Official Team Website]

==Source Material ==

*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/clev/browns.html Browns History]

{{NFL Teams}}

[[category:National Football League]]
[[Category:Ohio]]

Debate:Is Conservapedia representing a conservative POV or a Young Earth Creationist POV?

2010-05-03T14:50:26Z

DavidBG: Replying

{{Debate}}

==Conservative==
Am I to understand that not all conservatives are Young Earth Creationists? --[[User:Cranky Joe|Cranky Joe]] 00:18, 21 February 2008 (EST)

::I should leave it alone, but it never hurts to put information out there.

::Anybody can jump onto a domain registrar's site and secure any domain they like. I wish there was some authority ehich could be appealed to through which "Conservapedia" could be forced to change their name, but that's not how it works. This site rigidly presents a narrow set of theological views which are often at odds with consevativism.

::I don't presume the authority to determine what sort of title would be appropriate for this wiki, but it is a shame that the choice domain name for a wiki which would actually present the constellation of political, historical and philosophical views which comprise conservative thought is rendered unavailible by this site.

::It's clear that the domain name, by which a tiny group of militantly solipsistic biblical literalists presume to misappropriate the mantle of conservativism for themselves and their narrow worldview, has been seized by conservativism's critis as an opportunity to indulge in ramming their pitchforks into strawmen with a howling vulgarity and volume.

::I've never seen Conservapedia cited by a single conservative blog, yet the stats show that Conservapedia is at least very popular with the left. A Google search of "conservapedia" returns 160,000 hits, 4,100 alone featuring the term "wingnut," and every one which is not a hit to Conservapedia itself is a hit to a leftwing site eager to accept and amplify Conservapedia's claim to represent conservativism.

::Conservapedia went online at the beginning of 2007. by March it was ranked way down at 1.8 millionth in Alexa. Then the left discovered it. By the end of the month, Conservapedia rose 1.2 million places to 600 thousandth. Conservapedia has been enormously successful as a target for derision and trolling. There are no fewer than two wikis and three blogs dedicated to "monitoring" and "countering" Conservapedia, which now stands at 46 thousandth after a spike caused, as far as I can tell, by a circulating leftosphere gag about the popularity of Conservapedia's entries on homosexuality.

::There is of course no aknowlegement in any of the leftosphere blogs that these rankings reflect their own activity on Conservapedia. Such is how Conservapedia came from being unintentional self-parody to constructed strawman.

::I could go further in discussing what this all says of the left - their contempt for pluralistic discourse and corresponding eagerness to construct their opponents in their absence as black fools in a manechean fantacy construct - but that's getting far from the particular issue at hand. "Conservapedia" is the issue; The name.

::I created this account and logged in the first, last and only previous occasion with good faith intention to participate in what might at least be a resource analogous to DKosfopedia. Instead I found much which raised questions for me. I raised those questions on the main talk page and got my answer in stark terms: this is an exclusively christian project, and if I didn't like it, I could start my own.

::That being the case, if this site isn't about conservativism at all, change your name, please.

16:47, 23 February 2008 (EST)

==Young Earth Creationist==

I would have to say YEC. Most of the science articles have a YEC POV at the bottom. If Conservapedia was representing the conservative POV then you would not see YEC POVS for everything without seeing some other conservative POV.
(comment from [[User:Tims]] --[[User:Aulis Eskola|Aulis Eskola]] 18:35, 10 May 2007 (EDT))

: This just all goes back to the problem of using terms like conservative and liberal as blanket terms. Obviously not all conservatives are YEC, but the adminstration of this site appears to believe the word conservative encompasses certain beliefs and there is no grey areas. And I imagine in doing so they will alienate a good chunk of the population who consider themselves conservative.

:But the fact of the matter is, it's their site, they can call it what they want and run it how they want. People can get on here and post all they want about how it's not fair and balanced, how it is irresponsible, etc, but it isn't going to make a lick of difference for how this site is managed no matter how valid the complaints are. The only real way to effect any kind of change on a site like this is if you are conservative, but bothered by the rampant YEC articles, or whatever, is to just state how this doesn't match your personal ideologies and and walk away. I believe the atmosphere is too unstable to actually convert someone, and the end result will be like-minded people running a wiki for like-minded folks, and there is nothing wrong with that. --[[User:Colest|Colest]] 16:03, 9 May 2007 (EDT)

:"Day". Could the 7 "days " in which God created the earth (Genesis, English translation, ? from Hebrew, from?)
have as accurately been translated as "epoch" or "period of time"? Is the only valid translation "one revolution of the earth"? If God's "day" could be a billion years, 365 billion revolutions of the earth (and I do not see why not), all conflict with science on this point disappears. LA Times recent selection to put-down conservatives becomes moot.
[User: Howard Long, conservative scientist, June 22 2007 9AM PDT

::To answer your question, the answer is "no", because the Hebrew word used for "day" here means a literal, 24-hour day. [[User:DebateKid|DebateKid]] 17:17, 30 June 2007 (EDT)

::What about the passage in the the Bible about (paraphrasing, because I don't know the exact verse) "a thousand years is as a day int the mind of God, and a day a thousand years"?--[[User:Freiberg|Freiberg]] 14:45, 10 August 2007 (EDT)

:::What about it? I think we all use metaphors sometimes. But that doesn't mean everything we say is a metaphor. The question is one of context - does the context indicate that the passage is meant to be a metaphor? Besides - it wasn't God himself saying that - it was Peter talking about God, and the passage in question was about the end of the world, not about creation (2 Peter 3:8). [[User:CobraA1|CobraA1]] 14:51, 4 December 2007 (EST)

Young Earth Creationism isn't the conservative viewpoint. It's the religious fundamentalist viewpoint. YEC contradicts every branch of science ranging from geology to astrophysics.
[[User:Intranetusa|Intranetusa]] 14:13, 16 March 2008 (EDT)

:Try looking around the site, Intranetusa. I'm sure you'll see that evolution isn't all it's cut out to be, either. :P [[User:DavidBG|David]] [[User talk:DavidBG|Talk]] 10:50, 3 May 2010 (EDT)

Talk:James Dobson

2010-05-02T01:43:17Z

DavidBG: Adding a comment. Then, I'm going to bed, because I have a stomachache after one-too-many pieces of French Silk pie. :P

I'm confused by this article. It claims that FOTF supports "traditional Christian values" and the "American family" without bothering to explain what they are - and indeed, who decides what they are. Are they trying to imply that whatever FOTF decides is traditional Christian values/the "normal" make-up of the American family? That's a scary thought.

This article needs to be expanded.

:This article could also use an image. [[User:DavidBG|David]] [[User talk:DavidBG|Talk]] 21:43, 1 May 2010 (EDT)

Hinduism

2010-05-01T01:12:18Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

[[Image:Hinduism.jpg|left|Hinduism]]
'''Hinduism''' is the fourth largest religion in the world and is the oldest among major religions.<ref>The largest being [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist, and Hinduism, in that order[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html]</ref> Historians believe that it originated more than 5000 years ago.<ref>[http://hinduism.about.com/od/hinduism101/a/origin.htm Origin of Hinduism] (About.com)</ref> Hinduism is the first [[Dharmic religion]]. It is often referred to as "the religion of India;" about 800 million of the world's billion Hindus live in India, so about 80 percent of Hindus are Indians.<ref>[http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/Brief_analysis.pdf Census of India, religion data, brief analysis (PDF)]; "At the national level, of 1028 million population, 828 million (80.5 percent) have returned their religion as Hindus followed by 138 million (13.4 percent) as Muslims and 24 millions (2.3 percent) Christians. 19 million (1.9 percent) persons follow Sikh religion; 8 million (0.8 percent) are Buddhists and 4.2 million (0.4 percent) are Jains as per the 2001 Census. In addition to these, 6.6 million belong to ‘Other Religions and Persuasions’ including tribal religions which are not part of the six main religions stated above. About seven lakh (or 0.7 million) persons have not stated their religion."</ref>
According to a recent American survey, Hindus are the best educated and among the richest religious groups in the [[United States]].<ref>Hanerjee, Neela, [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/25/us/25cnd-religion.html?ei=5124&en=1f44cce06fd2c02a&ex=1361682000&adxnnl=1&partner=digg&exprod=digg&adxnnlx=1204020358-3HkVoV4zxeYh9vTOw6Tydw Americans Change Faiths at Rising Rate, Report Finds], New York Times, 25th February, 2008.</ref>
[[Image:Hinduism..jpg|240px|right|Shiva the Cosmic Dancer]]
Hindus believe in [[reincarnation]] and eventual unity with what is known as [[Brahman]] as well as respect for all life forms. Their holy writings are known as the [[Vedas]]. The goal of Hindus in life (purusharthas) is to follow four life-long aims: dharma (righteousness), artha (material success), kama (love/pleasure), and moksha (release from reincarnation/reunification with Brahman).

== Description ==

In 1966, the Supreme Court of [[India]] defined what Hinduism is for legal purposes:

1. Belief in the authority of the Vedas (an ancient hymns to the gods, written in Sanskrit). The oldest collection of hymns in the Vedas is the Rig Veda, which was written between 1800 and 1300 B.C. The greatest Veda hymn is the “Bhagavat Gita,” a section in the Mahabharata concerning life’s never-ending spiritual journey towards perfection. Bhagavat Geeta is rendered as a dialogue between Shri [[Krishna]] (incarnation of [[Vishnu]]) and Arjuna (the great archer) in the middle of the battlefield.

2. Spirit of tolerance and willingness to understand and respect an opponent’s view.

3. Belief in world rhythms: long periods of creation, maintenance and dissolution follow each other in endless succession.

4. Belief in reincarnation (rebirth) and preexistence.

5. Belief that there are many ways to salvation.

6. Unlike most other religions, Hinduism is not defined by a specific set of philosophical concepts.

7. Belief in one god. Contrary to popular belief, Hinduism is not a [[polytheism|polytheistic]] religion. The Vedas, the primary Hindu holy scriptures states that there is only one [[God]] but can manifest in many forms. This is the reason why there are many deities. A common example used to explain this is that an individual can be called different names depending on the relationship has with another. A man can be a son to his parents, a nephew to his uncle, a father to his son, and a husband to his wife all at the same time. None of these different relationships suggest multiple people but rather different aspects of one person. The same is applied to God in Hinduism, which has no form and is infinite. Hindus may call God, Paratman (Supreme Soul), Brahmana (Eternal Spirit), or Ishvara (Supreme Lord). Deities have various names but represent aspects of God that manifest in the world. For example [[Agni]] (fire, Divine spark), Vayu (wind, or breath which could mean life force, [[Indra]] (in mythology king of gods but also refers to the senses such as vision, hearing, touch, taste), and [[Lakshmi]] (fortune).

8. Secular multiplicity and accommodating flexibility in spiritual practices.

Relations between Hinduism and Christianity have also been shaped by unequal balances of political power and cultural influence. Although communities of Christians have lived in South India since the middle of the 1st millennium, the great expansion of Indian Christianity followed the efforts of missionaries working under the protection of the British colonial government. <ref> [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-261549/Hinduism Hinduism and Christianity] Encyclopædia Britannica. </ref>

Some state governments such as Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh have passed anti-conversion laws, attempting to prevent Hindus converting to other religions such as [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]].<ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24470.htm India: International Religious Freedom Report 2003] (U.S. Department of State)</ref>

For more on Hinduism, see [[World History Lecture Three]].

==Criticisms==
===Sati===
''Sati'' was a practice during the medieval period whereby Hindu widows were forcefully burned to death by family members of the husband. This practice was abolished in the 19th century by the efforts of Ram Mohan Roy and Lord William Bentinck.

===Caste system===
Hinduism also has a caste or ''varna'' system. Traditionally Hindu society is divided into four castes:
*''Brahmin'' (the highest caste in Hinduism)
*''Kshatriya'' (the warrior or ruling class)
*''Vaishya'' (merchants)
*''Shudra'' (unskilled laborers and servants)

The caste system used not to be hereditary. <ref>[http://western-hindu.org/2008/01/27/the-caste-system/ The Caste System]</ref>

''Shudras'' were the lowest caste and were denied of many rights in past. Apart from these four main castes, there is another group called the ''Dalit'' (Untouchables).<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/living/caste.shtml The caste system] ''BBC''</ref> Historically these ''dalits'' are the victims of discrimination by higher castes. Even today there are many reports of discrimination against ''dalits''.<ref>[http://indianchristians.in/news/content/view/1954/44/ Dalits face discrimination in southern Tamil Nadu] ''All India Christian Council''</ref><ref>[http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2007/02/13/india15303.htm India: ‘Hidden Apartheid’ of Discrimination Against Dalits] ''[[Human Rights Watch]]''</ref>

== External links ==

*[http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosophy-Hinduism-Hindu.htm Hindu Religion]
*[http://western-hindu.org/2008/01/27/the-caste-system/ The Caste System]
==Further reading==
* Johnson, W. J. ''A Dictionary of Hinduism'' (2009) [http://www.amazon.com/Dictionary-Hinduism-W-J-Johnson/dp/0198610254/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1238980666&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Knott, Kim. ''Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/read/62971675?title=Hinduism%3a%20A%20Very%20Short%20Introduction online edition]
* Shattuck, Cybelle. ''Hinduism'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/103395975?title=Hinduism online edition]
* Sullivan, Bruce M. ''Historical Dictionary of Hinduism'' (1997)
* Werner, Karel. ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Popular-Dictionary-Hinduism-Dictionaries-Religion/dp/0700710493/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1238980666&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Zaehner, R. C. ''Hinduism'' (1966) [http://www.questia.com/read/23180604?title=Hinduism online edition]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Hinduism| ]]
[[Category:Dharmic Religions]]
[[Category:India]]
[[category:Indian History]]

Darwin’s Dangerous Idea

2010-05-01T01:04:21Z

DavidBG: Grammaritizing

'''Darwin’s Dangerous Idea''' is a book that hightlights the social effects of Darwinism. It is written by [[Daniel Dennett]].

The book's author describes [[Darwinism]] as a “universal acid; it eats through just about every traditional concept and leaves in its wake a revolutionized world-view.”<ref> [http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/14/oct95/dennett.htm Daniel Dennett's dangerous idea] - [[Phillip E. Johnson]] </ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Evolution]]