Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Bobby Fischer

2007-09-21T15:47:06Z

Chronicler: Paul Morphy information

There should be some mention that Paul Morphy of Louisiana was the unofficial world chess champion just before the Civil War. He won a match against Gen. Winfield Scott once. [[User:Chronicler|Chronicler]] 11:47, 21 September 2007 (EDT)

Prohibition in the United States

2007-09-21T15:01:03Z

Chronicler: Misc. changes, including Volstead information

: ''This article discusses the particulars of prohibition in the [[United States of America]]. For an overview of prohibition throughout the civilized world, see [[Prohibition]].''

'''Prohibition''' in [[United States of America|American]] parlance typically refers to the movement and body of law that prohibited the manufacture, sale, transport, import, or export of intoxicating [[liquor]] within, into, or from the [[United States of America]] from 1920 to 1933.

== History ==
=== Growth of alcohol consumption ===
Alcoholic beverages have been part of almost every culture since the beginning of recorded [[history]]. But alcohol consumption in colonial America was initially slow to grow. (Beer was a common exception to this, as the colonists and even the early citizens of the Republic preferred beer over the often polluted water.) The colonials and early citizens tended not to forbid alcohol itself but the act of ''intoxicating'' oneself with alcohol.<ref name=Colony>[http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00492/Alcohol_in_America.htm Alcohol in America] at "Prohibition: The Noble Experiment," April 20, 2005 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

The following [[Bible]] verse summarizes the dichotomy of American feelings toward alcohol in America's early years:{{Bible quote|And be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess;...|book=Ephesians|chap=5|verses=18|version=KJV}}

The records of the [[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]] show that alcohol consumption was at a relatively low level in 1850, the earliest year for which they have records, and enjoyed steady growth until the five years immediately before 1920. In fact, alcohol consumption, primarily of distilled spirits ([[whiskey]], [[gin]], and the like), rose steadily throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, as whiskey became more plentiful and less expensive. Indeed, whiskey was [[legal tender]] for debts, even public ones like [[tax]]es.<ref name=DUI>[http://www.dui.com/drunk_driving_research/research/colonial_america.html Alcohol Consumption in America, 1800-55] in the research archive of dui.com (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Beginning after the end of the [[Civil War]], however, consumption of [[beer]] became more popular, until in 1890 beer displaced distilled spirits as the beverage of choice. With the tremendous growth in beer demand and the establishment of large-scale breweries, a new kind of retail establishment called the [[saloon]] appeared. At their height, saloons were so numerous that many places had one saloon (or more) for every 200 lawful residents.<ref name=OSU>Kerr, Austin (1996), and Shelton, Mitchell (2006), [http://prohibition.osu.edu//default.cfm Temperance and Prohibition], Department of History, [[Ohio]] State University, Columbus, Ohio.</ref> The saloon existed primarily to sell liquor. But the typical saloon became famous for other activities, such as [[gambling]] and [[prostitution]]. Worse yet, they often sold liquor to [[minor]]s.<ref name=MSNPro>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564677_1/Prohibition.html Prohibition] at MSN Encarta</ref>

=== Temperance movements ===
The spectacle of increased liquor consumption, and the unsavory activities associated with its sale, were impetus enough for many concerned citizens. But the bad effects on the men who consumed the highest amounts of liquor were worse. In those times, men were the primary consumers of liquor; women were either not permitted to partake or, more commonly, had little desire to partake. Instead, women observed the bad effects of liquor on their husbands. [[Carrie Nation]]<ref name=Carrie>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574293/Carrie_Nation.html Carrie Nation] at MSN Encarta</ref> became the most famous agitator for a total prohibition against liquor after her first husband died of alcohol-related illnesses. After agitating for various State prohibition laws, she ultimately took the law into her own hands by barging into illegal saloons and using a [[hatchet]] to wreck furniture and beer and whiskey barrels. She was arrested some 30 times, and used the honoraria she earned from lecturing to pay her bail.<ref name=Carrie/>

Even before Carrie Nation began her campaign, politicians everywhere spoke against the consumption of liquor. By 1855, 13 of the 31 states had prohibited liquor entirely; the first prohibition law was passed in [[Maine]] in 1840<ref name=Temperance>[http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Temperance_movement/ Temperance movement] at the Knowledge Rush Encyclopedia</ref>. [[Abraham Lincoln]] famously called liquor "an [[Egypt]]ian [[angel]] of [[death]]."<ref name=MSNPro/>

In 1873, matters came to a head with the great "Women's War" or "Women's Crusade."<ref name=OSU/> The two most famous organizations formed to have liquor tightly regulated, or prohibited entirely, were the [[Woman's Christian Temperance Union]] and the [[Anti-Saloon League]]. The latter organization began in [[Ohio]] in 1893 but swiftly gained national importance. These organizations had one issue: the outright prohibition on the sale of intoxicating liquor. First content with the passage of new State laws, they eventually set a goal to amend the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] to prohibit intoxicating liquor nationwide. Another key force was the United States Prohibition Party, founded in 1869.<ref name=USPP>[http://www.prohibitionists.org/index.html Partisan Historical Society] (official site)</ref><ref name=USPPKR>[http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/United_States_Prohibition_Party/ United States Prohibition Party] at the Knowledge Rush Encyclopedia</ref>

=== World War I ===
The federal election of 1916 saw the election of enough [[House of Representatives|Representatives]] and [[United States Senate|Senators]] to propose a constitutional amendment banning the manufacture, sale, transport, import, and export of alcoholic beverages. But the [[First World War]] added another impetus to what became known as the "dry movement." Grain was scarce, and Americans considered the distillation of grains to make alcohol an unpatriotic waste of a resource that, they felt, the country needed to make bread for its soldiers overseas.<ref name=DH>Mintz, S. (2003), "Prohibition," in ''Digital History,'' retrieved April 7, 2007 from [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=441 DigitalHistory.UH.edu]</ref> Indeed, the NIAAA records show a sharp decline in liquor consumption in the five-year period bracketing that war.<ref name=OSU/>

=== Amending the Constitution ===
Passage of the [[Eighteenth Amendment]] in [[Congress]] was swift. In January 20, 1919, the amendment achieved ratification. Pursuant to the amendment's terms, the amendment took effect on January 16, 1920. In October 28, 1920, Congress, acting on its "power to enforce" the amendment, passed the [[National Prohibition Act]] or '''Volstead Act'''<ref name=TIH1028>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/oct28.html Today in History: October 28] at the [[Library of Congress]]</ref>, named for U.S. Rep. [[Andrew J. Volstead]] ([[Republican Party|R]]-[[Minnesota|MN]]),<ref>"[http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=45207 Andrew J. Volstead political biography at Our Campaigns.com. Retrieved 9/21/2007].</ref> which defined an [[alcoholic beverage]] as anything containing more than 0.5% [[ethanol]] by volume and providing for strict enforcement.

=== Enforcement ===
Enforcement was largely in the hands of the [[Internal Revenue Service]], which is why agents of the still-extant [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]] are still called "revenuers" today. Arguably the most famous "revenuers" of all time were [[Eliot Ness]], who operated in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and the team of [[Isadore Einstein and Moe Smith]] in [[New York City]].<ref name=DH/> These were the most dedicated of the 2500 "Prohibition agents" who enforced the law at the height of federal enforcement efforts. Sadly, these men operated on a shoestring national budget ($5 million US at first, later increased to $300 million) and were vastly outmatched in numbers and resources. Worse yet, many politicians still partook of intoxicating liquor themselves, leading to a widespread perception of people in authority as hypocritical.

The latter part of the thirteen years of prohibition saw the rise of [[organized crime|organized criminal gangs]] in virtually every city in the country, and the manufacture of liquor on a small scale at millions of locations.<ref name=WeWantBeer>Miller, Carl H. (2000), [http://www.beerhistory.com/library/holdings/prohibition_1.shtml We Want Beer], retrieved April 7, 2007 from BeerHistory.com</ref> This was the era of "[[speakeasy|speakeasies]]" (liquor-selling establishments that admitted people by invitation only and on the speaking of a [[password]]),<ref name=Hanson>Hanson, David J., [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/FunFacts/Prohibition.html Prohibition: the Noble Experiment], SUNY-Potsdam, Potsdam, NY (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref> "[[bootlegger]]s" (those who smuggled [[alcoholic drinks]] either for their own consumption or for sale), and of a general contempt for the law. [[Al Capone]], the most famous "gangster" in US history, built a vast and sprawling empire on the profits from the distribution of illicit liquor. (Ultimately the IRS obtained evidence of tax evasion against him, and upon conviction on that charge he was sent to [[Alcatraz]] Prison in [[San Francisco]] Bay.)

The original Volstead Act provided a medical exception to prohibition, in that a person could have a doctor prescribe alcohol to him.<ref name=RxEx>[http://www.sfgenealogy.com/sanmateo/history/smpro26.htm A 1926 Alcohol Prescription Slip] in the History Archive of San Mateo County</ref> Many willing doctors wrote prescriptions, often on highly dubious premises.<ref name=About>Rosenberg, Jennifer, [http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/p/prohibition.htm Prohibition], About.com (Retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

The government continued to expect cooperation with the authorities to the end, and issued two scathing reports calling for tougher enforcement in 1927<ref name=rep27>[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/wick/wick1a.html History of Prohibition Enforcement before the Bureau of Prohibition Act of 1927] at the Schaffer Library of Drug Policy</ref> and 1931.<ref name=rep31>[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/wick/wick1.html Report on the Enforcement of Prohibition Laws in the United States, January 7, 1931] at the Schaffer Library of Drug Policy</ref>

=== Repeal ===
The [[Crash of 1929]] and the ensuing [[Great Depression]] carried with it the spectacle of widespread [[unemployment]]. The "wet" forces, never dormant nor idle, quickly created a public perception that if only the beverage industry were legitimate once again, many of these suddenly unemployed workers could be gainfully employed once again.<ref name=About/> The [[Association Against the Prohibition Amendment]] would quickly capitalize on this perception and run candidates for [[Congress]] that favored repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment.

Congress did pass the [[Twenty-first Amendment]] and, in an unprecedented move, bypassed the State legislatures and called for the special election of ratification conventions in the several States. Thirty-eight of these conventions--two more than needed--passed repeal in December of 1933.

=== Remaining Prohibitions ===
Repeal did not begin immediately. States retained the right, under the new amendment, to regulate or even prohibit liquor as they saw fit. Although no States prohibit liquor today, different States have different regulations governing its manufacture, sale, and transport. (For example, some States allow the private sales of liquor, while others insist that all liquor be sold in "State Stores" operated by State alcoholic beverage control boards.) Liquor is still prohibited in some counties, even if not State-wide. And practically no State allows minors to purchase, attempt to purchase, consume, or transport intoxicating liquor.

[[Islam]] prohibits the imbibing of alcohol in all its founding documents. This has recently led to the spectacle of Muslim [[taxi]] drivers refusing to pick up fares in the United States who are transporting alcoholic beverages.<ref name=Cabbie>Lyderson, Kari, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/25/AR2006102501727.html Some Muslim Cabbies Refuse Fares Carrying Alcohol], ''The Washington Post'', Thursday, October 26, 2006; Page A02 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

== Effects of Prohibition and Repeal ==
A large body of misinformation persists about the effects of prohibition and of its eventual repeal. To begin with, the ''per capita'' consumption of intoxicating liquors declined significantly during this period.<ref name=OSU/><ref name=MSNPro/> In addition, two economists estimated that the prevalence of [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]] declined by ten to twenty percent during the Prohibition era.<ref name=cirrhosis>Dills, Angela K., and Miron, Jeffrey A., [http://aler.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/6/2/285 Alcohol Prohibition and Cirrhosis], ''American Law and Economics Review'', 6(2):285-318, 2004 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Crime did rise, and this consisted chiefly of direct flouting of the law and the spectacle of members of rival gangs killing one another in all-out wars for "territories" in the major cities, especially in Chicago. But perceptions of a massive crime wave are grossly exaggerated.<ref name=MSNPro/> Sadly, what is not exaggerated are the reports of widespread contempt for the law and for all authority, and the establishment of powerful [[organized crime]] syndicates in the United States.

One often overlooked effect, not so much of prohibition ''per se'' as of the movement that established it, is [[women's suffrage]]. Women did not seriously agitate for the vote until they had a rallying issue. That issue was prohibition, and the concern of these women was that the men would simply vote to continue to enjoy their liquor, and women would continue to feel the secondary effects of desertion of the home, domestic physical abuse, and neglect of the husband's duty to provide. Ironically, women did not definitively win the vote (the [[Nineteenth Amendment]]) until ''after'' prohibition was already a part of the [[Constitution]].

The NIAAA data compiled by Kerr<ref name=OSU/> clearly show that alcohol consumption sank to a bottom in 1933 and has been rising ever since. Today the ''per capita'' consumption of liquor is higher than ever. So, too, are its bad effects, effects that any person, not merely any specially affected subgroup, may feel under the right circumstances.<ref name=DUI2>National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, [http://www.dui.com/drunk_driving_research/research/alcohol_prohibition.html A Short History of Alcohol Temperance and Prohibition], DUI.com (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Repeal did not destroy the organized criminal gangs. Instead of selling alcohol, they moved on to other illicit activities. These gangs, of course, persist today.

== Prohibition in Popular Culture ==
At least one [[motion picture]] and one long-running [[television]] series had their basis in the career of [[Eliot Ness]]. Another television project drew its basis from the careers of [[Isadore Einstein and Moe Smith]], though this was clearly a comedy.

[[Al Capone]] has been the subject of many motion picture projects about his life and career. In some of these projects his character is the leading character; in others he is a force-of-nature who affects the lives of others.

CBS-TV had a comedy series in the early 1970's that centered on an illicit bar operator and his mobster cousin in 1920's Chicago. Many other [[television]] and [[motion picture]] projects were set in or shortly after the Prohibition era and sometimes featured bootleggers as minor or major characters. In other projects, some characters would challenge the judgmental attitude of other characters who had lived during the Prohibition era, typically by asking them whether they never took an illicit drink when the sale of liquor was illegal. (Such lines often perpetuated the common misconception that the ''consumption'' of intoxicating liquor by adults, as distinct from its ''manufacture, sale, transport, import, or export'', was unlawful.)

At least one comedy motion picture was made about prohibition's repeal. That project featured a gangster who tried to "go legit" after prohibition ended.

==The Prohibition Party Today==
The Prohibition Party has continued to sponsor candidates for office. The party divided in 2003 over dissatisfaction with party leader Earl F. Dodge Jr. The smaller faction held its national convention in Dodge's living room and nominated him for a sixth time. This faction appeared on the ballot only in [[Colorado]] and received 140 votes. The larger faction of the party, called the Webb faction, nominated Gene C. Amondson for President. Amondson ran as the Prohibition nominee in [[Louisiana]], where he won 1,566 votes, and in Colorado under the "Concerns of People" Party, receiving 378 votes.<ref>"[http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=37927 Gene Amondson political biography at Our Campaigns.com. Retrieved 9/20/2007].</ref> Amondson received the most votes for a Prohibition Party nominee since 1988 and was the first Prohibition Presidential nominee to outpoll all other third party candidates in any county since 1960.<ref>Authors unnamed, "[http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/nation/president/2004-09-09-prohibition-feud_x.htm Battle brewing for teetotaler vote in Colorado]," ''USA Today'', Gannett Co., Inc., September 9, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

== See Also ==
* [[Prohibition]]
* [[War On Drugs]]

== External Links ==
* [http://www.prohibitionists.org The Prohibition Party]

[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:Prohibition]]

Prohibition in the United States

2007-09-21T14:54:43Z

Chronicler: /* External Links */ minor correction in url

: ''This article discusses the particulars of prohibition in the [[United States of America]]. For an overview of prohibition throughout the civilized world, see [[Prohibition]].''

'''Prohibition''' in [[United States of America|American]] parlance typically refers to the movement and body of law that prohibited the manufacture, sale, transport, import, or export of intoxicating [[liquor]] within, into, or from the [[United States of America]] from 1920 to 1933.

== History ==
=== Growth of alcohol consumption ===
Alcoholic beverages have been part of almost every culture since the beginning of recorded [[history]]. But alcohol consumption in colonial America was initially slow to grow. (Beer was a common exception to this, as the colonists and even the early citizens of the Republic preferred beer over the often polluted water.) The colonials and early citizens tended not to forbid alcohol itself but the act of ''intoxicating'' oneself with alcohol.<ref name=Colony>[http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00492/Alcohol_in_America.htm Alcohol in America] at "Prohibition: The Noble Experiment," April 20, 2005 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

The following [[Bible]] verse summarizes the dichotomy of American feelings toward alcohol in America's early years:{{Bible quote|And be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess;...|book=Ephesians|chap=5|verses=18|version=KJV}}

The records of the [[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]] show that alcohol consumption was at a relatively low level in 1850, the earliest year for which they have records, and enjoyed steady growth until the five years immediately before 1920. In fact, alcohol consumption, primarily of distilled spirits ([[whiskey]], [[gin]], and the like), rose steadily throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, as whiskey became more plentiful and less expensive. Indeed, whiskey was [[legal tender]] for debts, even public ones like [[tax]]es.<ref name=DUI>[http://www.dui.com/drunk_driving_research/research/colonial_america.html Alcohol Consumption in America, 1800-55] in the research archive of dui.com (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Beginning after the end of the [[Civil War]], however, consumption of [[beer]] became more popular, until in 1890 beer displaced distilled spirits as the beverage of choice. With the tremendous growth in beer demand and the establishment of large-scale breweries, a new kind of retail establishment called the [[saloon]] appeared. At their height, saloons were so numerous that many places had one saloon (or more) for every 200 lawful residents.<ref name=OSU>Kerr, Austin (1996), and Shelton, Mitchell (2006), [http://prohibition.osu.edu//default.cfm Temperance and Prohibition], Department of History, [[Ohio]] State University, Columbus, Ohio.</ref> The saloon existed primarily to sell liquor. But the typical saloon became famous for other activities, such as [[gambling]] and [[prostitution]]. Worse yet, they often sold liquor to [[minor]]s.<ref name=MSNPro>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564677_1/Prohibition.html Prohibition] at MSN Encarta</ref>

=== Temperance movements ===
The spectacle of increased liquor consumption, and the unsavory activities associated with its sale, were impetus enough for many concerned citizens. But the bad effects on the men who consumed the highest amounts of liquor were worse. In those times, men were the primary consumers of liquor; women were either not permitted to partake or, more commonly, had little desire to partake. Instead, women observed the bad effects of liquor on their husbands. [[Carrie Nation]]<ref name=Carrie>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574293/Carrie_Nation.html Carrie Nation] at MSN Encarta</ref> became the most famous agitator for a total prohibition against liquor after her first husband died of alcohol-related illnesses. After agitating for various State prohibition laws, she ultimately took the law into her own hands by barging into illegal saloons and using a [[hatchet]] to wreck furniture and beer and whiskey barrels. She was arrested some 30 times, and used the honoraria she earned from lecturing to pay her bail.<ref name=Carrie/>

Even before Carrie Nation began her campaign, politicians everywhere spoke against the consumption of liquor. By 1855, 13 of the 31 states had prohibited liquor entirely; the first prohibition law was passed in [[Maine]] in 1840<ref name=Temperance>[http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Temperance_movement/ Temperance movement] at the Knowledge Rush Encyclopedia</ref>. [[Abraham Lincoln]] famously called liquor "an [[Egypt]]ian [[angel]] of [[death]]."<ref name=MSNPro/>

In 1873, matters came to a head with the great "Women's War" or "Women's Crusade."<ref name=OSU/> The two most famous organizations formed to have liquor tightly regulated, or prohibited entirely, were the [[Woman's Christian Temperance Union]] and the [[Anti-Saloon League]]. The latter organization began in [[Ohio]] in 1893 but swiftly gained national importance. These organizations had one issue: the outright prohibition on the sale of intoxicating liquor. First content with the passage of new State laws, they eventually set a goal to amend the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] to prohibit intoxicating liquor nationwide. Another key force was the United States Prohibition Party, founded in 1869.<ref name=USPP>[http://www.prohibitionists.org/index.html Partisan Historical Society] (official site)</ref><ref name=USPPKR>[http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/United_States_Prohibition_Party/ United States Prohibition Party] at the Knowledge Rush Encyclopedia</ref>

=== World War I ===
The federal election of 1916 saw the election of enough [[House of Representatives|Representatives]] and [[United States Senate|Senators]] to propose a constitutional amendment banning the manufacture, sale, transport, import, and export of alcoholic beverages. But the [[First World War]] added another impetus to what became known as the "dry movement." Grain was scarce, and Americans considered the distillation of grains to make alcohol an unpatriotic waste of a resource that, they felt, the country needed to make bread for its soldiers overseas.<ref name=DH>Mintz, S. (2003), "Prohibition," in ''Digital History,'' retrieved April 7, 2007 from [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=441 DigitalHistory.UH.edu]</ref> Indeed, the NIAAA records show a sharp decline in liquor consumption in the five-year period bracketing that war.<ref name=OSU/>

=== Amending the Constitution ===
Passage of the [[Eighteenth Amendment]] in [[Congress]] was swift. In January 20, 1919, the amendment achieved ratification. Pursuant to the amendment's terms, the amendment took effect on January 16, 1920. In October 28, 1920, Congress, acting on its "power to enforce" the amendment, passed the [[National Prohibition Act]] or '''Volstead Act'''<ref name=TIH1028>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/oct28.html Today in History: October 28] at the [[Library of Congress]]</ref>, named for Senator [[Andrew Volstead]] ([[Republican Party|R]]-[[Minnesota|MN]]), which defined an [[alcoholic beverage]] as anything containing more than 0.5% [[ethanol]] by volume and providing for strict enforcement.

=== Enforcement ===
Enforcement was largely in the hands of the [[Internal Revenue Service]], which is why agents of the still-extant [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]] are still called "revenuers" today. Arguably the most famous "revenuers" of all time were [[Eliot Ness]], who operated in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and the team of [[Isadore Einstein and Moe Smith]] in [[New York City]].<ref name=DH/> These were the most dedicated of the 2500 "Prohibition agents" who enforced the law at the height of federal enforcement efforts. Sadly, these men operated on a shoestring national budget ($5 million US at first, later increased to $300 million) and were vastly outmatched in numbers and resources. Worse yet, many politicians still partook of intoxicating liquor themselves, leading to a widespread perception of people in authority as hypocritical.

The latter part of the thirteen years of prohibition saw the rise of [[organized crime|organized criminal gangs]] in virtually every city in the country, and the manufacture of liquor on a small scale at millions of locations.<ref name=WeWantBeer>Miller, Carl H. (2000), [http://www.beerhistory.com/library/holdings/prohibition_1.shtml We Want Beer], retrieved April 7, 2007 from BeerHistory.com</ref> This was the era of "[[speakeasy|speakeasies]]" (liquor-selling establishments that admitted people by invitation only and on the speaking of a [[password]]),<ref name=Hanson>Hanson, David J., [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/FunFacts/Prohibition.html Prohibition: the Noble Experiment], SUNY-Potsdam, Potsdam, NY (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref> "[[bootlegger]]s" (those who smuggled [[alcoholic drinks]] either for their own consumption or for sale), and of a general contempt for the law. [[Al Capone]], the most famous "gangster" in US history, built a vast and sprawling empire on the profits from the distribution of illicit liquor. (Ultimately the IRS obtained evidence of tax evasion against him, and upon conviction on that charge he was sent to [[Alcatraz]] Prison in [[San Francisco]] Bay.)

The original Volstead Act provided a medical exception to prohibition, in that a person could have a doctor prescribe alcohol to him.<ref name=RxEx>[http://www.sfgenealogy.com/sanmateo/history/smpro26.htm A 1926 Alcohol Prescription Slip] in the History Archive of San Mateo County</ref> Many willing doctors wrote prescriptions, often on highly dubious premises.<ref name=About>Rosenberg, Jennifer, [http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/p/prohibition.htm Prohibition], About.com (Retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

The government continued to expect cooperation with the authorities to the end, and issued two scathing reports calling for tougher enforcement in 1927<ref name=rep27>[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/wick/wick1a.html History of Prohibition Enforcement before the Bureau of Prohibition Act of 1927] at the Schaffer Library of Drug Policy</ref> and 1931.<ref name=rep31>[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/wick/wick1.html Report on the Enforcement of Prohibition Laws in the United States, January 7, 1931] at the Schaffer Library of Drug Policy</ref>

=== Repeal ===
The [[Crash of 1929]] and the ensuing [[Great Depression]] carried with it the spectacle of widespread [[unemployment]]. The "wet" forces, never dormant nor idle, quickly created a public perception that if only the beverage industry were legitimate once again, many of these suddenly unemployed workers could be gainfully employed once again.<ref name=About/> The [[Association Against the Prohibition Amendment]] would quickly capitalize on this perception and run candidates for [[Congress]] that favored repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment.

Congress did pass the [[Twenty-first Amendment]] and, in an unprecedented move, bypassed the State legislatures and called for the special election of ratification conventions in the several States. Thirty-eight of these conventions--two more than needed--passed repeal in December of 1933.

=== Remaining Prohibitions ===
Repeal did not begin immediately. States retained the right, under the new amendment, to regulate or even prohibit liquor as they saw fit. Although no States prohibit liquor today, different States have different regulations governing its manufacture, sale, and transport. (For example, some States allow the private sales of liquor, while others insist that all liquor be sold in "State Stores" operated by State alcoholic beverage control boards.) Liquor is still prohibited in some counties, even if not State-wide. And practically no State allows minors to purchase, attempt to purchase, consume, or transport intoxicating liquor.

[[Islam]] prohibits the imbibing of alcohol in all its founding documents. This has recently led to the spectacle of Muslim [[taxi]] drivers refusing to pick up fares in the United States who are transporting alcoholic beverages.<ref name=Cabbie>Lyderson, Kari, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/25/AR2006102501727.html Some Muslim Cabbies Refuse Fares Carrying Alcohol], ''The Washington Post'', Thursday, October 26, 2006; Page A02 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

== Effects of Prohibition and Repeal ==
A large body of misinformation persists about the effects of prohibition and of its eventual repeal. To begin with, the ''per capita'' consumption of intoxicating liquors declined significantly during this period.<ref name=OSU/><ref name=MSNPro/> In addition, two economists estimated that the prevalence of [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]] declined by ten to twenty percent during the Prohibition era.<ref name=cirrhosis>Dills, Angela K., and Miron, Jeffrey A., [http://aler.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/6/2/285 Alcohol Prohibition and Cirrhosis], ''American Law and Economics Review'', 6(2):285-318, 2004 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Crime did rise, and this consisted chiefly of direct flouting of the law and the spectacle of members of rival gangs killing one another in all-out wars for "territories" in the major cities, especially in Chicago. But perceptions of a massive crime wave are grossly exaggerated.<ref name=MSNPro/> Sadly, what is not exaggerated are the reports of widespread contempt for the law and for all authority, and the establishment of powerful [[organized crime]] syndicates in the United States.

One often overlooked effect, not so much of prohibition ''per se'' as of the movement that established it, is [[women's suffrage]]. Women did not seriously agitate for the vote until they had a rallying issue. That issue was prohibition, and the concern of these women was that the men would simply vote to continue to enjoy their liquor, and women would continue to feel the secondary effects of desertion of the home, domestic physical abuse, and neglect of the husband's duty to provide. Ironically, women did not definitively win the vote (the [[Nineteenth Amendment]]) until ''after'' prohibition was already a part of the [[Constitution]].

The NIAAA data compiled by Kerr<ref name=OSU/> clearly show that alcohol consumption sank to a bottom in 1933 and has been rising ever since. Today the ''per capita'' consumption of liquor is higher than ever. So, too, are its bad effects, effects that any person, not merely any specially affected subgroup, may feel under the right circumstances.<ref name=DUI2>National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, [http://www.dui.com/drunk_driving_research/research/alcohol_prohibition.html A Short History of Alcohol Temperance and Prohibition], DUI.com (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Repeal did not destroy the organized criminal gangs. Instead of selling alcohol, they moved on to other illicit activities. These gangs, of course, persist today.

== Prohibition in Popular Culture ==
At least one [[motion picture]] and one long-running [[television]] series had their basis in the career of [[Eliot Ness]]. Another television project drew its basis from the careers of [[Isadore Einstein and Moe Smith]], though this was clearly a comedy.

[[Al Capone]] has been the subject of many motion picture projects about his life and career. In some of these projects his character is the leading character; in others he is a force-of-nature who affects the lives of others.

CBS-TV had a comedy series in the early 1970's that centered on an illicit bar operator and his mobster cousin in 1920's Chicago. Many other [[television]] and [[motion picture]] projects were set in or shortly after the Prohibition era and sometimes featured bootleggers as minor or major characters. In other projects, some characters would challenge the judgmental attitude of other characters who had lived during the Prohibition era, typically by asking them whether they never took an illicit drink when the sale of liquor was illegal. (Such lines often perpetuated the common misconception that the ''consumption'' of intoxicating liquor by adults, as distinct from its ''manufacture, sale, transport, import, or export'', was unlawful.)

At least one comedy motion picture was made about prohibition's repeal. That project featured a gangster who tried to "go legit" after prohibition ended.

==The Prohibition Party Today==
The Prohibition Party has continued to sponsor candidates for office. The party divided in 2003 over dissatisfaction with party leader Earl F. Dodge Jr. The smaller faction held its national convention in Dodge's living room and nominated him for a sixth time. This faction appeared on the ballot only in [[Colorado]] and received 140 votes. The larger faction of the party, called the Webb faction, nominated Gene C. Amondson for President. Amondson ran as the Prohibition nominee in [[Louisiana]], where he won 1,566 votes, and in Colorado under the "Concerns of People" Party, receiving 378 votes.<ref>"[http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=37927 Gene Amondson political biography at Our Campaigns.com. Retrieved 9/20/2007.</ref> Amondson received the most votes for a Prohibition Party nominee since 1988 and was the first Prohibition Presidential nominee to outpoll all other third party candidates in any county since 1960.<ref>Authors unnamed, "[http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/nation/president/2004-09-09-prohibition-feud_x.htm Battle brewing for teetotaler vote in Colorado]," ''USA Today'', Gannett Co., Inc., September 9, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

== See Also ==
* [[Prohibition]]
* [[War On Drugs]]

== External Links ==
* [http://www.prohibitionists.org The Prohibition Party]

[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:Prohibition]]

Talk:Religious Society of Friends

2007-09-21T02:19:16Z

Chronicler: /* This is a liberal article */

Are Quakers predominantly [[liberals]] today?

In particular, are Quaker schools very liberal today? A parent wants to know before sending a child there.--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 23:12, 12 April 2007 (EDT)

Well, they are pacifists, at least. [[User:MountainDew|MountainDew]] 23:17, 12 April 2007 (EDT)

: Yes, and I suspect that implies many other left-of-center positions. Anti-death penalty is a given of course, and I would also expect them to be pro-gun control. Other policies may flow from there, like higher taxes and more regulations.

: I wonder about some of the socially conservative issues, like abortion. One person told me that the Quakers actually ran an underground network to provide abortion in the old days.--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 02:26, 13 April 2007 (EDT)

I have no idea about that. The only other thing I know about them, other than that the organization is in my family background somewhere, is that they have traditionally been among the most feminist of denominations. [[User:MountainDew|MountainDew]] 02:31, 13 April 2007 (EDT)

I read this article on Quakers and thought it was very well done. Then I read this discussion page and your question spurred my curiosity about this issue. I found two links which give more information: [http://www.fum.org/QL/issues/9904/MacNair.htm] and [http://en.allexperts.com/q/Quakers-1550/Quakers-Abortion-1.htm] --[[User:Taj|Taj]] 03:11, 13 April 2007 (EDT)

:1) A rough guide might be the positions taken by the Quaker lobby, [http://www.fcnl.org Friends Committee on National Legislation] which does not officially speak for Quakers.

:2) Some awfully good small liberal arts schools (Haverford, Swarthmore) were historically Quaker, and I think Quakers operate several some very good prep schools.

:3) In the United States there are two main Quaker religious organizations. Friends General Conference is more or less Eastern, generally has "unprogrammed" (no sermons) services, and is more liberal; Friends United Meeting is more Midwest ern and Western, generally is more conservative, and more closely resembles "ordinary" churches with some kind of minister, not sure what he/she is called, who gives something like a traditional sermon. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith]] 06:53, 13 April 2007 (EDT)

:Many Quakers today recognize such distinctions as traditional, evangelical, Bible-centered, Christ-centered, etc. Quakers come in lots of flavors. "Unprogrammed" meetings (in silence, no pastor) are more common in the East; "programmed" meetings resemble Congregationalist (or United Church of Christ) service (minimal liturgy, sermon by a pastor) and are more common in the Midwest and West. However, there are many meetings that hold both kinds of meetings for worship, often silent (unprogrammed) early on Sunday (First Day) a.m. and programmed later on in the morning. Either form of worship can represent a more liberal or a more conservative meeting. I would guess that the majority of Quakers would describe themselves as liberal or at least left-of-center, but you'd probably find lots of differing positions on any one issue (such as abortion). The one common statement you might make of Quakers is that each one follows his/her conscience, and that differs a lot.

If you're really interested, try this: http://www.pym.org/exhibit/p045.html
Or, if you're REALLY interested, this one: http://www.quakerinfo.com/qi_list.shtml
[[User:Leansleft|Leansleft]] 10:28, 10 August 2007 (EDT)

On the website of the Friends Committee on National Legislation (referred to above by Dpbsmith) I found a statement saying that the FCNL doesn't lobby for either side on the issue of abortion, because Quakers are divided on the issue. That would have been my guess. Historically, Quakers have been both soldiers and conscientious objectors, hunters and animal-rights proponents, supporters of and activists against conservative causes, so it stands to reason that some Quakers are opposed to abortion and some are not. [[User:Leansleft|Leansleft]] 16:27, 10 August 2007 (EDT)

==This is a liberal article==

I just want to say that what is posted here is a very liberal interpretation of the Society of Friends. Most of what is here does not apply to Conservative Friends.[[User:Chronicler|Chronicler]] 21:54, 20 September 2007 (EDT)

:Can you give specific examples of what in this article you find to be too liberal? [[User:DanH|DanH]] 21:57, 20 September 2007 (EDT)

Sure

1) Historically, Quakers did not have "testimonies." We had what was called "our ancient testimony." The "testimony of simplicity" is a mid-20th century replacement for the historic emphasis of plainness, a form of religious nonconformity practiced by the colonial Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Quakers, and Baptists.

2) The reason for not taking oaths has always been set forth as following the direct command of Christ Jesus in Matthew 5:32. What is posted here is a secular argument that was historically used but was not the primary reason.

3) Friends were historically very much opposed to sex outside of marriage; David H. Fischer has a long analysis of this in his book ''Albion's Seed''.

4) While we have always believed that all people have equal access to God, our historic beliefs did not include acceptance of all creeds or redistribution of wealth. One reason for the Puritan and Quaker use of numerical calendar units was to eliminate the names of pagan gods from our speech.

5) The reference to the Balby letter should state that this is a reference to Paul's writing that "the letter killeth but the Spirit giveth life." This was never intended to be an excuse for unholy living, as the earlier portions of that letter attest.

6) The William Penn reference should be kept in context. The thesis of his most famous book, ''No Cross, No Crown'', is that each of us has a spiritual obligation to take up the cross of Christ daily in our lives. William Penn was not a Unitarian in theology. The passage is a weak example of his theology.

7) Two-thirds of Quakers worldwide accept the inspiration of Scripture.

8) The reference to direct revelation needs to be explained. Historically, Friends believed that God continues to reveal *Himself* to humans. The current liberal understanding of revealing new *doctrine* is specifically repudiated in the early Quaker book Barclay's Apology and is not accepted by Conservative Friends, the Friends United Meeting, or Evangelical Friends. [[User:Chronicler|Chronicler]] 22:19, 20 September 2007 (EDT)

Talk:Religious Society of Friends

2007-09-21T01:54:28Z

Chronicler:

Religious Society of Friends

2007-09-21T01:53:27Z

Chronicler: Miscellaneous updates

The '''Religious Society of Friends,''' colloquially '''Quakers,''' is a religious denomination founded by [[George Fox]] in the 1650s. There are approximately 300,000 Quakers today worldwide.

George Fox described himself as [[Christian]] and so do many, but not necessarily all Quakers.

Quakers believe in direct ''revelation'', often referred to as the ''inner light'' or, in Fox's words, "that of God in everyone." Traditional Quaker meetings take place mostly in silence, with individual members standing up to speak when they believe they are moved to do so by God. [[Margaret Fell]] wrote that Fox had said
:the Scriptures were the Prophet's words, and [[Christ]]'s and the Apostle's words, and what, as they spoke, they enjoyed and possessed, and had it from the Lord and said, then what had any to do with the Scriptures, but as they came to the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit]], which gave them forth. You will say, Christ says this, and the Apostles say this but what can thou say? Are thou a child of Light, and have walked in the Light, and that thou speaks, is it inwardly from God?

Quakers are traditionally [[pacifist]]s, the Society of Friends being, along with the [[Mennonites]] and the [[Plymouth Brethren]] one of the historic peace churches.

Historically, Quakers were a [[nonconformist]] body. In the early twentieth century, many Quakers began to drop traditional Quaker folkways such as plain Quaker dress ("Quaker grey") and "plain speech" (particularly the use of "thee" and "thou") and replace them with modern interpretations such as not "dressing up" to attend meeting for worship.

A series of divisions has resulted in Quakers being organized into four general bodies. The largest group in the eastern United States, which usually sets forth its ideas as traditional Quakerism, is called the Friends General Conference. This body is theologically liberal and the only Quaker body that is not specifically Christian. A group found mostly in the center of the United States and in Africa is the Friends United Meeting. This body and the Evangelical Friends have pastors and a religious service similar to that of rural Protestants throughout the United States. The smallest of the four Quaker groups is the Conservative Friends. This group, based in Ohio but with meetings throughout North America and in the UK, maintains the traditional waiting worship and many traditional Quaker folkways dropped by other Quaker groups.

==Testimonies==

Quakers around the world hold a wide range of theological views, but value what are called Testimonies. These are often taught using the acronym SPICE, standing for Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, and Equality. Some friends also include other testimonies such as Compassion and Stewardship.

* The testimony of '''Simplicity''' concerns the adoption of an unostentatious life style and a restraint on conspicuous consumption. Quakers have been traditionally inclined to thrift and temperance, and unlikely to engage in gambling and financial speculation, though there have been very many successful businesses run by Quakers. Recently there has been a renewed emphasis on the dangers of smoking and the misuse of drugs. Quakers have always been associated with the Prohibition Party in the United States.

* The '''Peace''' testimony is probably the best known. Friends usually refuse to support war as a means of settling disputes. Most oppose the arms trade, conscription, and the threat of nuclear war as a deterrent. They promote reconciliation, mediation and conflict resolution rather than revenge and retribution or the use of violence to achieve desired objectives.

* The testimony of '''Integrity''' requires strict honesty and truthfulness, mutual trust and fidelity in our relations with other people. Friends are greatly concerned about truth and integrity in public affairs. As part of this testimony, most Friends refuse to swear an oath, believing that their word should be equally truthful whether they are on oath or not. Friends normally affirm if required to give evidence in court. The testimony of Integrity also includes a testimony of Stewardship, which focuses on conservation of the environment as a concern for 'the integrity of creation'.

* The testimony of '''Community''', along with the testament of Equality means that Quakers have generally been at the forefront of penal reform and opposition to capital punishment, emphasising the need for rehabilitation rather than retribution. Community also includes Compassion, which includes the traditional Quaker concern for the relief of suffering due to famine, natural disasters and war. More recently concern for situations nearer at home have emerged, especially for homeless, disadvantaged or elderly people and those who are particularly vulnerable, such as political prisoners, those with AIDS and those who are addicted to drugs. Compassion for animals has led to opposition to factory farming and other forms of cruelty.

* The testimony of '''Equality''' emphasises social equality and the need to accept every person individually, and not to regard anyone only as a member of a class or category. Friends oppose discrimination or exploitation on the grounds of creed, race, sex, sexual orientation, mental or physical ability, age or social status. This testimony also seeks a fairer distribution of wealth, and equal opportunities for employment and education, and in housing and health services.

These testimonies stretch back to the roots of Quaker history, but the way they are adopted by Quakers is as individual as Quakers themselves, as can be seen in a footnote to the Letter from the Elders Gathered at Balby, 1656 which says:
''
"Dearly beloved Friends, these things we do not lay upon you as a rule or form to walk by, but that all, with the measure of the light which is pure and holy, maybe guided: and so in the light walking and abiding, these may be fulfilled in the Spirit, not from the letter, for the letter killeth, but the Spirit giveth life."''

=="Let us then try what Love will do"==

[[William Penn]], founder of [[Pennsylvania]], was a well-known Quaker, who demonstrated Quaker principles in his dealings with the Indians. In 1693, in his "Fruits of Solitude" he wrote:

:"A good End cannot sanctifie evil Means; nor must we ever do Evil, that Good may come of it. ... It is as great Presumption to send our Passions upon God's Errands, as it is to palliate them with God's Name. ... We are too ready to retaliate, rather than forgive, or gain by Love and Information. And yet we could hurt no Man that we believe loves us. Let us then try what Love will do: For if Men did once see we Love them, we should soon find they would not harm us. Force may subdue, but Love gains: And he that forgives first, wins the Laurel."

==Peace Work==

The Religious Society of Friends has historically been respected by all sides as mediators, because of their commitment to peace. In 1947, the [[American Friends Service Committee]] was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. Recently, the AFSC made a trip to [[Iran]], which followed a meeting in September 2006 in [[New York City]] with other faith leaders and [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], President of Iran. At that meeting, President Ahmadinejad issued an invitation for the dialogue to continue in Tehran.

Accordingly a delegation from AFSC, together with the [[Mennonite]] Central Committee, became the first official U.S. delegation to meet with an Iranian president in [[Tehran]] in almost thirty years.

Mary Ellen McNish, General Secretary of the AFSC, commented of this visit:

<blockquote>'''At that meeting, I realized just how important it was for us to establish lines of communication, of dialogue, of respect. If we cannot talk with those who oppose us, how can we ever find opportunities for improved relations and pave the road to peace?'''</blockquote>

<blockquote>'''Coming to the table does not mean that we agree on all or even fundamental issues. Dialogue is not a reward or validation of someone's position. It is a means to begin the process of reconciliation.'''</blockquote>

==Famous Quakers==

*[[William Penn]]

*[[Nathaniel Greene]]

*[[Lucretia Mott]]

*[[Whittaker Chambers]]

*[[Richard Nixon]]

==External links==
*[http://www.pym.org/exhibit/p045.html Who are the Quakers?]

[[category:peace]]
[[category:religion]]

Prohibition in the United States

2007-09-21T01:40:22Z

Chronicler: /* The Prohibition Party Today */ update

: ''This article discusses the particulars of prohibition in the [[United States of America]]. For an overview of prohibition throughout the civilized world, see [[Prohibition]].''

'''Prohibition''' in [[United States of America|American]] parlance typically refers to the movement and body of law that prohibited the manufacture, sale, transport, import, or export of intoxicating [[liquor]] within, into, or from the [[United States of America]] from 1920 to 1933.

== History ==
=== Growth of alcohol consumption ===
Alcoholic beverages have been part of almost every culture since the beginning of recorded [[history]]. But alcohol consumption in colonial America was initially slow to grow. (Beer was a common exception to this, as the colonists and even the early citizens of the Republic preferred beer over the often polluted water.) The colonials and early citizens tended not to forbid alcohol itself but the act of ''intoxicating'' oneself with alcohol.<ref name=Colony>[http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00492/Alcohol_in_America.htm Alcohol in America] at "Prohibition: The Noble Experiment," April 20, 2005 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

The following [[Bible]] verse summarizes the dichotomy of American feelings toward alcohol in America's early years:{{Bible quote|And be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess;...|book=Ephesians|chap=5|verses=18|version=KJV}}

The records of the [[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]] show that alcohol consumption was at a relatively low level in 1850, the earliest year for which they have records, and enjoyed steady growth until the five years immediately before 1920. In fact, alcohol consumption, primarily of distilled spirits ([[whiskey]], [[gin]], and the like), rose steadily throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, as whiskey became more plentiful and less expensive. Indeed, whiskey was [[legal tender]] for debts, even public ones like [[tax]]es.<ref name=DUI>[http://www.dui.com/drunk_driving_research/research/colonial_america.html Alcohol Consumption in America, 1800-55] in the research archive of dui.com (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Beginning after the end of the [[Civil War]], however, consumption of [[beer]] became more popular, until in 1890 beer displaced distilled spirits as the beverage of choice. With the tremendous growth in beer demand and the establishment of large-scale breweries, a new kind of retail establishment called the [[saloon]] appeared. At their height, saloons were so numerous that many places had one saloon (or more) for every 200 lawful residents.<ref name=OSU>Kerr, Austin (1996), and Shelton, Mitchell (2006), [http://prohibition.osu.edu//default.cfm Temperance and Prohibition], Department of History, [[Ohio]] State University, Columbus, Ohio.</ref> The saloon existed primarily to sell liquor. But the typical saloon became famous for other activities, such as [[gambling]] and [[prostitution]]. Worse yet, they often sold liquor to [[minor]]s.<ref name=MSNPro>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564677_1/Prohibition.html Prohibition] at MSN Encarta</ref>

=== Temperance movements ===
The spectacle of increased liquor consumption, and the unsavory activities associated with its sale, were impetus enough for many concerned citizens. But the bad effects on the men who consumed the highest amounts of liquor were worse. In those times, men were the primary consumers of liquor; women were either not permitted to partake or, more commonly, had little desire to partake. Instead, women observed the bad effects of liquor on their husbands. [[Carrie Nation]]<ref name=Carrie>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574293/Carrie_Nation.html Carrie Nation] at MSN Encarta</ref> became the most famous agitator for a total prohibition against liquor after her first husband died of alcohol-related illnesses. After agitating for various State prohibition laws, she ultimately took the law into her own hands by barging into illegal saloons and using a [[hatchet]] to wreck furniture and beer and whiskey barrels. She was arrested some 30 times, and used the honoraria she earned from lecturing to pay her bail.<ref name=Carrie/>

Even before Carrie Nation began her campaign, politicians everywhere spoke against the consumption of liquor. By 1855, 13 of the 31 states had prohibited liquor entirely; the first prohibition law was passed in [[Maine]] in 1840<ref name=Temperance>[http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Temperance_movement/ Temperance movement] at the Knowledge Rush Encyclopedia</ref>. [[Abraham Lincoln]] famously called liquor "an [[Egypt]]ian [[angel]] of [[death]]."<ref name=MSNPro/>

In 1873, matters came to a head with the great "Women's War" or "Women's Crusade."<ref name=OSU/> The two most famous organizations formed to have liquor tightly regulated, or prohibited entirely, were the [[Woman's Christian Temperance Union]] and the [[Anti-Saloon League]]. The latter organization began in [[Ohio]] in 1893 but swiftly gained national importance. These organizations had one issue: the outright prohibition on the sale of intoxicating liquor. First content with the passage of new State laws, they eventually set a goal to amend the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] to prohibit intoxicating liquor nationwide. Another key force was the United States Prohibition Party, founded in 1869.<ref name=USPP>[http://www.prohibitionists.org/index.html Partisan Historical Society] (official site)</ref><ref name=USPPKR>[http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/United_States_Prohibition_Party/ United States Prohibition Party] at the Knowledge Rush Encyclopedia</ref>

=== World War I ===
The federal election of 1916 saw the election of enough [[House of Representatives|Representatives]] and [[United States Senate|Senators]] to propose a constitutional amendment banning the manufacture, sale, transport, import, and export of alcoholic beverages. But the [[First World War]] added another impetus to what became known as the "dry movement." Grain was scarce, and Americans considered the distillation of grains to make alcohol an unpatriotic waste of a resource that, they felt, the country needed to make bread for its soldiers overseas.<ref name=DH>Mintz, S. (2003), "Prohibition," in ''Digital History,'' retrieved April 7, 2007 from [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=441 DigitalHistory.UH.edu]</ref> Indeed, the NIAAA records show a sharp decline in liquor consumption in the five-year period bracketing that war.<ref name=OSU/>

=== Amending the Constitution ===
Passage of the [[Eighteenth Amendment]] in [[Congress]] was swift. In January 20, 1919, the amendment achieved ratification. Pursuant to the amendment's terms, the amendment took effect on January 16, 1920. In October 28, 1920, Congress, acting on its "power to enforce" the amendment, passed the [[National Prohibition Act]] or '''Volstead Act'''<ref name=TIH1028>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/oct28.html Today in History: October 28] at the [[Library of Congress]]</ref>, named for Senator [[Andrew Volstead]] ([[Republican Party|R]]-[[Minnesota|MN]]), which defined an [[alcoholic beverage]] as anything containing more than 0.5% [[ethanol]] by volume and providing for strict enforcement.

=== Enforcement ===
Enforcement was largely in the hands of the [[Internal Revenue Service]], which is why agents of the still-extant [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]] are still called "revenuers" today. Arguably the most famous "revenuers" of all time were [[Eliot Ness]], who operated in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and the team of [[Isadore Einstein and Moe Smith]] in [[New York City]].<ref name=DH/> These were the most dedicated of the 2500 "Prohibition agents" who enforced the law at the height of federal enforcement efforts. Sadly, these men operated on a shoestring national budget ($5 million US at first, later increased to $300 million) and were vastly outmatched in numbers and resources. Worse yet, many politicians still partook of intoxicating liquor themselves, leading to a widespread perception of people in authority as hypocritical.

The latter part of the thirteen years of prohibition saw the rise of [[organized crime|organized criminal gangs]] in virtually every city in the country, and the manufacture of liquor on a small scale at millions of locations.<ref name=WeWantBeer>Miller, Carl H. (2000), [http://www.beerhistory.com/library/holdings/prohibition_1.shtml We Want Beer], retrieved April 7, 2007 from BeerHistory.com</ref> This was the era of "[[speakeasy|speakeasies]]" (liquor-selling establishments that admitted people by invitation only and on the speaking of a [[password]]),<ref name=Hanson>Hanson, David J., [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/FunFacts/Prohibition.html Prohibition: the Noble Experiment], SUNY-Potsdam, Potsdam, NY (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref> "[[bootlegger]]s" (those who smuggled [[alcoholic drinks]] either for their own consumption or for sale), and of a general contempt for the law. [[Al Capone]], the most famous "gangster" in US history, built a vast and sprawling empire on the profits from the distribution of illicit liquor. (Ultimately the IRS obtained evidence of tax evasion against him, and upon conviction on that charge he was sent to [[Alcatraz]] Prison in [[San Francisco]] Bay.)

The original Volstead Act provided a medical exception to prohibition, in that a person could have a doctor prescribe alcohol to him.<ref name=RxEx>[http://www.sfgenealogy.com/sanmateo/history/smpro26.htm A 1926 Alcohol Prescription Slip] in the History Archive of San Mateo County</ref> Many willing doctors wrote prescriptions, often on highly dubious premises.<ref name=About>Rosenberg, Jennifer, [http://history1900s.about.com/od/1920s/p/prohibition.htm Prohibition], About.com (Retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

The government continued to expect cooperation with the authorities to the end, and issued two scathing reports calling for tougher enforcement in 1927<ref name=rep27>[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/wick/wick1a.html History of Prohibition Enforcement before the Bureau of Prohibition Act of 1927] at the Schaffer Library of Drug Policy</ref> and 1931.<ref name=rep31>[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/wick/wick1.html Report on the Enforcement of Prohibition Laws in the United States, January 7, 1931] at the Schaffer Library of Drug Policy</ref>

=== Repeal ===
The [[Crash of 1929]] and the ensuing [[Great Depression]] carried with it the spectacle of widespread [[unemployment]]. The "wet" forces, never dormant nor idle, quickly created a public perception that if only the beverage industry were legitimate once again, many of these suddenly unemployed workers could be gainfully employed once again.<ref name=About/> The [[Association Against the Prohibition Amendment]] would quickly capitalize on this perception and run candidates for [[Congress]] that favored repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment.

Congress did pass the [[Twenty-first Amendment]] and, in an unprecedented move, bypassed the State legislatures and called for the special election of ratification conventions in the several States. Thirty-eight of these conventions--two more than needed--passed repeal in December of 1933.

=== Remaining Prohibitions ===
Repeal did not begin immediately. States retained the right, under the new amendment, to regulate or even prohibit liquor as they saw fit. Although no States prohibit liquor today, different States have different regulations governing its manufacture, sale, and transport. (For example, some States allow the private sales of liquor, while others insist that all liquor be sold in "State Stores" operated by State alcoholic beverage control boards.) Liquor is still prohibited in some counties, even if not State-wide. And practically no State allows minors to purchase, attempt to purchase, consume, or transport intoxicating liquor.

[[Islam]] prohibits the imbibing of alcohol in all its founding documents. This has recently led to the spectacle of Muslim [[taxi]] drivers refusing to pick up fares in the United States who are transporting alcoholic beverages.<ref name=Cabbie>Lyderson, Kari, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/25/AR2006102501727.html Some Muslim Cabbies Refuse Fares Carrying Alcohol], ''The Washington Post'', Thursday, October 26, 2006; Page A02 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

== Effects of Prohibition and Repeal ==
A large body of misinformation persists about the effects of prohibition and of its eventual repeal. To begin with, the ''per capita'' consumption of intoxicating liquors declined significantly during this period.<ref name=OSU/><ref name=MSNPro/> In addition, two economists estimated that the prevalence of [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]] declined by ten to twenty percent during the Prohibition era.<ref name=cirrhosis>Dills, Angela K., and Miron, Jeffrey A., [http://aler.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/6/2/285 Alcohol Prohibition and Cirrhosis], ''American Law and Economics Review'', 6(2):285-318, 2004 (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Crime did rise, and this consisted chiefly of direct flouting of the law and the spectacle of members of rival gangs killing one another in all-out wars for "territories" in the major cities, especially in Chicago. But perceptions of a massive crime wave are grossly exaggerated.<ref name=MSNPro/> Sadly, what is not exaggerated are the reports of widespread contempt for the law and for all authority, and the establishment of powerful [[organized crime]] syndicates in the United States.

One often overlooked effect, not so much of prohibition ''per se'' as of the movement that established it, is [[women's suffrage]]. Women did not seriously agitate for the vote until they had a rallying issue. That issue was prohibition, and the concern of these women was that the men would simply vote to continue to enjoy their liquor, and women would continue to feel the secondary effects of desertion of the home, domestic physical abuse, and neglect of the husband's duty to provide. Ironically, women did not definitively win the vote (the [[Nineteenth Amendment]]) until ''after'' prohibition was already a part of the [[Constitution]].

The NIAAA data compiled by Kerr<ref name=OSU/> clearly show that alcohol consumption sank to a bottom in 1933 and has been rising ever since. Today the ''per capita'' consumption of liquor is higher than ever. So, too, are its bad effects, effects that any person, not merely any specially affected subgroup, may feel under the right circumstances.<ref name=DUI2>National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, [http://www.dui.com/drunk_driving_research/research/alcohol_prohibition.html A Short History of Alcohol Temperance and Prohibition], DUI.com (retrieved April 7, 2007)</ref>

Repeal did not destroy the organized criminal gangs. Instead of selling alcohol, they moved on to other illicit activities. These gangs, of course, persist today.

== Prohibition in Popular Culture ==
At least one [[motion picture]] and one long-running [[television]] series had their basis in the career of [[Eliot Ness]]. Another television project drew its basis from the careers of [[Isadore Einstein and Moe Smith]], though this was clearly a comedy.

[[Al Capone]] has been the subject of many motion picture projects about his life and career. In some of these projects his character is the leading character; in others he is a force-of-nature who affects the lives of others.

CBS-TV had a comedy series in the early 1970's that centered on an illicit bar operator and his mobster cousin in 1920's Chicago. Many other [[television]] and [[motion picture]] projects were set in or shortly after the Prohibition era and sometimes featured bootleggers as minor or major characters. In other projects, some characters would challenge the judgmental attitude of other characters who had lived during the Prohibition era, typically by asking them whether they never took an illicit drink when the sale of liquor was illegal. (Such lines often perpetuated the common misconception that the ''consumption'' of intoxicating liquor by adults, as distinct from its ''manufacture, sale, transport, import, or export'', was unlawful.)

At least one comedy motion picture was made about prohibition's repeal. That project featured a gangster who tried to "go legit" after prohibition ended.

==The Prohibition Party Today==
The Prohibition Party has continued to sponsor candidates for office. The party divided in 2003 over dissatisfaction with party leader Earl F. Dodge Jr. The smaller faction held its national convention in Dodge's living room and nominated him for a sixth time. This faction appeared on the ballot only in [[Colorado]] and received 140 votes. The larger faction of the party, called the Webb faction, nominated Gene C. Amondson for President. Amondson ran as the Prohibition nominee in [[Louisiana]], where he won 1,566 votes, and in Colorado under the "Concerns of People" Party, receiving 378 votes.<ref>"[http://www.ourcampaigns.com/CandidateDetail.html?CandidateID=37927 Gene Amondson political biography at Our Campaigns.com. Retrieved 9/20/2007.</ref> Amondson received the most votes for a Prohibition Party nominee since 1988 and was the first Prohibition Presidential nominee to outpoll all other third party candidates in any county since 1960.<ref>Authors unnamed, "[http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/nation/president/2004-09-09-prohibition-feud_x.htm Battle brewing for teetotaler vote in Colorado]," ''USA Today'', Gannett Co., Inc., September 9, 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

== See Also ==
* [[Prohibition]]
* [[War On Drugs]]

== External Links ==
* [http://www.prohibition.org The Prohibition Party]

[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:Prohibition]]