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Grace

2008-12-27T12:36:51Z

CarlThomas: removing some too-obvious bias

{{wiktionary|grace}}
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'''Grace''' may refer to:

==Religion==
* [[Grace (prayer)]], said before or after a meal
* [[Divine grace]], unearned favors received from God.
* [[Prevenient grace]], an Augustine Christian theological concept
* [[Irresistible grace]], a Calvinistic Christian theological concept
* [[Actual grace]], a Catholic theological concept.
* [[Sola gratia]] - "grace alone"

==Music==
* [[Grace (album)|''Grace'' (album)]] (1994), by Jeff Buckley
* [[Grace (band)]], a 1990s dance music group
* [[Grace (Simon Webbe album)|''Grace'' (Simon Webbe album)]], by Simon Webbe
* ''Grace'' (album), by [[Tribes of Neurot]]
* [[Grace (Lee Soo Young album)|''Grace'' (Lee Soo Young album)]], an album by Lee Soo Young

===Songs===
*[[Grace (Jeff Buckley song)|"Grace" (Jeff Buckley song)]], a 1994 song by Jeff Buckley
*[[Grace (U2 song)|"Grace" (U2 song)]], a 2000 song by U2
*[[Grace (Supergrass song)|"Grace" (Supergrass song)]], a 2002 song by Supergrass
*[[Grace (Simon Webbe song)|"Grace" (Simon Webbe song)]], a 2007 song by Simon Webbe
*[[The Grace (song)|"The Grace" (song)]], a 2005 song by Canadian band Neverending White Lights
*[[Grace Kelly (song)|"Grace Kelly" (song)]], a song by Mika
*[[Grace (Will Young song)|"Grace"]], a song on Will Young's fourth album ''[[Let It Go (Will Young album)|Let It Go]]''

==Science and technology==
* GRACE, [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment]]
* [[Grace (plotting tool)]], software
* [[Hyundai Grace]], a minivan built by Hyundai Motor Company
* Grace, the American codename for the [[Aichi B7A]], a World War II Japanese bomber aircraft

==People with the surname Grace==
* [[John Hilton Grace]], a British mathematician
* [[Mark Grace]], baseball player
* [[Ted Grace]], Australian politician
* [[Topher Grace]], an American actor
* [[William Gilbert Grace]], an English cricket player
* [[William Russell Grace]], founder of W. R. Grace and Company
* [[Helen Grace]], British actress

==Other==
* [[Graces]], or the Charites in Greek mythology
* [[Grace, Idaho]]
* [[Grace (given name)]], a feminine name
* [[Grace (photograph)]], the Minnesota state photograph
* [[Grace (short story)|"Grace" (short story)]], by James Joyce
* [[Grace (style)]], a form of address
* [[Grace (Stargate SG-1)|"Grace" (Stargate SG-1)]], a television series episode
* [[Grace Choi]] a character in the fictional DC Universe
* The [[Game of graces]], a 19th century game for young girls.

==See also==
* [[Amazing Grace]]
* ''[[Grace Under Fire]]''
* [[Grace Under Pressure]]
* [[Gracie]]
* [[Saving Grace]]
* ''[[States of Grace]]''
* ''[[Will & Grace]]''
* ''[[Le Bénédicité]]'' ("''Grace''") a painting by Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin

{{disambig}}

[[de:Grace]]
[[es:Gracia]]
[[fr:Grâce]]
[[ia:Gratia (disambiguation)]]
[[it:Grace]]
[[pl:Grace]]
[[pt:Grace]]
[[simple:Grace]]
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Evolutionism

2008-12-27T12:36:37Z

CarlThomas: removing some too-obvious bias

'''Evolutionism''' refers to doctrines of evolution,<ref>{{cite book |author=Kirkpatrick, E. M.; Davidson, George D.; Seaton, M. A.; Simpson, J. R. |title=Chambers concise 20th century dictionary |publisher=Chambers |location=Edinburgh |year=1985 |pages= |isbn=0-550-10553-0 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> and more specifically to a widely held 19th century belief that [[organism]]s are intrinsically bound to improve themselves, and that changes are progressive and arise through [[inheritance of acquired characters]], as in [[Lamarckism]]. The belief was extended to include [[cultural evolution]] and [[social evolution]].<ref name="isbn0-550-11000-3">{{cite book |author=Allen, R. T.; Allen, Robert W. |title=Chambers encyclopedic English dictionary |publisher=Chambers |location=Edinburgh |year=1994 |pages= |isbn=0-550-11000-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> The term can be used to refer to acceptance of the [[Modern evolutionary synthesis|modern evolutionary theory]] of biological [[evolution]], and is also used in a broader sense as a world-view covering a wide variety of topics, including chemical evolution as an alternative term for [[abiogenesis]] or for [[nucleosynthesis]] of [[chemical element]]s, [[galaxy formation and evolution]], [[stellar evolution]], [[spiritual evolution]], [[technological evolution]] and [[universal evolution]] which seeks to explain every aspect of this world in which we live.<ref name="urlEvolutionism">{{cite web |url=http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/evolutionism.htm |title=Evolutionism |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=2002–2008 |format= |work= |publisher=AllAboutGOD.com, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80949 |accessdate=2008-12-05}}</ref>

In the [[creation-evolution controversy]], those who accept the [[scientific theory]] of biological [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] or [[genetic drift]] are often called "evolutionists", and the theory of evolution itself is referred to as "evolutionism" by [[creationism|creationists]] who portray it as a kind of secular religion.<ref name=Ruse>{{cite web |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/299/5612/1523 |title=PERCEPTIONS IN SCIENCE: Is Evolution a Secular Religion? -- Ruse |author=Michael Ruse |authorlink=Michael Ruse |date=March 2003 |work= |publisher=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |pages=299 (5612): 1523 |accessdate=2008-12-05}}</ref> This term is used to suggest that evolution is an [[ideology]] such as creationism and other "[[-ism]]s", particularly [[atheism]].<ref name=ICRMuseum>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/icr-visit/linke.html |title=A Visit to the ICR Museum |author=Steven Linke |date=August 28, 1992 |publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|quote=In fact, true science supports the Biblical worldview... However, science does not support false religions (e.g. atheism, evolutionism, pantheism, humanism, etc.) |accessdate=2008-12-05}}</ref> In this way, creationists support their claim that the scientific theory of evolution is in its basics a belief, dogma, ideology or even a religion, rather than a scientific theory. The basis of this argument is to establish that the creation-evolution controversy is essentially one of interpretation of evidence, without any overwhelming proof (beyond current scientific theories) on either side. Creationists tend to use the term evolutionism in order to suggest that the theory of evolution and creationism are equal in a philosophical debate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/jul03.html |title=The Talk.Origins Archive Post of the Month: July 2003 |author=Louann Miller |accessdate=2008-12-05}}</ref> The terms "evolutionism" and "evolutionist" are rarely used in the [[scientific community]] as self-descriptive terms.

"Evolutionism" is defined by the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] as "the [[theory of evolution]], evolutionary assumptions or principles".

==Development of usage==
Anthropologists and biologists refer to "evolutionists" in the 19th century as those who believed that the cultures or life forms being studied are evolving to a ''particular'' form (see [[Platonic form]]). Very few scientists today, if any, believe that evolution in culture or biology works that way, and serious discussions generally take caution to distance themselves from that perspective.

Evolutionary biology explains biotic changes in terms of internal processes and gradual development as a natural progression of previously existing lifeforms. Evolution neither denies nor requires a role for [[divine intervention]]. Before the 19th century there were a number of hypotheses regarding the evolution of all material phenomena: suns, moons, planets, earth, life, civilization, and society. The number of hypotheses being propounded increased dramatically in the middle of the 19th century.

In modern times, the term ''[[evolution]]'' is widely used, but the terms ''evolutionism'' and ''evolutionist'' are rarely used in scientific circles to refer to the biological discipline. The term evolution was popularised during the 19th century by [[Herbert Spencer]] to mean [[cultural evolution]]; i.e. the increasing [[complexity]] of cultures (see [[Cultural evolution#History of the theory of cultural evolution|History of the theory of cultural evolution]]) — it was only later that it acquired its [[evolution|biological meaning]]. Advocacy of such theory was called evolutionism.

Most scientists object to the terms ''evolutionism'' and ''evolutionist''{{Fact|date=October 2008}} because the -ism and -ist suffixes accentuate [[belief]] rather than scientific study. Conversely, [[creationists]] use those same two terms partly because the terms accentuate belief, and partly perhaps because they provide a way to package their opposition into one group, seemingly atheist and materialist, designations which are considered to be irrelevant to [[natural science]].

==See also==
* [[Darwinism]]
* [[Scientism]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Carneiro, Robert, ''Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History'' ISBN 0-8133-3766-6
* {{cite book |title=World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-cultural Perspective |edition=First Edition |last=Korotayev |first=Andrey | authorlink=Andrey Korotayev |publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |location=Lewiston, New York |year=2004 |isbn=0-7734-6310-0}} (on the applicability of this notion to the study of [[social evolution]]).
* Review of ''[[William Buckland|Buckland's]] [[Bridgewater Treatise]]'', ''The Times'' Tuesday, [[November 15]], [[1836]]; pg. 3; Issue 16261; col E. ("annihilates the doctrine of spontaneous and progressive evolution of life, and its impious corollary, chance")
* Review of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' ''The Times'' Friday, [[December 13]], [[1872]]; pg. 4; Issue 27559; col A. ("His [Darwin's] thorough-going 'evolutionism' tends to eliminate . . . .")
* Ruse, Michael. 2003. ''[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/299/5612/1523 Is Evolution a Secular Religion?]'' Science 299:1523-1524 (concluding that [[evolutionary biology]] is not a religion in any sense but noting that several evolutionary biologists, such as [[Edward O. Wilson]], in their roles as citizens concerned about getting the public to deal with reality, have made statements like "evolution is a [[Mythology|myth]] that is now ready to take over [[Christianity]]").

==External links==
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/ National Center for Science Education] - The [[National Center for Science Education]]
* [http://www.gate.net/~rwms/EvoEvidence.html Evidence for evolution]
* [http://www.evolutionpages.com/Writing.htm Evolution pages]

[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Evolution]]

[[cs:Evolucionismus]]
[[da:Evolutionisme]]
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[[ja:進化主義]]
[[pl:Ewolucjonizm]]
[[sr:Еволуционизам]]

Faith healing

2008-12-27T12:36:26Z

CarlThomas: removing some too-obvious bias

{{refimprove|date=December 2008}}
{{dablink|"Spiritual Healing" redirects here. For the album by the band [[Death (band)|Death]], see [[Spiritual Healing (album)]].}}

'''Faith healing''' is the attempt to use [[religious]] or [[spirituality|spiritual]] means such as [[prayer]], mental practices, spiritual insights, or other techniques to prevent illness, cure [[disease]], or improve health. Faith healers say they can summon divine or supernatural intervention on behalf of the ill. Faith healers say their practice may afford gradual relief from pain or sickness or bring about sudden "miracle cures." Faith healing may be used in place of, or in tandem with, conventional medical techniques for alleviating or curing diseases. It has been criticized on the grounds that those who use it may delay seeking conventional medical care. This is particularly problematic when parents use faith healing on children.

==Faith healing in various belief systems==
===Christianity===
The term "faith healing" is sometimes used in reference to the belief of some [[Christianity|Christians]] who hold that [[God]] heals people through the power of the [[Holy Spirit]], often involving the "[[laying on of hands]]".

In the four [[gospel]]s in the [[Christian Bible]], [[Jesus]] is said to cure physical ailments well outside the capacity of first century medicine, most explicitly in the case of "a woman who had had a discharge of blood for twelve years, and who had suffered much under many physicians, and had spent all that she had, and was not better but rather grew worse."<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=mark%205:26-27&version=47 BibleGateway.com - Passage Lookup: Mark 5:26-27]</ref>. Jesus endorsed the use of the medical assistance of the time (medicines of oil and wine) when he praised the fictitious Good Samaritan for acting as a physician, telling his disciples to go and do the same thing that the Samaritan did in the story.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://thefaithfulword.org/faithhealing.html | title=Faith Healing – God’s Compassion, God’s Power, and God’s Sovereignty: Is a Christian permitted to seek medical assistance and to use medicine?
|date=December 2003 | first=Craig | last=Booth | accessdate =2007-05-01}}</ref> The healing in the gospels is referred to as a sign<ref>[http://www.ibs.org/niv/passagesearch.php?passage_request=John%206:2&niv=yes John 6:2]</ref> to prove his divinity and to foster belief in himself as the Christ.<ref>[http://www.ibs.org/niv/passagesearch.php?passage_request=John%204:48&niv=yes John 4:48]</ref> However, when asked for other types of miracles, Jesus refused some<ref>[http://www.ibs.org/niv/passagesearch.php?passage_request=mat+12%3A38&niv=yes&submit=Lookup Mat 12:38]</ref> but granted others,<ref>Luke 9:38-43</ref> in consideration of the motive of the request, but He healed all present every single time, sometimes determining whether they had [[faith]] that he would heal them, but the sole contributing factor was His faith for them. Jesus commanded his followers to heal the sick, and said that signs such as healing were evidence of faith {{bibleverse||Mark|16:17-18}}; {{bibleverse||Matthew|10:8}}.

====Catholicism====

Faith healing is reported by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] as the result of [[intercessory prayer]] to a [[saint]] or to a person with the gift of healing.

Among the best-known accounts by Catholics of faith healings are those attributed to the miraculous intercession of the apparition of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] known as [[Our Lady of Lourdes]] at the [[grotto]] of [[Lourdes]] in [[France]], and the remissions of life-threatening disease claimed by those who have applied for aid to [[Saint Jude]], who is known as the "[[patron saint]] of lost causes".<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12549a.htm ''Faith healing'': The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XII. Published 1911. New York: Robert Appleton Company.]</ref><ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09389b.htm ''Lourdes'': The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XII. Published 1911. New York: Robert Appleton Company.]</ref>

The Catholic Church has given official recognition to 67 miracles and 7,000 otherwise-inexplicable medical cures since the Blessed Virgin Mary first appeared in Lourdes in February 1858. These cures are subjected to intense medical scrutiny and are only recognized as authentic spiritual cures after a commission of doctors and scientists, called the [[Lourdes Medical Bureau]], has ruled out any physical mechanism for the patient's recovery.<ref name="zenit">[http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/ZLURDCUR.HTM ''How Lourdes Cures are Recognized as Miraculous'' ZENIT International News Agency, 11 FEB. 2004. Retrieved [[December 14]], 2007.] </ref><ref name="bertrin">''Lourdes: A History of its Apparitions and Cures'' by Georges Bertrin (author) and Mrs. Philip Gibbs (English language translator), 1908. Reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, 2004 ISBN 1417981237 </ref>

====Christian Science====

[[Christian Science]] teaches that healing is possible through an understanding of the underlying, spiritual perfection of God's creation. The world as humanly perceived is believed to be a distortion of the underlying spiritual reality. Christian Scientists believe that healing through [[prayer]] is possible insofar as it succeeds in correcting the distortion. Christian Scientists are free to choose either prayer or medication in the treatment of health problems, but they usually avoid using the two methods at the same time, in the belief that they tend to counteract each other.

====Pentecostalism/Charismaticism====
At the turn of the 20th century, the new [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] movement drew participants from the [[Holiness movement]] and other movements in America that already believed in divine healing. There were many pastors and evangelists in the US, England, and other countries who believed in a God who healed the sick.

Most Pentecostal historians trace the beginnings of the modern movement to the [[Azusa Street Revival]] in Los Angeles. The revival was started through the ministry of an African American preacher named [[William J. Seymour]], who was inspired by [[Charles Fox Parham]]. During the Azusa Street meetings, according to witnesses who wrote about them, blind, crippled or other sick people would be healed. The prayer room upstairs was decorated with crutches from people whose prayers had been answered. People flocked from all over the US and around the world to Azusa Street amidst reports of speaking in tongues and other spiritual gifts.

Belief in divine healing was generally accepted by participants in the Azusa Street meetings. Some of the participants would eventually minister extensively in this area. For example, [[John G. Lake]] was present during the years of the Azusa Street revival. Lake had earned huge sums of money in the insurance business at the turn of the century but gave away his possessions with the exception of food for his children while he and his wife fasted on a trip to Africa to do missionary work. Certain people he'd never met before gave him money and keys to a place to stay which were required to enter South Africa at the dock. His writings tell of numerous healing miracles he and others performed as over 500 churches were planted in South Africa. Lake returned to the US and set up healing rooms in [[Spokane, Washington]].

During the 1920s and 1930s [[Aimee Semple McPherson]] was a controversial faith healer of growing popularity during the [[Great Depression]].

[[Smith Wigglesworth]] was also a well-known figure in the early part of the 20th century. A former English plumber turned evangelist, who lived simply and read nothing but the Bible from the time his wife taught him to read, Wigglesworth traveled around the world preaching about Jesus and performing faith healings. There are reports of Wigglesworth raising several people from the dead in Jesus' name in his meetings.

[[William Branham]] is usually credited as being the founder of the post World War II healing revivals.<ref>
''Dictionary of Christianity In America'' (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990) p. 182.</ref><ref>''Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1988) p. 372.</ref><ref>Anderson, A., ''An Introduction to Pentecostalism'' (Cambridge University Press, 2004) p 58.</ref><ref>Harrell, D.E., ''All Things Are Possible: The Healing and Charismatic Revivals in Modern America'' (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1978) p. 25.</ref><ref>Hollenweger, W. J., ''Pentecostalism: Origins and Developments Worldwide'', (Hendrickson Publications, 1997) p. 229.</ref><ref>Weaver, C.D., ''The Healer-Prophet: William Marrion Branham (A study of the Prophetic in American Pentecostalism)'' (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2000) p. 139.</ref> By the late 1940s [[Oral Roberts]] was well known, and he continued with faith healing until the 1980s. A friend of Roberts was [[Kathryn Kuhlman]], another popular faith healer who gained fame in the 1950s and had a television program on [[CBS]]. Also in this era, [[Jack Coe]] and [[A. A. Allen]] were faith healers with a large following, and they traveled with large tents that were used to hold mobile, open air crusades.

Oral Roberts's successful use of television as a medium to gain a wider audience led others to follow suit. For example, [[Pat Robertson]] and [[Peter Popoff]] became well-known [[televangelist]]s who claimed to heal the sick.<ref name="Randi">{{cite book| last = Randi | first = James | authorlink = James Randi | year = 1989 | title = [[The Faith Healers]] | publisher = Prometheus Books | isbn = 0-87975-535-0 page 10}}</ref> [[Richard Rossi]], known for advertising his healing clinics through [[secular]] television and radio, claimed he could demonstrate and prove God's power to unbelievers.

====Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints====
With claims of being the true and restored Church of Jesus Christ himself, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has had a long history of faith healings. Most healings come as a result priesthood blessings. Latter-day Saints believe that the Priesthood of God, originally held by Adam, Enoch, Moses and others was restored via heavenly messengers to church founder Joseph Smith<ref>http://en.fairmormon.org/Joseph_Smith_healings_and_miracles</ref>.

===Spiritualism===

[[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Spiritualism]] is a religion which holds as a tenet the belief that contact is possible between the living and the spirits of the dead. For this reason, death, as an outcome of disease, may not seem as frightening to Spiritualists as it does to those who practice other religions. According to the 20th century Spiritualist author [[Lloyd Kenyon Jones]], "This does not mean that sickness is unreal. It is real enough from the mortal viewpoint. The spirit feels the pain, senses the discomfiture of the flesh-body, even though the spirit is not ill."<ref name="Jones"> Jones, Lloyd, Kenyon. ''Healing Forces.''1919; reprinted by Lormar Press, Chicago, 1948.</ref>

[[Spiritualism]] does not promote "mental" cures of the type advocated by New Thought; however, help from the "spirit world" (including advice given by the spirits of deceased physicians) is sought, and may be seen as central to the healing process. As with practitioners of New Thought, Spiritualists may combine faith healing with conventional medical therapies. As Jones explained it, "We are not taught to put the burden on our minds. We do not 'will away' illness. But – we do not fear illness. [...] When we ask the spirit-world to relieve us of a bodily ill, we have gone as far as our own understanding and diligence permit. [...] We have faith, and confidence, and belief. [...] If medicine at times will assist, we take it – not as a habit, but as a little push over the hill. If we need medical attention, we secure it."<ref name="Jones" />

===Islam===

The basic Islamic belief includes accepting Allah(God) as the true master of all. This includes in healing and medicine. Islamic belief encourages followers to seek the appropriate medical attention and meanwhile believe that no medicine will work if God doesn't want it to work. So it means, in Islam you go to a doctor get the treatment and pray to God to cure you.

In the very first revealation to Muhammad, Allah talks about how man was created (Surah Alaq, Ayah number 2). This points towards the very necessity of muslims to learn Medicine. Some scholars goes to say that the age of science started from this revelation as it shed light how man was created in an era where modren medicine consisted of herbs.

There are many specific Quranic versus that Islamic scholars have found to help in many common conditions like head aches and fevers. And in case of serious illnesses scholars tend to write these versus and make the patient wear it on the body, this is also known as Taweez. Other than that Islam faith healing is non-existing. But its part of Islamic Faith to get cured and to learn how to cure. So if a muslim is ill and seeks medical attention he is doing a good deed for which he will be rewarded. But if a person doesn't seek Medical attention and is mutilating his body its unethical and Haram. And since it is a muslim belief that a human's body is not his own but it is the property of God, so he is destroying a thing from God and that makes him a sinner.

==Criticism==


===Inefficacy and alternative explanations===
While faith in the supernatural is not in itself usually considered to be the purview of science,<ref name='Gould_magisteria'> {{cite journal|title=Nonoverlapping Magisteria|journal=Natural History|date=1997-03|first=Stephen Jay|last=Gould|coauthors=|volume=106|issue=|pages=16–22|id= |url=http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_noma.html|format=|accessdate=2008-01-17 }}</ref><ref name='SI_science'>{{cite news | first=Bruce | last=Flamm | coauthors= | title=The Columbia University 'Miracle' Study: Flawed and Fraud | date=2004-09 | publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry | url =http://csicop.org/si/2004-09/miracle-study.html | work =Skeptical Inquirer | pages = | accessdate = 2008-01-17 | language = }} "The "faith" in faith healing refers to an irrational belief, unsupported by evidence, that mysterious supernatural powers can eradicate disease. Science deals with evidence, not faith." </ref> claims of reproducible effects are nevertheless subject to scientific investigation. A [[Cochrane Collaboration|Cochrane review]] of intercessory prayer<ref name='Cochrane_intercessory'> {{cite journal|title=Intercessory prayer for the alleviation of ill health|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=1997-10-20|first=L.|last=Roberts|coauthors=I. Ahmed, S. Hall|volume=4|issue=|pages=|doi= 10.1002/14651858.CD000368.pub2|url=|format=|accessdate= }}</ref> found [[statistical significance|essentially no effect]], and a recent study not included in the review found similar results for the effect of intercessory prayer on outcome for heart surgery.<ref name='HBenson'> {{cite journal|title=Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: a multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer|journal=American Heart Journal|date=2006-04|first=H.|last=Benson|coauthors=Dusek JA, Sherwood JB, Lam P, Bethea CF, Carpenter W, Levitsky S, Hill PC, Clem DW Jr, Jain MK, Drumel D, Kopecky SL, Mueller PS, Marek D, Rollins S, Hibberd PL|volume=151|issue=4|pages=934–942|pmid=16569567 |url=|format=|accessdate=|doi=10.1016/j.ahj.2005.05.028 }}</ref> The [[American Medical Association]] considers that prayer as therapy should not be a medically reimbursable or deductible expense.<ref name="autogenerated1"> {{cite web|url=http://www.ama-assn.org/apps/pf_new/pf_online?f_n=browse&doc=policyfiles/HnE/H-185.987.HTM |title=H-185.987 Prayer Fees Reimbursed As Medical Expenses |accessdate=2008-01-17 |publisher=American Medical Association }}</ref> Skeptics of faith healing offer primarily two explanations for anecdotes of cures or improvements, relieving any need to appeal to the supernatural.<ref name='USDMoores1'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Complementary and Alternative Therapies for Cancer Patients: Faith Healing | date= | publisher=Moores UCSD Cancer Center | url =http://cancer.ucsd.edu/Outreach/PublicEducation/CAMs/faith.asp | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-01-17 | language = }} "Benefits may result because of the natural progression of the illness, rarely but regularly occurring spontaneous remission or through the placebo effect. " </ref><ref name='skepdic'> {{cite web|url=http://skepdic.com/faithhealing.html |title=faith healing |accessdate=2008-01-16 |last=Carroll |first=Robert Todd |work=The Skeptic's Dictionary }}</ref> The first is ''[[post hoc ergo propter hoc]]'', meaning that a genuine improvement or [[spontaneous remission]] may have been experienced coincidental with but independent from anything the faith healer or patient did or said. These patients would have improved just as well even had they done nothing. The second is the [[placebo]] effect, through which a person may experience genuine pain relief and other symptomatic alleviation. In this case, the patient genuinely has been helped by the faith healer or faith-based remedy, not through any mysterious or numinous function, but by the power of their own belief that they would be healed.<ref name="Park">{{cite book | last = Park | first = Robert L. | authorlink = Robert L. Park | title = Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2000 | location = New York, New York | pages = 50–51 | isbn = 0-19-513515-6 }}</ref><ref name='USDMoores2'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Complementary and Alternative Therapies for Cancer Patients: Faith Healing | date= | publisher=Moores UCSD Cancer Center | url =http://cancer.ucsd.edu/Outreach/PublicEducation/CAMs/faith.asp | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-01-17 | language = }} "Patients who seek the assistance of a faith healer must believe strongly in the healer’s divine gifts and ability to focus them on the ill." </ref> In both cases the patient may experience a real reduction in symptoms, though in neither case has anything miraculous or inexplicable occurred. Both cases, however, are strictly limited to the body's natural abilities.

There are also some cases of fraud (faking the condition) or ineffective healing (believing the condition has been healed immediately after the "healing", and later finding out it has not). These are discussed in following sections.

===Negative impact on public health===
Reliance on faith healing to the exclusion of other forms of treatment can have a public health impact when it reduces or eliminates access to modern medical techniques.<ref name='SRAM_Flamm'> {{cite journal|title=Inherent Dangers of Faith Healing Studies|journal=Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine|date=Fall/Winter 2004-2005|first=Bruce L.|last=Flamm|coauthors=|volume=8|issue=2|pages=|id= |url=http://www.sram.org/0802/faith-healing.html|format=|accessdate=2008-01-17 }} "Faith healing can cause patients to shun effective medical care." </ref><ref name='SI_harm'>{{cite news | first=Bruce | last=Flamm | coauthors= | title=The Columbia University 'Miracle' Study: Flawed and Fraud | date=2004-09 | publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry | url =http://csicop.org/si/2004-09/miracle-study.html | work =Skeptical Inquirer | pages = | accessdate = 2008-01-17 | language = }} "It is often claimed that faith healing may not work but at least does no harm. In fact, reliance on faith healing can cause serious harm and even death." </ref><ref name="Randi_268">{{cite book| last = Randi | first = James | authorlink = James Randi | year = 1989 | title = [[The Faith Healers]] | publisher = Prometheus Books | isbn = 0-87975-535-0 page 141}} "Faith-healers take from their subjects any hope of managing on their own. And they may very well take them away from legitimate treatments that could really help them." </ref> This is evident in both higher mortality rates for children<ref name='Pediatrics child mortality'>{{cite journal|title=Child Fatalities From Religion-motivated Medical Neglect|journal=Pediatrics|date=1998-04|first=Seth M.|last=Asser|coauthors=Rita Swan|volume=101|issue=4|pages=625–629|pmid=9521945 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/4/625|format=|accessdate=2007-11-19|doi=10.1542/peds.101.4.625 }}</ref> and in reduced life expectancy for adults.<ref name='JAMA longevity'> {{cite journal|title=Comparative longevity in a college cohort of Christian Scientists|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|date=1989-09-22|first=W. F.|last=Simpson|coauthors=|volume=262|issue=12|pages=1657–1658|pmid=2769921 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/262/12/1657|format=|accessdate=2007-11-19|doi=10.1001/jama.262.12.1657 }}</ref> Critics have also made note of serious injury that has resulted from falsely labelled "healings", where patients erroneously consider themselves cured and cease or withdraw from treatment.<ref name="quackwatch" /><ref name="Randi_298">{{cite book| last = Randi | first = James | authorlink = James Randi | year = 1989 | title = [[The Faith Healers]] | publisher = Prometheus Books | isbn = 0-87975-535-0 page 141}} "These [discarded medications] are substances without which those people might well die." </ref> It is the stated position of the AMA that "prayer as therapy should not delay access to traditional medical care."<ref name="autogenerated1" />

===Christian theological criticism of faith healing===
Christian theological criticism of faith healing broadly falls into two distinct levels of disagreement.

The first is widely termed the "open-but-cautious" view of the miraculous in the church today. This term is deliberately used by [[Robert L. Saucy]] in the book Are Miraculous Gifts for Today?,<ref name="grudem et al">''Are Miraculous Gifts for Today?'' ed. [[Wayne Grudem]], 1996. ISBN 0310201551</ref> [[Don Carson]] is another example of a Christian teacher who has put forward what has been described as an "open-but-cautious" view<ref>[http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/bio/dacarson.html D.A. Carson]</ref>. In dealing with the claims of [[Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield|Warfield]], particularly "Warfield's insistence that miracles ceased."<ref name="carson">{{cite book | last = Carson | first = Don | authorlink = Don Carson | title = Showing the Spirit: A Theological Exposition of 1 Corinthians 12-14 | publisher = Baker Book House | year = 1987 | location = Grand Rapids, Michigan 49516 | pages = 156 | isbn = 0-8010-2521-4}}</ref> Carson asserts "But this argument stands up only if such miraculous gifts are theologically tied exclusively to a role of attestation; and that is demonstrably not so."<ref name="carson" /> However, while affirming that he does not expect healing to happen today, Carson is critical of aspects of the faith healing movement, "Another issue is that of immense abuses in healing practises.... The most common form of abuse is the view that since all illness is directly or indirectly attributable to the devil and his works, and since Christ by his cross has defeated the devil, and by his Spirit has given us the power to overcome him, healing is the inheritance right of all true Christians who call upon the Lord with genuine faith."<ref name="carson">{{cite book | last = Carson | first = Don | authorlink = Don Carson | title = Showing the Spirit: A Theological Exposition of 1 Corinthians 12-14 | publisher = Baker Book House | year = 1987 | location = Grand Rapids, Michigan 49516 | pages = 174–175 | isbn = 0-8010-2521-4}}</ref>

The second level of theological disagreement with Christian faith healing goes further. Commonly referred to as [[cessationism]], its adherents either claim that faith healing will not happen today at all, or may happen today, but it would be unusual. [[Richard Gaffin]] argues for a form of cessationism in an essay alongside Saucy's in the book Are Miraculous Gifts for Today? In his book Perspectives on Pentecost<ref name="gaffin">''Perspectives on Pentecost: New Testament Teaching on the Gifts of the Holy Spirit'' by [[Richard Gaffin]], 1979. ISBN 0-87552-269-6</ref> Gaffin states of healing and related gifts that "the conclusion to be drawn is that as listed in 1 Corinthians 12(vv. 9f., 29f.) and encountered throughout the narrative in Acts, these gifts, particularly when exercised regularly by a given individual, are part of the foundational structure of the church... and so have passed out of the life of the church."<ref name="gaffin">{{cite book | last = Gaffin | first = Richard | authorlink = Richard Gaffin | title = Perspectives on Pentecost: New Testament Teaching on the Gifts of the Holy Spirit | publisher = Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company | year = 1979 | location = Phillipsburg, New Jersey | pages = 113–114 | isbn = 0-87552-269-6}}</ref> Gaffin qualifies this, however, by saying "At the same time, however, the sovereign will and power of God today to heal the sick, particularly in response to prayer (see e.g. James 5:14,15), ought to be acknowledged and insisted on."<ref name="gaffin">{{cite book | last = Gaffin | first = Richard | authorlink = Richard Gaffin | title = Perspectives on Pentecost: New Testament Teaching on the Gifts of the Holy Spirit | publisher = Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company | year = 1979 | location = Phillipsburg, New Jersey | pages = 114 | isbn = 0-87552-269-6}}</ref>

===Fraud and faith healing===
Skeptics of faith healers point to fraudulent practices either in the healings themselves (such as plants in the audience with fake illnesses), or concurrent with the healing work supposedly taking place and claim that faith healing is a [[quackery|quack]] practice in which the "healers" use well known non-supernatural illusions to exploit credulous people in order to obtain their gratitude, confidence and money.<ref name="Randi" /> One book, [[The Faith Healers]], investigated Christian evangelists such as [[Peter Popoff]], who claimed to heal sick people and to give personal details about their lives, but was receiving radio transmissions from his wife, Elizabeth, who was off-stage reading information which she and her aides had gathered from earlier conversations with members of the audience.<ref name="Randi" /> The book also questioned how faith healers use funds that were sent to them for specific purposes.<ref name="Randi_299">{{cite book| last = Randi | first = James | authorlink = James Randi | year = 1989 | title = [[The Faith Healers]] | publisher = Prometheus Books | isbn = 0-87975-535-0 page 141}} "[Some] faith-healers have been less than careful in their use of funds sent to them for specific purposes." </ref> Physicist [[Robert L. Park]]<ref name="Park"/> and doctor and consumer advocate [[Stephen Barrett]]<ref name='quackwatch'> {{cite web|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/faith.html |title=Some Thoughts About Faith Healing |accessdate=2008-01-17 |last=Barrett |first=Stephen |date=2003-03-03 |publisher=Quackwatch }}</ref> have called into question the ethicality of some exorbitant fees.

===Related deaths===
{{seealso|Followers of Christ (Oregon church)|Fernando Suarez|Christian Science}}

Faith healing and religious groups that do not believe in modern medicine have been criticized for the adverse health consequences when believers delay seeking, or never receive, necessary medical care.

==See also==
*[[Shamanism]]
*[[Sangoma]]
*[[Nganga]]
*[[T.B. Joshua]]
*[[Pseudoscience]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
* Dr. Matthias Kamp, M.D.: ''Bruno Groening - A Revolution in Medicine. A medical documentation on spiritual healing.'' Grete Haeusler Publishing, 1998, ([http://www.bruno-groening.org/english/mwf/buchauszug/defaultb-auszug.htm Chapters 1 - 4])
* Louis C. Henderson: ''The Gift of Healing is Yours.'' Glenmore Press, 1956.
* ''The Doctor in the Face of Miracles'' (''Il medico di fronte ai miracoli'') is a book written by the Italian Doctors Association that documents the miraculous cures associated with Our Lady of Lourdes.
*[[James Randi]], ''[[The Faith Healers]]'' (Containing exposes of Christian Evangelical faith healers [[Peter Popoff]], [[Pat Robertson]], and [[Oral Roberts]].)
*''Lourdes: A History of its Apparitions and Cures'' is a 1908 book by Georges Bertrin (author) and Mrs. Philip Gibbs (English language translator) that documents early Lourdes cures, including some made after 1905, when Pope Pius X asked that all cases of alleged miracles or cures recorded in Lourdes be scientifically analyzed.

[[Category:Faith healers| ]]
[[Category:Supernatural healing]]
[[Category:New Thought movement]]
[[Category:Spiritualism]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]

[[da:Healing]]
[[de:Geistheilung]]
[[es:Curación a través de la fe]]
[[nl:Gebedsgenezing]]
[[ja:スピリチュアルヒーリング]]
[[pt:Cura pela fé]]
[[fi:Henkiparannus]]
[[sv:Healing]]
[[tr:Spiritual Healing]]

Faith Freedom International

2008-12-27T12:36:16Z

CarlThomas: removing some too-obvious bias

{{Infobox Website
| name = Faith Freedom International
| logo = [[Image:FFI-logo.png|270px]]
| screenshot = [[Image:FFI-2.png|250px]]
| caption = Logo and Screenshot of FFI
| url = http://www.faithfreedom.org
| commercial = No
| type = Religious/Political
| language = [[English language|English]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| registration = [[eNom]], Inc. (R39-LROR)
| owner = Ali Sina
| author = Ali Sina
| launch date = [[October 26]], [[2001]]
| current status =
| revenue = Donations}}

'''Faith Freedom International''' (FFI) is an [[Internet website]] that is [[Criticism of Islam|critical of Islam]].<ref name="WND"/><ref name="FPM">{{Cite web|url=http://www.frontpagemag.com/articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=16440|title=Symposium: Gender Apartheid and Islam|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 18|publisher=[[FrontPageMagazine.com]]|year=31 Dec 2004|author=Jamie Glazov|language=English}}</ref> FFI identifies itself as "a grassroots worldwide movement of ex-Muslims and all those who are concerned about the rise of the Islamic threat". According to the website, FFI was founded by an [[Iran]]ian [[ex-Muslim]] residing in [[Canada]], going by the [[pseudonym]] of "Ali Sina." On the website, Ali Sina has issued a standing challenge that he will remove the FFI website if proven wrong on a number of issues. Faith Freedom International is listed by [[Richard Dawkins]] in his book, ''[[The God Delusion]]'', as one of the few Islamic related "...friendly address[es], for individuals needing support in escaping from religion".<ref name="GD">{{cite book | title=The God Delusion| last=Dawkins| first=Richard| authorlink=Richard Dawkins| date=2006| publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co.| location=Boston| isbn=0-618-68000-4| page=379}}</ref> FFI's mission statement is included in [[Ibn Warraq]]'s book [[Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out]].<ref name="Leaving Islam">{{cite book | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out| last=Ibn Warraq| authorlink=Ibn Warraq| date=2003| pages=433–436| publisher=Prometheus Books| location=Amherst, NY| isbn=1-59102-068-9}}</ref>

Faith Freedom International hosts the [[Mediawiki]]-based site WikiIslam.

==Website access in Muslim countries==
According to a 2002 study by professor Jonathan Zittrain and Benjamin Edelman of [[Harvard University]], [[Saudi Arabia]] had banned the <ref>[http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/filtering/saudiarabia/SA-F.html Faith Freedom</ref> Website. [[Khalid Zaheer]], a former student of [[Ghamidi]], had earlier reported that he was unable to access faithfreedom.org in [[Pakistan]].<ref name=Ghamidi>http://www.faithfreedom.org/debates/Ghamidip6.htm</ref> The website operates well in one of the most populous Muslim countries, [[Indonesia]], and also Pakistan.<ref name="Ghamidi" />
The Public Interest Registry service used by all .org domains,<ref>[http://www.pir.org/AboutPIR/AboutPIR.aspx]</ref><ref>[http://www.whois.net/whois_new.cgi?d=faithfreedom&tld=org Whois.Net]</ref> and Alexa.com<ref>[http://www.alexa.com/data/details/main?q=faithfreedom.org&url=faithfreedom.org faithfreedom.org - Site Information from Alexa]</ref> state that FFI website is Bellevue, Washington, USA..

==The website's challenge==
The challenge of the Faith Freedom International website is that Ali Sina, the founder of the website, says he will remove the website if all his allegations against Muhammad are proven wrong.<ref name="WND">{{Cite web|url=http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=40473|title=Ex-Muslim's site trashes Muhammad - Founder challenges: Prove me wrong and I'll take down page|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 18|publisher=[[WorldNetDaily]]|year=16 Sept 2004|work=TESTING THE FAITH|language=English}}</ref> Sina promises a prize of $50,000 to "...anyone who can disprove my charges and prove Islam is a true religion in an objective (not subjective) way." He invites any refutation of the charges to be posted to his forum,<ref>[http://www.faithfreedom.org/forum.htm Ali Sina's Forum]</ref> and he claims to publish the resulting debates to allow for his readership to judge the success or failure of the challenge.<ref>[http://www.faithfreedom.org/debates.htm Ali Sina's debates]</ref>

==Traffic rankings==
The Traffic ranking for Faith Freedom International has fluctuated since its inception in June 2001.<ref name=alexarating>[http://www.alexa.com/data/details/traffic_details?url=www.faithfreedom.org Alexa.com: Ratings for FaithFreedom.org]</ref> According to the online source [[Alexa Internet|Alexa]], which reports traffic from Alexa toolbar users, in early 2003 faithfreedom.org was in the top ten thousand sites on the [[Internet]]. Currently it is in the top fifty thousand.<ref name=alexarating /> It saw a significant spike in site traffic during February 2006. This occurred at the onset of the [[cartoon riots]] stemming from the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy]], but has since returned to average levels. The site has had significant highs and lows. During the end of September 2006 the site went below the top 100,000 and then spiked up and reached 20,000 by the beginning of October. During the same month it went back down to 60,000. It has fluctuated between 20,000 and 80,000 till February 2007, and has fallen down below 100,000 again.<ref name=alexarating />
According to [[Ranking.com]], Faith Freedom International is in between the top 30,000 and 40,000 websites.<ref>[http://scripts.ranking.com/data/report_domain.aspx Faith Freedom at ranking.com]</ref> According to [[Site Meter]], Faith Freedom International has had over 25 million views since its creation, receives approximately 10,000 visitors every day and about 1 million page views every month.<ref name="Site Meter">{{cite web | title = Faith Freedom International | work =Site Summary | publisher =[[Site Meter]] | date =2005-07-14 | url =http://www.sitemeter.com/?a=stats&s=sm7freefree }}</ref>

==WikiIslam==
[[Image:Wikiislam logo.png|right|thumb|upright|WikiIslam: a wiki hosted by Faith Freedom International.]]

In September 2006, Faith Freedom International launched<ref>On Monday Sept 4, 2006, [http://www.wikiislam.com/wiki/WikiIslam:About#History (WikiIslam) was opened to the public.]</ref> WikiIslam, a community-edited [[wiki]] collecting negative and critical material about Islam.<ref name="CIWI">[http://www.springerlink.com/content/p02g0g86387j4t62/ ''Cyber-Islamophobia? The case of WikiIslam''], Journal: ''Contemporary Islam'', publisher ''Springer Netherlands'', ISSN 1872-0218 (Print) 1872-0226</ref> According to the FAQ section on the website, "the main difference between WikiIslam and Wikipedia is that opinions critical of Islam are not censored on WikiIslam for political correctness."<ref name="CIWI"/> Due to the controversial nature of the website, it has been subject to vandalism, due to which increased security measures have been employed.<ref name="CIWI"/> Although the site claims that anyone can edit content, editing privileges require an account that is only given with special permission.

WikiIslam is the subject of an article in the 7/2007 issue of the journal ''Contemporary Islam'', entitled "Cyber-Islamophobia? The case of WikiIslam",<ref name="CIWI"/> which argues that the website commits selection bias by collecting only negative or critical material.<ref name="CIWI"/><ref>"Compared to “Muslim homepages,” i.e. those set up by believing Muslims, WikiIslam contains only negative and critical examples. This bias is clearly represented in the section called “laughing with the prophet”, which presents stories and reports from the life of prophet Muhammad (i.e. hadith reports)." ibid.</ref> The article states that "In relation to the criteria set up by the [[Runnymede Trust]] ... it should be quite easy to label most of the material published on WikiIslam as expressions of [[Islamophobia]]." [[Göran Larsson (theologian)|Göran Larsson]] adds that "[m]y impression is that the stories reported by WikiIslam have merely been selected to show that Muslims are ignorant, backward or even stupid."<ref>Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All, p. 5, Runnymede Trust (1997).</ref><ref name="CIWI"/> Because of the presence of material obtained from other websites, such as [[MEMRI]], the article notes that "it becomes much more difficult to argue that all information posted on WikiIslam is Islamophobic by nature."<ref name="CIWI"/>

==Views of Ali Sina==
According to the columnist [[Spengler (columnist)|Spengler]] in the [[Asia Times]], Ali Sina believes that Islam is not a religion but a political movement.<ref> [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/FH10Aa01.html Asia Times: Islam: Religion or political ideology? August 10, 2004]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Criticism of Islam]]
*[[Apostasy in Islam]]
*[[List of former Muslims]]
*[[Internet censorship in Pakistan]]

==References==
{{Primarysources|article|date=April 2007}}
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.news.faithfreedom.org/index.php Faith Freedom New stuff] -Official Home page
* [http://www.faithfreedom.org/ Faith Freedom International] - Archived home page
* [http://www.wikiislam.com/wiki/Main_Page WikiIslam] home page
* [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1213794275742&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull Muslim Mindset: 'The hatred is in Muhammad himself'] - [[Jerusalem post]] Interviews Ali Sina.
*[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/FH10Aa01.html Islam: Religion or political ideology?] - [[Asia Times]]

[[Category:Criticism of religion|Faith Freedom International]]

[[ca:Ali Sina]]
[[id:Faith Freedom International]]

Faith

2008-12-27T12:36:06Z

CarlThomas: removing some too-obvious bias

{{otheruses}}

'''Faith''' is a [[belief]] in the trustworthiness of an [[idea]] or person. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of [[religion]], as in [[theology]], where it almost universally refers to a trusting belief in a [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent reality]], or else in a [[Supreme Being]] and said being's role in the order of transcendent, spiritual things.

Informal usage of the word "faith" can be quite broad, and may be used standardly in place of "[[Trust (social sciences)|trust]]", "belief", or "[[hope]]".
For example, the word "faith" can refer to a religion itself or to religion in general. (For informal uses of the word "faith", see [[Faith (word)]]).
As with "trust", faith involves a concept of future events or outcomes.


[[Image:La Fe (L.S. Carmona, MRABASF E-108) 01.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Allegory]] of '''faith''', by [[Luis Salvador Carmona|L.S. Carmona]] (1752–53). Veil symbolizes the impossibility to know directly the evidences.]]

== Epistemological validity of faith ==
There exists a wide spectrum of opinion with respect to the [[epistemology|epistemological]] validity of faith. On one extreme is [[logical positivism]], which denies the validity of any beliefs held by faith; on the other extreme is [[fideism]], which holds that true belief can only arise from faith, because reason and evidence cannot lead to truth. Some [[Foundationalism|foundationalists]], such as [[St. Augustine of Hippo]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]], hold that all of our beliefs rest ultimately on beliefs accepted by faith. Others, such as [[C. S. Lewis]], hold that faith is merely the virtue by which we hold to our reasoned ideas, despite moods to the contrary.<ref name="isbn0-06-065292-6">{{cite book |author=[[C. S. Lewis|Lewis, C. S.]] |title=[[Mere Christianity]]: a revised and amplified edition, with a new introduction, of the three books, Broadcast talks, Christian behaviour, and Beyond personality |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |location=[[San Francisco]] |year=2001 |pages= |isbn=0-06-065292-6 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>

=== Fideism and Pistisism===
{{SectOR|date=November 2008}}
Fideism is not a synonym for “religious belief”, but describes a particular philosophical proposition in regard to the relationship between faith's appropriate jurisdiction at arriving at truths, contrasted against reasons. It states that faith is needed to determine some philosophical and religious truths, and it questions the ability of reason to arrive at all truth. The word and concept had its origin in the mid to late nineteenth century by way of [[Roman Catholic]] thought, in a movement called traditionalism. The Roman Catholic [[Magisterium]] has repeatedly condemned fideism though.<ref>http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fideism/</ref>

The word is also occasionally used to refer to the Protestant belief that Christians are saved by faith alone: for which see [[sola fide]]. This position is sometimes called solifidianism and sol Pistisism.

Many noted philosophers and [[theologians]] have espoused the idea that ''faith'' is the basis of [[knowledge]]. One example is [[St. Augustine of Hippo]]. Known as one of his contributions to philosophy, the idea of "faith seeking understanding" was set forth by St. Augustine in his statement "''Crede, ut intelligas''" ("Believe in order that you may understand").

One illustration of this concept is in the development of knowledge in children. A child typically holds parental teaching as credible, in spite of the child's lack of sufficient research to establish such credibility [[empirical]]ly. That parental teaching, however fallible, becomes a foundation upon which future knowledge is built.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The child’s faith in his/her parents teaching is based on a belief in their credibility. Unless/until the child’s belief in their parents’ credibility is superseded by a stronger belief, the parental teaching will serve as a filter through which other teaching must be processed and/or evaluated. Following this line of reasoning, and assuming that children have finite or limited empirical knowledge at birth, it follows that faith is the fundamental basis of all knowledge one has. Even adults attribute the basis for some of their knowledge to so called "[[authorities]]" in a given field of study. This is true because one simply does not have the time or resources to evaluate all of his/her knowledge empirically and exhaustively. "Faith" is used instead.

However, a child's parents are not infallible. Some of what the child learns from them will be wrong, and some will be rejected. It is rational (albeit at a perhaps instinctive level) for the child to trust the parents in the absence of other sources of information, but it is also irrational to cling rigidly to everything one was originally taught in the face of countervailing evidence. Parental instruction may be the ''historical'' foundation of future knowledge, but that does not necessarily make it a ''structural'' foundation.

It is sometimes argued that even scientific knowledge is dependent on 'faith' - for example, faith that the researcher responsible for an empirical conclusion is competent, and honest. Indeed, distinguished chemist and philosopher [[Michael Polanyi]] argued that scientific discovery begins with a scientist's faith that an unknown discovery is possible. Scientific discovery thus requires a passionate commitment to a result that is unknowable at the outset. Polanyi argued that the scientific method is not an objective method removed from man's passion. On the contrary, scientific progress depends primarily on the unique capability of free man to notice and investigate patterns and connections, and on the individual scientist's willingness to commit time and resources to such investigation, which usually must begin before the truth is known or the benefits of the discovery are imagined, let alone understood fully. It could then be argued that until one possesses all knowledge in totality, one will need faith in order to believe an understanding to be correct or incorrect in total affirmation.

Again, scientific faith is not dogmatic. While the scientist must make presuppositions in order to get the enterprise under way, almost everything (according to some thinkers, such as [[Willard Van Orman Quine|Quine]], ''literally'' everything) is revisable and discardable.

==Faith in world religions==
===Judaism===
{{main|Jewish principles of faith}}
Although [[Judaism]] does recognize the positive value of ''Emunah'' (faith/belief) and the negative status of the ''Apikorus'' (heretic) the specific tenets that compose required belief and their application to the times have been heatedly disputed throughout Jewish history. Many, but not all, [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]] have accepted [http://studentorgs.utexas.edu/cjso/Chabad/moshiach/techiya-masim.html [[Maimonides]]' Thirteen Principles of Belief].

A traditional example of faith as seen in the Jewish annals is found in the person of [[Abraham]]. On a number of occasions, Abraham both accepts statements from God that seem impossible and offers obedient actions in response to direction from God to do things that seem implausible (see [[Genesis]] 12-15).

For a wide history of this dispute, see: Shapira, Marc: The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization (Series).)

===Christianity===
{{main|Faith in Christianity}}

Faith in Christianity is directed toward an object, or more particularly a person, [[Jesus Christ]]. In this way Christianity claims not to be distinguished by its faith, but by the object of its faith. Faith is essentially an act of trust or reliance on God. Rather than being passive, this leads to an active life of [[Obedience (human behavior)|obedience]] to the one being trusted. Faith causes questions and seeks answers from God and transforms, it sees the mystery of [[God]] and his [[Divine grace|grace]] and seeks to know and become obedient to God. Faith is not static but causes one to learn more of God and grow, faith causes change as it seeks a greater understanding of God. Faith is not fideism, or simple obedience to a set of rules or statements. <ref>Migliore, Daniel L. 2004. ''Faith seeking understanding: an introduction to Christian theology''. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans. pp 3-8.</ref> Before the Christian has faith, they must understand who and what they are having faith in. Without understanding, there cannot be true faith. Understanding is built on the foundation of the community of believers: the understanding of the scriptures and traditions of the community of believers and on personal experiences of the [[Belief|believer]].<ref>Inbody, Tyron. 2005. The faith of the Christian church: an introduction to theology. Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans Pub. pp 1-10.</ref>

===Islam===
{{main|Iman (concept)}}
Faith in [[Islam]] is called [[Iman (Islamic concept of faith)|Iman]]. It is a complete submission to the will of Allah which includes belief, profession, and the body's performance of deeds consistent with the commission as vicegerent on Earth, all according to Allah's will.

Iman has two aspects
*Recognizing and affirming that there is one [[Creator deity|Creator]] of the universe and only to this Creator is worship due. According to Islamic thought, this comes naturally because faith is an instinct of the human soul. This instinct is then trained via parents or guardians into specific religious or spiritual paths. Likewise, the instinct may not be guided at all.

*Willingness and commitment to submitting that Allah exists, and to His prescriptions for living in accordance with vicegerency. The Qur'an (Koran) is the dictation of Allah's prescriptions through Prophet Muhammad and is believed to have updated and completed previous revelations Allah sent through earlier prophets.

In the [[Qur'an]], God ([[Allah]] in Arabic), states (2:62): Surely, those who believe, those who are [[Jewish]], the [[Christians]], and the converts; anyone who (1) believes in GOD, and (2) believes in the Last Day, and (3) leads a righteous life, will receive their recompense from their Lord. They have nothing to fear, nor will they grieve.<ref>[http://www.submission.org/ Islam (Submission). Your best source for Islam on the Internet. Happiness is submission to God.-Islam-Submission-Introduction,definition, discussion, debate, laws, justice, hum...]</ref>

===Hinduism===
In Hinduism, Śraddhā is the word that is synonymous with faith. It means unshaken belief and purity of thought. Faith is recognized as a virtue throughout all schools of Hinduism, although there is a variety of interpretations of the role of faith in one's daily life, its foundation, and what rests upon it. Some schools more strongly emphasize reason and direct personal knowledge, while other schools of thought more strongly emphasize religious devotion. In chapter 17 of the [[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Krishna]] mentions the three [[guna]]s of faith: Faith rooted in [[sattva]], faith rooted in [[rajas]], and faith rooted in [[tamas]]. Those with sattvic faith are said to worship the [[deva]]s, those with rajasic faith are said to worship demons, and those with tamasic faith are said to worship ghosts and spirits.

===Buddhism===
{{Main|Faith in Buddhism}}

Faith (Pali: Saddhā, Sanskrit: Śraddhā) is an important constituent element of the teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] - both in the [[Theravada]] tradition as in the [[Mahayana]]. Faith in Buddhism derives from the [[pali]] word ''saddhā'', which often refers to a sense of conviction. The saddhā is often described as:

* A conviction that something is
* A determination to accomplish one's goals
* A sense of joy deriving from the other two

While faith in Buddhism does not imply "blind faith", Buddhist faith (as advocated by the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in various scriptures, or ''sutras'') nevertheless requires a ''degree'' of faith and belief primarily in the spiritual attainment of the Buddha. Faith in [[Buddhism]] centers on the understanding that the Buddha is an Awakened being, on his superior role as teacher, in the truth of his [[Dharma]] (spiritual Doctrine), and in his [[Sangha]] (community of spiritually developed followers). Faith in Buddhism is better classified or defined as a Confidence in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, and is intended to lead to the goal of Awakening ([[bodhi]]) and [[Nirvana]]. Volitionally, faith implies a resolute and steadfast pursuit of Truth. It combines the steadfast resolution that one will do a thing with the self-confidence that one can do it.

As a counter to any form of "blind faith", the Buddha taught the [[Kalama Sutra]], exhorting his disciples to investigate any teaching and to live by what is learnt and accepted, rather than believing something outright.

===Bahá'í Faith===
In the [[Bahá'í Faith]] faith is ultimately the acceptance of the divine authority of the [[Manifestations of God]]. In the religion's view, faith and knowledge are both required for spiritual growth. Faith involves more than outward obedience to this authority, but also must be based on a deep personal understanding of religious teachings.<ref>{{cite book |last = Smith |first = P. |year = 1999 |title = A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher = Oneworld Publications |location = Oxford, UK |pages = 155 |isbn = 1851681841 }}</ref>

<blockquote>
By faith is meant, first, conscious knowledge, and second, the practice of good deeds.<ref>Baha'i World Faith - Abdu'l-Baha Section, p. 383</ref>
</blockquote>

: See the ''[[Role of faith in the Baha'i Faith]]''

== Criticisms of faith ==
{{SectOR|date=November 2008}}
{{Cleanup-section|date=November 2008}}
A certain number of religious [[rationalism|rationalist]]s, as well as non-religious people, criticize implicit faith as being irrational, and see faith as ignorance of reality: a strong belief in something with no evidence. [[Bertrand Russell]] used to note that no one speaks of faith in the existence of such entities as gravity or electricity; rather, resorts to arguing faith occur only when evidence or logic fails. The issue is more than theoretical.<ref>[[Dennis Rawlins|D. Rawlins]], [http://www.dioi.org/rel.htm#fjri Atheism]</ref> People can agree on the reality of that which is evidential or reasonable, but what is based on faith is not usually communicable except by common inculcation, which makes faith a divider and thus a phenomenon commonly correlated to intolerance and warfare. In the rationalist view, belief should be restricted to what is directly supportable by logic or [[scientific method|scientific evidence]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Sam|last=Harris|title=The End of Faith: Religion, Terror and the Future of Reason|publisher=The Free Press|date=2006|isbn=978-0-7432-6809-7}} </ref>

Defenders of faith say that belief in scientific evidence is itself based on faith — in [[positivism]]; yet they do not themselves defy reason by walking off cliffs out of faith in divine intervention. Others claim that faith is perfectly compatible with and does not necessarily [[contradiction|contradict]] [[reason]], "faith" meaning an assumed belief. Many [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Christianity|Christians]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] claim that there is adequate [[Evidence|historical evidence]] of their God's [[existence]] and [[interaction]] with human beings. As such, they may believe that there is no need for "faith" in God in the sense of belief against or despite evidence; rather, they hold that evidence is sufficient to demonstrate that their God probably exists or certainly exists.

Some religious believers – and many of their critics – often use the term "faith" as the [[affirmation]] of belief without an ongoing [[Experiment|test]] of evidence. In this sense ''faith'' refers to ''belief beyond evidence or [[logical argument]]s'', sometimes called "implicit faith". Another form of this kind of faith is [[fideism]]: one ought to believe that God exists, but one should not base that belief on any other beliefs; one should, instead, accept it without any [[reason]]s at all. "Faith" in this sense, belief for the sake of believing, is often associated with [[Søren Kierkegaard]]'s ''[[Fear and Trembling]]'' and some other [[existentialism|existentialist]] religious thinkers.

Faith as [[Religious]] [[belief]], has been advanced as being desirable, for example for emotional reasons or to regulate society, and this can be seen as ‘positive’ when it has 'benign’ effects. However, [[rationalist]]s may become alarmed that faithful [[activist]]s, perhaps with extreme beliefs, might not be amenable to argument or to negotiation over their behavior

[[Robert Todd Carroll]], an advocate of atheism, argues that the word "faith" is usually used to refer to belief in a proposition that is not supported by a perceived majority of evidence. Since many beliefs are in propositions that are supported by a perceived majority of evidence, the claim that all beliefs/knowledge are based on faith is a misconception "or perhaps it is an intentional attempt at disinformation and obscurantism" made by religious apologists:
<blockquote>
"There seems to be something profoundly deceptive and misleading about lumping together as acts of faith such things as belief in the Virgin birth and belief in the existence of an external world or in the principle of contradiction. Such a view trivializes religious faith by putting all non-empirical claims in the same category as religious faith. In fact, religious faith should be put in the same category as belief in superstitions, fairy tales, and delusions of all varieties."<ref> Carroll, Robert T. faith (religious). skepdic.com. 2006. http://www.skepdic.com/faith.html (accessed February 20, 2007).</ref>
</blockquote>
Michael Green includes the idea that faith is belief not based on evidence as one of the myths about Christianity. Faith is to commit oneself to act based on sufficient experience to warrant belief, but without absolute proof. To have faith involves an act of will. For example, many people saw [[Blondin]] walk across the gorge below [[Niagara Falls]] on a tightrope, and believed (on the basis of the evidence of their own eyes) that he was capable of carrying a man on his back safely across. But only his manager Harry Colcord had enough faith to allow himself to be carried.<ref>{{Cite book | author=Green, Michael; Carkner, Gordon | authorlink= | coauthors= | title=Ten Myths About Christianity | date= | publisher=OM Publishing | location= | isbn=1-85078-097-8 | pages=}}</ref>

Atheist [[Richard Dawkins]] contends that faith is merely belief without evidence. A practice which only degrades our understanding of the natural world by allowing anyone to make a claim about reality that is based solely off of their personal thoughts, and possibly distorted perceptions, that does not require testing against nature, has no ability to make reliable and consistent predictions, and is not subject to peer review. <ref name="Is Science a Religion?">{{cite web
| author=Dawkins, Richard | date=January/February 1997 | url=http://www.thehumanist.org/humanist/articles/dawkins.html | title =Is Science a Religion? | accessdate=2008-03-15 | publisher = American Humanist Association}}</ref>

==See also==
{|width=100%
|-valign=top
|width=50%|
*[[Apostasy]]
*[[Belief system]]
*[[Crisis of faith]]
*[[Faith and rationality]]
*[[Fideism]]
*[[Lectures on Faith]]
*[[Major world religions]]
*[[Pascal's Wager]]
|width=50%|
*[[Religion]]
*[[Rationalism]]
*[[Religious belief]]
*[[Religious conversion]]
*[[Spectrum of Theistic Probability]]
*[[St. Faith]]
*Saints - [[Faith, Hope, and Charity]]
|}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]], ''[[The End of Faith]]: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason'', W. W. Norton (2004), hardcover, 336 pages, ISBN 0-393-03515-8
* Hein, David. "Faith and Doubt in Rose Macaulay's ''The Towers of Trebizond''." ''Anglican Theological Review'' Winter2006, Vol. 88 Issue 1, p47-68.
* [[Stephen Palmquist]], "Faith as Kant's Key to the Justification of Transcendental Reflection", The Heythrop Journal 25:4 (October 1984), pp.442-455. Reprinted as Chapter V in Stephen Palmquist, [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1 Kant's System of Perspectives] (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).
*Zarlengo, Michael. ''Pray Like This: God's Secret to Answered Prayer''. Dallas, Texas: Michael Zarlengo Publishing, 2005.
*[[D. Mark Parks]], "Faith/Faithfulness" ''Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary''. Eds. Chad Brand, Charles Draper, Archie England. Nashville: Holman Publishers, 2003.
*[http://cecyl.over-blog.com/categorie-10167052.html Poetry & Spirituality]

===Classic reflections on the nature of faith===
*[[Martin Buber]], ''I and Thou''
*[[Paul Tillich]], ''The Dynamics of Faith''

===The Reformation view of faith===
*[[John Calvin]], ''The Institutes of the Christian Religion''
*[[R.C. Sproul]], ''Faith Alone''

===Faith in Analysis===
*[[Paul Williams]], ''The Anatomy of Spiritual Growth''
*[http://www.webspawner.com/users/faithnword/index.html Word of Faith Ezine]

==External links==
{{wiktionarypar|faith}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{commonscat|Faith}}
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/ Epistemology of the religion, article from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Peter Forrest]
*[http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/luther-faith.txt Martin Luther's Definition of Faith]
*[http://www.apuritansmind.com/Justification/CalvinJohnJustification.htm John Calvin on Justification by Faith from The Institutes of the Christian Religion]
*[http://www.seegod.org/the_warrant_of_faith.htm Charles Spurgeon on the Warrant of Faith]
*[http://public.csusm.edu/public/guests/rsclark/Warfield.html B.B. Warfield on Justification By Faith]
*[http://www.skepdic.com/faith.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on Faith]
*[http://rationalchristianity.org/?p=23 Rational Christianity on Faith Versus Reason]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05752c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Faith]
*[http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&kid=1247 Faith in Judaism] chabad.org
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05752c.htm Faith] from the [http://www.newadvent.org 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia]

[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]
[[Category:Belief]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Virtues]]

[[ar:إيمان]]
[[bg:Вяра]]
[[ca:Fe]]
[[cs:Víra]]
[[da:Tro]]
[[de:Glaube]]
[[et:Usk]]
[[es:Fe]]
[[eu:Fede]]
[[fr:Foi]]
[[hr:Vjera]]
[[id:Iman]]
[[ia:Fide]]
[[is:Trú]]
[[it:Fede]]
[[hu:Hit]]
[[ja:信仰]]
[[pl:Wiara]]
[[pt:Fé]]
[[ro:Credinţă]]
[[ru:Вера]]
[[sq:Besimi]]
[[sr:Вера]]
[[tt:Íman]]
[[vi:Tín ngưỡng]]
[[uk:Віра (релігійна)]]
[[yi:בטחון]]
[[zh:信心]]

Marriage

2008-12-27T12:34:33Z

CarlThomas: removing some too-obvious bias

{{pp-semi|small=yes|expiry=December 29, 2008}}
{{For|the music record label|Marriage Records}}{{redirect|Married|the radio comedy programme|Married (radio series)}}{{redirect6|Matrimony|the sacrament or liturgical rite in Christianity|Christian views of marriage|the card game|Matrimony (solitaire)}}
{{Close Relationships}}{{Family law}}
{{POV|date=September 2008}}
'''Marriage''' is a social, [[religion|religious]], [[spirituality|spiritual]], or [[law|legal]] union of individuals. This union may also be called '''matrimony''', while the ceremony that marks its beginning is usually called a [[wedding]] and the married status created is sometimes called '''wedlock'''.

Marriage is an [[institution]] in which [[interpersonal relationship]]s (usually [[intimacy|intimate]] and [[human sexual behavior|sexual]]) are acknowledged by the [[state]], by religious authority, or both. It is often viewed as a [[contract]]. Civil marriage is the legal concept of marriage as a governmental institution, in accordance with [[marriage law]]s of the jurisdiction. If recognized by the state, by the religion(s) to which the parties belong or by society in general, the act of marriage changes the personal and social status of the individuals who enter into it.

People marry for many reasons, but usually one or more of the following: legal, social, and economic stability; the formation of a family unit; [[reproduction|procreation]] and the education and nurturing of children; legitimizing sexual relations; public declaration of [[love]]; or to obtain citizenship.<ref>{{cite book|first=James E.|last=Krier|coauthors=Gregory S. Alexander, Michael H. Schill, Jesse Dukeminier|title=Property|publisher=Aspen Publishers|year=2006|isbn=0735557926}}

Excerpt - page 335: '... at the wedding; hence the importance of including in the marriage ceremony the words, "With all my worldly goods I thee endow."...'</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marriagedebate.com/pdf/What%20is%20Marriage%20For.pdf|title=What is Marriage For? The Public Purposes of Marriage Law|accessdate=2007-01-08|last=Gallagher|first=Maggie|year=2002|publisher=Louisiana law review|format=PDF}}</ref>

Marriage may take [[types of marriages|many forms]]: for example, a union between one man and one woman as [[husband]] and [[wife]] is a [[monogamy|monogamous]] [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]] marriage; [[polygamy]]{{ndash}} in which a person takes more than one [[spouse]]{{ndash}} is common in some [[society|societies]].<ref name=Murdoch>{{cite book|first=George Peter|last=Murdock|authorlink=George Peter Murdock|title=Social Structure|publisher=The MacMillan Company|location=New York|year=1949|isbn=0-02-922290-7}} See also: [[Kaingang]].</ref> Recently, some jurisdictions<ref>Arce, Rose. ''Massachusetts court upholds same-sex marriage''. Feb. 6, 2004. [http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/02/04/gay.marriage/ CNN]. Retrieved Feb. 17, 2007.</ref> and [[religious denomination|denomination]]s<ref name="pewforum">{{cite web|title=Religious Groups' Official Positions on Same-Sex Marriage|url=http://pewforum.org/docs/?DocID=291|publisher=pewforums.org|accessdate=2008-10-16}}</ref><ref name="NYT UCC SSM">{{cite news|title=United Church of Christ Backs Same-Sex Marriage|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/05/national/05church.html|author=Shaila Dewan|date=July 5, 2005|publisher=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=2008-10-16}}</ref><ref name="UUA BGLT">{{cite web|title=Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations BLGT Community guide|url=http://www.uua.org/visitors/justicediversity/6252.shtml|accessdate=2008-10-16}}</ref> have begun to recognize [[same-sex marriage]], uniting people of the [[homosexuality|same sex]].

A marriage is often formalized during a [[wedding|marriage ceremony]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Schick|last=Eleanor|title=Navajo Wedding Day: A Dine Marriage Ceremony|publisher=Cavendish Children's Books|year=1999|isbn=0761450319}}</ref> which may be performed either by a religious officiant, by a [[secularity|secular]] State authorised officiator, or (in weddings that have no church or state affiliation) by a trusted friend of the wedding participants. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved and, in many societies, their extended families.

Article 16 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] declares that "Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses." The [[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]] gives men and women the "right to marriage" regardless of their race, colour or nationality, but not religion.

==History==
{{seealso|History of civil marriage in the U.S.|Timeline of same-sex marriage}}
{{Expand|date=July 2008}}
The way in which a marriage is conducted has changed over time, as has the institution itself. Although the institution of marriage pre-dates reliable [[recorded history]], many cultures have legends or religious beliefs concerning the [[origins of marriage]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of Human Marriage|last=Westermarck|first=Edward Alexander|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan and Co., Ltd., London]]|year=1903|isbn=1402185480 (reprint)}}</ref>

===European marriages===
[[Image:Brauysegen im Bett.gif|thumb|right|A woodcut of a medieval [[wedding]] ceremony from [[Germany]].]]

For most of European history, marriage was more or less a business agreement between two families who arranged the marriages of their children. Romantic love, and even simple affection, were not considered essential.<ref name=psychologyTodayHistory>[http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-20050506-000006.html psychology today on the history of marriage]</ref> In fact at some times, too much affection in a marriage was considered a sin{{Fact|date=December 2008}}. Stress about the necessity of marriage has historically been a nearly universal source of stress.<ref name=magnusHirschfeldSexology>[http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/ATLAS_EN/html/history_of_marriage_in_western.html Magnus Hirschfeld Archive of Sexology]</ref>

In Ancient Greece, no specific civil ceremony was required for the creation of a marriage - only mutual agreement and the fact that the couple must regard each other as husband and wife accordingly.<ref>[http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/greeks/people/family.htm history for kids Greek Marriage]
</ref>
Men usually married when they were in their 20s or 30s
<ref>[http://www.historylink102.com/greece3/marriage.htm historylink102.com Ancient Greek Marriage]
</ref>
and expected their wives to be in their early teens. It has been suggested that these ages made sense for the Greek because men were generally done with military service by age 30, and marrying a young girl ensured her virginity.<ref name=richEastGreekMarriage>[http://www.richeast.org/htwm/Greeks/marriage/marriage.html richeast.org Greek Marriage]</ref> Married Greek women had few rights in ancient Greek society and were expected to take care of the house and children.<ref>[http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/women1/p/GreekMarriage.htm Greek Marriage from ancienthistory.about.com]</ref> Time was an important factor in Greek marriage. For example there were superstitions that being married during a [[full moon]] was good luck and, according to [[Robert Flacelière]], Greeks married in the winter.<ref name=richEastGreekMarriage/>

Like with the Greeks, [[Roman marriage]] and divorce required no specific government or religious approval.<ref name="magnusHirschfeldSexology" /> Both marriage and divorce could happen by simple mutual agreement.<ref name="magnusHirschfeldSexology" /> There were several types of marriages in Roman society. The traditional ("conventional") form called ''conventio in manum'' required a ceremony with witnesses and was also dissolved with a ceremony.<ref name="magnusHirschfeldSexology" /> In this type of marriage, a woman lost her family rights of inheritance of her old family and gained them with her new one. She now was subject to the authority of her husband.<ref name=romanEmpireMarriage>[http://www.roman-empire.net/society/soc-marriage.html roman empire.net marriage]</ref> There was the free marriage known as ''sine manu''. In this arrangement, the wife remained a member of her original family; she stayed under the authority of her father, kept her family rights of inheritance with her old family and didn't gain any with the new family. <ref name="romanEmpireMarriage" />

The first recorded use of the word "marriage" for the union of same-sex couples also occurs during the Roman Empire. The term, however, was rarely associated with same-sex relationships, even though the relationships themselves were common.<ref>Suetonius ''Life of Nero'' 28-29; Martial ''Epigrams'' 1.24, 12.42; etc.</ref> In the year 342, the Christian emperors [[Constantius II|Constantius]] and [[Constans]] declared same-sex marriage to be illegal.{{Fact|date=December 2008}}

From the [[early Christian]] era (30 to 325 CE), marriage was thought of as primarily a private matter, with no religious or other ceremony being required. Until 1545, Christian marriages in [[Europe]] were by mutual consent, declaration of intention to marry and upon the subsequent physical union of the parties. <ref name=upennExcerptFromBook>[http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/toc/14042.html upenn.edu Excerpt from Marriage, Sex, and Civic Culture in Late Medieval London] "''the sacramental bond of marriage could be made only through the freely given consent of both parties''"</ref><ref name=marriageDotAbout>[http://marriage.about.com/cs/generalhistory/a/marriagehistory.htm marriage.about.com]</ref> The couple would promise verbally to each other that they would be married to each other; the presence of a priest or witnesses was not required.<ref>[http://www.exploregenealogy.co.uk/FindingEarlyMarriageRecords.html ExploreGenealogy.co.uk Marriage Records]</ref> This promise was known as the "verbum." If freely given and made in the present tense (e.g., "I marry you"), it was unquestionably binding;<ref name="upennExcerptFromBook" /> if made in the future tense ("I will marry you"), it would constitute a [[betrothal]]. One of the functions of churches from the [[Middle Ages]] was to register marriages, which was not obligatory. There was no state involvement in marriage and personal status, with these issues being adjudicated in [[ecclesiastical courts]]. Whereas the rape of male citizens was outlawed in the 100s CE, gay marriage was outlawed in the mid-300s by two of Constantine the Great's sons, [[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]]. While Constans was later denounced for having male lovers, emperors continued the condemnation of homosexuality. For example, a law decreed in 390 required any man "taking a women's role" in sex was to be burned to death.<ref>[http://www.hnn.us/articles/21319.html History News Network.us on Romans and the Gay-Marriage Debate]</ref>

In the 12th century, aristocrats believed love was incompatible with marriage and sought romance in adultery.<ref name="psychologyTodayHistory" /> [[Troubadors]] invented [[courtly love]] which involved secret but [[chaste]] trysts between a lover and a beloved.

The average age of marriage in the late 1200s into the 1500s was around 25 years of age.<ref>Schofield, Phillipp R. 2003. Peasant and community in Medieval England, 1200-1500. Medieval culture and society. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. p 98.</ref> Beginning in the 1500s it was unlawful for a woman younger than 20 years of age to marry.<ref>{{cite book|last=Spitz|first=Lewis|title=(The Rise of modern Europe) The protestant Reformation 1517-1559.|publisher=Harper Torchbooks|year=1987|pages=9|isbn=0061320692}}</ref><ref name="marriageDotAbout" />

As part of the [[Counter-Reformation]], in 1545 the [[Council of Trent]] decreed that a [[Roman Catholic]] marriage would be recognized only if the marriage ceremony was officiated by a priest with two witnesses. The Council also authorized a [[Catechism]], issued in 1566, which defined marriage as, "The conjugal union of man and woman, contracted between two qualified persons, which obliges them to live together throughout life."<ref>{{cite book|last=Witte Jr.|first=John|title=From Sacrament to Contract: Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1997|pages=39–40|isbn=0664255434}}</ref> Since England broke with Rome in 1534, this change did not extend to the regions affected by the [[Protestant Reformation]], where marriage by consent continued to be the norm. As part of the Reformation, the role of recording marriages and setting the rules for marriage passed to the state. By the 1600s many of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] European countries had a state involvement in marriage.

====State recognition====
In the [[early modern period]], [[John Calvin]] and his [[Protestant]] colleagues reformulated Christian marriage by enacting the Marriage Ordinance of Geneva, which imposed "The dual requirements of state registration and church consecration to constitute marriage"<ref>{{cite book|last=Witte Jr.|first=John|title=From Sacrament to Contract: Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1997|pages=91|isbn=0664255434}}</ref> for recognition.

In [[England]] and [[Wales]], Lord Hardwicke's [[Marriage Act 1753]] required a formal ceremony of marriage, thereby curtailing the practice of [[Fleet Marriage]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/17.1/leneman.html|title=The Scottish Case That Led to Hardwicke's Marriage Act|last=Leneman|first=Leah|year=1999|publisher=Law and History Review}}</ref> These were clandestine or irregular marriages performed at Fleet Prison, and at hundreds of other places. From the 1690s until the Marriage Act of 1753 as many as 300,000 clandestine marriages were performed at Fleet Prison alone.<ref>{{cite book|title=For Better, for Worse: British Marriages, 1600 to the Present|last=Gillis|first=John R.|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=019503614X|year=1985|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=t3kiLAQxrnMC|pages=92}}</ref> The Act required a marriage ceremony to be officiated by an Anglican priest in the [[Anglican Church]] with two witnesses and registration. The Act did not apply to Jewish marriages or those of Quakers, whose marriages continued to be governed by their own customs.

In England and Wales, since 1837, civil marriages have been recognised as a legal alternative to church marriages under the [[Marriage Act 1836]]. In [[Germany]], civil marriages were recognised in 1875. This law permitted a declaration of the marriage before an official clerk of the civil administration, when both spouses affirm their will to marry, to constitute a legally recognised valid and effective marriage, and allowed an optional private clerical marriage ceremony.

===Chinese marriage===
{{main|Chinese marriage}}

The mythological origin of Chinese marriage is a story about [[Nüwa]] and [[Fu Xi]] who invented proper marriage procedures after becoming married.

In ancient Chinese society, people of the same surname were not supposed to marry and doing so was seen as incest. However, because marriage to one's maternal relatives was not thought of as incest, families sometimes intermarried from one generation to another. Over time, Chinese people became more geographically mobile. Couples were married in what is called an extra-clan marriage, better known as [[antithetic marriage]]. This occurred around 5000 BC. According to modern Chinese scholars of a Marxist persuasion, matriarchy prevailed in society at that time, therefore husbands needed to move to, and live with, their wives’ families. Yet individuals remained members of their biological families. When a couple died, the husband and the wife were buried separately in the respective clans’ graveyard. In a maternal marriage, a male would become a son-in-law who lived in the wife’s home. This happened in the transformation of antithetic marriage into monogamy, which signifies the decline of matriarchy and the growing dominance of patriarchy in the ancient China.

==Selection of a partner==
{{main|Arranged marriage|Forced marriage}}
[[Image:Lodewijk XIV-Marriage.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An arranged marriage between [[Louis XIV]] of France and [[Maria Theresa of Spain]]]]

The selection of a marriage partner may involve either the couple going through a selection process of [[courtship]] or the marriage may be [[arranged marriage|arranged]] by the couple's parents or an outside party, a [[matchmaker]].

A pragmatic (or 'arranged') marriage is made easier by formal procedures of family or group politics. A responsible authority sets up or encourages the marriage; they may, indeed, engage a professional [[matchmaking|matchmaker]] to find a suitable spouse for an unmarried person. The authority figure could be parents, family, a religious official, or a group consensus.

In some cases, the authority figure may choose a match for purposes other than marital harmony. Some of the most popular uses of arranged marriage are for [[dowry]] or [[immigration]].

In rural Indian villages, [[child marriage]] is also practiced, with parents at times arranging the wedding, sometimes even before the child is born. This practice is now illegal under the Child Marriage Restraint Act.

In some societies ranging from [[Central Asia]] to the [[Caucasus]] to [[Africa]], the custom of [[bride kidnapping]] still exists, in which a woman is captured by a man and his friends. Sometimes this covers an [[elopement]], but sometimes it depends on [[sexual violence]]. In previous times, ''[[raptio]]'' was a larger-scale version of this, with groups of women captured by groups of men, sometimes in war; the most famous example is [[The Rape of the Sabine Women]], which provided the first citizens of Rome with their wives.

Other marriage partners are more or less imposed on an individual. For example, [[widow inheritance]] provides a widow with another man from her late husband's brothers.

==Marriage ceremony==
{{main|Wedding}}
[[Image:Shinto married couple.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Couple married in a Shinto ceremony in Takayama, Gifu prefecture.]]

A marriage is usually formalised at a [[wedding]] or marriage ceremony.<ref>{{cite book|first=Schick|last=Eleanor|title=Navajo Wedding Day: A Dine Marriage Ceremony|publisher=Cavendish Children's Books|year=1999|isbn=0761450319}}</ref> The ceremony may be officiated either by a religious official, by a government official or by a state approved celebrant. In many European and some Latin American countries, any religious ceremony must be held separately from the required civil ceremony. Some countries{{ndash}} such as [[Belgium]], [[Bulgaria]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Turkey]]<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.wwhr.org/images/CivilandPenalCodeReforms.pdf Turkish Civil and Penal Code Reforms from a Gender Perspective: The Success of two Nationwide Campaigns]|6.21 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}} (p. 18)</ref>{{ndash}} require that a civil ceremony take place before any religious one. In some countries{{ndash}} notably the [[United States]], [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Norway]] and [[Spain]]{{ndash}} both ceremonies can be held together; the officiant at the religious and civil ceremony also serving as agent of the state to perform the civil ceremony. To avoid any implication that the state is "recognizing" a religious marriage (which is prohibited in some countries){{ndash}} the "civil" ceremony is said to be taking place at the same time as the religious ceremony. Often this involves simply signing a register during the religious ceremony. If the civil element of the religious ceremony is omitted, the marriage is not recognised by government under the law.

While some countries, such as [[Australia]], permit marriages to be held in private and at any location, others, including [[England and Wales]], require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place open to the public and specially sanctioned by law. In England, the place of marriage need no longer be a church or registry office, but could also be a hotel, historic building or other venue that has obtained the necessary licence. An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license, which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill. Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place. Some regulations require that one of the parties reside in the locality of the registry office.

Within the parameters set by the law of the jurisdiction in which a marriage or wedding takes place, each religious authority has rules for the manner in which weddings are to be conducted by their officials and members.

==Cohabitation==
{{seealso|cohabitation}}
Marriage is an institution which can join together people's lives in a variety of [[emotion]]al and [[economics|economic]] ways. In many Western cultures, marriage usually leads to the formation of a new household comprising the married couple, with the married couple living together in the same home, often sharing the same bed, but in some other cultures this is not the tradition.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rosenblatt|first=Paul C.|title=Two in a Bed: The Social System of Couple Bed Sharing|year=2006|publisher=State University of New York Press|url=http://www.sunypress.edu/details.asp?id=61306|isbn=0-7914-6829-1}}</ref> Among the [[Minangkabau]] of [[West Sumatra]], residency after marriage is [[matrilocality|matrilocal]], with the husband moving into the household of his wife's mother.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sanday|first=Peggy Reeves|title=Women at the center: life in a modern matriarchy|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-8014-8906-7}}</ref> Residency after marriage can also be [[patrilocal]] or [[avunculocal residence|avunculocal]]. Also, in southwestern China, [[walking marriage]]s, in which the husband and wife do not live together, have been a traditional part of the [[Mosuo]] culture.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lu|first=Yuan|coauthors=Sam Mitchell|title=Land Of The Walking Marriage - Mosuo people of China|journal=[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]|month=November|year=2000|publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref> Walking marriages have also been increasingly common in modern [[Beijing]]. Guo Jianmei, director of the center for women's studies at Beijing University, told a [[Newsday]] correspondent, "Walking marriages reflect sweeping changes in Chinese society."<ref>{{cite news|last=Gargan|first=Edward A.|title=China's New Brides Put Freedom First / All perks, no work in 'walking marriages'|pages=A.04|publisher=[[Newsday]]|date=2001-03-19}}</ref> A similar arrangement in [[Saudi Arabia]], called [[Nikah Misyar|misyar marriage]], also involves the husband and wife living separately but meeting regularly.<ref>{{cite news|last=Karam|first=Souhail|title=Misyar offers marriage-lite in strict Saudi society|publisher=[[Reuters]]|date=[[July 21]], [[2006]]|url=http://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2006/07/21/misyar_offers_marriage_lite_in_strict_saudi_society/}}</ref>

Conversely, marriage is not a prerequisite for [[cohabitation]]. In some cases couples living together do not wish to be recognised as married, such as when pension or alimony rights are adversely affected, or because of taxation consideration, or because of immigration issues, and for many other reasons.

In some cases cohabitation may constitute a common-law marriage, and in some countries the laws recognise cohabitation in preference to the formality of marriage for taxation and social security benefits. This is the case, for example, in [[Australia]].<ref>[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/itaa1997240/s995.1.html Income Tax Assessment Act 1997 - Sect 995.1(1)]: ""spouse" of a person includes a person who, although not legally married to the person, lives with the person on a genuine domestic basis as the person's husband or wife."</ref>

==Sex and procreation==
Marriage typically requires [[Consummate|consummation]] by [[sexual intercourse]], and non-[[consummation]] (that is, failure or refusal to engage in sex) may be grounds for an [[annulment]].<ref>For example, [[John Ruskin]]’s failed marriage to [[Effie Gray]].</ref>

There are some married couples who remain childless either [[childfree|by choice]] or due to [[infertility]] or other factors preventing [[Conception (biology)|conception]] or bearing of children. In some cultures, marriage imposes an ''obligation'' on women to bear children. In northern [[Ghana]], for example, payment of [[bridewealth]] signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face substantial threats of physical abuse and reprisals.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bawah|first=AA.|coauthors=Akweongo P, Simmons R, Phillips JF.|title=Women's fears and men's anxieties: the impact of family planning on gender relations in northern Ghana.|journal=Studies in Family Planning|volume=30|issue=1|pages=54–66|publisher=Population Council|year=1999|url=http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/councilarticles/sfp/SFP301Bawah.pdf|id=ISSN: 0039-3665|format=PDF|doi=10.1111/j.1728-4465.1999.00054.x}}</ref>

On the other hand, marriage is not a prerequisite for having children, and having children outside of marriage is today not as uncommon as it used to be. In the United States, the National Center for Health Statistics reported that in 1992, 30.1 percent of births were to unmarried women.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Richard E.|coauthors=Kristin H. Lopez|title=Human Reproductive Biology, Third Edition|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|year=2006|isbn=0120884658}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ventura|first=SJ.|title=Births to unmarried mothers: United States, 1980–92.|publisher=National Center for Health Statistics|year=1995|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_21/sr21_053.pdf|isbn=0-8406-0507-2|format=PDF}}</ref> In 2006, that number had risen to 38.5 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/06/washington/06birth.html?em&ex=1197176400&en=62f9e9412af61f8b&ei=5087%0A|title=Teenage Birth Rate Rises for First Time Since ’91"|publisher=New York Times|date=2007-12-06}}</ref> Until recently, children born outside of marriage were termed [[illegitimate]] and suffered legal disadvantages and [[stigma (sociological theory)|social stigma]]. In recent years the legal relevance of illegitimacy has declined and social acceptance increased, especially in western countries.

Many of the world's major religions look with disfavor on [[sexual intercourse|sexual relations]] outside of marriage.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance|date=2006-12-31|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_sex.htm|title=Human sexuality and gender topics: Subjects of major concern to many faith groups|publisher=Religioustolerance.org|accessdate=2007-02-04}}</ref> Sexual relations by a married person with someone other than his/her spouse is normally called [[adultery]], and is also frequently disapproved by the major world religions (some calling it a [[sin]]), and has often been - in some jurisdictions continues to be - a crime and grounds for divorce. (See [[adultery]].)

==Marriage law==
{{main|marriage law}}
===Rights and obligations===
[[Image:V03p128a01 Ketubah.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A [[Ketubah]] in Aramaic, a Jewish marriage-contract outlining the duties of each partner.]]
{{seealso|Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States}}
A marriage, by definition, bestows rights and obligations on the married parties, and sometimes on [[kinship|relatives]] as well, being the sole mechanism for the creation of [[affinity (law)|affinal ties]] (in-laws). These may include:
*giving a husband/wife or his/her family control over a spouse’s sexual services, labor, and property.
*giving a husband/wife responsibility for a spouse’s debts.
*giving a husband/wife visitation rights when his/her spouse is incarcerated or hospitalized.
*giving a husband/wife control over his/her spouse’s affairs when the spouse is incapacitated.
*establishing the second [[legal guardian]] of a parent’s child.
*establishing a [[joint property|joint fund of property]] for the benefit of children.
*establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses.
These rights and obligations vary considerably between societies, and between groups within society.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leach|first=Edmund|editor=Paul Bonannan and John Middleton|title=Marriage, Family, and Residence|publisher=The Natural History Press|year=1968|isbn=1121644708}}</ref>

===Marriage restrictions===
{{main|Marriage law#Marriage restrictions}}
Marriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions. From age, to gender, to social status, restrictions are placed on marriage by society for reasons of passing on healthy genes, to keep property concentrated, or (in some historical cases) because of prejudice and fear.

Some [[legal]], [[society|social]], or [[religion|religious]] restrictions apply in some countries on the genders of the couple. In response to changing social and political attitudes, some jurisdictions and [[religious denomination]]s now recognize marriages between people of the same sex. In some jurisdictions these are sometimes called [[civil union]]s or [[domestic partnership]]s, while some others explicitly prohibit same-sex marriages.

Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely. In most societies, marriage between brothers and sisters has been forbidden. All mainstream religions prohibit some marriages on the basis of the [[consanguinity]] (lineal descent) and [[affinity (law)|affinity]] (kinship by marriage) of the prospective marriage partners, though the standards vary.

Historically, there have been countless restrictions placed on marriage by different societies. Restrictions against polygamy and marrying within a particular group or race have been common. Many societies, even some with a cultural tradition of polygamy, recognize [[monogamy]] as the only valid form of marriage. Many societies have also adopted other restrictions on whom one can marry, such as prohibitions of marrying persons with the same surname, or persons with the same sacred animal. Societies have also at times required marriage from within a certain group. Anthropologists refer to these restrictions as [[endogamy]]. An example of such restrictions would be a requirement to marry someone from the same tribe.

===State recognition===
{{main|Marriage law#State recognition}}
In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as [[same-sex marriage]]s or [[civil union]]s.

Marriage relationships may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in [[common-law marriage]], sometimes called "marriage by habit and repute."

The status in the eyes of one authority may not be the same as for another, e.g., a marriage may be recognised civilly, but not by a church, and vice versa.{{Fact|date=November 2008}}

==Marriage and religion==
{{See also|Christian views of marriage|Islamic marital jurisprudence|Buddhist view of marriage|Marriage in Hinduism|Jewish views of marriage}}
[[Image:St Mary's Church, Kyoto.jpg|thumb|Christian wedding in [[Kyoto]], [[Japan]].]]
[[Image:Israëls-A Jewish Wedding-1903.jpg|thumb|left|A Jewish wedding, painting by [[Jozef Israëls]], 1903.]]

All mainstream religions have strong views relating to marriage. Most religions perform a wedding ceremony to solemnize the beginning of a marriage. Some regard marriage as simply a contract, while others regard it as a sacred institution.

[[Liturgy|Liturgical]] Christian communions - notably [[Anglicanism]], [[Catholicism]], and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodoxy]] - consider marriage (sometimes termed ''holy matrimony'') to be an expression of [[divine grace]], termed a ''[[sacrament]]'' or ''[[Sacred Mysteries|mystery]]''. In [[Western Rite|Western ritual]], the ministers of the sacrament are the husband and wife themselves, with a [[bishop]], [[priest]], or [[deacon]] merely witnessing the union on behalf of the church, and adding a blessing. In [[Eastern Rite|Eastern ritual churches]], the bishop or priest functions as the actual minister of the Sacred Mystery (Eastern Orthodox deacons may not perform marriages). Western Christians commonly refer to marriage a [[vocation]], while Eastern Christians consider it an [[ordination]] and a [[martyr]]dom, though the theological emphases indicated by the various names are not excluded by the teachings of either tradition. Marriage is commonly celebrated in the context of a [[Eucharist]]ic service (a [[nuptial Mass]] or [[Divine Liturgy]]). The sacrament of marriage is indicative of the relationship between [[Christ]] and the Church ({{bibleverse||Ephesians|5:29-32|KJV}}), yet most Reformed Christians would deny the elevation of marriage to the status of a sacrament, nevertheless it is considered a covenant between spouses before God. (cf. [[Ephesians]] 5:31-33)

In [[Judaism]], marriage is viewed as a contractual bond commanded by God in which a man and a woman come together to create a relationship in which God is directly involved.<ref>({{bibleverse|Deuteronomy||24:1|JP}})</ref> Though procreation is not the sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is also expected to fulfill the commandment to have children.<ref>({{bibleverse|Genesis||1:28|JP}})</ref> The main focus centers around the relationship between the husband and wife. [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistically]], marriage is understood to mean that the husband and wife are merging together into a single soul. This is why a man is considered "incomplete" if he is not married, as his soul is only one part of a larger whole that remains to be unified.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/448425/jewish/Why-Marry.htm|title=Why Marry?|accessdate=2007-12-19|publisher=[[Chabad.org]]}}</ref> See [[Jewish views of marriage]].

[[Image:Muslim wedding in India.jpg|200px|thumb|A Muslim couple being wed alongside the [[Tungabhadra River]] at [[Hampi]], [[India]].]]
[[Image:Hindu marriage ceremony offering.jpg|thumb|left|Hindu marriage ceremony from a [[Rajput]] wedding.]]

[[Islam]] also commends marriage, with the age of marriage being whenever the individuals feel ready, financially and emotionally, for marriage. According to [[Shia Islam]] [[Islamic marital jurisprudence|marriage]] doesn't require any witness or official statement or presence in a definite place.<ref>[http://al-islam.org/organizations/aalimnetwork/msg00200.html Witnesses for Marriage]</ref> To create a religious contract between them, it is sufficient that a man and a woman indicate an intention to marry each other and recite the requisite words.<ref>[http://www.sistani.org/local.php?modules=nav&nid=2&bid=59&pid=3079 The method of pronouncing the marriage formula]</ref><ref>[http://www.sistani.org/local.php?modules=nav&nid=2&bid=59&pid=3078 Marriage formula]</ref> A couple can live with each other as a family without an official contract. Of course there are some criteria which should be observed; for example, the woman should be single.<ref>[http://www.sistani.org/local.php?modules=nav&nid=2&bid=59&pid=3080 Conditions of pronouncing Nikah]</ref><ref>[http://www.sistani.org/local.php?modules=nav&nid=2&bid=59&pid=3083 Women with whom matrimony is Haraam]</ref>

In the [[Bahá'í Faith]] marriage is encouraged and viewed as a mutually strengthening bond, but is not obligatory. A [[Bahá'í marriage]] requires the couple to choose each other, and then the consent of all living parents.<ref name="oneworld">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title=Marriage |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |id=ISBN 1-85168-184-1 |pages=p. 232-233}}</ref>

[[Hinduism]] sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. Old Hindu literature in [[Sanskrit]] gives many different types of marriages and their categorization ranging from "Gandharva Vivaha" (instant marriage by mutual consent of participants only, without any need for even a single third person as witness) to normal (present day) marriages, to "Rakshasa Vivaha" (marriage performed by abduction of one participant by the other participant, usually, but not always, with the help of other persons).

For the most part, religious traditions in the world reserve marriage to heterosexual unions, but there are exceptions including [[Unitarian Universalist]], [[Metropolitan Community Church]], and [[Quaker]], [[United Church of Canada]] and [[Reform Judaism|Reform Jewish]] congregations.<ref>"World Religions and Same Sex Marriage", Marriage Law Project, [[Columbus School of Law]] at The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC, July 2002 revision {{PDFlink|[http://marriagelaw.cua.edu/publications/wrr.pdf]|84.1 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}</ref><ref name=united>[http://www.united-church.ca/exploring/marriage/affirmingcongregations Affirming Congregations and Ministries of the United Church of Canada]</ref>

==Financial considerations==
The financial aspects of marriage vary between cultures and have changed over time.

In some cultures, dowries and bride prices continue to be required today. In both cases, the financial arrangements are usually made between the groom (or his family) and the bride's family; with the bride in many cases not being involved in the arrangement, and often not having a choice in whether to participate in the marriage.

In [[Early Modern Britain]], the social status of the couple was supposed to be equal. After the marriage, all the property (called "fortune") and expected inheritances of the [[wife]] belonged to the husband.

===Dowry===
{{main|dowry}}
A [[dowry]] was not an unconditional gift, but was usually a part of a wider marriage settlement. For example, if the groom had other children, they could not inherit the dowry, which had to go to the bride's children. In the event of her childlessness, the dowry had to be returned to her family, but sometimes not until the groom's death or remarriage. Often the bride was entitled to inherit at least as much as her dowry from her husband's estate.{{Fact|date=October 2007}}

In some cultures, dowries continue to be required today, while some countries impose restrictions on the payment of dowry.

===Bride price and dower===
In other cultures, the groom or his family were expected to pay a [[bride price]] to the bride's family for the right to marry the daughter, or [[dower]], which was payable to the bride. This required the groom to work for the bride's family for a set period of time.

In the Jewish tradition, the rabbis in ancient times insisted on the marriage couple entering into a marriage contact, called a ''[[ketubah]]''. Besides other things, the ''ketubah'' provided for an amount to be paid by the husband in the event of a [[get (divorce document)|divorce]] or his estate in the event of his death. This amount was a replacement of the biblical [[dower]] or [[bride price]], which was payable at the time of the marriage by the groom to the bride or her parents.{{Fact|date=October 2007}}<ref>See also {{bibleverse||Exodus|22:15-16|HE}}.</ref> This innovation was put in place because the biblical bride price created a major social problem: many young prospective husbands could not raise the bride price at the time when they would normally be expected to marry. So, to enable these young men to marry, the rabbis, in effect, delayed the time that the amount would be payable, when they would be more likely to have the sum. It may also be noted that both the dower and the ''ketubah'' amounts served the same purpose: the protection for the wife should her support cease, either by death or divorce. The only difference between the two systems was the timing of the payment. It is the predecessor to the wife's present-day entitlement to [[alimony|maintenance]] in the event of the breakup of marriage, and family maintenance in the event of the husband not providing adequately for the wife in his [[will]]. Another function performed by the ''ketubah'' amount was to provide a disincentive for the husband contemplating divorcing his wife: he would need to have the amount to be able to pay to the wife.

[[Morning gift]]s, which might also be arranged by the bride's father rather than the bride, are given to the bride herself; the name derives from the Germanic tribal custom of giving them the morning after the wedding night. She might have control of this morning gift during the lifetime of her husband, but is entitled to it when widowed. If the amount of her inheritance is settled by law rather than agreement, it may be called [[dower]]. Depending on legal systems and the exact arrangement, she may not be entitled to dispose of it after her death, and may lose the property if she remarries. Morning gifts were preserved for many centuries in [[morganatic marriage]], a union where the wife's inferior social status was held to prohibit her children from inheriting a noble's titles or estates. In this case, the morning gift would support the wife and children. Another legal provision for widowhood was [[jointure]], in which property, often land, would be held in joint tenancy, so that it would automatically go to the widow on her husband's death.
Islamic tradition has similar practices. A '[[mahr]]', either immediate or deferred, is the woman's portion of the groom's wealth (divorce) or estate (death). These amounts are usually set based on the groom's own and family wealth and incomes, but in some parts these are set very high so as to provide a disincentive for the groom exercising the divorce, or the husband's family 'inheriting' a large portion of the estate, especially if there are no male offspring from the marriage. In some countries, including Iran, the [[mahr]] or alimony can amount to more than a man can ever hope to earn, sometimes up to US$ 1000,000 (4000 official Iranian gold coins). If the husband cannot pay the [[mahr]], either in case of a divorce or on demand, according to the current laws in Iran, he will have to pay it by installments. Failure to pay the [[mahr]] might even lead to imprisonment.<ref>[http://www.international-divorce.com/iran_divorce.htm A translation of some parts of the Civil Code of Iran]</ref>

===Modern customs===
In many countries today, each marriage partner has the choice of keeping his or her property separate or combining properties. In the latter case, called [[community property]], when the marriage ends by [[divorce]] each owns half. In many legal jurisdictions, laws related to property and [[inheritance]] provide by default for property to pass upon the death of one party in a marriage firstly to the spouse and secondly to the children. [[Will (law)|Will]]s and [[trust law|trust]]s can make alternative provisions for property succession.

In some legal systems, the partners in a marriage are "jointly liable" for the debts of the marriage. This has a basis in a traditional legal notion called the "Doctrine of Necessities" whereby a husband was responsible to provide necessary things for his wife. Where this is the case, one partner may be sued to collect a debt for which they did not expressly contract. Critics of this practice note that debt collection agencies can abuse this by claiming an unreasonably wide range of debts to be expenses of the marriage. The cost of defence and the burden of proof is then placed on the non-contracting party to prove that the expense is not a debt of the family. The respective maintenance obligations, both during and eventually after a marriage, are regulated in most [[jurisdiction]]s; [[alimony]] is one such method.

Some have attempted to analyse the institution of marriage using economic theory; for example, [[anarcho-capitalist]] economist [[David D. Friedman|David Friedman]] has written a lengthy and controversial study of marriage as a market transaction (the market for husbands and wives).<ref> [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Price_Theory/PThy_Chapter_21/PThy_Chap_21.html The Economics of Love and Marriage]</ref>

===Taxation===
In some countries, spouses are allowed to average their incomes; this is advantageous to a married couple with disparate incomes. To compensate for this somewhat, many countries provide a ''higher'' [[tax bracket]] for the averaged income of a married couple. While income averaging might still benefit a married couple with a stay-at-home spouse, such averaging would cause a married couple with roughly equal personal incomes to pay more total tax than they would as two single persons. This is commonly called the [[marriage penalty]].

Moreover, when the rates applied by the tax code are not based on averaging the incomes, but rather on the ''sum'' of individuals' incomes, higher rates will definitely apply to each individual in a two-earner households in progressive tax systems. This is most often the case with high-income taxpayers and is another situation where some consider there to be a marriage penalty.

Conversely, when progressive tax is levied on the individual with no consideration for the partnership, dual-income couples fare much better than single-income couples with similar household incomes. The effect can be increased when the welfare system treats the same income as a shared income thereby denying welfare access to the non-earning spouse. Such systems apply in Australia and Canada, for example.

===Other considerations===
Sometimes people marry for purely pragmatic reasons, sometimes called a [[marriage of convenience]] or sham marriage. For example, according to one publisher of information about "green card" marriages, "Every year over 450,000 United States citizens marry foreign-born individuals and petition for them to obtain a permanent residency (Green Card) in the United States."<ref>[http://www.usimmigrationsupport.org/greencard_marriage.html United States Immigration Support.org - Green Card Through Marriage]</ref> While this is likely an over-estimate, in 2003 alone 184,741 immigrants were admitted to the U.S. as spouses of U.S. citizens.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/yearbook/2003/2003IMMtables.pdf Immigration to the United States: Fiscal years 1820-2003]|2.03 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}}</ref>

==Termination==
In most societies, the [[death]] of one of the partners terminates the marriage, and in monogamous societies this allows the other partner to remarry, though sometimes after a waiting or mourning period.

Many societies also provide for the termination of marriage through [[divorce]]. Marriages can also be [[annulment|annulled]] in some societies, where an authority declares that a marriage never happened. In either event the people concerned are free to remarry (or marry). After divorce, one spouse may have to pay [[alimony]].

Several cultures have practiced temporary and conditional marriages. Examples include the [[Celt]]ic practice of [[handfasting]] and fixed-term marriages in the Muslim community. Pre-Islamic Arabs practiced a form of temporary marriage that carries on today in the practice of [[Nikah Mut'ah]], a fixed-term marriage contract. [[Muslim controversies related to Nikah Mut'ah]] have resulted in the practice being confined mostly to [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'ite]] communities.

== Post-Marital Residence ==

Early theories explaining the determinants of postmarital residence (e.g., [[Lewis Henry Morgan]], [[Edward Tylor]], or [[George Peter Murdock]]) connected it with the sexual division of labor. However, to date, [[cross-cultural]] tests of this [[hypothesis]] using worldwide samples have failed to find any significant relationship between these two variables. However, [[Korotayev]]'s tests show that the female contribution to subsistence does correlate significantly with matrilocal residence in general; however, this correlation is masked by a general polygyny factor. Although an increase in the female contribution to subsistence tends to lead to matrilocal residence, it also tends simultaneously to lead to general non-sororal [[polygyny]] which effectively destroys [[matrilocality]]. If this polygyny factor is controlled (e. g., through a multiple [[regression]] model), division of labor turns out to be a significant predictor of postmarital residence. Thus, Murdock's hypotheses regarding the relationships between the sexual division of labor and postmarital residence were basically correct, though, as has been shown by Korotayev, the actual relationships between those two groups of variables are more complicated than he expected (see, e.g., [[Korotayev]] A. [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14683590 Form of marriage, sexual division of labor, and postmarital residence in cross-cultural perspective: A reconsideration. Journal of anthropological research ISSN 0091-7710. 2003, Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 69-89], [[Korotayev]] A. [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14683590 Division of Labor by Gender and Postmarital Residence in Cross-Cultural Perspective: A Reconsideration. Cross-Cultural Research. 2003, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp.335-372] DOI: 10.1177/1069397103253685).

In modern societies we observe a trend toward the [[neolocal]] residence (see, e.g., Marriage, Family, and Kinship: Comparative Studies of Social Organization, by [[Melvin Ember]] and [[Carol R. Ember]]. New Haven: [[HRAF]] Press, 1983).

==Contemporary views on marriage==
===Criticisms===
{{main|Criticism of marriage}}
Many people have proposed arguments against marriage for various reasons. These include political and religious criticisms, pragmatic reference to the [[divorce rate]], as well as [[celibacy]] for religious or philosophical reasons.

===Controversial views===
Some views about marriage are controversial. Advocates of same-sex rights criticize the exclusion of homosexual relationships from legal and social recognition and the rights and obligations it provides. At the same time advocates of the [[traditional marriage movement]] oppose any attempt to define marriage to include anything other than the union of one man and one woman, claiming that to do so would "deprive the term of its fundamental and defining meaning."<ref>{{cite press release|title=Same-Sex Marriage|publisher=Rabbinical Council of America|date=2004-03-30|url=http://www.rabbis.org/news/article.cfm?id=100556}}</ref>

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Age at first marriage]]
*[[Age disparity in sexual relationships]]
*[[Feminism]]
*[[List of people with longest marriages]]
*[[Marriage privatization]]
*[[Men's Rights]]
*[[Misandry]]
*[[Radical Feminism]]
*[[Sexual conflict]]
*[[Types of marriages]]

===Related concepts===


*[[Adultery]] - Sexual intercourse between a married person and a partner other than the lawful spouse.
*[[Alimony]] - obligation of support.
*[[Annulment]] - legal procedure for declaring a marriage null and void.
*[[Aufruf]] - A ceremony in which Jews pelt the couple to be married with candy on the [[Shabbat]] before the wedding.
*[[Betrothal]] - formal state of engagement to be married.
*[[Brideservice]]
*[[Child marriage]]
*[[Chinese marriage]]
*[[Christian views of marriage]] - views of Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant, and others
*[[Civil marriage]] - marriages which are constituted by a government official and not a religious congregation.
*[[Divorce]] - ending of a marriage.
*[[Engagement]]
*[[Family therapy]]/[[Relationship counseling]]
*[[Free love]] - a social movement opposed to marriage
*[[Head and Master laws]]
*[[Husband]]/[[Wife]]
*[[Human sexuality]]
*[[Human sexual behavior]]
*[[Hypergamy]]
*[[Inheritance]]
*[[Islamic marital jurisprudence]]
*[[Living apart together]]
*[[Mail-order bride]]
*[[Marriage (conflict)]]
*[[Marriage gap]]
*[[Marriage in the United States]]
*[[Marriage law]]
*[[Marriageable age]]
*[[Monogamy]]/[[Polygamy]]
*[[Nikah urfi]]
*[[Legal separation|Separation]] - a step in the ending of a marriage.
*[[Social unit]]
*[[Wedding]]
*[[Wedding ring]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|marriage}}
{{Commonscat}}
*[http://www.ualberta.ca/~di/csh/csh12/Boswell.html A review] of John Boswell's ''Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe''
*[http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/africanmarriageritual.html African Marriage Rituals]
*{{cite book|title=For Better, for Worse: British Marriages, 1600 to the Present|last=Gillis|first=John R.|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=019503614X|year=1985|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=t3kiLAQxrnMC}}
*[http://www.in-mind.org/issue-4/forever-and-a-day-or-just-one-night.html 'Forever and a Day' or 'Just One Night'?] On Adaptive Functions of Long-Term and Short-Term Romantic Relationships
*{{cite web|url=http://lawfam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/19/1/47|title=Legal Regulation of Marital Relations: An Historical and Comparative Approach{{ndash}} Gautier 19 (1): 47{{ndash}} International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family|accessdate=2007-06-13|format=|work=}}
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20020321.shtml "Marriage – its various forms and the role of the State"] on [[BBC Radio 4]]’s [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|''In Our Time'']] featuring Janet Soskice, Frederik Pedersen and Christina Hardyment
*{{cite web|url=http://lawfam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/4/2/154|title=Radical principles and the legal institution of marriage: domestic relations law and social democracy in Sweden {{ndash}} Bradley 4 (2): 154{{ndash}} International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family|accessdate=2007-06-13|format=|work=}}
*[http://www.thehist.com/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=145&Itemid=673 Recordings] & [http://www.thehist.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=709&Itemid=672 Photos] from a [[College Historical Society]] debate on the role of marriage in modern life, featuring Senator [[David Norris]] and Senator [[Ronan Mullen]].
*[http://www.antidowry.com/issues4.htm Remarriage]
*[http://marriage.rutgers.edu/publicat.htm The National Marriage Project] at [[Rutgers University]]

<br>
{{Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights}}


[[Category:Family]]
[[Category:Marriage| ]]
[[Category:Mating]]
[[Category:Demography]]
[[Category:Old French loanwords]]



[[ar:زواج]]
[[ay:Jaqichasiña]]
[[be:Шлюб]]
[[be-x-old:Шлюб]]
[[bs:Brak]]
[[br:Priedelezh]]
[[bg:Брак]]
[[ca:Matrimoni]]
[[cs:Manželství]]
[[da:Ægteskab]]
[[de:Ehe]]
[[et:Abielu]]
[[el:Γάμος]]
[[es:Matrimonio]]
[[eo:Nupto]]
[[fa:ازدواج]]
[[fr:Mariage]]
[[zh-classical:夫妻]]
[[ko:혼인]]
[[hr:Brak]]
[[io:Mariajo]]
[[id:Pernikahan]]
[[is:Hjónaband]]
[[it:Matrimonio]]
[[he:נישואים]]
[[ka:ქორწინება]]
[[sw:Ndoa]]
[[ht:Marry]]
[[la:Matrimonium]]
[[lv:Laulība]]
[[lt:Santuoka]]
[[hu:Házasság]]
[[mk:Брак]]
[[ml:വിവാഹം]]
[[mzn:Hemraver]]
[[nl:Huwelijk]]
[[ja:結婚]]
[[no:Ekteskap]]
[[nn:Ekteskap]]
[[oc:Matrimòni]]
[[pl:Małżeństwo]]
[[pt:Casamento]]
[[kaa:Neke]]
[[ro:Căsătorie]]
[[qu:Kasarakuy]]
[[ru:Брачный союз]]
[[sq:Martesa]]
[[simple:Marriage]]
[[sr:Брак]]
[[fi:Avioliitto]]
[[sv:Äktenskap]]
[[tl:Kasal (institusyon)]]
[[ta:திருமணம்]]
[[tt:Öylänü]]
[[te:పెళ్ళి]]
[[th:การสมรส]]
[[vi:Hôn nhân]]
[[tr:Evlilik]]
[[uk:Шлюб]]
[[wa:Mariaedje]]
[[wuu:婚姻]]
[[yi:אישית]]
[[zh-yue:結婚]]
[[bat-smg:Sosėvėnčiavuojėms]]
[[zh:婚姻]]

Separate but equal

2008-12-27T12:34:15Z

CarlThomas: removing some too-obvious bias

{{Refimprove|date=February 2008}}
{{For|the film about the [[Brown v. Board of Education]] trial|Separate But Equal (film)}}
{{segregation}}
'''Separate but equal''' is a set phrase that systems of [[Racial segregation|segregation]] giving different "colored only" facilities or services with the declaration that the quality of each group's public facilities remain equal. The phrase also came from the article written by an anonymous person in 1869. The article titled "Separate but Equal" was about how people had equal rights but were separated because of race.

==United States==
The [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865) policy yielded the cessation of most legal [[History of slavery in the United States|slavery]] in the U.S., upon which the separate but equal laws became officially established throughout the [[United States]] and represented the institutionalization of the segregation period. Blacks were entitled to receive the same public services such as schools, bathrooms, and water fountains, but the 'separate but equal' doctrine mandated different facilities for the two groups. The legitimacy of such laws was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'', ''163 U.S. 537.''

[[Image:WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg|thumb|250px|A restaurant in [[Lancaster, Ohio]], in 1938.]]
The facilities and social services exclusive to African-Americans were of lower quality than those reserved for whites; for example, many African-American schools received less public funding per student than nearby white schools.

The repeal of "separate but equal" laws was a key focus of the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s]]. In ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', ''347 U.S. 483'' (1954), attorneys for the [[NAACP]] referred to the phrase "equal but separate" used in ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' as a custom ''[[de jure]]'' [[racial segregation]] enacted into law. The NAACP, led by the soon-to-be first black Supreme Court Justice [[Thurgood Marshall]], was successful in challenging the [[Constitutionality|constitutional]] viability of the separate but equal doctrine, and the court voted to overturn sixty years of law that had developed under ''Plessy''. The Supreme Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for blacks and whites at the state level. The companion case of ''[[Bolling v. Sharpe]]'', ''347 U.S. 497'' outlawed such practices at the Federal level in the [[District of Columbia]]. In 1967 under ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'', the [[United States Supreme Court]] declared [[Virginia]]'s [[anti-miscegenation]] statute, the "[[Racial Integrity Act of 1924]]", unconstitutional, thereby ending all [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]]-based legal restrictions on [[marriage]] ("[[anti-miscegenation laws]]") in the United States.

The phrase "separate but equal" has been more recently used by supporters of [[same-sex marriage]] <ref>Botts, Tina. "Separate But Equal Revisited: The Case of Same Sex Marriage" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the The Law and Society Association, Jul 06, 2006 <Not Available>. 2008-10-23 <http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p95675_index.html></ref> to argue for full marriage rights for same-sex couples.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[de:Separate but equal]]
[[pl:Separate but equal]]
[[sv:Separate but equal]]
[[zh:隔离但平等]]