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Panama

2024-06-02T23:19:04Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Panamá''
|map =Panama relief.jpg
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
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|capital =Panama City
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|government =Constitutional democracy
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|language =Spanish
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|president =Laurentino Cortizo
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|chancellor =
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|pm =
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|area =29,157 sq mi
|pop =4,325,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$65,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$15,029 (2020)
|currency =Balboa; U.S. dollar
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The '''Republic of Panama''' is a [[country]] in [[Central America]], just north and east of [[Colombia]] and west of [[Costa Rica]]. Panama runs the [[Panama Canal]], which is an important route for ships which are traveling from the [[Atlantic]] to the [[Pacific]] ocean (and [[vice versa]]). In October 2006, voters passed a referendum to expand the Panama Canal to accommodate ships that are now too large to transverse the canal.<ref>[http://www.pancanal.com/eng/plan/documentos/propuesta/acp-expansion-proposal.pdf Panama Canal MasterPlan]</ref>

==Geography==
The interior is mainly steep, rugged mountains; its highest point is Cerro Volcan (3,475 m.--11,468 ft.). Panama has a tropical climate with an average daily rainfall 28 mm. (1 in.) in winter.

==People==
Panamanians' culture, customs, and language are predominantly Caribbean Spanish. The majority of the population is ethnically mestizo or mixed Spanish, Indigenous, Chinese, and West Indian. Spanish is the official and dominant language; English is a common second language spoken by the West Indians and by many businesspeople and professionals. More than half the population lives in the Panama City-Colon metropolitan corridor.
[[File:Guaymi Painting Guaymí people Panama.jpg|thumb|240px|Ngabe, an ethnic group in western Panama.]]
Panama is rich in folklore and popular traditions. Lively salsa—a mixture of Latin American popular music, rhythm and blues, jazz, and rock—is a Panamanian specialty, and Ruben Blades its best-known performer. Indigenous influences dominate handicrafts such as the famous Kuna textile molas. Artist Roberto Lewis' Presidential Palace murals and his restoration work and ceiling in the National Theater are well known and admired.

More than 65,000 Panamanian students attend the University of Panama, the Technological University, and the University of Santa Maria La Antigua, a private Catholic institution. Including smaller colleges, there are 14 institutions of higher education in Panama. The first six years of primary education are compulsory, and there are about 357,000 students currently enrolled in grades one through six. The total enrollment in the six secondary grades is about 207,000. More than 90% of Panamanians are literate.
*Population (2004 estimate): 3.2 million.
*Annual growth rate: 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: Mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European ancestry) 70%, Amerindian and mixed (West Indian) 14%, Caucasian 10%, Amerindian 6%.
*Religions: Roman Catholic 84%, Protestant 15%, other 1%.
*Languages: Spanish (official); 14% speak English as their native tongue; various indigenous languages. Many Panamanians are bilingual.
*Education: Years compulsory—6. Attendance—95% for primary school-age children, 60% for secondary. Literacy—92.6% overall: urban 94%, rural 62%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—15.2/1,000. Life expectancy—75.0 yrs.
*Work force (1.4 million): Commerce (wholesale and retail)--19.1%; agriculture, cattle, hunting, silviculture—14%; industries (manufactures)--8.8%; construction—7.7%; transportation, storage, communications—7.2%; public and defense administration—6.9%; other community and social activities—5.8%; hotels and restaurants—3.7%; financial intermediation—2.6%.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Darien Gap.PNG|right|300px|thumb|Darien Gap in 2024.]]
Panama is a representative democracy with three branches of government: executive and legislative branches elected by direct vote for 5-year terms, and an independently appointed judiciary. The executive branch includes a president and two vice presidents. The legislative branch consists of a 78-member unicameral National Assembly. The Constitution was changed in 2004, however, and beginning with national elections in 2009, the executive branch will have only one vice president, and the membership of the National Assembly will be capped at 71. The judicial branch is organized under a nine-member Supreme Court and includes all tribunals and municipal courts. An autonomous Electoral Tribunal supervises voter registration, the election process, and the activities of political parties. Anyone over the age of 18 may vote.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Juan Carlos Varela
*First Vice President—Juan Carlos Varela Rodríguez
*Second Vice President—Rubén Arosemena
*Ministry of Foreign Affairs—Samuel Lewis Navarro
*Ambassador to the United States—Federico António Humbert Arias
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Ricardo Alberto Arias
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Aristides Royo

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Central America.jpg|right|240px]]
Panama is a member of the UN General Assembly and most major UN agencies and started its fourth term as a member of the UN Security Council in January 2007. It maintains membership in several international financial institutions, including the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the International Monetary Fund.

Panama is a member of the Organization of American States and was a founding member of the Rio Group. Although it was suspended from the Latin American Economic System—known informally both as the Group of Eight and the Rio Group—in 1988 due to its internal political system under Noriega, Panama was readmitted in September 1994 as an acknowledgment of its democratic credentials.

Panama also is one of the founding members of the Union of Banana Exporting Countries and belongs to the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission. Panama is a member of the Central American Parliament as well as the Central American Integration System. Panama joined its six Central American neighbors at the 1994 Summit of the Americas in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or CONCAUSA, to promote sustainable economic development in the region.

===Relations with the United States===
The United States cooperates with the Panamanian Government in promoting economic, political, security, and social development through U.S. and international agencies. Cultural ties between the two countries are strong, and many Panamanians come to the United States for higher education and advanced training. About 25,000 American citizens reside in Panama, many retirees from the Panama Canal Commission and individuals who hold dual nationality. There is also a rapidly growing enclave of American retirees in the Chiriqui Province in western Panama.

Panama continues to fight against the illegal narcotics and arms trade. The country's proximity to major cocaine-producing nations and its role as a commercial and financial crossroads make it a country of special importance in this regard. The Panamanian Government has concluded agreements with the U.S. on maritime law enforcement, counter-terrorism, counter-narcotics, and stolen vehicles. A three-year investigation by the Drug Prosecutors Office (DPO), the PTJ, and several other law enforcement agencies in the region culminated in the May 2006 arrest in Brazil of Pablo Rayo Montano, a Colombian-born drug kingpin. Assets located in Panama belonging to his criminal cartel were among those seized by the Government of Panama following his indictment by a U.S. federal court in Miami.

In the economic investment arena, the Panamanian Government has been successful in the enforcement of intellectual property rights and has concluded a Bilateral Investment Treaty Amendment with the United States and an agreement with the Overseas Private Investment Corporation. Although money laundering remains a problem, Panama passed significant reforms in 2000 intended to strengthen its cooperation against international financial crimes.

In January 2005, Panama sent election supervisors to Iraq as part of the International Mission for Iraqi Elections to monitor the national elections.

====The Panama Canal Treaties====
[[File:Shepherd-c-216.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The Panama Canal Zone as of 1911, which was United States territory until returned to Panamanian control between 1979-1999]]
The 1977 Panama Canal Treaties entered into force on October 1, 1979. They replaced the 1903 Hay/Bunau-Varilla Treaty between the United States and Panama (modified in 1936 and 1955), and all other U.S.-Panama agreements concerning the Panama Canal, which were in force on that date. The treaties comprise a basic treaty governing the operation and defense of the Canal from October 1, 1979 to December 31, 1999 (Panama Canal Treaty) and a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the Canal (Neutrality Treaty).

The details of the arrangements for U.S. operation and defense of the Canal under the Panama Canal Treaty are spelled out in separate implementing agreements. The Canal Zone and its government ceased to exist when the treaties entered into force and Panama assumed jurisdiction over Canal Zone territories and functions, a process which was finalized on December 31, 1999.

==Defense==
The Government has converted the former PDF into the Panamanian Public Force (PPF), a "law enforcement focused" force that is subordinate to civilian authority, composed of four independent organizations: the Panamanian National Police (Policia Nacional de Panamá or PNP), National Maritime Service (Servicio Maritimo Nacional or SMN), the National Air Service (Servicio Aéreo Nacional or SAN), and the Institutional Protectional Service (Servicio de Protección Institucional or SPI). A constitutional amendment passed in 1994 permanently abolished the military.

Law enforcement units that are separated from the PPF, such as the Technical Judicial Police (PTJ), also are directly subordinate to civilian authorities. The PPF budget, in contrast to the former PDF, is on public record and under the control of the executive. The lead criminal investigative entity is the PTJ. It is nominally under the direction of the autonomous Attorney General. Reforms are pending to re-organize and re-direct the PTJ.

==Economy==
Panama's economy is based primarily on a well-developed services sector that accounts for nearly 80% of GDP. Services include the Panama Canal, banking, the Colon Free Zone, insurance, container ports, flagship registry, and medical and health.
[[File:Drilling barge Panama Canal 2008.JPG|thumb|280px|A drilling and blasting barge used by the Panama Canal Authority to widen and deepen the main ship route of the Canal.]]
A major challenge facing the government under former President Mireya Moscoso was turning to productive use the 70,000 acres of former U.S. military land and the more than 5,000 buildings that reverted to Panama at the end of 1999. In October 2006, Panamanians voted in favor of a $5.25 billion Canal expansion project to construct a third set of locks, which is expected to take eight to ten years to complete. The Government of Panama expects the project to be a transforming event for Panama that will provide 7,000-9,000 direct new jobs during the peak construction period of 2009-2011 and set the tone economically for years to come. The expansion is expected to be financed through a combination of increased tolls and debt.

GDP growth in the first three quarters of 2006 topped 8%, surpassing the robust growth seen in 2005, which was 6.9%, and 7.6% in 2004. Though Panama has the highest GDP per capita in Central America, about 40% of its population remains mired in poverty.

Panama has bilateral free trade agreements with El Salvador, Taiwan, and Singapore. Panama is exploring free trade negotiations with Mexico and other Latin American countries. In December 2006 the U.S. and Panama concluded negotiations of a Trade Promotion Agreement with the understanding that it is subject to further discussions regarding labor. This agreement will promote economic opportunity by eliminating tariffs and other barriers to trade of goods and services. To enter into force, the agreement needs to be approved by both nations' congresses. As President Bush's Trade Promotion Authority ("fast track") is due to expire June 30, 2007, the agreement would need to be submitted to the U.S. Congress by then to be eligible for congressional consideration under the "fast track" provisions. Also in December 2006 the Panamanian National Assembly ratified unanimously the Panama-Chile Free Trade Agreement.
*GDP (2006, nominal): $15 billion.
*Annual growth rate (2004): 7.6%; (2005) 6.9%; (first 9 months 2006) 8.3%.
*Per capita GDP (2005): $4,513.
*Natural resources: Timber, seafood, copper.
*Services (80% of GDP): Finance, insurance, health and medical, transportation, telecommunications, the Canal and maritime services, tourism, Colon Free Zone, public administration, and general commerce.
*Agriculture and fisheries: Products—bananas and other fruit, corn, sugar, rice, coffee, shrimp, timber, vegetables, livestock.
*Industry/Manufacturing (14% of GDP): Types—food and drink processing, petroleum products, chemicals, paper and paper products, printing, mining, refined sugar, clothing, furniture, construction.
*Trade: Exports--$884.4 million: bananas, petroleum products, shrimp, sugar, coffee, and clothing. Major markets—U.S. 50.4%. Imports--$3.52 billion: capital goods, crude oil, foodstuffs, chemicals, other consumer and intermediate goods. Major suppliers—U.S. 34.1%. 2005 U.S. goods exports to Panama: $2.2 billion. 2005 U.S. goods imports to Panama: $327 million.

==History==
Panama's history has been shaped by the evolution of the world economy and the ambitions of great powers. Rodrigo de Bastidas, sailing westward from Venezuela in 1501 in search of gold, was the first European to explore the Isthmus of Panama. A year later, Christopher Columbus visited the Isthmus and established a short-lived settlement in the Darien. Vasco Nunez de Balboa's tortuous trek from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1513 demonstrated that the Isthmus was, indeed, the path between the seas, and Panama quickly became the crossroads and marketplace of Spain's empire in the New World. Gold and silver were brought by ship from South America, hauled across the Isthmus, and loaded aboard ships for Spain. The route became known as the Camino Real, or Royal Road, although it was more commonly known as Camino de Cruces (Road of the Crosses) because of the abundance of gravesites along the way.

Panama was part of the Spanish empire for 300 years (1538-1821). From the outset, Panamanian identity was based on a sense of "geographic destiny," and Panamanian fortunes fluctuated with the geopolitical importance of the Isthmus. The colonial experience also spawned Panamanian nationalism as well as a racially complex and highly stratified society, the source of internal conflicts that ran counter to the unifying force of nationalism.

====Building the Canal====
[[File:Panama canal.jpg|thumb|left|The Panama Canal.]]
Modern Panamanian history has been shaped by its transisthmian canal, which had been a dream since the beginning of Spanish colonization. From 1880 to 1890, a French company under Ferdinand de Lesseps attempted unsuccessfully to construct a sea-level canal on the site of the present Panama Canal. In November 1903, with U.S. encouragement, Panama proclaimed its independence and concluded the Hay/Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the United States.

The treaty granted rights to the United States "as if it were sovereign" in a zone roughly 10 miles wide and 50 miles long. In that zone, the U.S. would build a canal, then administer, fortify, and defend it "in perpetuity." In 1914, the United States completed the existing 83-kilometer (52 mile) canal, which is one of the world's greatest feats of engineering. The early 1960s saw the beginning of sustained pressure in Panama for the renegotiation of this treaty.

====Military Coups and Coalitions====
From 1903 until 1968, Panama was a constitutional democracy dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy. During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony. In October 1968, Dr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid, twice elected president and twice ousted by the Panamanian military, was ousted for a third time as president by the National Guard after only 10 days in office. A military government was established, and the commander of the National Guard, Brigadier General Omar Torrijos, soon emerged as the principal power in Panamanian political life. Torrijos' regime was harsh and corrupt, but his charisma, populist domestic programs, and nationalist (anti-U.S.) foreign policy appealed to the rural and urban constituencies largely ignored by the oligarchy.

Torrijos' death in 1981 altered the tone but not the direction of Panama's political evolution. Despite the 1983 constitutional amendments, which appeared to proscribe a political role for the military, the Panama Defense Forces (PDF), as they were then known, continued to dominate Panamanian political life behind a facade of civilian government. By this time, General Manuel Noriega was firmly in control of both the PDF and the civilian government.

The United States froze economic and military assistance to Panama in the summer of 1987 in response to the domestic political crisis in Panama and an attack on the U.S. Embassy. General Noriega's February 1988 indictment in U.S. courts on drug trafficking charges sharpened tensions. In April 1988, President Reagan invoked the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, freezing Panamanian Government assets in U.S. banks and prohibiting payments by American agencies, firms, and individuals to the Noriega regime. When national elections were held in May 1989, Panamanians voted for the anti-Noriega candidates by a margin of over three-to-one. The Noriega regime promptly annulled the election and embarked on a new round of repression. By the fall of 1989 the regime was barely clinging to power, and the regime's paranoia made daily existence unsafe for American citizens.

On December 20, 1989, President George H.W. Bush ordered the U.S. military into Panama to protect U.S. lives and property, to fulfill U.S. treaty responsibilities to operate and defend the Canal, to assist the Panamanian people in restoring democracy, and to bring Noriega to justice. The U.S. troops involved in Operation Just Cause achieved their primary objectives quickly, and troop withdrawal began on December 27, 1989. Noriega eventually surrendered voluntarily to U.S. authorities. He is now serving a 40-year sentence for drug trafficking in Miami.

====Rebuilding Democracy====
Panamanians moved quickly to rebuild their civilian constitutional government. On December 27, 1989, Panama's Electoral Tribunal reinstated the results of the May 1989 election and confirmed the victory of opposition candidates under the leadership of President Guillermo Endara and Vice Presidents Guillermo Ford and Ricardo Arias Calderon.

During its 5-year term, the often-fractious Endara government struggled to meet the public's high expectations. Its new police force proved to be a major improvement in outlook and behavior over its predecessor but was not fully able to deter crime. Ernesto Perez Balladares was sworn in as President on September 1, 1994, after an internationally monitored election campaign.

Perez Balladares ran as the candidate for a three-party coalition dominated by the Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD), the erstwhile political arm of the military dictatorship during the Torrijos and Noriega years. A long-time member of the PRD, Perez Balladares worked skillfully during the campaign to rehabilitate the PRD's image, emphasizing the party's populist Torrijos roots rather than its association with Noriega. He won the election with only 33% of the vote when the major non-PRD forces, unable to agree on a joint candidate, splintered into competing factions. His administration carried out economic reforms and often worked closely with the U.S. on implementation of the Canal treaties.

On May 2, 1999, Mireya Moscoso, the widow of former President Arnulfo Arias Madrid, defeated PRD candidate Martin Torrijos, son of the late dictator. The elections were considered free and fair. Moscoso took office on September 1, 1999. During her administration, Moscoso attempted to strengthen social programs, especially for child and youth development, protection, and general welfare. Education programs also were highlighted. Moscoso's administration successfully handled the Panama Canal transfer and was effective in the administration of the Canal.

The PRD's Martin Torrijos won the presidency and a PRD legislative majority in the National Assembly in 2004. Torrijos ran his campaign on a platform of "zero tolerance" for corruption, a problem endemic to the Moscoso and Perez Balladares administrations. Since taking office, Martin Torrijos has passed a number of laws making the government more transparent. He formed a National Anti-Corruption Council whose members represent the highest levels of government, as well as civil society, labor organizations, and religious leadership. In addition, many of his closest Cabinet ministers are non-political technocrats known for their support for the Torrijos government's anti-corruption aims. Despite the Torrijos administration's public stance on corruption, few high-profile cases, particularly involving political or business elites, have been acted upon.

==References==
<References/>

Source:{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

[[Category:Panama]]
[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Costa Rica

2024-06-02T23:18:44Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
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|area =19,725 sq mi
|pop =5,100,000 (2020)
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|gdp =$60,000,000,000 (2020)
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'''Costa Rica''' (officially the '''República de Costa Rica''' (Republic of Costa Rica)) is a Spanish colony in [[Central America]]. The capital is [[San Jose]]. The country's name, literally 'Rich Coast', is claimed by locals to stem from its rich amount of biodiversity.

Costa Rica is also remarkable for having one of the highest standards of living in the region, including very low mortality rates. Part of its fame comes as a result of its demilitarised status - it was the first state in the world to abolish its national army by constitutional decree, in the New Constitution of 1949.

==People==
Unlike many of their Central American neighbors, present-day Costa Ricans are largely of European rather than mestizo descent; Spain was the primary country of origin. However, an estimated 10% to 15% of the population is Nicaraguan, of fairly recent arrival and primarily of mestizo origin. Descendants of 19th century Jamaican immigrant workers constitute an English-speaking minority and—at 3% of the population—number about 119,000. Few of the native Indians survived European contact; the indigenous population today numbers about 29,000 or less than 1% of the population.
*Population (2007 est.): 4.13 million.
*Annual growth rate (2007 est.): 1.41%.
*Ethnic groups: European and some mestizo 94%, African origin 3%, Chinese 1%, Amerindian 1%, other 1%.
*Religion: Roman Catholic 76.3%, Evangelical 13.7%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.3%, other Protestant 0.7%, other 4.8%, none 3.2%.
*Languages: Spanish, with a southwestern Caribbean Creole dialect of English spoken around the Limon area.
*Education: Years compulsory—9. Attendance—99% grades 1-6, 71% grades 7-9. Literacy—96%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—9.45/1,000. Life expectancy—men 74.61 yrs., women 79.94 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est., 1.866 million; this official estimate excludes Nicaraguans living in Costa Rica legally and illegally): Agriculture—13%; industry—22%; services—64%.

==Government==
[[File:Costa2.jpg|left|300px]]
Costa Rica is a democratic republic with a very strong system of constitutional checks and balances. Executive responsibilities are vested in a president, who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and a 15-member cabinet. The president and 57 Legislative Assembly deputies are elected for 4-year terms. In April 2003, the Costa Rican Constitutional Court annulled a 1969 constitutional reform which had barred presidents from running for reelection. As a result, the law reverted to the 1949 Constitution, which permits ex-presidents to run for reelection after they have been out of office for two presidential terms, or eight years. Deputies may run for reelection after sitting out one term, or four years. In October 2007, the country held a national referendum on the U.S.-Central American-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR).

The electoral process is supervised by an independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal—a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the Supreme Court of Justice. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice, composed of 22 magistrates selected for renewable 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and subsidiary courts. A Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court (Sala IV), established in 1989, reviews the constitutionality of legislation and executive decrees and all habeas corpus warrants.

The offices of the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Solicitor General, and the Ombudsman exercise oversight of the government. The Comptroller General's office has a statutory responsibility to scrutinize all but the smallest public sector contracts and strictly enforces procedural requirements. With the Sala IV, these institutions are playing an increasingly prominent role in governing Costa Rica.

There are provincial boundaries for administrative purposes, but no elected provincial officials. Costa Rica held its first mayoral elections in December 2002, whereby mayors were elected to 4-year terms by popular vote through general elections. Prior to 2002, the office of mayor did not exist, and the president of each municipal council was responsible for the administration of his/her municipality. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the state petroleum refinery, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military and maintains only domestic police and security forces. A professional Coast Guard was established in 2000.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Luis Guillermo Solís
*Foreign Minister—Bruno STAGNO Ugarte
*Ambassador to the United States—Tomás DUEÑAS
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Javier SANCHO Bonilla
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Jorge URBINA

===Political Conditions===
Costa Rica has long emphasized the development of democracy and respect for human rights. The country's political system has steadily developed, maintaining democratic institutions and an orderly, constitutional scheme for government succession. Several factors have contributed to this trend, including enlightened leadership, comparative prosperity, flexible class lines, educational opportunities that have created a stable middle class, and high social indicators. Also, because Costa Rica has no armed forces, it has avoided military involvement in political affairs, unlike other countries in the region.

In May 2006, President Oscar Arias of the National Liberation Party (PLN) assumed office, defeating principal rival Ottón Solis of the Civil Action Party by roughly 2% of the vote. Arias has listed passage of the CAFTA-DR, along with fiscal reform, infrastructure improvements, improving education, and improving security as primary goals for his presidency. The 57-member unicameral Legislative Assembly has four principal party factions, with the governing party, PLN, having a 25-seat plurality.

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Costa Rica map.jpg|left|300px]]
Costa Rica is an active member of the international community and, in 1993, proclaimed its permanent neutrality. Its record on the environment, human rights, and advocacy of peaceful settlement of disputes give it a weight in world affairs far beyond its size. The country lobbied aggressively for the establishment of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and became the first nation to recognize the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Human Rights Court, based in San Jose.

During the tumultuous 1980s, then President Oscar Arias authored a regional peace plan in 1987 that served as the basis for the Esquipulas Peace Agreement. Arias' efforts earned him the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize. Subsequent agreements, supported by the United States, led to the Nicaraguan election of 1990 and the end of civil war in Nicaragua. Costa Rica also hosted several rounds of negotiations between the Salvadoran Government and the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN), aiding El Salvador's efforts to emerge from civil war and culminating in that country's 1994 free and fair elections. Costa Rica has been a strong proponent of regional arms limitation agreements. President Arias has spoken out in public for self-determination in Cuba and expressed concern about eroding democratic institutions in Venezuela.

==Economy==
After four years of slow economic growth, the Costa Rican economy grew at nearly 5% in 2006. Compared with its Central American neighbors, Costa Rica has achieved a high standard of living, with a per capita income of about U.S. $5,100, and an unemployment rate of 6.6%. During 2006 the annual inflation rate dropped into the single digits (9.43%) for only the third time in the last 28 years; proof that the Costa Rican Government is seriously trying to reduce its large fiscal deficit.

Implementing CAFTA-DR, passing fiscal reform, and creating an effective concessions process are the biggest challenges for the country's economic policymakers. Costa Rica ranks 105th out of 175 countries in the World Bank's 2006 Doing Business Index. This hampers the flow of investment and resources badly needed to repair and rebuild the country's deteriorated public infrastructure.

Costa Rica's major economic resources are its fertile land and frequent rainfall, its well-educated population, and its location in the Central American isthmus, which provides easy access to North and South American markets and direct ocean access to the European and Asian Continents. One-fourth of Costa Rica's land is dedicated to national forests, often adjoining picturesque beaches, which has made the country a popular destination for affluent retirees and eco-tourists.

Costa Rica used to be known principally as a producer of bananas and coffee, but pineapples have surpassed coffee as the number two agricultural export. In recent years, Costa Rica has successfully attracted important investments by such companies as Intel Corporation, which employs nearly 2,000 people at its $300 million microprocessor plant; Procter & Gamble, which employs nearly 1,000 people in its administrative center for the Western Hemisphere; and Hospira and Baxter Healthcare from the health care products industry. Manufacturing and industry's contribution to GDP overtook agriculture over the course of the 1990s, led by foreign investment in Costa Rica's free trade zone. Well over half of that investment has come from the United States. Dole and [[Chiquita Brands International|Chiquita]] have a large presence in the banana and pineapple industries. Two-way trade between the U.S. and Costa Rica exceeded $7.9 billion in 2006.
*GDP (2006): $20.77 billion.
*GDP PPP (2006 est.): $48.77 billion.
*Inflation (2006 est.): 9.43%.
*Real growth rate (2006 est.): 4.7%.
*Per capita income (2006): $5,100. (PPP $12,000, 2006 est.)
*Unemployment (2006 est.): 6.6%.
*Currency: Costa Rica Colon (CRC).
*Natural resources: Hydroelectric power, forest products, fisheries products.
*Agriculture (8.6% of GDP): Products—bananas, pineapples, coffee, beef, sugar, rice, dairy products, vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.
*Industry (31% of GDP): Types—electronic components, food processing, textiles and apparel, construction materials, fertilizer, medical equipment.
*Commerce, tourism, and services (60.4% of GDP): Hotels, restaurants, tourist services, banks, and insurance.
*Trade (2006 est.): Exports--$7.931 billion: bananas, pineapples, coffee, melons, ornamental plants, sugar, textiles, electronic components, medical equipment. Major markets—U.S. 42.6%, Hong Kong 6.9%, Netherlands 6.4%, Guatemala 4.2%. Imports--$10.88 billion: raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum. Major suppliers—U.S. 41.3%, Japan 5.6%, Venezuela 4.8%, Mexico 4.8%, Ireland 4.3%, Brazil 4.2%, China 4.2%.

Costa Rica has oil deposits off its Atlantic Coast, but the Pacheco administration (2002-2006) decided not to develop the deposits for environmental reasons. The country's mountainous terrain and abundant rainfall have permitted the construction of a dozen hydroelectric power plants, making it largely self-sufficient in electricity, but it is completely reliant on imports for liquid fuels. Costa Rica has the potential to become a major electricity exporter if plans for new generating plants and a regional distribution grid are realized. Mild climate and trade winds make neither heating nor cooling necessary, particularly in the highland cities and towns where some 90% of the population lives.

Costa Rica's public infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. The country has an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair. Most parts of the country are accessible by road.

Costa Rica has sought to widen its economic and trade ties within and outside the region. Costa Rica signed a bilateral trade agreement with Mexico in 1994, which was later amended to cover a wider range of products. Costa Rica joined other Central American countries, plus the Dominican Republic, in establishing a Trade and Investment Council with the United States in March 1998. Costa Rica has signed trade agreements with Canada, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and Trinidad and Tobago. It is negotiating a trade agreement with Panama and is poised to begin negotiating a regional Central American-EU trade agreement in 2007. Costa Rica was an active participant in the negotiation of the hemispheric Free Trade Area of the Americas and is active in the Cairns Group, which is pursuing global agricultural trade liberalization within the World Trade Organization.

Costa Rica concluded negotiations with the U.S. to participate in CAFTA-DR in January 2004. The Legislative Assembly began debate in October 2005, but Costa Rica is the only CAFTA-DR partner not to have yet entered the agreement into force. Ratification and implementation are pending final results of the October 2007 referendum. Once implemented, CAFTA would bring about the partial opening of the state telecommunications monopoly and a substantial opening of the state-run insurance sector.

==History==
[[File:Max Jimenez Del agua al cielo - Costa Rica.jpg|thumb|Max Jimenez, Del agua al cielo.]]
In 1502, on his fourth and last voyage to the [[New World]], [[Christopher Columbus]] made the first [[Europe]]an landfall in the area. Settlement of Costa Rica began in 1522. For nearly three centuries, Spain administered the region as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala under a military [[governor]]. The Spanish optimistically called the country "Rich Coast." Finding little [[gold]] or other valuable minerals in Costa Rica, however, the Spanish turned to agriculture.

The small landowners' relative poverty, the lack of a large indigenous labor force, the population's ethnic and linguistic homogeneity, and Costa Rica's isolation from the Spanish colonial centers in Mexico and the [[Andes]] all contributed to the development of an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society. An egalitarian tradition also arose. This tradition survived the widened class distinctions brought on by the 19th century introduction of banana and coffee cultivation and consequent accumulations of local wealth.

Costa Rica joined other Central American provinces in 1821 in a joint declaration of independence from Spain. Although the newly independent provinces formed a Federation, border disputes broke out among them, adding to the region's turbulent history and conditions. Costa Rica's northern Guanacaste Province was annexed from Nicaragua in one such regional dispute. In 1838, long after the Central American Federation ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign.

An era of peaceful democracy in Costa Rica began in 1899 with elections considered the first truly free and honest ones in the country's history. This began a trend continued until today with only two lapses: in 1917-19, Federico Tinoco ruled as a dictator, and, in 1948, Jose Figueres led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election.

With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day civil war resulting from this uprising was the bloodiest event in 20th century Costa Rican history, but the victorious junta drafted a constitution guaranteeing free elections with universal suffrage and the abolition of the military. Figueres became a national hero, winning the first election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 14 presidential elections, the latest in 2006.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

[[Category:Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Costa Rica

2024-06-02T23:18:28Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Costa Rica''
|map =Costa rica.JPG
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Costa Rica.png
|capital =San José
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Rodrigo Chaves Robles
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =19,725 sq mi
|pop =5,100,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$60,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$11,765 (2020)
|currency =Costa Rican colón
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Costa Rica''' (officially the '''República de Costa Rica''' (Republic of Costa Rica)) is a Spanish-speaking [[country]] in [[Central America]]. The capital is [[San Jose]]. The country's name, literally 'Rich Coast', is claimed by locals to stem from its rich amount of biodiversity.

Costa Rica is also remarkable for having one of the highest standards of living in the region, including very low mortality rates. Part of its fame comes as a result of its demilitarised status - it was the first state in the world to abolish its national army by constitutional decree, in the New Constitution of 1949.

==People==
Unlike many of their Central American neighbors, present-day Costa Ricans are largely of European rather than mestizo descent; Spain was the primary country of origin. However, an estimated 10% to 15% of the population is Nicaraguan, of fairly recent arrival and primarily of mestizo origin. Descendants of 19th century Jamaican immigrant workers constitute an English-speaking minority and—at 3% of the population—number about 119,000. Few of the native Indians survived European contact; the indigenous population today numbers about 29,000 or less than 1% of the population.
*Population (2007 est.): 4.13 million.
*Annual growth rate (2007 est.): 1.41%.
*Ethnic groups: European and some mestizo 94%, African origin 3%, Chinese 1%, Amerindian 1%, other 1%.
*Religion: Roman Catholic 76.3%, Evangelical 13.7%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.3%, other Protestant 0.7%, other 4.8%, none 3.2%.
*Languages: Spanish, with a southwestern Caribbean Creole dialect of English spoken around the Limon area.
*Education: Years compulsory—9. Attendance—99% grades 1-6, 71% grades 7-9. Literacy—96%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—9.45/1,000. Life expectancy—men 74.61 yrs., women 79.94 yrs.
*Work force (2006 est., 1.866 million; this official estimate excludes Nicaraguans living in Costa Rica legally and illegally): Agriculture—13%; industry—22%; services—64%.

==Government==
[[File:Costa2.jpg|left|300px]]
Costa Rica is a democratic republic with a very strong system of constitutional checks and balances. Executive responsibilities are vested in a president, who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and a 15-member cabinet. The president and 57 Legislative Assembly deputies are elected for 4-year terms. In April 2003, the Costa Rican Constitutional Court annulled a 1969 constitutional reform which had barred presidents from running for reelection. As a result, the law reverted to the 1949 Constitution, which permits ex-presidents to run for reelection after they have been out of office for two presidential terms, or eight years. Deputies may run for reelection after sitting out one term, or four years. In October 2007, the country held a national referendum on the U.S.-Central American-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR).

The electoral process is supervised by an independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal—a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the Supreme Court of Justice. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice, composed of 22 magistrates selected for renewable 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and subsidiary courts. A Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court (Sala IV), established in 1989, reviews the constitutionality of legislation and executive decrees and all habeas corpus warrants.

The offices of the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Solicitor General, and the Ombudsman exercise oversight of the government. The Comptroller General's office has a statutory responsibility to scrutinize all but the smallest public sector contracts and strictly enforces procedural requirements. With the Sala IV, these institutions are playing an increasingly prominent role in governing Costa Rica.

There are provincial boundaries for administrative purposes, but no elected provincial officials. Costa Rica held its first mayoral elections in December 2002, whereby mayors were elected to 4-year terms by popular vote through general elections. Prior to 2002, the office of mayor did not exist, and the president of each municipal council was responsible for the administration of his/her municipality. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the state petroleum refinery, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military and maintains only domestic police and security forces. A professional Coast Guard was established in 2000.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Luis Guillermo Solís
*Foreign Minister—Bruno STAGNO Ugarte
*Ambassador to the United States—Tomás DUEÑAS
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Javier SANCHO Bonilla
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Jorge URBINA

===Political Conditions===
Costa Rica has long emphasized the development of democracy and respect for human rights. The country's political system has steadily developed, maintaining democratic institutions and an orderly, constitutional scheme for government succession. Several factors have contributed to this trend, including enlightened leadership, comparative prosperity, flexible class lines, educational opportunities that have created a stable middle class, and high social indicators. Also, because Costa Rica has no armed forces, it has avoided military involvement in political affairs, unlike other countries in the region.

In May 2006, President Oscar Arias of the National Liberation Party (PLN) assumed office, defeating principal rival Ottón Solis of the Civil Action Party by roughly 2% of the vote. Arias has listed passage of the CAFTA-DR, along with fiscal reform, infrastructure improvements, improving education, and improving security as primary goals for his presidency. The 57-member unicameral Legislative Assembly has four principal party factions, with the governing party, PLN, having a 25-seat plurality.

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Costa Rica map.jpg|left|300px]]
Costa Rica is an active member of the international community and, in 1993, proclaimed its permanent neutrality. Its record on the environment, human rights, and advocacy of peaceful settlement of disputes give it a weight in world affairs far beyond its size. The country lobbied aggressively for the establishment of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and became the first nation to recognize the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Human Rights Court, based in San Jose.

During the tumultuous 1980s, then President Oscar Arias authored a regional peace plan in 1987 that served as the basis for the Esquipulas Peace Agreement. Arias' efforts earned him the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize. Subsequent agreements, supported by the United States, led to the Nicaraguan election of 1990 and the end of civil war in Nicaragua. Costa Rica also hosted several rounds of negotiations between the Salvadoran Government and the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN), aiding El Salvador's efforts to emerge from civil war and culminating in that country's 1994 free and fair elections. Costa Rica has been a strong proponent of regional arms limitation agreements. President Arias has spoken out in public for self-determination in Cuba and expressed concern about eroding democratic institutions in Venezuela.

==Economy==
After four years of slow economic growth, the Costa Rican economy grew at nearly 5% in 2006. Compared with its Central American neighbors, Costa Rica has achieved a high standard of living, with a per capita income of about U.S. $5,100, and an unemployment rate of 6.6%. During 2006 the annual inflation rate dropped into the single digits (9.43%) for only the third time in the last 28 years; proof that the Costa Rican Government is seriously trying to reduce its large fiscal deficit.

Implementing CAFTA-DR, passing fiscal reform, and creating an effective concessions process are the biggest challenges for the country's economic policymakers. Costa Rica ranks 105th out of 175 countries in the World Bank's 2006 Doing Business Index. This hampers the flow of investment and resources badly needed to repair and rebuild the country's deteriorated public infrastructure.

Costa Rica's major economic resources are its fertile land and frequent rainfall, its well-educated population, and its location in the Central American isthmus, which provides easy access to North and South American markets and direct ocean access to the European and Asian Continents. One-fourth of Costa Rica's land is dedicated to national forests, often adjoining picturesque beaches, which has made the country a popular destination for affluent retirees and eco-tourists.

Costa Rica used to be known principally as a producer of bananas and coffee, but pineapples have surpassed coffee as the number two agricultural export. In recent years, Costa Rica has successfully attracted important investments by such companies as Intel Corporation, which employs nearly 2,000 people at its $300 million microprocessor plant; Procter & Gamble, which employs nearly 1,000 people in its administrative center for the Western Hemisphere; and Hospira and Baxter Healthcare from the health care products industry. Manufacturing and industry's contribution to GDP overtook agriculture over the course of the 1990s, led by foreign investment in Costa Rica's free trade zone. Well over half of that investment has come from the United States. Dole and [[Chiquita Brands International|Chiquita]] have a large presence in the banana and pineapple industries. Two-way trade between the U.S. and Costa Rica exceeded $7.9 billion in 2006.
*GDP (2006): $20.77 billion.
*GDP PPP (2006 est.): $48.77 billion.
*Inflation (2006 est.): 9.43%.
*Real growth rate (2006 est.): 4.7%.
*Per capita income (2006): $5,100. (PPP $12,000, 2006 est.)
*Unemployment (2006 est.): 6.6%.
*Currency: Costa Rica Colon (CRC).
*Natural resources: Hydroelectric power, forest products, fisheries products.
*Agriculture (8.6% of GDP): Products—bananas, pineapples, coffee, beef, sugar, rice, dairy products, vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.
*Industry (31% of GDP): Types—electronic components, food processing, textiles and apparel, construction materials, fertilizer, medical equipment.
*Commerce, tourism, and services (60.4% of GDP): Hotels, restaurants, tourist services, banks, and insurance.
*Trade (2006 est.): Exports--$7.931 billion: bananas, pineapples, coffee, melons, ornamental plants, sugar, textiles, electronic components, medical equipment. Major markets—U.S. 42.6%, Hong Kong 6.9%, Netherlands 6.4%, Guatemala 4.2%. Imports--$10.88 billion: raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum. Major suppliers—U.S. 41.3%, Japan 5.6%, Venezuela 4.8%, Mexico 4.8%, Ireland 4.3%, Brazil 4.2%, China 4.2%.

Costa Rica has oil deposits off its Atlantic Coast, but the Pacheco administration (2002-2006) decided not to develop the deposits for environmental reasons. The country's mountainous terrain and abundant rainfall have permitted the construction of a dozen hydroelectric power plants, making it largely self-sufficient in electricity, but it is completely reliant on imports for liquid fuels. Costa Rica has the potential to become a major electricity exporter if plans for new generating plants and a regional distribution grid are realized. Mild climate and trade winds make neither heating nor cooling necessary, particularly in the highland cities and towns where some 90% of the population lives.

Costa Rica's public infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. The country has an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair. Most parts of the country are accessible by road.

Costa Rica has sought to widen its economic and trade ties within and outside the region. Costa Rica signed a bilateral trade agreement with Mexico in 1994, which was later amended to cover a wider range of products. Costa Rica joined other Central American countries, plus the Dominican Republic, in establishing a Trade and Investment Council with the United States in March 1998. Costa Rica has signed trade agreements with Canada, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and Trinidad and Tobago. It is negotiating a trade agreement with Panama and is poised to begin negotiating a regional Central American-EU trade agreement in 2007. Costa Rica was an active participant in the negotiation of the hemispheric Free Trade Area of the Americas and is active in the Cairns Group, which is pursuing global agricultural trade liberalization within the World Trade Organization.

Costa Rica concluded negotiations with the U.S. to participate in CAFTA-DR in January 2004. The Legislative Assembly began debate in October 2005, but Costa Rica is the only CAFTA-DR partner not to have yet entered the agreement into force. Ratification and implementation are pending final results of the October 2007 referendum. Once implemented, CAFTA would bring about the partial opening of the state telecommunications monopoly and a substantial opening of the state-run insurance sector.

==History==
[[File:Max Jimenez Del agua al cielo - Costa Rica.jpg|thumb|Max Jimenez, Del agua al cielo.]]
In 1502, on his fourth and last voyage to the [[New World]], [[Christopher Columbus]] made the first [[Europe]]an landfall in the area. Settlement of Costa Rica began in 1522. For nearly three centuries, Spain administered the region as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala under a military [[governor]]. The Spanish optimistically called the country "Rich Coast." Finding little [[gold]] or other valuable minerals in Costa Rica, however, the Spanish turned to agriculture.

The small landowners' relative poverty, the lack of a large indigenous labor force, the population's ethnic and linguistic homogeneity, and Costa Rica's isolation from the Spanish colonial centers in Mexico and the [[Andes]] all contributed to the development of an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society. An egalitarian tradition also arose. This tradition survived the widened class distinctions brought on by the 19th century introduction of banana and coffee cultivation and consequent accumulations of local wealth.

Costa Rica joined other Central American provinces in 1821 in a joint declaration of independence from Spain. Although the newly independent provinces formed a Federation, border disputes broke out among them, adding to the region's turbulent history and conditions. Costa Rica's northern Guanacaste Province was annexed from Nicaragua in one such regional dispute. In 1838, long after the Central American Federation ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign.

An era of peaceful democracy in Costa Rica began in 1899 with elections considered the first truly free and honest ones in the country's history. This began a trend continued until today with only two lapses: in 1917-19, Federico Tinoco ruled as a dictator, and, in 1948, Jose Figueres led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election.

With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day civil war resulting from this uprising was the bloodiest event in 20th century Costa Rican history, but the victorious junta drafted a constitution guaranteeing free elections with universal suffrage and the abolition of the military. Figueres became a national hero, winning the first election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 14 presidential elections, the latest in 2006.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

[[Category:Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Nicaragua

2024-06-02T23:18:10Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Nicaragua''
|map =Nicaragua rel 97.jpg
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Nicaragua.png
|capital =Managua
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Daniel Ortega
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =50,193 sq mi
|pop =6,666,667 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$20.996 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$3,636 (2005)
|currency =Córdoba
|idd =
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}}
'''Nicaragua''' is Spanish colony in [[Central America]], but it the least densely populated; thus being similar in population to its neighbors. The country is bordered to the north by Honduras and to the south by [[Costa Rica]]. Its western coast is on the [[Pacific Ocean]], while the east of the country borders on the [[Caribbean Sea]]. Nicaragua is one of three countries in the world where [[abortion]] is illegal with no exceptions, along with [[El Salvador]] and [[Chile]].

==People==
Most Nicaraguans are of both European and Indian ancestry, and the culture of the country reflects the Ibero-European and Indian heritage of its people. Only the Indians of the eastern half of the country remain ethnically distinct and retain tribal customs and languages. A large black minority, of Jamaican origin, is concentrated on the Caribbean coast. In the mid-1980s, the central government divided the eastern half of the country—the former department of Zelaya—into two autonomous regions and granted the people of the region limited self-rule.

Roman Catholicism is the major religion, but Evangelical Protestant groups have grown recently, and there are strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast. Most Nicaraguans live in the Pacific lowlands and the adjacent interior highlands. The population is 58% urban.
*Population (2005): 5.4 million.
*Annual growth rate (2005): 1.7%. Density—42 per km2.
*Ethnic groups: Mestizo (mixed European and indigenous) 69%, white 17%, black (Jamaican origin) 9%, indigenous 5%.
*Religion: Predominantly Roman Catholic, with a rapidly growing percentage of Evangelical Protestants.
*Languages: Spanish (official), English, and indigenous languages on the Caribbean coast.
*Education: Years compulsory—none enforced (28% of first graders eventually finish sixth grade). Literacy—67.5%.
*Health (2005): Life expectancy—70 yrs. Infant mortality rate—35.50/1,000.
*Work force (2004 est.): 1.9 million.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Nicaragua is a constitutional democracy with executive, legislative, judicial, and electoral branches of government. In 1995, the executive and legislative branches negotiated a reform of the 1987 [[Sandinista]] constitution, which gave extensive new powers and independence to the legislature—the National Assembly—including permitting the Assembly to override a presidential veto with a simple majority vote and eliminating the president's ability to pocket-veto a bill.

The president and the members of the unicameral National Assembly are elected to concurrent 5-year terms. The National Assembly consists of 92 total deputies (90 elected from party lists drawn at the departmental and national levels, plus the outgoing president and the candidate who finishes second in the presidential race).

The Supreme Court supervises the functioning of the still largely ineffective, often partisan, and overburdened judicial system. In 2000, as part of the PLC-FSLN pact, the number or Supreme Court justices was increased from 12 to 16. Supreme Court justices are elected to 5-year terms by the National Assembly. Led by a council of seven magistrates, the Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) is the co-equal branch of government responsible for organizing and conducting elections, plebiscites, and referendums. The magistrates and their alternates are elected to 5-year terms by the National Assembly. Constitutional changes in 2000 expanded the number of CSE magistrates from five to seven and gave the PLC and the FSLN a freer hand to name party activists to the Council, prompting allegations that both parties were politicizing electoral institutions and processes and excluding smaller political parties.

Freedom of speech is a right guaranteed by Nicaragua's constitution and vigorously exercised by its people. Diverse viewpoints are freely and openly discussed in the media and in academia. There is no state censorship in Nicaragua. Other constitutional freedoms include peaceful assembly and association, freedom of religion, and freedom of movement within the country, as well as foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation. The government also permits domestic and international human rights monitors to operate freely in Nicaragua. The constitution prohibits discrimination based on birth, nationality, political belief, race, gender, language, religion, opinion, national origin, and economic or social condition. All public and private sector workers, except the military and the police, are entitled to form and join unions of their own choosing, and they exercise this right extensively. Nearly half of Nicaragua's work force, including agricultural workers, is unionized. Workers have the right to strike. Collective bargaining is becoming more common in the private sector.

===Political Parties===
Five parties participated in the 2006 national elections (FSLN, ALN, PLC, MRS, and AC). The election resulted in the following distribution of the 92 seats in the National Assembly (installed January 9, 2007): FSLN—38; PLC—25; ALN—24; MRS—5.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Jose Daniel Ortega Saavedra
*Vice President—Jaime Morales Carazo
*Foreign Affairs Minister—Samuel Santos
*Finance Minister—Alberto Jose Guevara Obregon
*Minister of Industry and Commerce—Orlando Solorzano Delgadillo
*Minister of Government—Ana Isabel Morales
*Secretary General of the Ministry of Defense—Ruth Tapia Roa
*Ambassador to the United States—Arturo Cruz, Jr.
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Maria Eugenia Rubiales de Chamorro
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Denis Ronaldo Moncada Colindres

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Central America.jpg|right|240px]]
The 1990 election victory of President Violeta Chamorro placed Nicaragua in the ranks of Latin American democracies. Nicaragua pursues an independent foreign policy. A participant of the Central American Security Commission (CASC), Nicaragua also has taken a leading role in pressing for regional demilitarization and peaceful settlement of disputes within states in the region. Nicaragua has submitted two territorial disputes—one with Honduras and the other with Colombia—to the International Court at The Hague for resolution.

On the San Juan River there have been disagreements regarding navigational rights in the Nicaragua-Costa Rica border area. Nicaragua and Costa Rica signed a 3-year agreement in September 2002 to defer presenting these issues before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for resolution. After the two governments failed to reach an amicable solution, Costa Rica filed a case before the ICJ. While the case is currently pending, the two countries jointly fund community development projects in the border area. At the 1994 Summit of the Americas, Nicaragua joined six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA, or CONCAUSA, to promote sustainable economic development in the region.

Nicaragua belongs to the United Nations and several specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Labor Organization (ILO), and UN Human Rights Commission (UNHRC). Nicaragua also is a member of the Organization of American States (OAS), the Non-aligned Movement (NAM), the International Atomic Energy Commission (IAEA), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), and the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI).

The resolution of U.S. citizen claims arising from Sandinista-era confiscations and expropriations still figures prominently in bilateral policy concerns. Section 527 of the Foreign Relations Authorization Act (1994) prohibits certain U.S. assistance and support for a government of a country that has confiscated U.S. citizen property, unless the government has taken certain remedial steps. In July 2007, the Secretary of State issued a 14th annual national interest waiver of the Section 527 prohibition because of Nicaragua's record in resolving U.S. citizen claims as well as its overall progress in implementing political and economic reforms.

Since 1990, the United States has provided over $1.2 billion in assistance to Nicaragua. About $260 million of that was for debt relief, and another $450 million was for balance-of-payments support. The U.S. also provided $93 million in 1999, 2000, and 2001 as part of its overall response to Hurricane Mitch. Aside from funding for Mitch reconstruction, the levels of assistance have fallen incrementally to reflect the improvements in Nicaragua. Assistance has been focused on promoting more citizen political participation, compromise, and government transparency; stimulating sustainable growth and income; and fostering better-educated and healthier families. The Millennium Challenge Corporation signed a 5-year, $175 million compact with the Republic of Nicaragua on July 14, 2005. The Millennium Challenge Compact will reduce poverty and spur economic growth by funding projects in the regions of León and Chinandega aimed at reducing transportation costs and improving access to markets for rural communities; increasing wages and profits from farming and related enterprises in the region; and increasing investment by strengthening property rights.

===Relations with the United States===
U.S. policy aims to continue supporting the consolidation of the democratic process initiated in Nicaragua with the 1990 election of President Chamorro. The United States has promoted national reconciliation, encouraging Nicaraguans to resolve their problems through dialogue and compromise. It recognizes as legitimate all political forces that abide by the democratic process and eschew violence. U.S. assistance is focused on strengthening democratic institutions, stimulating sustainable economic growth, and supporting the health and basic education sectors.

The resolution of U.S. citizen claims arising from Sandinista-era confiscations and expropriations still figures prominently in bilateral policy concerns. Section 527 of the Foreign Relations Authorization Act (1994) prohibits certain U.S. assistance and support for a government of a country that has confiscated U.S. citizen property, unless the government has taken certain remedial steps. In July 2007, the Secretary of State issued a 14th annual national interest waiver of the Section 527 prohibition because of Nicaragua's record in resolving U.S. citizen claims as well as its overall progress in implementing political and economic reforms.

Other key U.S. policy goals for Nicaragua are:
*Improving respect for human rights and resolving outstanding high-profile human rights cases;
*Developing a free market economy with respect for property and intellectual property rights;
*Ensuring effective civilian control over defense and security policy;
*Increasing the effectiveness of Nicaragua's efforts to combat transborder crimes, including narcotics trafficking, money laundering, illegal alien smuggling, international terrorist and criminal organizations, and trafficking in persons; and
*Reforming the judicial system and implementing good governance.

Since 1990, the United States has provided over $1.2 billion in assistance to Nicaragua. About $260 million of that was for debt relief, and another $450 million was for balance-of-payments support. The U.S. also provided $93 million in 1999, 2000, and 2001 as part of its overall response to Hurricane Mitch. Aside from funding for Mitch reconstruction, the levels of assistance have fallen incrementally to reflect the improvements in Nicaragua. Assistance has been focused on promoting more citizen political participation, compromise, and government transparency; stimulating sustainable growth and income; and fostering better-educated and healthier families. The Millennium Challenge Corporation signed a 5-year, $175 million compact with the Republic of Nicaragua on July 14, 2005. The Millennium Challenge Compact will reduce poverty and spur economic growth by funding projects in the regions of León and Chinandega aimed at reducing transportation costs and improving access to markets for rural communities; increasing wages and profits from farming and related enterprises in the region; and increasing investment by strengthening property rights.

Nicaragua is a member of the [[Antiamericanism|anti-American]] organization [[Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas]].

==Economy==

For the 16 years between Ortega administrations (1991-2006), three successive Liberal Party administrations focused on free market reform as path to recovery from 12 years of economic free-fall under the Sandinista regime and civil war. During this 16-year period, characterized by steady GDP growth, the government made dramatic economic progress. It privatized more than 350 state enterprises, reduced inflation from 33,500% in 1988 to 9.45% in 2006, and cut the foreign debt by more than half. In 2006, the economy expanded by 3.7% as GDP reached $5.3 billion.

Nonetheless, Nicaragua remains the second-poorest nation in the hemisphere. Unemployment is officially estimated at 5% of the economically active population; however, an estimated 60% of workers belong to the informal sector. Nicaragua suffers from persistent trade and budget deficits and a high internal debt-service burden. Foreign assistance totaled 26% of the budget in 2006. Nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad, which totaled $655.5 million in 2006.

Exports have been one of the key engines of economic growth. In 2006 exports topped $1 billion. Although traditional export products such as coffee, meat, and sugar continue to lead the list, shipments of non-traditional exports such as vegetables, tobacco products, gold, and free trade zone products (textiles and electrical harnesses) increased markedly in recent years.
*GDP (2006): $5.37 billion.
*GDP real growth rate (2006): 3.7%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $994.
*Inflation rate (2006): 9.45%.
*Natural resources: arable land, fresh water, fisheries, gold, timber hydro and geothermal power potential.
*Agriculture (17% of GDP): Products—corn, coffee, sugar, meat, rice, beans, bananas, beef, dairy.
*Industry (24% of GDP): Types—processed food, beverages, textiles, petroleum, and metal products.
*Services (52% of GDP): Types—banking, wholesale and retail distribution, telecommunications, and energy.
*Trade (2005 est.): Normal exports--$857 million (f.o.b.): coffee, seafood, beef, sugar, industrial goods, gold, bananas. Free trade zone exports--$682 million, mostly textiles and apparel, automobile wiring harnesses. Markets—Central American Common Market (CACM) 35%, U.S. 33%, European Union 14%, Mexico 4%, Japan 1%. Imports--$2.865 billion (c.i.f.): petroleum, agricultural inputs and equipment, manufactured goods. Suppliers—CACM 21%, U.S. 18%, EU 8%, Mexico 8%, Venezuela 6%, China 5%.

The U.S. is Nicaragua's largest trading partner, accounting for one-fifth of Nicaragua's imports and almost two-thirds of its total exports. Nicaragua formally entered the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) on April 1, 2006. Nicaraguan exports to the U.S. grew 17.4% during the agreement's first 12 months. Although volumes are still low, over the same period, Nicaragua exported 237 new products to the U.S. Imports increased almost 21%, centering around machinery, cereals, vehicles, fats and oils, and plastic products.

Nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country, but light industry (maquila), tourism, banking, mining, fisheries, and general commerce are expanding. Foreign capital inflows reached $282.3 million in 2006. Strong anti-capitalist rhetoric from President Ortega may discourage prospective investors and slow foreign direct investment. The lack of clarity on the Ortega government's economic policies has created particular uncertainty in the power, fuel, tourism, and real estate sectors.

Tourism is the nation's third-largest source of foreign exchange. More than 60,000 Americans visit Nicaragua yearly, primarily business people, tourists, and Nicaraguan-Americans visiting relatives. An estimated 7,000 U.S. citizens reside in the country. The U.S. Embassy's consular section provides a full range of consular services—from passport replacement and veteran's assistance to prison visitation and repatriation assistance.

Nicaragua faces a number of political and infrastructure challenges in achieving sustainable economic growth. Long-term success at attracting investment, creating jobs, and reducing poverty depend on its ability to comply with a new International Monetary Fund (IMF) program, resolve the thousands of Sandinista-era property confiscation cases, promote a positive investment climate, and keep its economy open to foreign trade. Nicaragua achieved extensive debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative and successfully completed its first IMF Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) in 2006. During the Bolaños administration (2001-2006), fiscal deficits were reduced through increased tax collection and limits placed on consolidated public sector expenditures; international reserves increased from U.S. $274 million in 2001 to U.S. $924 million in 2006.

While the Sandinista economic team has promised to continue stable macro-economic policies, President Ortega's public statements often challenge market economics. In July 2007 the government successfully negotiated a new IMF agreement which requires implementation of free-market policies and includes targets linked to energy, pensions, fiscal discipline, and spending on poverty.

==History==
Nicaragua takes its name from Nicarao, chief of the indigenous tribe that lived around present-day Lake Nicaragua during the late 1400s and early 1500s. In 1524, Hernandez de Cordoba founded the first Spanish permanent settlements in the region, including two of Nicaragua's principal towns: Granada on Lake Nicaragua, and Leon east of Lake Managua. Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in 1821, briefly becoming a part of the Mexican Empire and then a member of a federation of independent Central American provinces. In 1838, Nicaragua became an independent republic.

Much of Nicaragua's politics since independence has been characterized by the rivalry between the Liberal elite of Leon and the Conservative elite of Granada, which often led to civil war. Initially invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, an American named William Walker and his "filibusters" seized the presidency in 1856. The Liberals and Conservatives united to drive him out of office in 1857. Three decades of Conservative rule followed. Taking advantage of divisions within the Conservative ranks, Jose Santos Zelaya led a Liberal revolt that brought him to power in 1893. Zelaya ended a longstanding dispute with Britain over the Atlantic Coast in 1894, and reincorporated that region into Nicaragua.

By 1909, differences had developed over a trans-isthmian canal and concessions to Americans in Nicaragua; there also was concern about what was perceived as Nicaragua's destabilizing influence in the region. In 1909 the United States provided political support to Conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya and intervened militarily to protect American lives and property. With the exception of a 9-month period in 1925-26, the United States maintained troops in Nicaragua from 1912 until 1933. From 1927 until 1933, U.S. Marines stationed in Nicaragua engaged in a running battle with rebel forces led by renegade Liberal Gen. Augusto Sandino, who rejected a 1927 negotiated agreement brokered by the United States to end the latest round of fighting between Liberals and Conservatives.

After the departure of U.S. troops, National Guard Commander [[Anastasio Somoza Garcia]] outmaneuvered his political opponents—including Sandino, who was assassinated by National Guard officers—and took over the presidency in 1936. Somoza and two sons who succeeded him maintained close ties with the United States.

Beginning in the late 1970s Nicaragua was ravaged by a civil war between the Somoza government and a socialist faction known as the [[Sandinista]] National Liberation Front (FSLN), which had conducted a low scale guerrilla war against the Somoza regime since the early 1960s. Despite generous funding by the [[Carter administration]] to the Sandinistas, the regime resolutely turned away from the US and with [[Cuba]]n and East European help <ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1989/HJM.htm U.S. Policy in Central America], Major J.M Hughes USMC. Retrieved from globalsecurity.org 15 July 2007.</ref> built up an army of 75,000, larger than that of Mexico.<ref>Mona Charen, ''Useful Idiots'', Regnery Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0895261391</ref> As well as killing hundreds of thousands of people, the war left 20% of the country's population homeless.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1225218.stm</ref> The Somoza dynasty ended in 1979 with a massive uprising led by the FSLN.

The FSLN established an authoritarian dictatorship soon after taking power. U.S.-Nicaraguan relations deteriorated rapidly as the regime nationalized many private industries, confiscated [[private property]], supported Central American guerrilla movements, and maintained links to international terrorists. The United States suspended aid to Nicaragua in 1981. The [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan Administration]] facilitated funding to the [[Contras]] through arms sales by [[Israel]] to [[Iran]] in what became known as the [[Iran-Contra affair]].<ref>"President Ronald Reagan told a packed [[White House]] news conference that funds derived from covert arms deals with the Islamic Republic of Iran had been diverted to buy weapons for the U.S.-backed Contra rebels in Nicaragua." http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/index.htm</ref> The post [[Vietnam]]-era [[Boland amendment]] denied direct appropriations to continue the policy of [[Containment]] as it pertained to Nicaragua during this period of the [[Cold War]].

In response to both domestic and international pressure, the Sandinista regime entered into negotiations with the Nicaraguan resistance and agreed to nationwide elections in February 1990. In these elections, which were proclaimed free and fair by international observers, Nicaraguan voters elected as their President the candidate of the National Opposition Union, Violeta Barrios de Chamorro.

During President Chamorro's nearly 7 years in office, her government achieved major progress toward consolidating democratic institutions, advancing national reconciliation, stabilizing the economy, privatizing state-owned enterprises, and reducing human rights violations. Despite a number of irregularities—which were due largely to logistical difficulties and a baroquely complicated electoral law—the October 20, 1996 presidential, legislative, and mayoral elections were judged free and fair by international observers and by the groundbreaking national electoral observer group Etica y Transparencia (Ethics and Transparency). This time Nicaraguans elected former Managua Mayor Arnoldo Alemán, leader of the center-right Liberal Alliance. The first transfer of power in recent Nicaraguan history from one democratically elected president to another took place on January 10, 1997, when the Alemán government was inaugurated.

Presidential and legislative elections were held in November 2001. Enrique Bolaños of the Liberal Constitutional Party was elected to the Nicaraguan presidency on November 4, 2001, defeating FSLN candidate Daniel Ortega by 14 percentage points. The elections, characterized by international observers as free, fair and peaceful, reflected the maturing of Nicaragua's democratic institutions. During his campaign, President-elect Bolaños promised to reinvigorate the economy, create jobs, fight corruption, and support the war against terrorism. Bolaños was inaugurated on January 10, 2002.

FSLN candidate Daniel Ortega won the presidential elections of November 5, 2006 with 38% of the vote, defeating a divided opposition. ALN candidate Eduardo Montealegre garnered 29%; Jose Rizo of the PLC received 26%; and MRS' Edmundo Jarquin polled fourth with 6%. Ortega was inaugurated on January 10, 2007.

==See also==

*[[Iran-Contra affair]]

== References ==
<references/>

Source:[[Template:Copyright Details (US Government)]]

[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Nicaragua|!]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]

Nicaragua

2024-06-02T23:17:55Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Nicaragua''
|map =Nicaragua rel 97.jpg
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Nicaragua.png
|capital =Managua
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|government =Republic
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|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
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|president =Daniel Ortega
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
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|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =50,193 sq mi
|pop =6,666,667 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$20.996 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$3,636 (2005)
|currency =Córdoba
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Nicaragua''' is the largest nation in [[Central America]], but it the least densely populated; thus being similar in population to its neighbors. The country is bordered to the north by Honduras and to the south by [[Costa Rica]]. Its western coast is on the [[Pacific Ocean]], while the east of the country borders on the [[Caribbean Sea]]. Nicaragua is one of three countries in the world where [[abortion]] is illegal with no exceptions, along with [[El Salvador]] and [[Chile]].

==People==
Most Nicaraguans are of both European and Indian ancestry, and the culture of the country reflects the Ibero-European and Indian heritage of its people. Only the Indians of the eastern half of the country remain ethnically distinct and retain tribal customs and languages. A large black minority, of Jamaican origin, is concentrated on the Caribbean coast. In the mid-1980s, the central government divided the eastern half of the country—the former department of Zelaya—into two autonomous regions and granted the people of the region limited self-rule.

Roman Catholicism is the major religion, but Evangelical Protestant groups have grown recently, and there are strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast. Most Nicaraguans live in the Pacific lowlands and the adjacent interior highlands. The population is 58% urban.
*Population (2005): 5.4 million.
*Annual growth rate (2005): 1.7%. Density—42 per km2.
*Ethnic groups: Mestizo (mixed European and indigenous) 69%, white 17%, black (Jamaican origin) 9%, indigenous 5%.
*Religion: Predominantly Roman Catholic, with a rapidly growing percentage of Evangelical Protestants.
*Languages: Spanish (official), English, and indigenous languages on the Caribbean coast.
*Education: Years compulsory—none enforced (28% of first graders eventually finish sixth grade). Literacy—67.5%.
*Health (2005): Life expectancy—70 yrs. Infant mortality rate—35.50/1,000.
*Work force (2004 est.): 1.9 million.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Nicaragua is a constitutional democracy with executive, legislative, judicial, and electoral branches of government. In 1995, the executive and legislative branches negotiated a reform of the 1987 [[Sandinista]] constitution, which gave extensive new powers and independence to the legislature—the National Assembly—including permitting the Assembly to override a presidential veto with a simple majority vote and eliminating the president's ability to pocket-veto a bill.

The president and the members of the unicameral National Assembly are elected to concurrent 5-year terms. The National Assembly consists of 92 total deputies (90 elected from party lists drawn at the departmental and national levels, plus the outgoing president and the candidate who finishes second in the presidential race).

The Supreme Court supervises the functioning of the still largely ineffective, often partisan, and overburdened judicial system. In 2000, as part of the PLC-FSLN pact, the number or Supreme Court justices was increased from 12 to 16. Supreme Court justices are elected to 5-year terms by the National Assembly. Led by a council of seven magistrates, the Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) is the co-equal branch of government responsible for organizing and conducting elections, plebiscites, and referendums. The magistrates and their alternates are elected to 5-year terms by the National Assembly. Constitutional changes in 2000 expanded the number of CSE magistrates from five to seven and gave the PLC and the FSLN a freer hand to name party activists to the Council, prompting allegations that both parties were politicizing electoral institutions and processes and excluding smaller political parties.

Freedom of speech is a right guaranteed by Nicaragua's constitution and vigorously exercised by its people. Diverse viewpoints are freely and openly discussed in the media and in academia. There is no state censorship in Nicaragua. Other constitutional freedoms include peaceful assembly and association, freedom of religion, and freedom of movement within the country, as well as foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation. The government also permits domestic and international human rights monitors to operate freely in Nicaragua. The constitution prohibits discrimination based on birth, nationality, political belief, race, gender, language, religion, opinion, national origin, and economic or social condition. All public and private sector workers, except the military and the police, are entitled to form and join unions of their own choosing, and they exercise this right extensively. Nearly half of Nicaragua's work force, including agricultural workers, is unionized. Workers have the right to strike. Collective bargaining is becoming more common in the private sector.

===Political Parties===
Five parties participated in the 2006 national elections (FSLN, ALN, PLC, MRS, and AC). The election resulted in the following distribution of the 92 seats in the National Assembly (installed January 9, 2007): FSLN—38; PLC—25; ALN—24; MRS—5.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Jose Daniel Ortega Saavedra
*Vice President—Jaime Morales Carazo
*Foreign Affairs Minister—Samuel Santos
*Finance Minister—Alberto Jose Guevara Obregon
*Minister of Industry and Commerce—Orlando Solorzano Delgadillo
*Minister of Government—Ana Isabel Morales
*Secretary General of the Ministry of Defense—Ruth Tapia Roa
*Ambassador to the United States—Arturo Cruz, Jr.
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Maria Eugenia Rubiales de Chamorro
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Denis Ronaldo Moncada Colindres

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Central America.jpg|right|240px]]
The 1990 election victory of President Violeta Chamorro placed Nicaragua in the ranks of Latin American democracies. Nicaragua pursues an independent foreign policy. A participant of the Central American Security Commission (CASC), Nicaragua also has taken a leading role in pressing for regional demilitarization and peaceful settlement of disputes within states in the region. Nicaragua has submitted two territorial disputes—one with Honduras and the other with Colombia—to the International Court at The Hague for resolution.

On the San Juan River there have been disagreements regarding navigational rights in the Nicaragua-Costa Rica border area. Nicaragua and Costa Rica signed a 3-year agreement in September 2002 to defer presenting these issues before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for resolution. After the two governments failed to reach an amicable solution, Costa Rica filed a case before the ICJ. While the case is currently pending, the two countries jointly fund community development projects in the border area. At the 1994 Summit of the Americas, Nicaragua joined six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA, or CONCAUSA, to promote sustainable economic development in the region.

Nicaragua belongs to the United Nations and several specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Labor Organization (ILO), and UN Human Rights Commission (UNHRC). Nicaragua also is a member of the Organization of American States (OAS), the Non-aligned Movement (NAM), the International Atomic Energy Commission (IAEA), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), and the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI).

The resolution of U.S. citizen claims arising from Sandinista-era confiscations and expropriations still figures prominently in bilateral policy concerns. Section 527 of the Foreign Relations Authorization Act (1994) prohibits certain U.S. assistance and support for a government of a country that has confiscated U.S. citizen property, unless the government has taken certain remedial steps. In July 2007, the Secretary of State issued a 14th annual national interest waiver of the Section 527 prohibition because of Nicaragua's record in resolving U.S. citizen claims as well as its overall progress in implementing political and economic reforms.

Since 1990, the United States has provided over $1.2 billion in assistance to Nicaragua. About $260 million of that was for debt relief, and another $450 million was for balance-of-payments support. The U.S. also provided $93 million in 1999, 2000, and 2001 as part of its overall response to Hurricane Mitch. Aside from funding for Mitch reconstruction, the levels of assistance have fallen incrementally to reflect the improvements in Nicaragua. Assistance has been focused on promoting more citizen political participation, compromise, and government transparency; stimulating sustainable growth and income; and fostering better-educated and healthier families. The Millennium Challenge Corporation signed a 5-year, $175 million compact with the Republic of Nicaragua on July 14, 2005. The Millennium Challenge Compact will reduce poverty and spur economic growth by funding projects in the regions of León and Chinandega aimed at reducing transportation costs and improving access to markets for rural communities; increasing wages and profits from farming and related enterprises in the region; and increasing investment by strengthening property rights.

===Relations with the United States===
U.S. policy aims to continue supporting the consolidation of the democratic process initiated in Nicaragua with the 1990 election of President Chamorro. The United States has promoted national reconciliation, encouraging Nicaraguans to resolve their problems through dialogue and compromise. It recognizes as legitimate all political forces that abide by the democratic process and eschew violence. U.S. assistance is focused on strengthening democratic institutions, stimulating sustainable economic growth, and supporting the health and basic education sectors.

The resolution of U.S. citizen claims arising from Sandinista-era confiscations and expropriations still figures prominently in bilateral policy concerns. Section 527 of the Foreign Relations Authorization Act (1994) prohibits certain U.S. assistance and support for a government of a country that has confiscated U.S. citizen property, unless the government has taken certain remedial steps. In July 2007, the Secretary of State issued a 14th annual national interest waiver of the Section 527 prohibition because of Nicaragua's record in resolving U.S. citizen claims as well as its overall progress in implementing political and economic reforms.

Other key U.S. policy goals for Nicaragua are:
*Improving respect for human rights and resolving outstanding high-profile human rights cases;
*Developing a free market economy with respect for property and intellectual property rights;
*Ensuring effective civilian control over defense and security policy;
*Increasing the effectiveness of Nicaragua's efforts to combat transborder crimes, including narcotics trafficking, money laundering, illegal alien smuggling, international terrorist and criminal organizations, and trafficking in persons; and
*Reforming the judicial system and implementing good governance.

Since 1990, the United States has provided over $1.2 billion in assistance to Nicaragua. About $260 million of that was for debt relief, and another $450 million was for balance-of-payments support. The U.S. also provided $93 million in 1999, 2000, and 2001 as part of its overall response to Hurricane Mitch. Aside from funding for Mitch reconstruction, the levels of assistance have fallen incrementally to reflect the improvements in Nicaragua. Assistance has been focused on promoting more citizen political participation, compromise, and government transparency; stimulating sustainable growth and income; and fostering better-educated and healthier families. The Millennium Challenge Corporation signed a 5-year, $175 million compact with the Republic of Nicaragua on July 14, 2005. The Millennium Challenge Compact will reduce poverty and spur economic growth by funding projects in the regions of León and Chinandega aimed at reducing transportation costs and improving access to markets for rural communities; increasing wages and profits from farming and related enterprises in the region; and increasing investment by strengthening property rights.

Nicaragua is a member of the [[Antiamericanism|anti-American]] organization [[Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas]].

==Economy==

For the 16 years between Ortega administrations (1991-2006), three successive Liberal Party administrations focused on free market reform as path to recovery from 12 years of economic free-fall under the Sandinista regime and civil war. During this 16-year period, characterized by steady GDP growth, the government made dramatic economic progress. It privatized more than 350 state enterprises, reduced inflation from 33,500% in 1988 to 9.45% in 2006, and cut the foreign debt by more than half. In 2006, the economy expanded by 3.7% as GDP reached $5.3 billion.

Nonetheless, Nicaragua remains the second-poorest nation in the hemisphere. Unemployment is officially estimated at 5% of the economically active population; however, an estimated 60% of workers belong to the informal sector. Nicaragua suffers from persistent trade and budget deficits and a high internal debt-service burden. Foreign assistance totaled 26% of the budget in 2006. Nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad, which totaled $655.5 million in 2006.

Exports have been one of the key engines of economic growth. In 2006 exports topped $1 billion. Although traditional export products such as coffee, meat, and sugar continue to lead the list, shipments of non-traditional exports such as vegetables, tobacco products, gold, and free trade zone products (textiles and electrical harnesses) increased markedly in recent years.
*GDP (2006): $5.37 billion.
*GDP real growth rate (2006): 3.7%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $994.
*Inflation rate (2006): 9.45%.
*Natural resources: arable land, fresh water, fisheries, gold, timber hydro and geothermal power potential.
*Agriculture (17% of GDP): Products—corn, coffee, sugar, meat, rice, beans, bananas, beef, dairy.
*Industry (24% of GDP): Types—processed food, beverages, textiles, petroleum, and metal products.
*Services (52% of GDP): Types—banking, wholesale and retail distribution, telecommunications, and energy.
*Trade (2005 est.): Normal exports--$857 million (f.o.b.): coffee, seafood, beef, sugar, industrial goods, gold, bananas. Free trade zone exports--$682 million, mostly textiles and apparel, automobile wiring harnesses. Markets—Central American Common Market (CACM) 35%, U.S. 33%, European Union 14%, Mexico 4%, Japan 1%. Imports--$2.865 billion (c.i.f.): petroleum, agricultural inputs and equipment, manufactured goods. Suppliers—CACM 21%, U.S. 18%, EU 8%, Mexico 8%, Venezuela 6%, China 5%.

The U.S. is Nicaragua's largest trading partner, accounting for one-fifth of Nicaragua's imports and almost two-thirds of its total exports. Nicaragua formally entered the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) on April 1, 2006. Nicaraguan exports to the U.S. grew 17.4% during the agreement's first 12 months. Although volumes are still low, over the same period, Nicaragua exported 237 new products to the U.S. Imports increased almost 21%, centering around machinery, cereals, vehicles, fats and oils, and plastic products.

Nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country, but light industry (maquila), tourism, banking, mining, fisheries, and general commerce are expanding. Foreign capital inflows reached $282.3 million in 2006. Strong anti-capitalist rhetoric from President Ortega may discourage prospective investors and slow foreign direct investment. The lack of clarity on the Ortega government's economic policies has created particular uncertainty in the power, fuel, tourism, and real estate sectors.

Tourism is the nation's third-largest source of foreign exchange. More than 60,000 Americans visit Nicaragua yearly, primarily business people, tourists, and Nicaraguan-Americans visiting relatives. An estimated 7,000 U.S. citizens reside in the country. The U.S. Embassy's consular section provides a full range of consular services—from passport replacement and veteran's assistance to prison visitation and repatriation assistance.

Nicaragua faces a number of political and infrastructure challenges in achieving sustainable economic growth. Long-term success at attracting investment, creating jobs, and reducing poverty depend on its ability to comply with a new International Monetary Fund (IMF) program, resolve the thousands of Sandinista-era property confiscation cases, promote a positive investment climate, and keep its economy open to foreign trade. Nicaragua achieved extensive debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative and successfully completed its first IMF Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) in 2006. During the Bolaños administration (2001-2006), fiscal deficits were reduced through increased tax collection and limits placed on consolidated public sector expenditures; international reserves increased from U.S. $274 million in 2001 to U.S. $924 million in 2006.

While the Sandinista economic team has promised to continue stable macro-economic policies, President Ortega's public statements often challenge market economics. In July 2007 the government successfully negotiated a new IMF agreement which requires implementation of free-market policies and includes targets linked to energy, pensions, fiscal discipline, and spending on poverty.

==History==
Nicaragua takes its name from Nicarao, chief of the indigenous tribe that lived around present-day Lake Nicaragua during the late 1400s and early 1500s. In 1524, Hernandez de Cordoba founded the first Spanish permanent settlements in the region, including two of Nicaragua's principal towns: Granada on Lake Nicaragua, and Leon east of Lake Managua. Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in 1821, briefly becoming a part of the Mexican Empire and then a member of a federation of independent Central American provinces. In 1838, Nicaragua became an independent republic.

Much of Nicaragua's politics since independence has been characterized by the rivalry between the Liberal elite of Leon and the Conservative elite of Granada, which often led to civil war. Initially invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, an American named William Walker and his "filibusters" seized the presidency in 1856. The Liberals and Conservatives united to drive him out of office in 1857. Three decades of Conservative rule followed. Taking advantage of divisions within the Conservative ranks, Jose Santos Zelaya led a Liberal revolt that brought him to power in 1893. Zelaya ended a longstanding dispute with Britain over the Atlantic Coast in 1894, and reincorporated that region into Nicaragua.

By 1909, differences had developed over a trans-isthmian canal and concessions to Americans in Nicaragua; there also was concern about what was perceived as Nicaragua's destabilizing influence in the region. In 1909 the United States provided political support to Conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya and intervened militarily to protect American lives and property. With the exception of a 9-month period in 1925-26, the United States maintained troops in Nicaragua from 1912 until 1933. From 1927 until 1933, U.S. Marines stationed in Nicaragua engaged in a running battle with rebel forces led by renegade Liberal Gen. Augusto Sandino, who rejected a 1927 negotiated agreement brokered by the United States to end the latest round of fighting between Liberals and Conservatives.

After the departure of U.S. troops, National Guard Commander [[Anastasio Somoza Garcia]] outmaneuvered his political opponents—including Sandino, who was assassinated by National Guard officers—and took over the presidency in 1936. Somoza and two sons who succeeded him maintained close ties with the United States.

Beginning in the late 1970s Nicaragua was ravaged by a civil war between the Somoza government and a socialist faction known as the [[Sandinista]] National Liberation Front (FSLN), which had conducted a low scale guerrilla war against the Somoza regime since the early 1960s. Despite generous funding by the [[Carter administration]] to the Sandinistas, the regime resolutely turned away from the US and with [[Cuba]]n and East European help <ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1989/HJM.htm U.S. Policy in Central America], Major J.M Hughes USMC. Retrieved from globalsecurity.org 15 July 2007.</ref> built up an army of 75,000, larger than that of Mexico.<ref>Mona Charen, ''Useful Idiots'', Regnery Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0895261391</ref> As well as killing hundreds of thousands of people, the war left 20% of the country's population homeless.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1225218.stm</ref> The Somoza dynasty ended in 1979 with a massive uprising led by the FSLN.

The FSLN established an authoritarian dictatorship soon after taking power. U.S.-Nicaraguan relations deteriorated rapidly as the regime nationalized many private industries, confiscated [[private property]], supported Central American guerrilla movements, and maintained links to international terrorists. The United States suspended aid to Nicaragua in 1981. The [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan Administration]] facilitated funding to the [[Contras]] through arms sales by [[Israel]] to [[Iran]] in what became known as the [[Iran-Contra affair]].<ref>"President Ronald Reagan told a packed [[White House]] news conference that funds derived from covert arms deals with the Islamic Republic of Iran had been diverted to buy weapons for the U.S.-backed Contra rebels in Nicaragua." http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/index.htm</ref> The post [[Vietnam]]-era [[Boland amendment]] denied direct appropriations to continue the policy of [[Containment]] as it pertained to Nicaragua during this period of the [[Cold War]].

In response to both domestic and international pressure, the Sandinista regime entered into negotiations with the Nicaraguan resistance and agreed to nationwide elections in February 1990. In these elections, which were proclaimed free and fair by international observers, Nicaraguan voters elected as their President the candidate of the National Opposition Union, Violeta Barrios de Chamorro.

During President Chamorro's nearly 7 years in office, her government achieved major progress toward consolidating democratic institutions, advancing national reconciliation, stabilizing the economy, privatizing state-owned enterprises, and reducing human rights violations. Despite a number of irregularities—which were due largely to logistical difficulties and a baroquely complicated electoral law—the October 20, 1996 presidential, legislative, and mayoral elections were judged free and fair by international observers and by the groundbreaking national electoral observer group Etica y Transparencia (Ethics and Transparency). This time Nicaraguans elected former Managua Mayor Arnoldo Alemán, leader of the center-right Liberal Alliance. The first transfer of power in recent Nicaraguan history from one democratically elected president to another took place on January 10, 1997, when the Alemán government was inaugurated.

Presidential and legislative elections were held in November 2001. Enrique Bolaños of the Liberal Constitutional Party was elected to the Nicaraguan presidency on November 4, 2001, defeating FSLN candidate Daniel Ortega by 14 percentage points. The elections, characterized by international observers as free, fair and peaceful, reflected the maturing of Nicaragua's democratic institutions. During his campaign, President-elect Bolaños promised to reinvigorate the economy, create jobs, fight corruption, and support the war against terrorism. Bolaños was inaugurated on January 10, 2002.

FSLN candidate Daniel Ortega won the presidential elections of November 5, 2006 with 38% of the vote, defeating a divided opposition. ALN candidate Eduardo Montealegre garnered 29%; Jose Rizo of the PLC received 26%; and MRS' Edmundo Jarquin polled fourth with 6%. Ortega was inaugurated on January 10, 2007.

==See also==

*[[Iran-Contra affair]]

== References ==
<references/>

Source:[[Template:Copyright Details (US Government)]]

[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Nicaragua|!]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]

Honduras

2024-06-02T23:17:36Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Honduras''
|map =Honduras.jpg
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Honduras.png
|capital =Tegucigalpa
|capital-raw =
|government =Democratic constitutional republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Juan Orlando Hernández
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =43,278 sq mi
|pop =10,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$21.74 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$3,009 (2005)
|currency =Lempira
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Honduras''' is a Spanish colony in [[Central America]], and one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere [http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/9476.pdf]. Its most recently elected leader was ousted in a coup. [https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/06/29/world/main5122602.shtml]

==Geography==
Honduras is located roughly in the middle of [[Central America]], sharing borders with [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], and [[Nicaragua]]; its water boundaries are the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the Golfo de Fonseca, an arm of the [[Pacific Ocean]].
*Area: 112,090 km2. (43,278 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Virginia.
*Cities: Tegucigalpa (capitol; pop. 1,150,000); San Pedro Sula (800,000-900,000).
*Terrain: Mountainous.
*Climate: Tropical to subtropical, depending on elevation.

==People==
About 90% of the population is [[mestizo]]. There also are small minorities of [[European]], [[African]], [[Asian]], [[Arab]], and indigenous Indian descent. Most Hondurans are [[Roman Catholic]], but [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches are growing in number. While [[Spanish]] is the predominant language, some [[English]] is spoken along the northern coast and is prevalent on the Caribbean Bay Islands. Several indigenous Indian languages and Garífuna (a mixture of Afro-indigenous languages) are also spoken. The restored [[Maya]]n ruins near the [[Guatemala]]n border in Copan reflect the great Mayan culture that flourished there for hundreds of years until the early 9th century. Columbus landed at mainland Honduras (Trujillo) in 1502, and named the area "Honduras" (meaning "depths") for the deep water off the coast. Spaniard [[Hernando Cortes]] arrived in 1524.
*Population (2006 est.): 7.3 million.
*Growth rate (2006 est.): 2.16%.
*Ethnic groups: 90% mestizo (mixed Indian and European); others of European, Arab, African, or Asian ancestry; and indigenous Indians.
*Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant minority.
*Language: Spanish.
*Education (2003): Years compulsory—6. Attendance—88% overall, 31% at junior high level. Literacy—76.2%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—29.64/1,000. Life expectancy—66.2 yrs.
*Work force: Services—42.2%; natural resources/agriculture—35.9%; manufacturing—16.3%; construction/housing—5.6%.

==Government==
The 1982 constitution provides for a strong executive, a unicameral National Congress, and a judiciary appointed by the National Congress. The president is directly elected to a 4-year term by popular vote. The Congress also serves a 4-year term; congressional seats are assigned the parties' candidates in proportion to the number of votes each party receives in the various departments. The judiciary includes a Supreme Court of Justice (one president and 14 magistrates chosen by Congress for a seven-year term), courts of appeal, and several courts of original jurisdiction—such as labor, tax, and criminal courts. For administrative purposes, Honduras is divided into 18 departments, with municipal officials selected for 4-year terms.

===Political Conditions===
Reinforced by the media and several political watchdog organizations, concerted efforts to protect human rights and civil liberties continued. Organized labor now represents approximately 8% of the work force and its economic and political influence has declined. Honduras held its seventh consecutive democratic elections in 2005 to elect a new president, unicameral Congress, and mayors. For the first time, as a result of the newly reformed Electoral Law, voters were able to vote for individual members of Congress, with photos of each candidate on the ballot, rather than party lists. For the electoral period 2006-2010, 31 women were elected to Congress; 27 of them chose women as their alternates for a total of 58 women in the legislature, an unprecedented number in the political history of the country.

===Political Parties===
The two major parties are the slightly left-of-center Liberal Party and the slightly-right-of-center [[National Party of Honduras|National Party]]. The three much smaller registered parties—the Christian Democratic Party, the Innovation and National Unity Party, and the Democratic Unification Party—hold a few seats each in the Congress, but have never come close to winning the presidency.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Juan Orlando Hernández
*Vice president—María Antonieta de Bográn
*Minister of Foreign Relations—Milton Jimenez Puerto
*President of Congress—Juan Orlando Hernández
*Ambassador to the United States—Roberto Flores Bermúdez
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Ivan Romero Martinez
*Ambassador to the OAS—Carlos Sosa Coello

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Central America.jpg|right|240px]]
Honduras is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN), the Central American Integration System (SICA), the Conference of Central American Armed Forces (CFAC), and the Central American Security Commission (CASC). During 1995-96, Honduras—a founding member of the United Nations—served as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council for the first time. Honduras is currently a member of the UN Human Rights Commission. Honduras is a party to all UN and OAS counterterrorism conventions and protocols.

Honduras is a strong proponent of Central American cooperation and integration, and continues to work towards the implementation of a regional customs union and Central American passport, which would ease border controls and tariffs among Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and El Salvador.

In 1969, El Salvador and Honduras fought the brief "Soccer War" over disputed border areas. The two countries formally signed a peace treaty in 1980, which put the border dispute before the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In 1992, the Court awarded most of the disputed territory to Honduras, and in January 1998, Honduras and El Salvador signed a border demarcation treaty to implement the terms of the ICJ decree although delays continue due to technical difficulties. However, Honduras and El Salvador maintain normal diplomatic and trade relations. Honduras also has unresolved maritime border disputes with El Salvador, Nicaragua, Jamaica, and Cuba.

==Defense==
With the cessation of the 1980s civil wars in El Salvador and Nicaragua, the Honduran armed forces refocused their orientation toward combating transnational threats such as narcoterrorism and organized crime. Honduras supports efforts at regional integration and deployed troops to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. In 1999, the constitution was amended to abolish the position of military commander in chief of the armed forces, thus codifying civilian authority over the military. Former President Flores also named the first civilian Minister of Defense in the country's history.

==Economy==
Honduras is one of the poorest and least developed countries in Latin America, with nearly two-thirds of Hondurans living in poverty. Although historically dependent on exports of coffee and bananas, the economy has diversified over the past 20 years with the development of non-traditional exports such as oriental vegetables, cultivated shrimp, melons, and tourism, and the establishment of a growing maquila industry (primarily assembly of apparel for re-export). The maquila industry employs approximately 130,000 Hondurans. Honduras also has extensive forest, marine, and mineral resources, although widespread slash-and-burn agricultural methods and illegal logging continue to destroy Honduran forests. Family remittances from Hondurans living abroad (mostly in the United States) have risen significantly, to an estimated $2.3 billion in 2006, which represents 15% of the country's foreign exchange earnings and over 20% of its GDP.

The exchange rate through the first quarter of 2007 was 18.89 Honduran Lempira to the dollar, a slight devaluation from the 2005 rate of 18.92. Inflation, as measured by the consumer price index, was estimated at approximately 6.0% in 2006 and was projected to remain at that rate in 2007. International reserves totaled $2.6 billion in 2006, up from an estimated $2.23 billion in 2005. Unemployment was estimated at around 28% in 2005.
*GDP: $22.3 billion (PPP) or $9.3 billion (official exchange rate).
*Growth rate: 5.5%.
*Per capita GDP: $2,900 (PPP).
*Per capita income: $894.00
*Natural resources: Arable land, forests, minerals, and fisheries.
*Agriculture (14.1% of GDP): Products—coffee, bananas, shrimp and lobster, sugar, fruits, basic grains, and livestock.
*Manufacturing (18% of GDP): Types—textiles and apparel, cement, wood products, cigars, and foodstuffs.
*Services (53.2% of GDP).
*Trade: Exports (goods)--$1.95 billion: apparel, coffee, shrimp, bananas, palm oil, gold, zinc/lead concentrates, soap/detergents, melons, lobster, pineapple, lumber, sugar, and tobacco. Major market—U.S. (54.4%). Imports (goods)--$5.00 billion: fabrics, yarn, machinery, chemicals, petroleum, vehicles, processed foods, metals, agricultural products, plastic articles, and paper articles. Major source—U.S. (37.5%).

Beginning in late 1998, the United States helped conduct a massive reconstruction effort following the devastation left by [[Hurricane Mitch]], which also allowed thousands of displaced families to obtain permanent shelter. Basic infrastructure (water and sanitation, and bridges, including over 1,250 kilometers of roads) along with critical social infrastructure (schools and 123 damaged health clinics) lost or damaged during the storm had been rebuilt when the program was largely completed by the end of 2001.

In 2005, Honduras reached completion point under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, qualifying the country for multilateral debt relief.

==History==
[[File:Honduras - Copan.jpg]]

Mayan Ruins of Copan.

====Independence====
Honduras and other Central American provinces gained independence from Spain in 1821. The country was then briefly annexed to the Mexican Empire. In 1823, Honduras joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America federation, which collapsed in 1838. Gen. Francisco Morazan—a Honduran national hero—led unsuccessful efforts to maintain the federation. Honduras' agriculture-based economy was dominated in the 1900s by U.S. companies that established vast banana plantations along the north coast. Foreign capital, plantation life, and conservative politics held sway in Honduras from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century.

====Military Rule====
Authoritarian Gen. Tiburcio Carias Andino controlled Honduras during the Great Depression, until 1948. In 1955—after two authoritarian administrations and a strike by banana workers—young military reformists staged a coup that installed a provisional junta and paved the way for constituent assembly elections in 1957. This assembly appointed Ramon Villeda Morales as President and transformed itself into a national legislature with a 6-year term. The Liberal Party ruled during 1957-63. In 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Villeda in a bloody coup. These officers exiled Liberal Party members and took control of the national police. The armed forces, led by Gen. Lopez Arellano, governed until 1970. Popular discontent continued to rise after a 1969 border war with El Salvador, known as "the Soccer War." A civilian President—Ramon Cruz of the National Party—took power briefly in 1970 but proved unable to manage the government. In 1972, Gen. Lopez staged another coup. Lopez adopted more progressive policies, including land reform, but his regime was brought down in the mid-1970s by corruption scandals. The regimes of Gen. Melgar Castro (1975–78) and Gen. Paz Garcia (1978–82) largely built the current physical infrastructure and telecommunications system of Honduras. The country also enjoyed its most rapid economic growth during this period, due to greater international demand for its products and the availability of foreign commercial lending.

====Seven Consecutive Democratic Elections====
Following the overthrow of Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua in 1979 and general instability in El Salvador at the time, Hondurans elected a constituent assembly in 1980 and voted in general elections in 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982, and the Liberal Party government of President Roberto Suazo Cordova took office. Suazo relied on U.S. support during a severe economic recession, including ambitious social and economic development projects sponsored by the [[U.S. Agency for International Development]] (USAID). Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated.

As the 1985 election approached, the Liberal Party interpreted election law as permitting multiple presidential candidates from one party. The Liberal Party claimed victory when its presidential candidates, who received 42% of the vote, collectively outpolled the National Party candidate, Rafael Leonardo Callejas. Jose Azcona Hoyo, the candidate receiving the most votes among the Liberals, assumed the presidency in 1986. With the endorsement of the Honduran military, the Azcona administration ushered in the first peaceful transfer of power between civilian presidents in more than 30 years.

Four years later, Nationalist Rafael Callejas won the presidential election, taking office in 1990. The nation's fiscal deficit ballooned during Callejas' last year in office. Growing public dissatisfaction with the rising cost of living and with widespread government corruption led voters in 1993 to elect Liberal Party candidate Carlos Roberto Reina with 56% of the vote. President Reina, elected on a platform calling for a "moral revolution," actively prosecuted corruption and pursued those responsible for human rights abuses in the 1980s. He created a modern attorney general's office and an investigative police force, increased civilian control over the armed forces, transferred the police from military to civilian authority, and restored national fiscal health.

After winning the 1997 election by a 10% margin, Liberal Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse took office in 1998. Flores inaugurated programs of reform and modernization of the Honduran government and economy, with emphasis on helping Honduras' poorest citizens while maintaining the country's fiscal health and improving international competitiveness. In October 1998, Hurricane Mitch devastated Honduras, leaving more than 5,000 people dead and 1.5 million displaced. Damages totaled nearly $3 billion. President Flores and his administration successfully managed more than $600 million in international assistance. Flores also moved judicial and penal reforms forward, establishing an anticorruption commission, and supporting passage of a new penal code based on the oral accusatorial system and a law that created an independent Supreme Court. Flores also established a civilian Minister of Defense.

Ricardo Maduro Joest of the National Party won the 2001 presidential elections, and was inaugurated in 2002. During his campaign, President Maduro promised to reduce crime, reinvigorate the economy, and fight corruption. Maduro's first act as President was to deploy a joint police-military force to the streets to permit wider neighborhood patrols in the ongoing fight against the country's massive crime and gang problem. Maduro was a strong supporter of the global war on terrorism and joined the U.S.-led coalition in Iraq with an 11-month contribution of 370 troops. Under President Maduro's guidance, Honduras also negotiated and ratified the U.S.-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), received debt relief, became the first Latin American country to sign a Millennium Challenge Account compact with the U.S., and actively promoted greater Central American integration.
[[File:Manuel Zelaya.jpg|thumb|Removed President Manuel Zelaya Rosales]]
Jose Manuel "Mel" Zelaya Rosales of the Liberal Party won the November 27, 2005 presidential elections with less than a 4% margin of victory, the smallest margin ever in Honduran electoral history. Zelaya's campaign theme was "citizen power," and he has vowed to increase transparency and combat narcotrafficking, while maintaining macroeconomic stability. The Liberal Party won 62 of the 128 congressional seats, just short of an absolute majority. Zelaya was inaugurated on January 27, 2006.

On June 28, 2009, Zelaya was removed from power by the Honduran military after he had ignored a Supreme Court order to reverse the firing of his armed forces chief [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aCgN8Fgqu2B0]. Leftist leaders within Latin America - among them [[Hugo Chavez]] and [[Fidel Castro]], as well as [[United States]] president [[Barack Obama]], have condemned his removal in what they call a "coup"; however others have noted that his removal was justified as he was taking his country left and attempting to alter the Honduran constitution in a similar fashion to what Chavez has done to [[Venezuela]] in an effort to keep himself in power [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124658463338890161.html]. Roberto Micheletti currently serves as interim president.

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] here: }}} [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1922.htm].
|}

[[Category:Honduras]]
[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Mayan World]]

Honduras

2024-06-02T23:17:21Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Honduras''
|map =Honduras.jpg
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Honduras.png
|capital =Tegucigalpa
|capital-raw =
|government =Democratic constitutional republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Juan Orlando Hernández
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =43,278 sq mi
|pop =10,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$21.74 billion (2005)
|gdp-pc =$3,009 (2005)
|currency =Lempira
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Honduras''' is a country in [[Central America]], and one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere [http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/9476.pdf]. Its most recently elected leader was ousted in a coup. [https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/06/29/world/main5122602.shtml]

==Geography==
Honduras is located roughly in the middle of [[Central America]], sharing borders with [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], and [[Nicaragua]]; its water boundaries are the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the Golfo de Fonseca, an arm of the [[Pacific Ocean]].
*Area: 112,090 km2. (43,278 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Virginia.
*Cities: Tegucigalpa (capitol; pop. 1,150,000); San Pedro Sula (800,000-900,000).
*Terrain: Mountainous.
*Climate: Tropical to subtropical, depending on elevation.

==People==
About 90% of the population is [[mestizo]]. There also are small minorities of [[European]], [[African]], [[Asian]], [[Arab]], and indigenous Indian descent. Most Hondurans are [[Roman Catholic]], but [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches are growing in number. While [[Spanish]] is the predominant language, some [[English]] is spoken along the northern coast and is prevalent on the Caribbean Bay Islands. Several indigenous Indian languages and Garífuna (a mixture of Afro-indigenous languages) are also spoken. The restored [[Maya]]n ruins near the [[Guatemala]]n border in Copan reflect the great Mayan culture that flourished there for hundreds of years until the early 9th century. Columbus landed at mainland Honduras (Trujillo) in 1502, and named the area "Honduras" (meaning "depths") for the deep water off the coast. Spaniard [[Hernando Cortes]] arrived in 1524.
*Population (2006 est.): 7.3 million.
*Growth rate (2006 est.): 2.16%.
*Ethnic groups: 90% mestizo (mixed Indian and European); others of European, Arab, African, or Asian ancestry; and indigenous Indians.
*Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant minority.
*Language: Spanish.
*Education (2003): Years compulsory—6. Attendance—88% overall, 31% at junior high level. Literacy—76.2%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—29.64/1,000. Life expectancy—66.2 yrs.
*Work force: Services—42.2%; natural resources/agriculture—35.9%; manufacturing—16.3%; construction/housing—5.6%.

==Government==
The 1982 constitution provides for a strong executive, a unicameral National Congress, and a judiciary appointed by the National Congress. The president is directly elected to a 4-year term by popular vote. The Congress also serves a 4-year term; congressional seats are assigned the parties' candidates in proportion to the number of votes each party receives in the various departments. The judiciary includes a Supreme Court of Justice (one president and 14 magistrates chosen by Congress for a seven-year term), courts of appeal, and several courts of original jurisdiction—such as labor, tax, and criminal courts. For administrative purposes, Honduras is divided into 18 departments, with municipal officials selected for 4-year terms.

===Political Conditions===
Reinforced by the media and several political watchdog organizations, concerted efforts to protect human rights and civil liberties continued. Organized labor now represents approximately 8% of the work force and its economic and political influence has declined. Honduras held its seventh consecutive democratic elections in 2005 to elect a new president, unicameral Congress, and mayors. For the first time, as a result of the newly reformed Electoral Law, voters were able to vote for individual members of Congress, with photos of each candidate on the ballot, rather than party lists. For the electoral period 2006-2010, 31 women were elected to Congress; 27 of them chose women as their alternates for a total of 58 women in the legislature, an unprecedented number in the political history of the country.

===Political Parties===
The two major parties are the slightly left-of-center Liberal Party and the slightly-right-of-center [[National Party of Honduras|National Party]]. The three much smaller registered parties—the Christian Democratic Party, the Innovation and National Unity Party, and the Democratic Unification Party—hold a few seats each in the Congress, but have never come close to winning the presidency.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Juan Orlando Hernández
*Vice president—María Antonieta de Bográn
*Minister of Foreign Relations—Milton Jimenez Puerto
*President of Congress—Juan Orlando Hernández
*Ambassador to the United States—Roberto Flores Bermúdez
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Ivan Romero Martinez
*Ambassador to the OAS—Carlos Sosa Coello

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Central America.jpg|right|240px]]
Honduras is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN), the Central American Integration System (SICA), the Conference of Central American Armed Forces (CFAC), and the Central American Security Commission (CASC). During 1995-96, Honduras—a founding member of the United Nations—served as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council for the first time. Honduras is currently a member of the UN Human Rights Commission. Honduras is a party to all UN and OAS counterterrorism conventions and protocols.

Honduras is a strong proponent of Central American cooperation and integration, and continues to work towards the implementation of a regional customs union and Central American passport, which would ease border controls and tariffs among Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and El Salvador.

In 1969, El Salvador and Honduras fought the brief "Soccer War" over disputed border areas. The two countries formally signed a peace treaty in 1980, which put the border dispute before the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In 1992, the Court awarded most of the disputed territory to Honduras, and in January 1998, Honduras and El Salvador signed a border demarcation treaty to implement the terms of the ICJ decree although delays continue due to technical difficulties. However, Honduras and El Salvador maintain normal diplomatic and trade relations. Honduras also has unresolved maritime border disputes with El Salvador, Nicaragua, Jamaica, and Cuba.

==Defense==
With the cessation of the 1980s civil wars in El Salvador and Nicaragua, the Honduran armed forces refocused their orientation toward combating transnational threats such as narcoterrorism and organized crime. Honduras supports efforts at regional integration and deployed troops to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. In 1999, the constitution was amended to abolish the position of military commander in chief of the armed forces, thus codifying civilian authority over the military. Former President Flores also named the first civilian Minister of Defense in the country's history.

==Economy==
Honduras is one of the poorest and least developed countries in Latin America, with nearly two-thirds of Hondurans living in poverty. Although historically dependent on exports of coffee and bananas, the economy has diversified over the past 20 years with the development of non-traditional exports such as oriental vegetables, cultivated shrimp, melons, and tourism, and the establishment of a growing maquila industry (primarily assembly of apparel for re-export). The maquila industry employs approximately 130,000 Hondurans. Honduras also has extensive forest, marine, and mineral resources, although widespread slash-and-burn agricultural methods and illegal logging continue to destroy Honduran forests. Family remittances from Hondurans living abroad (mostly in the United States) have risen significantly, to an estimated $2.3 billion in 2006, which represents 15% of the country's foreign exchange earnings and over 20% of its GDP.

The exchange rate through the first quarter of 2007 was 18.89 Honduran Lempira to the dollar, a slight devaluation from the 2005 rate of 18.92. Inflation, as measured by the consumer price index, was estimated at approximately 6.0% in 2006 and was projected to remain at that rate in 2007. International reserves totaled $2.6 billion in 2006, up from an estimated $2.23 billion in 2005. Unemployment was estimated at around 28% in 2005.
*GDP: $22.3 billion (PPP) or $9.3 billion (official exchange rate).
*Growth rate: 5.5%.
*Per capita GDP: $2,900 (PPP).
*Per capita income: $894.00
*Natural resources: Arable land, forests, minerals, and fisheries.
*Agriculture (14.1% of GDP): Products—coffee, bananas, shrimp and lobster, sugar, fruits, basic grains, and livestock.
*Manufacturing (18% of GDP): Types—textiles and apparel, cement, wood products, cigars, and foodstuffs.
*Services (53.2% of GDP).
*Trade: Exports (goods)--$1.95 billion: apparel, coffee, shrimp, bananas, palm oil, gold, zinc/lead concentrates, soap/detergents, melons, lobster, pineapple, lumber, sugar, and tobacco. Major market—U.S. (54.4%). Imports (goods)--$5.00 billion: fabrics, yarn, machinery, chemicals, petroleum, vehicles, processed foods, metals, agricultural products, plastic articles, and paper articles. Major source—U.S. (37.5%).

Beginning in late 1998, the United States helped conduct a massive reconstruction effort following the devastation left by [[Hurricane Mitch]], which also allowed thousands of displaced families to obtain permanent shelter. Basic infrastructure (water and sanitation, and bridges, including over 1,250 kilometers of roads) along with critical social infrastructure (schools and 123 damaged health clinics) lost or damaged during the storm had been rebuilt when the program was largely completed by the end of 2001.

In 2005, Honduras reached completion point under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, qualifying the country for multilateral debt relief.

==History==
[[File:Honduras - Copan.jpg]]

Mayan Ruins of Copan.

====Independence====
Honduras and other Central American provinces gained independence from Spain in 1821. The country was then briefly annexed to the Mexican Empire. In 1823, Honduras joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America federation, which collapsed in 1838. Gen. Francisco Morazan—a Honduran national hero—led unsuccessful efforts to maintain the federation. Honduras' agriculture-based economy was dominated in the 1900s by U.S. companies that established vast banana plantations along the north coast. Foreign capital, plantation life, and conservative politics held sway in Honduras from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century.

====Military Rule====
Authoritarian Gen. Tiburcio Carias Andino controlled Honduras during the Great Depression, until 1948. In 1955—after two authoritarian administrations and a strike by banana workers—young military reformists staged a coup that installed a provisional junta and paved the way for constituent assembly elections in 1957. This assembly appointed Ramon Villeda Morales as President and transformed itself into a national legislature with a 6-year term. The Liberal Party ruled during 1957-63. In 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Villeda in a bloody coup. These officers exiled Liberal Party members and took control of the national police. The armed forces, led by Gen. Lopez Arellano, governed until 1970. Popular discontent continued to rise after a 1969 border war with El Salvador, known as "the Soccer War." A civilian President—Ramon Cruz of the National Party—took power briefly in 1970 but proved unable to manage the government. In 1972, Gen. Lopez staged another coup. Lopez adopted more progressive policies, including land reform, but his regime was brought down in the mid-1970s by corruption scandals. The regimes of Gen. Melgar Castro (1975–78) and Gen. Paz Garcia (1978–82) largely built the current physical infrastructure and telecommunications system of Honduras. The country also enjoyed its most rapid economic growth during this period, due to greater international demand for its products and the availability of foreign commercial lending.

====Seven Consecutive Democratic Elections====
Following the overthrow of Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua in 1979 and general instability in El Salvador at the time, Hondurans elected a constituent assembly in 1980 and voted in general elections in 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982, and the Liberal Party government of President Roberto Suazo Cordova took office. Suazo relied on U.S. support during a severe economic recession, including ambitious social and economic development projects sponsored by the [[U.S. Agency for International Development]] (USAID). Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and nongovernmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated.

As the 1985 election approached, the Liberal Party interpreted election law as permitting multiple presidential candidates from one party. The Liberal Party claimed victory when its presidential candidates, who received 42% of the vote, collectively outpolled the National Party candidate, Rafael Leonardo Callejas. Jose Azcona Hoyo, the candidate receiving the most votes among the Liberals, assumed the presidency in 1986. With the endorsement of the Honduran military, the Azcona administration ushered in the first peaceful transfer of power between civilian presidents in more than 30 years.

Four years later, Nationalist Rafael Callejas won the presidential election, taking office in 1990. The nation's fiscal deficit ballooned during Callejas' last year in office. Growing public dissatisfaction with the rising cost of living and with widespread government corruption led voters in 1993 to elect Liberal Party candidate Carlos Roberto Reina with 56% of the vote. President Reina, elected on a platform calling for a "moral revolution," actively prosecuted corruption and pursued those responsible for human rights abuses in the 1980s. He created a modern attorney general's office and an investigative police force, increased civilian control over the armed forces, transferred the police from military to civilian authority, and restored national fiscal health.

After winning the 1997 election by a 10% margin, Liberal Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse took office in 1998. Flores inaugurated programs of reform and modernization of the Honduran government and economy, with emphasis on helping Honduras' poorest citizens while maintaining the country's fiscal health and improving international competitiveness. In October 1998, Hurricane Mitch devastated Honduras, leaving more than 5,000 people dead and 1.5 million displaced. Damages totaled nearly $3 billion. President Flores and his administration successfully managed more than $600 million in international assistance. Flores also moved judicial and penal reforms forward, establishing an anticorruption commission, and supporting passage of a new penal code based on the oral accusatorial system and a law that created an independent Supreme Court. Flores also established a civilian Minister of Defense.

Ricardo Maduro Joest of the National Party won the 2001 presidential elections, and was inaugurated in 2002. During his campaign, President Maduro promised to reduce crime, reinvigorate the economy, and fight corruption. Maduro's first act as President was to deploy a joint police-military force to the streets to permit wider neighborhood patrols in the ongoing fight against the country's massive crime and gang problem. Maduro was a strong supporter of the global war on terrorism and joined the U.S.-led coalition in Iraq with an 11-month contribution of 370 troops. Under President Maduro's guidance, Honduras also negotiated and ratified the U.S.-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), received debt relief, became the first Latin American country to sign a Millennium Challenge Account compact with the U.S., and actively promoted greater Central American integration.
[[File:Manuel Zelaya.jpg|thumb|Removed President Manuel Zelaya Rosales]]
Jose Manuel "Mel" Zelaya Rosales of the Liberal Party won the November 27, 2005 presidential elections with less than a 4% margin of victory, the smallest margin ever in Honduran electoral history. Zelaya's campaign theme was "citizen power," and he has vowed to increase transparency and combat narcotrafficking, while maintaining macroeconomic stability. The Liberal Party won 62 of the 128 congressional seats, just short of an absolute majority. Zelaya was inaugurated on January 27, 2006.

On June 28, 2009, Zelaya was removed from power by the Honduran military after he had ignored a Supreme Court order to reverse the firing of his armed forces chief [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aCgN8Fgqu2B0]. Leftist leaders within Latin America - among them [[Hugo Chavez]] and [[Fidel Castro]], as well as [[United States]] president [[Barack Obama]], have condemned his removal in what they call a "coup"; however others have noted that his removal was justified as he was taking his country left and attempting to alter the Honduran constitution in a similar fashion to what Chavez has done to [[Venezuela]] in an effort to keep himself in power [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124658463338890161.html]. Roberto Micheletti currently serves as interim president.

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] here: }}} [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1922.htm].
|}

[[Category:Honduras]]
[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Mayan World]]

Oman

2024-06-02T23:14:56Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =Oman
|map =Oman rel96.jpg
|map2=
|flag =
|arms =
|capital =Muscat
|government =Sultanate
|language =Arab
|monarch-raw =Sultan [[Haitham bin Tariq Al Said]]
|area =119,498 sq mi
|pop =5,150,000 (2020)
|gdp =$70,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$13,592 (2020)
|currency =Omani rial
}}
'''Sultanate of Oman''' ('''سلطنة عُمان''') is a state of the Persian Gulf Residency on the south east corner of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Oman has a narrow coastal plain up to only 16 kilometers in width, and then wide barren mountain ranges and waterless plateaus further inland. Oman also controls the access to the Persian Gulf with the Musandam peninsula, a separate enclave to the north. The total area is 309,500 km2, although its boundaries with the [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] are still undefined.

Oman has a population of over 3,200,000 and the capital city is Muscat, a major port in the southwest region of the Arabian peninsula. Like many middle eastern countries some 600,000 expatriates perform much of the menial work in the country.

==History==

Oman succeeded [[Portugal]] as a power in the western [[Indian Ocean]] in the eighteenth century. In the late 18th century, Muscat signed a series of friendship treaties with [[Great Britain]] but it never became a British colony. In the 1950s Britain would aid in suppressing uprisings by the rebellious interior tribes. In 1970 Sultan Said bin Taimus was overthrown by his son to free the country from his father's oppressive rule. Qaboos bin Said al-Said has ruled as Sultan until his death in January 2020.<ref>Barrington, Lisa; Barbuscia, Davide (January 10, 2020). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oman-succession-sultan/sultan-qaboos-ushered-in-oman-renaissance-quiet-diplomacy-idUSKBN1ZA018 Sultan Qaboos ushered in Oman renaissance, quiet diplomacy]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref><ref>Axelrod, Tal (January 10, 2020). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/middle-east-north-africa/477807-oman-sultan-dies-at-age-79-ending-longest-reign Oman sultan dies at age 79, ending longest reign by Arab ruler]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved January 11, 2020.</ref><ref>Batrawy, Aya (January 11, 2020). [https://apnews.com/9ca4a9910ede3e11b2fbf085189e628b New Oman ruler vows to uphold late sultan’s peaceful policy]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved January 11, 2020.</ref>

With large oil reserves, Oman has been able to develop rapidly.

==Government and Politics==
The Sultanate of Oman is a hereditary absolute monarchy. The Sultan is both chief officer of state and chief executive and wields considerable power in a largely centralized state.

== Sources ==

*The Earth and Its Peoples A Global History, Bulliet et al., 2005.
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mu.html CIA Factbook]

{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Kuwait

2024-06-02T23:08:05Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''دولة الكويت Dawlat al-Kuwayt''
|map =Kuwait rel96.jpg
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =Arms of Kuwait.png
|capital =Kuwait City
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional hereditary emirate
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =Emir Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Jabir al-Mubarak al-Hamad al-Sabah
|pm-raw =
|area =6,880 sq mi
|pop =4,275,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$133,333,333,333 (2020)
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$31,189 (2020)
|currency =Kuwaiti dinar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''State of Kuwait''' is a state of the Persian Gulf Residency. It has land borders with [[Iraq]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. The name Kuwait is derived from Arabic meaning "fortress built near water".

The country became a British Protectorate in 1899 and enjoyed [[British]] rule until June 19, 1961, when it was granted status as a sovereign independent state. It is now a constitutional emirate, headed by a Prime Minister, Nasir Muhammad al-Ahmad al-Sabah (appointed by the Amir on 3 April 2007). As an emirate the Head of Government is Amir Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah which is a hereditary title.

==Geography==
*Area: 17,820 km2. (6,880 sq. mi.); approximately the size of the State of New Jersey.
*Cities: Capital—Kuwait City.
*Terrain: Almost entirely flat desert plain (highest elevation point—306 m).
*Climate: Summers are intensely hot and dry with average highs ranging from 42o-49oC (108o-120oF); winters are short (Dec.-Feb.) and cool, averaging 10-30 C (50-80 F), with limited rain.

==People==
[[File:Kuwait people.jpg|left|240px]]
Over 90% of the population lives within a 500-square kilometer area surrounding Kuwait City and its harbor. Although the majority of people residing in the State of Kuwait are of Arab origin, fewer than half are originally from the Arabian Peninsula. The discovery of oil in 1938 drew many Arabs from nearby states. Following the liberation of Kuwait from Iraqi occupation in 1991, the Kuwaiti Government undertook a serious effort to reduce the expatriate population by specifically limiting the entry of workers from nations whose leaders had supported Iraq during the Gulf War. Kuwait later abandoned this policy, and it currently has a sizable foreign labor force (approximately 68% of the total population is non-Kuwaiti).
*Population (Dec. 2006 est.): 3,182,960, including approximately 1 million Kuwaiti citizens and 2 million non-Kuwaiti citizens.
*Annual growth rate (2006 est.): 3.52%.
*Ethnic groups: Kuwaiti 35%, other Arab 22%, non-Arab (primarily Asian) 39%, stateless Arabs (bidoon) 4%.
*Religion: Muslim estimated 80% (Sunni 70%, Shi'a 30% among Kuwaitis), with sizable Hindu, Christian, Buddhist, and Sikh communities.
*Languages: Arabic (official), English is widely spoken.
*Education: Compulsory from ages 6–14; free at all levels for Kuwaitis, including higher education. Adult literacy (age 15 and over)--83.5% for the overall population (male 85.1%, female 81.7%), 91.2% for Kuwaitis (male 91.4%, female 90.8%).
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--9.71 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2006 est.)--76.13 yrs. male, 78.31 yrs. female.
*Work force (official figures as of December 31, 2006): 1.963 million (76% male; 24% female; 17% Kuwaiti citizens).

Of the country's total population of 3.1 million, approximately 80% are Muslims, including nearly all of its1.023 million citizens. While the national census does not distinguish between Sunni and Shi'a adherents, approximately 70-75 % of citizens, including the ruling family, belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. The remaining Kuwaiti citizens, with the exception of about 100-200 Christians and a few Baha'is, are Shi'a. The expatriate Christian population is estimated to be more than 400,000 residents. There also are communities of Hindus, Buddhists, and Sikhs.

Kuwait's 83.5% literacy rate, one of the Arab world's highest, is the result of extensive government support for the education system. Public school education, including Kuwait University, is free, but access is restricted for foreign residents. The government sponsors the foreign study of qualified students abroad for degrees not offered at Kuwait University. In 2004, approximately 1,720 Kuwaitis were enrolled in U.S. universities, down 6.8% from the previous year.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Kuwait City.jpg|thumb|280px|Kuwait City.]]
Kuwait is a constitutional, hereditary emirate ruled by princes (Amirs) who have been drawn from the Al Sabah family since the middle of the 18th century. The 1962 constitution provides for an elected National Assembly and details the powers of the branches of government and the rights of citizens. Under the Constitution, the National Assembly has a limited role in approving the Amir's choice of the Crown Prince, who succeeds the Amir upon his death. If the National Assembly rejects his nominee, the Amir then submits three names of qualified candidates from among the direct descendants of Mubarak the Great, the founder of modern Kuwait, from which the Assembly must choose the new Crown Prince. Successions have been orderly since independence. In January 2006, the National Assembly played a symbolically important role in the succession process, which was seen as an assertion of parliament's constitutional powers.

For almost 40 years, the Amir appointed the Crown Prince as Kuwait's Prime Minister. However, in July 2003, the Amir formally separated the two positions and appointed a different ruling family member as Prime Minister.

Kuwait's first National Assembly was elected in 1963, with follow-on elections held in 1967, 1971, and 1975. From 1976 to 1981, the National Assembly was suspended. Following elections in 1981 and 1985, the National Assembly was again dissolved. Fulfilling a promise made during the period of Iraqi occupation, the Amir held new elections for the National Assembly in 1992. In May 1999 and once again in May 2006, the Amir dissolved the National Assembly, but complied with the constitution by holding new elections within 60 days. The most recent general election, held in June 2006, was considered free and fair and was marked by the participation of women for the first time as voters and candidates who introduced social and educational issues to the political debate. In July 2006 the newly elected legislature passed a law to reduce the number of electoral districts from 25 to 5 in a move that reformers hoped would increase the transparency of the democratic process by increasing the number of votes necessary to win a seat in parliament.

The government does not officially recognize political parties; however, de facto political blocs, typically organized along ideological lines, exist and are active in the National Assembly. Although the Amir maintains the final word on most government policies, the National Assembly plays a real role in decision-making, with powers to initiate legislation, question ("grill") cabinet ministers, and express lack of confidence in individual ministers. For example, in May 1999, the Amir issued several landmark decrees dealing with women's suffrage, economic liberalization, and nationality. The National Assembly later rejected all of these decrees as a matter of principle and then reintroduced most of them as parliamentary legislation. In May 2005, the National Assembly approved legislation granting women full political rights. Subsequently, the Prime Minister appointed Kuwait's first female minister, Dr. Masouma Al-Mubarak, as Planning Minister and Minister of State for Administrative Development Affairs, and the government appointed two women to Kuwait's Municipal Council. Following the March 2007 resignation of the cabinet, Dr. Masouma was joined by a second woman, Nouriya Subih, in the cabinet.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Amir—His Highness Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah
*Crown Prince—His Highness Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah
*Prime Minister—Jabir al-Mubarak al-Hamad al-Sabah
*First Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Defense, and Minister of Interior—Sheikh Jaber Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of State for Cabinet Affairs—Faisal Mohammed Al-Hajji
*Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister—Sheikh Dr. Mohammad Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah
*National Assembly Speaker—Jassem Al-Khorafi
*Permanent Representative to the United Nations—Ambassador Abdullah Al-Murad

===Foreign Relations===
Following independence in June 1961, Kuwait faced its first major foreign policy problem arising from Iraqi claims to Kuwait's territory. The Iraqis threatened invasion but were dissuaded by the U.K.'s ready response to the Amir's request for assistance. Kuwait presented its case before the United Nations and preserved its sovereignty. U.K. forces were later withdrawn and replaced by troops from Arab League nations, which were withdrawn in 1963 at Kuwait's request.

On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded and occupied Kuwait. Through U.S. efforts, a multinational coalition was assembled, and, under UN auspices, initiated military action against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. Arab states, especially the other five members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates), Egypt, and Syria, supported Kuwait by sending troops to fight with the coalition. Many European and East Asian states sent troops, equipment, and/or financial support.

After liberation, Kuwait concentrated its foreign policy efforts on development of ties to states which had participated in the multinational coalition. Notably, these states were given the lead role in Kuwait's reconstruction. Kuwait's relations with those nations that supported Iraq, among them Jordan, Sudan, Yemen, and Cuba, were slow to recover. Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasir Arafat's support for Saddam Hussein during the war also affected Kuwait's attitudes toward the PLO though Kuwait supports the Arab-Israeli peace process.

The Government of Kuwait has abandoned its previous policy of limiting the entry of workers from nations whose leaders had supported Iraq during the Gulf War. In August 2001, the Interior Minister announced that there were no longer any special restrictions or permits required for Palestinian workers wishing to return to the country. At the end of 2002, there were approximately 30,000 to 40,000 Palestinians, 30,000 to 40,000 Jordanians, and 5,000 Yemenis resident in Kuwait.

Since liberation from Iraq, Kuwait has made efforts to secure allies throughout the world, particularly UN Security Council members. In addition to the United States, defense arrangements have been concluded with the United Kingdom, Russia, and France. Ties to other key Arab members of the Gulf War coalition—Egypt and Syria—also have been sustained.

During the 2002-03 buildup to and execution of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), Kuwait was a vital coalition partner, reserving a full 60% of its total land mass for use by coalition forces and donating significant assistance in kind to the effort. Kuwait continues to provide generous assistance in kind to ongoing coalition operations in Iraq. Kuwait has been consistently involved in reconstruction efforts in Iraq, pledging $1.5 billion at the October 2003 international donors' conference in Madrid, and consulting closely with Iraqi officials, including former Prime Minister Ibrahim Jaffari, who visited Kuwait in late October 2005, and Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki, who visited in July 2006 and again in April 2007. Kuwait has been an active and vocal public supporter of the political process in Iraq, welcoming the January 2005 elections and praising Iraq's October 2005 successful constitutional referendum. Iraqi President Talibani visited Kuwait in September 2006.

Kuwait is a member of the UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank (IBRD), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); African Development Bank (AFDB), Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD), Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund (AMF), Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), Group of 77 (G-77), Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), INMARSAT, International Development Association (IDA), International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Labor Organization (ILO), International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, Islamic Development Bank (IDB), International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

===Relations with the United States===
The United States opened a consulate in Kuwait in October 1951, which was elevated to embassy status at the time of Kuwait's independence 10 years later. The United States supports Kuwait's sovereignty, security, and independence, as well as its multilateral diplomatic efforts to build greater cooperation among the GCC countries.

Strategic cooperation between the United States and Kuwait increased in 1987 with the implementation of a maritime protection regime that ensured the freedom of navigation through the Gulf for 11 Kuwaiti tankers that were reflagged with U.S. markings.

The U.S.-Kuwaiti strategic partnership intensified dramatically again after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The United States spearheaded UN Security Council demands that Iraq withdraw from Kuwait and its authorization of the use of force, if necessary, to remove Iraqi forces from the occupied country. The United States also played a dominant role in the development of the multinational military operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm that liberated Kuwait. The U.S.-Kuwaiti relationship has remained strong in the post-Gulf War period. Kuwait and the United States worked on a daily basis to monitor and to enforce Iraq's compliance with UN Security Council resolutions, and Kuwait has also provided the main platform for Operation Iraqi Freedom since 2003.

Since Kuwait's liberation, the United States has provided military and defense technical assistance to Kuwait from both foreign military sales (FMS) and commercial sources. The U.S. Office of Military Cooperation in Kuwait is attached to the American embassy and manages the FMS program. There are currently over 100 open FMS contracts between the U.S. military and the Kuwait Ministry of Defense totaling $8.1 billion. Principal U.S. military systems currently purchased by the Kuwait Defense Forces are [[Patriot Missile]] systems, [[F/A-18 Hornet]] fighters, the M1A2 main battle tank, AH-64D Apache helicopter, and a major recapitalization of Kuwait's Navy with U.S. boats.

Kuwaiti attitudes toward American products have been favorable since the Gulf War. In 1993, Kuwait publicly announced abandonment of the secondary and tertiary aspects of the Arab boycott of Israel (those aspects affecting U.S. firms). The United States is currently Kuwait's largest supplier of goods and services, and Kuwait is the fifth-largest market in the Middle East. U.S. exports to Kuwait totaled $2.14 billion million in 2006. Provided their prices are reasonable, U.S. firms have a competitive advantage in many areas requiring advanced technology, such as oil field equipment and services, electric power generation and distribution equipment, telecommunications gear, consumer goods, and military equipment.

Kuwait also is an important partner in the ongoing U.S.-led campaign against international terrorism, providing assistance in the military, diplomatic, and intelligence arenas and also supporting efforts to block financing of terrorist groups. In January 2005, Kuwait Security Services forces engaged in gun battles with local extremists, resulting in fatalities on both sides in the first such incident in Kuwait's history.

==Support for Terrorism==
===ISIS/Al-Qaeda===
Kuwait is a major financier of weapons for Al-Qaeda and ISIS.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20220114184901/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/kuwait/11077537/How-our-allies-in-Kuwait-and-Qatar-funded-Islamic-State.html</ref>

==Defense==
Before the Gulf War, Kuwait maintained a small military force consisting of army, navy, and air force units. The majority of equipment for the military was supplied by the United Kingdom. Aside from the few units that were able to escape to Saudi Arabia, including a majority of the air force, all of this equipment was either destroyed or taken by the Iraqis. Much of the property returned by Iraq after the Gulf War was damaged beyond repair. Iraq retained a substantial amount of captured Kuwaiti military equipment in violation of UN resolutions.

Since liberation, Kuwait, with the help of the United States and other allies, has made significant efforts to increase the size and modernity of its armed forces. These efforts are succeeding. The government also continues to improve defense arrangements with other Arab states, as well as UN Security Council members. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, in 2003, Kuwaiti military elements successfully operated missile defense systems.

A separately organized National Guard maintains internal security. The police constitute a single national force under the purview of civilian authorities of the Ministry of Interior.

==Economy==
Kuwait has a small, relatively open economy dominated by the oil industry and government sector. Approximately 90% of the Kuwaiti citizen labor force works in the public sector, and 90% of private sector workers are non-Kuwaitis. Kuwait's proven crude oil reserves of about 101.5 billion barrels—9% of world reserves—account for nearly 60% of GDP, 95% of export revenues, and 80-90% of government income. During the 1970s, Kuwait benefited from the dramatic rise in oil prices, which Kuwait actively promoted through its membership in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). The economy suffered from the triple shock of a 1982 securities market crash, the mid-1980s drop in oil prices, and the 1990 Iraqi invasion and occupation. The Kuwaiti Government-in-exile depended upon its $100 billion in overseas investments during the Iraqi occupation to help pay for the reconstruction. Thus, by 1993, this balance was cut to less than half of its pre-invasion level. The wealth of Kuwait is based primarily on oil and capital reserves, and the Iraqi occupation severely damaged both, although both have been restored as reconstruction has proceeded and world oil prices have risen. Kuwait enjoyed an economic boom following Operation Iraqi Freedom as many companies working in Iraq established offices in Kuwait and procured goods through Kuwaiti companies. The banking, financial services, logistics, telecommunications, and construction sectors, in particular, have grown in the last two years. The sustained high oil prices also provided the Kuwaiti Government with windfall revenues in 2005 and 2006.
*GDP (2007 est.): $138.6 billion.
*Real GDP growth rate (2005): 8.5%.
*Natural resources: Oil, natural gas, fish.
*Agriculture (about 0.5% of GDP): With the exception of fish, most food is imported. Cultivated land—1%.
*Industry (about 48% of GDP): Types—petroleum extraction and refining, fertilizer, chemicals, desalination, construction materials.
*Services (about 52% of GDP): public administration, finance, real estate, trade, hotels and restaurants.
*Trade (2005 est.): Exports --$46.87 billion: oil (93%). Major markets—Japan 17%, South Korea 13%, U.S. 11%, Singapore 10%, Pakistan 3%. Imports--$15.67 billion: food, construction materials, vehicles and parts, clothing. Major suppliers—U.S. 13%, Germany 13%, Japan 8%, China 6%, United Kingdom 6%.

In the closing hours of the Gulf War in February 1991, the Iraqi occupation forces set ablaze or damaged 749 of Kuwait's oil wells. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure damage. Oil production was 1.5 million barrels per day (bpd) by the end of 1992, and pre-war capacity was restored in 1993. Kuwait's current production capacity is estimated to be 2.5 million bpd. Kuwait plans to increase its capacity to 3.5 million bpd by 2015 and 4.0 million bpd by 2020.

====Oil====
In 1934, the ruler of Kuwait granted an oil concession to the Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), jointly owned by the British Petroleum Company and Gulf Oil Corporation. In 1976, the Kuwaiti Government nationalized KOC. The following year, Kuwait took over part of onshore production in the Divided Zone between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Kuwait Gulf Oil Company (KGOC) produces jointly there with Saudi Arabian Chevron, which, by its 1984 purchase of Getty Oil Company, acquired the Saudi Arabian onshore concession in the Divided Zone. Saudi Arabian Chevron's concession is due to expire in February 2009.

Offshore in the Divided Zone, the Arabian Oil Company (AOC)--80% owned by Japanese interests and 10% each by the Kuwaiti and Saudi Governments—produced on behalf of both countries from 1961 until 2000, when its concession in the Saudi zone expired. AOC gave up its drilling rights in the Kuwaiti sector 3 years later. KGOC has assumed AOC's offshore operations. [[Saudi Aramco|Aramco Gulf Oil Company]] (AGOC) manages the Saudi portion of the offshore Divided Zone.

Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC), an integrated, state-owned oil company, is the parent company of the government's operating companies in the petroleum sector, and includes Kuwait Oil Company, which produces oil and gas; Kuwait National Petroleum Company, which manages refining and domestic sales; Petrochemical Industries Company, which produces ammonia, urea, ethylene, propylene, and styrene and participates in a number of successful joint ventures with Dow Chemical within Kuwait and abroad; Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration Company, which is responsible for exploration and upstream production outside Kuwait (in several developing countries and Australia); Kuwait Oil Tanker Company.; Kuwait Gulf Oil Company, responsible for exploration and production in the Kuwait portions of the offshore and onshore Divided Zone; and Kuwait Petroleum International, which manages refining and retail operations outside Kuwait (in Europe and East Asia).

KPC purchased from Gulf Oil Co. refineries in the Netherlands and Italy and service stations in the Benelux nations, Italy, and Scandinavia. In 1987, KPC bought a 19% share in British Petroleum, which was later reduced to 10%. KPC markets its products in Europe under the brand name Q8. In 2006, KPC announced plans to participate in a joint venture to build and operate a refinery and associated petrochemical plant in China. The Government of Kuwait also signed a memorandum of agreement with the State of Louisiana in 2006 to explore the feasibility of building a refinery in the United States.

According to official OPEC figures, Kuwait has about 101.5 billion barrels of proven oil reserves, including the Kuwaiti share of proven reserves in the Divided Zone. This gives Kuwait the fifth-largest oil reserves in the world after Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, and Iraq. Estimated capacity before the occupation was about 2.4 million bpd. During the Iraqi occupation, Kuwait's oil-producing capacity was severely reduced. However, tremendous recovery and improvements have been made. Oil production was 1.5 million bpd by the end of 1992, and pre-war capacity was restored in 1993. Kuwait's production capacity is estimated to be 2.5 million bpd. Kuwait plans to increase its capacity to 3.5 million bpd by 2015 and 4.0 million bpd by 2020. Oil revenues comprise about 95% of exports and 90% of total government revenues. Kuwaiti export crude averaged about $58/barrel in 2006.

In 2011, Kuwait is trying to increase the value added of its energy products by setting up new refineries and marketing products on local and foreign markets. The Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC) posted profits estimated at KD462m in 2010-2011 and met the targeted production rate of 892,000 barrels a day. [http://kuwaitsamachar.com/index/news/kuwaits-knpc-eyes-18bn-new-projects-next-year]

====Social Benefits====
The government has sponsored many social welfare, public works, and development plans financed with oil and investment revenues. Among the benefits for Kuwaiti citizens are retirement income, marriage bonuses, housing loans, virtually guaranteed employment, free medical services, and education at all levels. By Amiri decree, the government occasionally disburses a portion of its budget surplus as a grant to all Kuwaiti citizens. In September 2006, an Amiri grant of 200 Kuwaiti dinars (approximately $700) was paid to every citizen who applied. Foreign nationals residing in Kuwait do not have access to these welfare services. The right to own stock in publicly traded companies, real estate, and banks or a majority interest in a business is limited to Kuwaiti citizens, and citizens of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states under limited circumstances.

====Industry and Development====
Industry in Kuwait consists of several large export-oriented petrochemical units, oil refineries, and a range of small manufacturers. It also includes large water desalinization, ammonia, desulphurization, fertilizer, brick, block, and cement plants. During the invasion, the Iraqis looted nearly all movable equipment of value, especially high-technology items and small machinery. Much of this has been replaced with newer equipment. The Kuwaiti Government has promoted the Trade and Investment Framework (TIFA) agreement, signed with the U.S. in 2004, as a means to attract additional foreign investment into Kuwaiti industries and enhance the country's diversification from a purely oil-based economy.

Agriculture
Agriculture is limited by the lack of water and arable land. The government has experimented in growing food through [[hydroponics]] and carefully managed farms. However, most of the soil which was suitable for farming in south central Kuwait was destroyed when Iraqi troops set fire to oil wells in the area and created vast "oil lakes." Fish and shrimp are plentiful in territorial waters, and large-scale commercial fishing has been undertaken locally and in the Indian Ocean.

====Shipping====
The Kuwait Oil Tanker Company has 24 crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas, and refined product carriers and is the largest tanker company in an OPEC country. Kuwait also is a member of the United Arab Shipping Company.

====Trade, Finance, and Aid====
The Kuwaiti dinar is a strong currency which was pegged from 2003 until May 2007 to the U.S. dollar. The dinar is now pegged to a basket of currencies, of which the dollar is a majority. Kuwait ordinarily runs a current account surplus, estimated at $40 billion for 2006 (about 45% of GDP). Government revenues are dependent on oil revenues. In 2006, Kuwait's fiscal surplus was estimated to be about 20% of GDP, despite a 16% rise in government expenditure.

The government's two reserve funds—the Fund for Future Generations and the General Reserve Fund—which totaled nearly $100 billion prior to the invasion in 1990, were the primary source of capital for the Kuwaiti Government during the war. While these funds were depleted to $40-$50 billion after the war, total external assets, including the two reserve funds and the Public Fund for Social Security, are currently estimated to be around $160 billion. The bulk of this is invested in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, and Southeast Asia. In order of importance, foreign assets are believed to be invested in stocks and bonds, fixed yield instruments (mostly short term), and real estate. Kuwait follows a generally conservative investment policy.

Kuwait has been a major source of foreign economic assistance to other states through the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development (KFAED), an autonomous state institution created in 1961 on the pattern of Western and international development agencies and chaired by the Foreign Minister. In 1974, the fund's lending mandate was expanded to include all non-Arab, developing countries. According to the most recent statistics available, the Fund's paid-up capital amounts to $7 billion. Total loan disbursement extended is $37 billion. The Fund has granted 595 loans since its inception and extended technical assistance on 196 occasions to different countries and organizations in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin America. KFAED is responsible for administering the disbursal of at least $500 million in concessionary loans to Iraq in support of reconstruction efforts.

Over the years Kuwait has provided aid to Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, as well as the Palestinian Authority. During the Iran-Iraq war, Kuwait also gave significant aid to the Iraqis. The Kuwait fund issued loans and technical assistance grants totaling over $419 million during its fiscal year ending March 31, 2003. Kuwaiti provided unparalleled assistance during Operation Iraqi Freedom by establishing and operating the Humanitarian Operations Center for Iraq. Following the Israel-Lebanon conflict in 2006, Kuwait pledged $300 million for humanitarian aid and deposited $500 million in the Lebanese Central Bank.

At the 2003 Madrid Conference, the Government of Kuwait pledged $1.5 billion in assistance to Iraq. KFAED is responsible for disbursing and overseeing as much as $560 million of that assistance through grants. In 2005, KFAED contributed $50 million to Pakistan earthquake relief, contributed $50 million for Hurricane Katrina relief, and made significant contributions to tsunami relief efforts. Kuwaiti has also supported the establishment of the International Compact for Iraq.

==History==
Archaeological finds on Failaka, the largest of Kuwait's nine islands, suggest that Failaka was a trading post at the time of the ancient Sumerians. Failaka appears to have continued to serve as a market for approximately 2,000 years, and was known to the ancient Greeks. Despite its long history as a market and sanctuary for traders, Failaka appears to have been abandoned as a permanent settlement in the 1st century A.D. Kuwait's modern history began in the 18th century with the founding of the city of Kuwait by the Uteiba, a subsection of the Anaiza tribe, who are believed to have traveled north from Qatar.

Threatened in the 19th century by the Ottoman Turks and various powerful Arabian Peninsula groups, Kuwait sought the same treaty relationship Britain had already signed with the Trucial States (UAE) and Bahrain. In January 1899, the ruler Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah--"the Great"—signed an agreement with the British Government that pledged himself and his successors neither to cede any territory, nor to receive agents or representatives of any foreign power without the British Government's consent, in exchange for protection and an annual subsidy. When Mubarak died in 1915, the population of Kuwait of about 35,000 was heavily dependent on shipbuilding (using wood imported from India) and pearl diving.

Mubarak was succeeded as ruler by his sons Jabir (1915–17) and Salim (1917–21). Kuwait's subsequent rulers have descended from these two brothers. Sheikh Ahmed al-Jabir Al Sabah ruled Kuwait from 1921 until his death in 1950, a period in which oil was discovered and in which the government attempted to establish the first internationally recognized boundaries; the 1922 Treaty of Uqair set Kuwait's border with Saudi Arabia and also established the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone, an area of about 5,180 km2. (2,000 sq. mi.) adjoining Kuwait's southern border.

Kuwait achieved independence from the British under Sheikh Ahmed's successor, Sheikh Abdullah al-Salim Al Sabah. By early 1961, the British had already withdrawn their special court system, which handled the cases of foreigners resident in Kuwait, and the Kuwaiti Government began to exercise legal jurisdiction under new laws drawn up by an Egyptian jurist. On June 19, 1961, Kuwait became fully independent following an exchange of notes with the United Kingdom.

Kuwait enjoyed an unprecedented period of prosperity under Amir Sabah al-Salim Al Sabah, who died in 1977 after ruling for 12 years. Under his rule, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia signed an agreement dividing the Neutral Zone (now called the Divided Zone) and demarcating a new international boundary. Both countries share equally the Divided Zone's petroleum, onshore and offshore. The country was transformed into a highly developed welfare state with a free market economy.

In August 1990, Iraq attacked and invaded Kuwait. Kuwait's northern border with Iraq dates from an agreement reached with Turkey in 1913. Iraq accepted this claim in 1932 upon its independence from Turkey. However, following Kuwait's independence in 1961, Iraq claimed Kuwait, arguing that Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman Empire subject to Iraqi [[suzerain]]ty. In 1963, Iraq reaffirmed its acceptance of Kuwaiti sovereignty and the boundary it agreed to in 1913 and 1932, in the "Agreed Minutes between the State of Kuwait and the Republic of Iraq Regarding the Restoration of Friendly Relations, Recognition, and Related Matters."

Following several weeks of aerial bombardment, a UN-mandated coalition led by the United States began a ground assault in February 1991 that liberated Kuwait. During the 7-month occupation by Iraq, the Amir, the Government of Kuwait, and many Kuwaitis took refuge in Saudi Arabia and other nations. The Amir and the government successfully managed Kuwaiti affairs from Saudi Arabia, London, and elsewhere during the period, relying on substantial Kuwaiti investments available outside Kuwait for funding and war-related expenses.

Following liberation, the UN, under Security Council Resolution 687, demarcated the Iraq-Kuwait boundary on the basis of the 1932 and the 1963 agreements between the two states. In November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait, which had been further spelled out in UN Security Council Resolutions 773 and 883.

==References==
CIA Factbook—Kuwait [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ku.html]

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{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Kuwait

2024-06-02T23:07:31Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''دولة الكويت Dawlat al-Kuwayt''
|map =Kuwait rel96.jpg
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =Arms of Kuwait.png
|capital =Kuwait City
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional hereditary emirate
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =Emir Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Jabir al-Mubarak al-Hamad al-Sabah
|pm-raw =
|area =6,880 sq mi
|pop =4,275,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$133,333,333,333 (2020)
|gdp-year =2007
|gdp-pc =$31,189 (2020)
|currency =Kuwaiti dinar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''State of Kuwait''' is a small oil-rich desert nation at the head of the [[Persian Gulf]]. It has land borders with [[Iraq]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. The name Kuwait is derived from Arabic meaning "fortress built near water".

The country became a British Protectorate in 1899 and enjoyed [[British]] rule until June 19, 1961, when it was granted status as a sovereign independent state. It is now a constitutional emirate, headed by a Prime Minister, Nasir Muhammad al-Ahmad al-Sabah (appointed by the Amir on 3 April 2007). As an emirate the Head of Government is Amir Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah which is a hereditary title.

==Geography==
*Area: 17,820 km2. (6,880 sq. mi.); approximately the size of the State of New Jersey.
*Cities: Capital—Kuwait City.
*Terrain: Almost entirely flat desert plain (highest elevation point—306 m).
*Climate: Summers are intensely hot and dry with average highs ranging from 42o-49oC (108o-120oF); winters are short (Dec.-Feb.) and cool, averaging 10-30 C (50-80 F), with limited rain.

==People==
[[File:Kuwait people.jpg|left|240px]]
Over 90% of the population lives within a 500-square kilometer area surrounding Kuwait City and its harbor. Although the majority of people residing in the State of Kuwait are of Arab origin, fewer than half are originally from the Arabian Peninsula. The discovery of oil in 1938 drew many Arabs from nearby states. Following the liberation of Kuwait from Iraqi occupation in 1991, the Kuwaiti Government undertook a serious effort to reduce the expatriate population by specifically limiting the entry of workers from nations whose leaders had supported Iraq during the Gulf War. Kuwait later abandoned this policy, and it currently has a sizable foreign labor force (approximately 68% of the total population is non-Kuwaiti).
*Population (Dec. 2006 est.): 3,182,960, including approximately 1 million Kuwaiti citizens and 2 million non-Kuwaiti citizens.
*Annual growth rate (2006 est.): 3.52%.
*Ethnic groups: Kuwaiti 35%, other Arab 22%, non-Arab (primarily Asian) 39%, stateless Arabs (bidoon) 4%.
*Religion: Muslim estimated 80% (Sunni 70%, Shi'a 30% among Kuwaitis), with sizable Hindu, Christian, Buddhist, and Sikh communities.
*Languages: Arabic (official), English is widely spoken.
*Education: Compulsory from ages 6–14; free at all levels for Kuwaitis, including higher education. Adult literacy (age 15 and over)--83.5% for the overall population (male 85.1%, female 81.7%), 91.2% for Kuwaitis (male 91.4%, female 90.8%).
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--9.71 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2006 est.)--76.13 yrs. male, 78.31 yrs. female.
*Work force (official figures as of December 31, 2006): 1.963 million (76% male; 24% female; 17% Kuwaiti citizens).

Of the country's total population of 3.1 million, approximately 80% are Muslims, including nearly all of its1.023 million citizens. While the national census does not distinguish between Sunni and Shi'a adherents, approximately 70-75 % of citizens, including the ruling family, belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. The remaining Kuwaiti citizens, with the exception of about 100-200 Christians and a few Baha'is, are Shi'a. The expatriate Christian population is estimated to be more than 400,000 residents. There also are communities of Hindus, Buddhists, and Sikhs.

Kuwait's 83.5% literacy rate, one of the Arab world's highest, is the result of extensive government support for the education system. Public school education, including Kuwait University, is free, but access is restricted for foreign residents. The government sponsors the foreign study of qualified students abroad for degrees not offered at Kuwait University. In 2004, approximately 1,720 Kuwaitis were enrolled in U.S. universities, down 6.8% from the previous year.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Kuwait City.jpg|thumb|280px|Kuwait City.]]
Kuwait is a constitutional, hereditary emirate ruled by princes (Amirs) who have been drawn from the Al Sabah family since the middle of the 18th century. The 1962 constitution provides for an elected National Assembly and details the powers of the branches of government and the rights of citizens. Under the Constitution, the National Assembly has a limited role in approving the Amir's choice of the Crown Prince, who succeeds the Amir upon his death. If the National Assembly rejects his nominee, the Amir then submits three names of qualified candidates from among the direct descendants of Mubarak the Great, the founder of modern Kuwait, from which the Assembly must choose the new Crown Prince. Successions have been orderly since independence. In January 2006, the National Assembly played a symbolically important role in the succession process, which was seen as an assertion of parliament's constitutional powers.

For almost 40 years, the Amir appointed the Crown Prince as Kuwait's Prime Minister. However, in July 2003, the Amir formally separated the two positions and appointed a different ruling family member as Prime Minister.

Kuwait's first National Assembly was elected in 1963, with follow-on elections held in 1967, 1971, and 1975. From 1976 to 1981, the National Assembly was suspended. Following elections in 1981 and 1985, the National Assembly was again dissolved. Fulfilling a promise made during the period of Iraqi occupation, the Amir held new elections for the National Assembly in 1992. In May 1999 and once again in May 2006, the Amir dissolved the National Assembly, but complied with the constitution by holding new elections within 60 days. The most recent general election, held in June 2006, was considered free and fair and was marked by the participation of women for the first time as voters and candidates who introduced social and educational issues to the political debate. In July 2006 the newly elected legislature passed a law to reduce the number of electoral districts from 25 to 5 in a move that reformers hoped would increase the transparency of the democratic process by increasing the number of votes necessary to win a seat in parliament.

The government does not officially recognize political parties; however, de facto political blocs, typically organized along ideological lines, exist and are active in the National Assembly. Although the Amir maintains the final word on most government policies, the National Assembly plays a real role in decision-making, with powers to initiate legislation, question ("grill") cabinet ministers, and express lack of confidence in individual ministers. For example, in May 1999, the Amir issued several landmark decrees dealing with women's suffrage, economic liberalization, and nationality. The National Assembly later rejected all of these decrees as a matter of principle and then reintroduced most of them as parliamentary legislation. In May 2005, the National Assembly approved legislation granting women full political rights. Subsequently, the Prime Minister appointed Kuwait's first female minister, Dr. Masouma Al-Mubarak, as Planning Minister and Minister of State for Administrative Development Affairs, and the government appointed two women to Kuwait's Municipal Council. Following the March 2007 resignation of the cabinet, Dr. Masouma was joined by a second woman, Nouriya Subih, in the cabinet.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Amir—His Highness Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah
*Crown Prince—His Highness Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah
*Prime Minister—Jabir al-Mubarak al-Hamad al-Sabah
*First Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Defense, and Minister of Interior—Sheikh Jaber Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah
*Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of State for Cabinet Affairs—Faisal Mohammed Al-Hajji
*Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister—Sheikh Dr. Mohammad Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah
*National Assembly Speaker—Jassem Al-Khorafi
*Permanent Representative to the United Nations—Ambassador Abdullah Al-Murad

===Foreign Relations===
Following independence in June 1961, Kuwait faced its first major foreign policy problem arising from Iraqi claims to Kuwait's territory. The Iraqis threatened invasion but were dissuaded by the U.K.'s ready response to the Amir's request for assistance. Kuwait presented its case before the United Nations and preserved its sovereignty. U.K. forces were later withdrawn and replaced by troops from Arab League nations, which were withdrawn in 1963 at Kuwait's request.

On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded and occupied Kuwait. Through U.S. efforts, a multinational coalition was assembled, and, under UN auspices, initiated military action against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. Arab states, especially the other five members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates), Egypt, and Syria, supported Kuwait by sending troops to fight with the coalition. Many European and East Asian states sent troops, equipment, and/or financial support.

After liberation, Kuwait concentrated its foreign policy efforts on development of ties to states which had participated in the multinational coalition. Notably, these states were given the lead role in Kuwait's reconstruction. Kuwait's relations with those nations that supported Iraq, among them Jordan, Sudan, Yemen, and Cuba, were slow to recover. Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasir Arafat's support for Saddam Hussein during the war also affected Kuwait's attitudes toward the PLO though Kuwait supports the Arab-Israeli peace process.

The Government of Kuwait has abandoned its previous policy of limiting the entry of workers from nations whose leaders had supported Iraq during the Gulf War. In August 2001, the Interior Minister announced that there were no longer any special restrictions or permits required for Palestinian workers wishing to return to the country. At the end of 2002, there were approximately 30,000 to 40,000 Palestinians, 30,000 to 40,000 Jordanians, and 5,000 Yemenis resident in Kuwait.

Since liberation from Iraq, Kuwait has made efforts to secure allies throughout the world, particularly UN Security Council members. In addition to the United States, defense arrangements have been concluded with the United Kingdom, Russia, and France. Ties to other key Arab members of the Gulf War coalition—Egypt and Syria—also have been sustained.

During the 2002-03 buildup to and execution of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), Kuwait was a vital coalition partner, reserving a full 60% of its total land mass for use by coalition forces and donating significant assistance in kind to the effort. Kuwait continues to provide generous assistance in kind to ongoing coalition operations in Iraq. Kuwait has been consistently involved in reconstruction efforts in Iraq, pledging $1.5 billion at the October 2003 international donors' conference in Madrid, and consulting closely with Iraqi officials, including former Prime Minister Ibrahim Jaffari, who visited Kuwait in late October 2005, and Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki, who visited in July 2006 and again in April 2007. Kuwait has been an active and vocal public supporter of the political process in Iraq, welcoming the January 2005 elections and praising Iraq's October 2005 successful constitutional referendum. Iraqi President Talibani visited Kuwait in September 2006.

Kuwait is a member of the UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank (IBRD), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); African Development Bank (AFDB), Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD), Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund (AMF), Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), Group of 77 (G-77), Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), INMARSAT, International Development Association (IDA), International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Labor Organization (ILO), International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, Islamic Development Bank (IDB), International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

===Relations with the United States===
The United States opened a consulate in Kuwait in October 1951, which was elevated to embassy status at the time of Kuwait's independence 10 years later. The United States supports Kuwait's sovereignty, security, and independence, as well as its multilateral diplomatic efforts to build greater cooperation among the GCC countries.

Strategic cooperation between the United States and Kuwait increased in 1987 with the implementation of a maritime protection regime that ensured the freedom of navigation through the Gulf for 11 Kuwaiti tankers that were reflagged with U.S. markings.

The U.S.-Kuwaiti strategic partnership intensified dramatically again after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The United States spearheaded UN Security Council demands that Iraq withdraw from Kuwait and its authorization of the use of force, if necessary, to remove Iraqi forces from the occupied country. The United States also played a dominant role in the development of the multinational military operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm that liberated Kuwait. The U.S.-Kuwaiti relationship has remained strong in the post-Gulf War period. Kuwait and the United States worked on a daily basis to monitor and to enforce Iraq's compliance with UN Security Council resolutions, and Kuwait has also provided the main platform for Operation Iraqi Freedom since 2003.

Since Kuwait's liberation, the United States has provided military and defense technical assistance to Kuwait from both foreign military sales (FMS) and commercial sources. The U.S. Office of Military Cooperation in Kuwait is attached to the American embassy and manages the FMS program. There are currently over 100 open FMS contracts between the U.S. military and the Kuwait Ministry of Defense totaling $8.1 billion. Principal U.S. military systems currently purchased by the Kuwait Defense Forces are [[Patriot Missile]] systems, [[F/A-18 Hornet]] fighters, the M1A2 main battle tank, AH-64D Apache helicopter, and a major recapitalization of Kuwait's Navy with U.S. boats.

Kuwaiti attitudes toward American products have been favorable since the Gulf War. In 1993, Kuwait publicly announced abandonment of the secondary and tertiary aspects of the Arab boycott of Israel (those aspects affecting U.S. firms). The United States is currently Kuwait's largest supplier of goods and services, and Kuwait is the fifth-largest market in the Middle East. U.S. exports to Kuwait totaled $2.14 billion million in 2006. Provided their prices are reasonable, U.S. firms have a competitive advantage in many areas requiring advanced technology, such as oil field equipment and services, electric power generation and distribution equipment, telecommunications gear, consumer goods, and military equipment.

Kuwait also is an important partner in the ongoing U.S.-led campaign against international terrorism, providing assistance in the military, diplomatic, and intelligence arenas and also supporting efforts to block financing of terrorist groups. In January 2005, Kuwait Security Services forces engaged in gun battles with local extremists, resulting in fatalities on both sides in the first such incident in Kuwait's history.

==Support for Terrorism==
===ISIS/Al-Qaeda===
Kuwait is a major financier of weapons for Al-Qaeda and ISIS.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20220114184901/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/kuwait/11077537/How-our-allies-in-Kuwait-and-Qatar-funded-Islamic-State.html</ref>

==Defense==
Before the Gulf War, Kuwait maintained a small military force consisting of army, navy, and air force units. The majority of equipment for the military was supplied by the United Kingdom. Aside from the few units that were able to escape to Saudi Arabia, including a majority of the air force, all of this equipment was either destroyed or taken by the Iraqis. Much of the property returned by Iraq after the Gulf War was damaged beyond repair. Iraq retained a substantial amount of captured Kuwaiti military equipment in violation of UN resolutions.

Since liberation, Kuwait, with the help of the United States and other allies, has made significant efforts to increase the size and modernity of its armed forces. These efforts are succeeding. The government also continues to improve defense arrangements with other Arab states, as well as UN Security Council members. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, in 2003, Kuwaiti military elements successfully operated missile defense systems.

A separately organized National Guard maintains internal security. The police constitute a single national force under the purview of civilian authorities of the Ministry of Interior.

==Economy==
Kuwait has a small, relatively open economy dominated by the oil industry and government sector. Approximately 90% of the Kuwaiti citizen labor force works in the public sector, and 90% of private sector workers are non-Kuwaitis. Kuwait's proven crude oil reserves of about 101.5 billion barrels—9% of world reserves—account for nearly 60% of GDP, 95% of export revenues, and 80-90% of government income. During the 1970s, Kuwait benefited from the dramatic rise in oil prices, which Kuwait actively promoted through its membership in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). The economy suffered from the triple shock of a 1982 securities market crash, the mid-1980s drop in oil prices, and the 1990 Iraqi invasion and occupation. The Kuwaiti Government-in-exile depended upon its $100 billion in overseas investments during the Iraqi occupation to help pay for the reconstruction. Thus, by 1993, this balance was cut to less than half of its pre-invasion level. The wealth of Kuwait is based primarily on oil and capital reserves, and the Iraqi occupation severely damaged both, although both have been restored as reconstruction has proceeded and world oil prices have risen. Kuwait enjoyed an economic boom following Operation Iraqi Freedom as many companies working in Iraq established offices in Kuwait and procured goods through Kuwaiti companies. The banking, financial services, logistics, telecommunications, and construction sectors, in particular, have grown in the last two years. The sustained high oil prices also provided the Kuwaiti Government with windfall revenues in 2005 and 2006.
*GDP (2007 est.): $138.6 billion.
*Real GDP growth rate (2005): 8.5%.
*Natural resources: Oil, natural gas, fish.
*Agriculture (about 0.5% of GDP): With the exception of fish, most food is imported. Cultivated land—1%.
*Industry (about 48% of GDP): Types—petroleum extraction and refining, fertilizer, chemicals, desalination, construction materials.
*Services (about 52% of GDP): public administration, finance, real estate, trade, hotels and restaurants.
*Trade (2005 est.): Exports --$46.87 billion: oil (93%). Major markets—Japan 17%, South Korea 13%, U.S. 11%, Singapore 10%, Pakistan 3%. Imports--$15.67 billion: food, construction materials, vehicles and parts, clothing. Major suppliers—U.S. 13%, Germany 13%, Japan 8%, China 6%, United Kingdom 6%.

In the closing hours of the Gulf War in February 1991, the Iraqi occupation forces set ablaze or damaged 749 of Kuwait's oil wells. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure damage. Oil production was 1.5 million barrels per day (bpd) by the end of 1992, and pre-war capacity was restored in 1993. Kuwait's current production capacity is estimated to be 2.5 million bpd. Kuwait plans to increase its capacity to 3.5 million bpd by 2015 and 4.0 million bpd by 2020.

====Oil====
In 1934, the ruler of Kuwait granted an oil concession to the Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), jointly owned by the British Petroleum Company and Gulf Oil Corporation. In 1976, the Kuwaiti Government nationalized KOC. The following year, Kuwait took over part of onshore production in the Divided Zone between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Kuwait Gulf Oil Company (KGOC) produces jointly there with Saudi Arabian Chevron, which, by its 1984 purchase of Getty Oil Company, acquired the Saudi Arabian onshore concession in the Divided Zone. Saudi Arabian Chevron's concession is due to expire in February 2009.

Offshore in the Divided Zone, the Arabian Oil Company (AOC)--80% owned by Japanese interests and 10% each by the Kuwaiti and Saudi Governments—produced on behalf of both countries from 1961 until 2000, when its concession in the Saudi zone expired. AOC gave up its drilling rights in the Kuwaiti sector 3 years later. KGOC has assumed AOC's offshore operations. [[Saudi Aramco|Aramco Gulf Oil Company]] (AGOC) manages the Saudi portion of the offshore Divided Zone.

Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC), an integrated, state-owned oil company, is the parent company of the government's operating companies in the petroleum sector, and includes Kuwait Oil Company, which produces oil and gas; Kuwait National Petroleum Company, which manages refining and domestic sales; Petrochemical Industries Company, which produces ammonia, urea, ethylene, propylene, and styrene and participates in a number of successful joint ventures with Dow Chemical within Kuwait and abroad; Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration Company, which is responsible for exploration and upstream production outside Kuwait (in several developing countries and Australia); Kuwait Oil Tanker Company.; Kuwait Gulf Oil Company, responsible for exploration and production in the Kuwait portions of the offshore and onshore Divided Zone; and Kuwait Petroleum International, which manages refining and retail operations outside Kuwait (in Europe and East Asia).

KPC purchased from Gulf Oil Co. refineries in the Netherlands and Italy and service stations in the Benelux nations, Italy, and Scandinavia. In 1987, KPC bought a 19% share in British Petroleum, which was later reduced to 10%. KPC markets its products in Europe under the brand name Q8. In 2006, KPC announced plans to participate in a joint venture to build and operate a refinery and associated petrochemical plant in China. The Government of Kuwait also signed a memorandum of agreement with the State of Louisiana in 2006 to explore the feasibility of building a refinery in the United States.

According to official OPEC figures, Kuwait has about 101.5 billion barrels of proven oil reserves, including the Kuwaiti share of proven reserves in the Divided Zone. This gives Kuwait the fifth-largest oil reserves in the world after Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, and Iraq. Estimated capacity before the occupation was about 2.4 million bpd. During the Iraqi occupation, Kuwait's oil-producing capacity was severely reduced. However, tremendous recovery and improvements have been made. Oil production was 1.5 million bpd by the end of 1992, and pre-war capacity was restored in 1993. Kuwait's production capacity is estimated to be 2.5 million bpd. Kuwait plans to increase its capacity to 3.5 million bpd by 2015 and 4.0 million bpd by 2020. Oil revenues comprise about 95% of exports and 90% of total government revenues. Kuwaiti export crude averaged about $58/barrel in 2006.

In 2011, Kuwait is trying to increase the value added of its energy products by setting up new refineries and marketing products on local and foreign markets. The Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC) posted profits estimated at KD462m in 2010-2011 and met the targeted production rate of 892,000 barrels a day. [http://kuwaitsamachar.com/index/news/kuwaits-knpc-eyes-18bn-new-projects-next-year]

====Social Benefits====
The government has sponsored many social welfare, public works, and development plans financed with oil and investment revenues. Among the benefits for Kuwaiti citizens are retirement income, marriage bonuses, housing loans, virtually guaranteed employment, free medical services, and education at all levels. By Amiri decree, the government occasionally disburses a portion of its budget surplus as a grant to all Kuwaiti citizens. In September 2006, an Amiri grant of 200 Kuwaiti dinars (approximately $700) was paid to every citizen who applied. Foreign nationals residing in Kuwait do not have access to these welfare services. The right to own stock in publicly traded companies, real estate, and banks or a majority interest in a business is limited to Kuwaiti citizens, and citizens of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states under limited circumstances.

====Industry and Development====
Industry in Kuwait consists of several large export-oriented petrochemical units, oil refineries, and a range of small manufacturers. It also includes large water desalinization, ammonia, desulphurization, fertilizer, brick, block, and cement plants. During the invasion, the Iraqis looted nearly all movable equipment of value, especially high-technology items and small machinery. Much of this has been replaced with newer equipment. The Kuwaiti Government has promoted the Trade and Investment Framework (TIFA) agreement, signed with the U.S. in 2004, as a means to attract additional foreign investment into Kuwaiti industries and enhance the country's diversification from a purely oil-based economy.

Agriculture
Agriculture is limited by the lack of water and arable land. The government has experimented in growing food through [[hydroponics]] and carefully managed farms. However, most of the soil which was suitable for farming in south central Kuwait was destroyed when Iraqi troops set fire to oil wells in the area and created vast "oil lakes." Fish and shrimp are plentiful in territorial waters, and large-scale commercial fishing has been undertaken locally and in the Indian Ocean.

====Shipping====
The Kuwait Oil Tanker Company has 24 crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas, and refined product carriers and is the largest tanker company in an OPEC country. Kuwait also is a member of the United Arab Shipping Company.

====Trade, Finance, and Aid====
The Kuwaiti dinar is a strong currency which was pegged from 2003 until May 2007 to the U.S. dollar. The dinar is now pegged to a basket of currencies, of which the dollar is a majority. Kuwait ordinarily runs a current account surplus, estimated at $40 billion for 2006 (about 45% of GDP). Government revenues are dependent on oil revenues. In 2006, Kuwait's fiscal surplus was estimated to be about 20% of GDP, despite a 16% rise in government expenditure.

The government's two reserve funds—the Fund for Future Generations and the General Reserve Fund—which totaled nearly $100 billion prior to the invasion in 1990, were the primary source of capital for the Kuwaiti Government during the war. While these funds were depleted to $40-$50 billion after the war, total external assets, including the two reserve funds and the Public Fund for Social Security, are currently estimated to be around $160 billion. The bulk of this is invested in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, and Southeast Asia. In order of importance, foreign assets are believed to be invested in stocks and bonds, fixed yield instruments (mostly short term), and real estate. Kuwait follows a generally conservative investment policy.

Kuwait has been a major source of foreign economic assistance to other states through the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development (KFAED), an autonomous state institution created in 1961 on the pattern of Western and international development agencies and chaired by the Foreign Minister. In 1974, the fund's lending mandate was expanded to include all non-Arab, developing countries. According to the most recent statistics available, the Fund's paid-up capital amounts to $7 billion. Total loan disbursement extended is $37 billion. The Fund has granted 595 loans since its inception and extended technical assistance on 196 occasions to different countries and organizations in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin America. KFAED is responsible for administering the disbursal of at least $500 million in concessionary loans to Iraq in support of reconstruction efforts.

Over the years Kuwait has provided aid to Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, as well as the Palestinian Authority. During the Iran-Iraq war, Kuwait also gave significant aid to the Iraqis. The Kuwait fund issued loans and technical assistance grants totaling over $419 million during its fiscal year ending March 31, 2003. Kuwaiti provided unparalleled assistance during Operation Iraqi Freedom by establishing and operating the Humanitarian Operations Center for Iraq. Following the Israel-Lebanon conflict in 2006, Kuwait pledged $300 million for humanitarian aid and deposited $500 million in the Lebanese Central Bank.

At the 2003 Madrid Conference, the Government of Kuwait pledged $1.5 billion in assistance to Iraq. KFAED is responsible for disbursing and overseeing as much as $560 million of that assistance through grants. In 2005, KFAED contributed $50 million to Pakistan earthquake relief, contributed $50 million for Hurricane Katrina relief, and made significant contributions to tsunami relief efforts. Kuwaiti has also supported the establishment of the International Compact for Iraq.

==History==
Archaeological finds on Failaka, the largest of Kuwait's nine islands, suggest that Failaka was a trading post at the time of the ancient Sumerians. Failaka appears to have continued to serve as a market for approximately 2,000 years, and was known to the ancient Greeks. Despite its long history as a market and sanctuary for traders, Failaka appears to have been abandoned as a permanent settlement in the 1st century A.D. Kuwait's modern history began in the 18th century with the founding of the city of Kuwait by the Uteiba, a subsection of the Anaiza tribe, who are believed to have traveled north from Qatar.

Threatened in the 19th century by the Ottoman Turks and various powerful Arabian Peninsula groups, Kuwait sought the same treaty relationship Britain had already signed with the Trucial States (UAE) and Bahrain. In January 1899, the ruler Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah--"the Great"—signed an agreement with the British Government that pledged himself and his successors neither to cede any territory, nor to receive agents or representatives of any foreign power without the British Government's consent, in exchange for protection and an annual subsidy. When Mubarak died in 1915, the population of Kuwait of about 35,000 was heavily dependent on shipbuilding (using wood imported from India) and pearl diving.

Mubarak was succeeded as ruler by his sons Jabir (1915–17) and Salim (1917–21). Kuwait's subsequent rulers have descended from these two brothers. Sheikh Ahmed al-Jabir Al Sabah ruled Kuwait from 1921 until his death in 1950, a period in which oil was discovered and in which the government attempted to establish the first internationally recognized boundaries; the 1922 Treaty of Uqair set Kuwait's border with Saudi Arabia and also established the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone, an area of about 5,180 km2. (2,000 sq. mi.) adjoining Kuwait's southern border.

Kuwait achieved independence from the British under Sheikh Ahmed's successor, Sheikh Abdullah al-Salim Al Sabah. By early 1961, the British had already withdrawn their special court system, which handled the cases of foreigners resident in Kuwait, and the Kuwaiti Government began to exercise legal jurisdiction under new laws drawn up by an Egyptian jurist. On June 19, 1961, Kuwait became fully independent following an exchange of notes with the United Kingdom.

Kuwait enjoyed an unprecedented period of prosperity under Amir Sabah al-Salim Al Sabah, who died in 1977 after ruling for 12 years. Under his rule, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia signed an agreement dividing the Neutral Zone (now called the Divided Zone) and demarcating a new international boundary. Both countries share equally the Divided Zone's petroleum, onshore and offshore. The country was transformed into a highly developed welfare state with a free market economy.

In August 1990, Iraq attacked and invaded Kuwait. Kuwait's northern border with Iraq dates from an agreement reached with Turkey in 1913. Iraq accepted this claim in 1932 upon its independence from Turkey. However, following Kuwait's independence in 1961, Iraq claimed Kuwait, arguing that Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman Empire subject to Iraqi [[suzerain]]ty. In 1963, Iraq reaffirmed its acceptance of Kuwaiti sovereignty and the boundary it agreed to in 1913 and 1932, in the "Agreed Minutes between the State of Kuwait and the Republic of Iraq Regarding the Restoration of Friendly Relations, Recognition, and Related Matters."

Following several weeks of aerial bombardment, a UN-mandated coalition led by the United States began a ground assault in February 1991 that liberated Kuwait. During the 7-month occupation by Iraq, the Amir, the Government of Kuwait, and many Kuwaitis took refuge in Saudi Arabia and other nations. The Amir and the government successfully managed Kuwaiti affairs from Saudi Arabia, London, and elsewhere during the period, relying on substantial Kuwaiti investments available outside Kuwait for funding and war-related expenses.

Following liberation, the UN, under Security Council Resolution 687, demarcated the Iraq-Kuwait boundary on the basis of the 1932 and the 1963 agreements between the two states. In November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait, which had been further spelled out in UN Security Council Resolutions 773 and 883.

==References==
CIA Factbook—Kuwait [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ku.html]

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{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Qatar

2024-06-02T23:06:07Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''دولة قطر Dawlat Qatar''
|map =Qatar rel95.jpg
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =Arms of Qatar.png
|capital =Doha
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =[[Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani]] (emir)
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Abdullah bin Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani
|pm-raw =
|area =4,416 sq mi 11,437 KM2
|pop =2,880,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$180,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =2005
|gdp-pc =$62,500 (2020)
|currency =Riyal
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''State of Qatar''' is a state under the Persian Gulf Residency on the Arabian [[peninsula]] to the west of the [[Persian Gulf]], with a population of over 900,000, although one quarter of that population are foreign workers and their families. The official language is [[Arabic]] and the capital is Doha. [[English]] is a commonly used second language. It is the host of the [[2022 FIFA World Cup]] (men's [[soccer]] championship).

Qatar is known as the main financial sponsor for many radical Islamic groups like [[Al-Qaeda]](including their affiliates AQAP and Al-Nusra)<ref>https://robertspencer.org/2019/12/us-defense-intelligence-agency-says-turkey-qatar-supported-al-qaedas-al-nusra-front</ref><ref>https://atalayar.com/en/content/qatar-accused-funding-al-qaedas-parent-organisation-syria</ref><ref>https://www.counterextremism.com/content/qatar-money-and-terror</ref>,the [[Taliban]], [[Hamas]], and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]]. A high ranking Qatari alleged financier of [[911]] was Khalifa Mohammed, who is a U.S.-, EU-, and U.N.-designated international terrorist for his role in financing al-Qaeda.

In Qatar, there are three buckets: Terror financing by the government; terror financing done in Qatar through their own citizens that their government may not know about; and terror financing in Qatar that the government knows about but does nothing to stop.<ref name=govinfo-2017>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-115hhrg26427/html/CHRG-115hhrg26427.htm ASSESSING THE U.S.-QATAR RELATIONSHIP - Govinfo.gov].<blockquote>

[House Hearing, 115 Congress] [From the U.S. Government Publishing Office] ASSESSING THE U.S.-QATAR RELATIONSHIP

HEARING BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA OF THE COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ONE HUNDRED FIFTEENTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION

JULY 26, 2017
Serial No. 115-55

Qatar has been known to be a permissive environment for terror financing, reportedly funding U.S. designated foreign terrorist organizations, such as Hamas, as well as several extremist groups operating in Syria.

In 2014, the former deputy director of CIA, David Cohen, called out Qatar publicly along with the Kuwaitis, because according to him, "The private engagement with these countries had not achieved what we were trying to achieve.'' In fact, Qatar has openly housed Hamas leaders, Taliban leaders, and has several individuals who have been sanctioned by our U.S. Treasury Department, and it has failed to prosecute them.

At least one high-ranking Qatari official provided support to the mastermind of the 9/11 terror attacks against our country, Khalid Sheikh Mohammad.

Then, of course, there is Khalifa Mohammed, who is a U.S.-, EU-, and U.N.-designated international terrorist for his role in financing al-Qaeda and the 9/11 mastermind.
In 2008, he was tried and convicted in absentia by Bahrain for his terrorist activity, and arrested later that year by Qatar only to be released by the Qataris 6 months later, and then openly financed by Doha.
Can anyone guess what Khalifa Mohammed has been up to these days? He was implicated in terror financing activities in 2012, but more recently, he has been alleged to be financing and supporting terror in both Iraq and Syria with no response from the Qatari Government.

Hamas leader, Khaled Meshaal, also made Doha his headquarters for years while the Qatari's--with the Qatari's Government support and even the Muslim Brotherhood has received significant support from Qatar.

Of course, not all of this is supported by the government in Doha. Many individuals and charities in Qatar have been known to raise large sums of money for al-Qaeda, the Nusra front, Hamas, and even ISIS.

In Qatar, there are three buckets: Terror financing by the government; terror financing done in Qatar through their own citizens that their government may not know about; and terror financing in Qatar that the government knows about but does nothing to stop. According to the 2015 country reports on terrorism, the State Department stated, "Entities and individuals within Qatar continue to serve as a source of financial support for terrorists and violent extremist groups, particularly regional al-Qaeda affiliates such as the Nusra front.''

There is no excuse for openly harboring terrorist and supporting groups that seek to harm our allies, and the excuse by Qatar that it is harboring these nefarious actors is because the U.S. asked them to no longer stands up.

Qatar should not be continuing this reckless policy due to past mistakes from previous Republican and Democratic administrations. We must not allow for our air base to be used as a means to justify this sort of behavior, and a lack of a more appropriate response. Doha's behavior must change the status quo, and if it does not, it risks losing our cooperation on the air base. The truth of the matter is that none of the Gulf countries--none of the Gulf countries are without their issues. All of the nations have been involved in funding different groups at some point that we would not approve of. But it seems like Saudi Arabia and the UAE are making progress at a faster rate while Qatar is making some progress but still is lagging slowly behind. According to the Congressional Research Service, "In October 2016, Daniel Glaser, then Assistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing in the Office for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence, told the Washington, DC, Research Institute that over the past decade, Qatar has made less progress in countering terrorism financing than had Saudi Arabia.'' We must analyze the totality of our relationship with these Gulf countries.

While Qatar only helps to facilitate our operations at our air base, the UAE, for example, has spent 12 years with us fighting alongside in Afghanistan and has been involved in counterterrorism operations with the U.S. in Libya. So moving forward, one outcome that I hope comes out of this dispute is for the Gulf countries to work closely with our Treasury Department's Financial Action Task Force to root out and disrupt terror financing streams. This uneasy time may just be an opportunity for us to take a long hard look at how, and for some, if, we can effectively address and stop terror financing in the region, and ultimately defeat the extremism that threatens the security of us all. And with that, I turn to my friend, the ranking member, Mr. Deutch, for his statement.

Mr. Deutch.

Thank you, Madam Chairwoman.

Thanks to the witnesses for being back before our committee. I thank the chairman for convening today's timely hearing to explore our relationship with Qatar at a moment of great instability in the region. The ongoing diplomatic rift between Qatar and its Gulf neighbors is not good for the parties of the conflict; it is not good for the region; and it is not good for American interests. It is a distraction from today's most pressing challenges, Iran's destabilizing activities, the conflict in Syria, and the spread of terrorism.

For most Americans who expect conflict in the Middle East to fall along sectarian lines, or between competing regional hegemons, it is confusing to see Sunni Arab neighbors in conflict. But this is a dispute over longstanding grievances, over Qatar's support financially, and through its state-owned Al Jazeera news station, for actors and groups that Qatar's neighbors and, in many cases, the United States, see as deeply problematic. This feud, like others in the region, is a nuanced and deeply complex matter, and our relationship with Qatar is no less complex. A tiny but immensely wealthy nation pursues an ambitious foreign policy of close relations with all actors in the region. Unfortunately, this includes terror groups like Hamas and the Afghan Taliban. Qatar has served as a financial and political lifeline for Hamas' devastating rule in Gaza since the terror group took over more than a decade ago. Qatar has sent hundreds of millions of dollars into the Gaza strip, provides safe haven in Doha for Hamas leader, Khaled Meshaal, and helped legitimize Hamas rule in 2012 when the Emir became the first international leader to visit Hamas- led territory. Qatar has also supported other dangerous groups in the region, including sending advanced weaponry and financing to extremist elements in Syria and Libya, and Al Jazeera has given voice to clerics calling for suicide attacks against Americans and Israelis...

Dr. Schanzer, we will begin with you for your opening statement. STATEMENT OF JONATHAN SCHANZER, PH.D., SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT, FOUNDATION FOR DEFENSE OF DEMOCRACIES Mr. Schanzer. Madam Chairman, Ranking Member Deutch, and members of the subcommittee, on behalf of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, thank you for the opportunity to testify. As many of you know, FDD has been producing research and analysis on Qatar since the eruption of the Arab Spring in 2011. Our critique has been consistent. We have pointed to Qatari support for Hamas, the Taliban, jihadists in Syria, jihadists in Libya and the Muslim Brotherhood. We have been critical of Qatar for the invective broadcast on state-owned Al Jazeera. We have tracked the many reports suggesting that Qatar paid ransom to terrorism groups, and we have noted through the work of my colleague, David Andrew Weinberg, that Qatar has failed to take action against U.S. and U.N.-designated terrorist financiers. In my written testimony, I document these problems, and I am happy to discuss them further. But for a moment, I would like to address how Qatar has responded to the allegations against it...</blockquote></ref>

Qatari officials intimidated claimants in terror case. The claimants fled after their lives and homes were destroyed by al-Nusra Front jihadist organisation.<ref>[https://amp.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/nov/11/high-court-hears-claims-qatar-officials-intimidated-terror-case-witnesses Qatari officials intimidated claimants in terror case, high court told], ''The Guardian'', Nov 11, 2020.<blockquote> The claimants say they fled to Holland after their lives and homes were destroyed by al-Nusra Front, a jihadist organisation.</blockquote></ref>

Qatar is the owner of Anti-Semitic and Anti-American [[Al-Jazeera]] media network, and main supporter of many [[far-left]] media sites like [[The Young Turks network]].<ref>[https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2020/02/12/report-youtube-to-fund-far-left-young-turks-journalism-academy/ Report: YouTube to Fund Far-Left Young Turks Journalism ‘Academy’]</ref> Or .<ref name=wsj-2002>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1010012291811235280 Reporting Bias], ''WSJ'', Jan 2, 2002.</ref><ref name=mim-2005>[https://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/914 Militant Islam Monitor - Al Qaeda tape 'given' to 'Al Jihadzeera' shows Bin Laden 'lieutenant' Al Zawahiri threatening attacks on UK and US], August 5, 2005.<blockquote>
Al Qaeda tape 'given' to 'Al Jihadzeera' shows Bin Laden 'lieutenant' Al Zawahiri threatening attacks on UK and US.</blockquote></ref><ref name=mim-2014>[https://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/6284 Al Jihadzeera' Reporters Charged With Belonging To A Terrorist Group], Feb 1, 2014.</ref>

Among the tricks to use the [[2022 FIFA World Cup]], in its efforts to spread radical Islamism, among other things, it invited radical preacher Dr. Zakir Naik to teach FIFA fans about Islam.<ref>[https://millichronicle.com/2022/11/qatar-invites-radical-preacher-dr-zakir-naik-to-teach-fifa-fans-about-islam.html Qatar invites radical preacher Dr. Zakir Naik to teach FIFA fans about Islam], Milli Chronicle, Nov 19, 2022.
<blockquote>
Doha — Qatar has invited the radical preacher Dr. Zakir Naik, infamous for his endorsing views on suicide bombings, to teach the FIFA fans about Islam.
The famous ScreenMix entertainment magazine tweeted on Saturday, “Qatar invited the famous Islamic preacher Dr. Zakir Naik to deliver religious lectures during the 2022 World Cup.</blockquote></ref>
Pro-Taliban Urdu-Language daily revealed Qatar's plans to Invite FIFA World Cup attendees to Islam: 'Training of 2,000 volunteers for invitation of the religion at the mega event has been completed who will deliver the message of "truth"[sic] to the spectators.<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/pro-taliban-urdu-language-daily-reveals-qatars-plans-invite-fifa-world-cup-attendees-islam Pro-Taliban Urdu-Language Daily Reveals Qatar's Plans To Invite FIFA World Cup Attendees To Islam: 'Training Of 2,000 Volunteers For Invitation Of The Religion At The Mega Event Has Been Completed Who Will Deliver The Message Of (so called) Truth(sic) To The Spectators'], ''Memri'', November 18, 2022.<blockquote>
In a recent article, the Pakistan-based Urdu-language pro-Taliban daily Roznama Ummat examined the Qatari government's preparations for da'wa ("preaching," "invitation to Islam") at the FIFA World Cup beginning on November 20, 2022. Da'wa is an important part of Islam whereby Muslims are expected to invite non-Muslims to embrace the religion.
The article, titled "FIFA World Cup And Da'wa Of The Religion," and written by Islamic religious scholar Zia Chitrali, explains various media activities and events planned to explain Islam to non-Muslim spectators and to try to persuade them to convert. As part of these events planned by Qatari officials, thousands of volunteers will engage in da'wa and free books and pamphlets highlighting Islamic teachings will be distributed among the spectators.
In a recent article, the Pakistan-based Urdu-language pro-Taliban daily Roznama Ummat examined the Qatari government's preparations for da'wa ("preaching," "invitation to Islam") at the FIFA World Cup beginning on November 20, 2022. Da'wa is an important part of Islam whereby Muslims are expected to invite non-Muslims to embrace the religion.
The article, titled "FIFA World Cup And Da'wa Of The Religion," and written by Islamic religious scholar Zia Chitrali, explains various media activities and events planned to explain Islam to non-Muslim spectators and to try to persuade them to convert.
As part of these events planned by Qatari officials, thousands of volunteers will engage in da'wa and free books and pamphlets highlighting Islamic teachings will be distributed among the spectators. [https://www.memri.org/sites/default/files/2022/11/sd10326.jpg].</blockquote></ref>

The West has turned a blind eye on its terrible human rights abuses.
<ref name=latimes-2017>Joshua S. Block
[https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-block-qatar-terrorism-syria-20170609-story.html Op-Ed: Qatar is a financier of terrorism. Why does the U.S. tolerate it?], ''LA Times'' Jun 9, 2017.</ref>

Gulf Arabs<ref>[https://amp.dw.com/en/how-are-gulf-countries-coming-to-terms-with-their-history-of-slavery/a-60686264 How are Gulf countries coming to terms with their history of slavery?], ''DW'',
08.02.2022.<blockquote>
Despite having officially outlawed slavery, Arab states in the Gulf region have downplayed the legacy of repression and racism faced by minorities...
Modern slavery is still widespread in the Arab states of the Gulf region, where millions of migrant workers are forced to work under grueling conditions with little or no pay.</blockquote></ref> have been known to be practicing modern day slavery on the largest scales with racism and worse-than-just apartheid .

Qatar's case came into public eye also for its use of migrants on horrific conditions to prepare for the ''2022 FIFA World Cup''.<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2016/03/qatar-world-cup-of-shame/ QATAR WORLD CUP OF SHAME], Amnesty, Mar 2016.
<blockquote>Migrants building a state-of-the-art stadium for the 2022 football World Cup in Qatar are abused and exploited – while FIFA makes huge profits.

Tell FIFA and its sponsors to act now to protect migrant workers in Qatar from abuse.
Migrants from Bangladesh, India and Nepal working on the refurbishment of the showcase Khalifa Stadium and landscaping the surrounding gardens and sporting facilities known as the “Aspire Zone” are being exploited. Some are being subjected to forced labour. They can’t change jobs, they can’t leave the country and they often wait months to get paid. Meanwhile, FIFA (football’s global governing body), its sponsors and the construction companies involved are set to make massive financial gains from the tournament.

MY LIFE HERE IS LIKE A PRISON. THE MANAGER SAID: ‘IF YOU WANT TO STAY IN QATAR BE QUIET AND KEEP WORKING.’
Deepak, metal worker on the Khalifa Stadium</blockquote></ref><ref>Matt Sullivan, [https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/world-cup-built-on-modern-slavery-stadium-workers-blow-the-whistle-on-qatars-cover-up-of-migrant-deaths-1234627582/ A World Cup Built on Modern Slavery': Stadium Workers Blow the Whistle on Qatar’s ‘Coverup’ of Migrant Deaths and Suffering], ''Rolling Stone'', Nov 9, 2022.<blockquote>
— “This,” says Equidem executive director Mustafa Qadri, “is a World Cup built on modern slavery.” In a statement to Rolling Stone, a spokesperson..
Anish Adhikari awoke at the Qatari labor camp at 4 a.m. to diarrhea from last night’s rotten fish. His tonsils were swollen from the limited water made available by his employer while working 14 hours a day in 125-degree heat. But he remained hopeful that building air conditioners for 80,000 ticket-holders could provide the equivalent of $8,000 over three years to support his family in Nepal. That he could pay back the loan shark who’d secured Adhikari a job beginning in 2019 with the Hamad Bin Khalid Contracting Co. (HBK), the contracting firm owned by the the highest echelons of Qatar’s ruling Al Thani family. He thought of his father and sickly mother living with his six brothers, their four wives, and their eight children in a hurricane-ravaged farmhouse, using an animal shed for a kitchen. But the 23-year-old soccer fan was helping to construct the site of this year’s World Cup final; some days, when he arrived at Lusail Iconic Stadium before dawn, Adhikari forgot how exhausted he was.</blockquote></ref>
The exact number of fatal victims of the 'Stadiums of Shame' will never be known <ref>Sean Ingle, [https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/nov/14/stadiums-of-shame-the-numbers-world-cup-hosts-qatar-dont-want-to-be-seen Stadiums of shame: the numbers World Cup hosts Qatar don’t want to be seen], ''The Guardian'', Mon 14 Nov 2022.<blockquote>As the world’s media and teams start to arrive the facts and figures behind workers’ and human rights in Qatar remain hard to uncover.</blockquote></ref> in this Arab [[Islamic]] non-free regime.

'''2022 FIFA World Cup'''

[[FIFA]] Officials were bribed to award World Cups to Russia and Qatar,<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/06/sports/soccer/qatar-and-russia-bribery-world-cup-fifa.amp.html U.S. Says FIFA Officials Were Bribed to Award World Cups to Russia and Qatar], ''The New York Times'', Apr 6, 2020.<blockquote>
For nearly a decade, Russia and Qatar have been suspected of buying votes to win hosting rights for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. On Monday, for the first time, the Department of Justice put things in black and white.</blockquote></ref><ref name=rb-18nov22>[https://www.cnn.com/videos/tv/2022/11/18/roger-bennett-amanpour-qatar-world-cup-controversy.cnn 'Sport is political,' says World Cup podcaster], ''CNN'', Nov 18, 2022. (Roger Bennett in interview).</ref> and it has been surrounded by many controversies.<ref>Ian Ward, [https://www.vox.com/world/23450515/world-cup-fifa-qatar-2022-controversy-scandals-explained The many, many controversies surrounding the 2022 World Cup, explained], ''Vox'', November 19, 2022.<blockquote>
Since FIFA awarded the 2022 World Cup to Qatar in 2010, the tournament has been ensnared in a tangled web of scandals.</blockquote></ref> Including modern day slavery, racist exploitation, thousands of migrants deaths,<ref>[https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Over-6,500-migrant-workers-have-died-all-for-2022-soccer-world-cup-52440.html QATAR Over 6,500 migrant workers have died all for 2022 soccer world cup], Asia.it, Feb 25, 2021</ref> cruel limitaion of water drinking while working in the heat.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/amp/show/migrant-workers-recount-abuse-while-building-stadiums-for-world-cup-in-qatar Migrant workers recount abuse while building stadiums for World Cup in Qatar], ''PBS'', Nov 18, 2022 The water we got was almost 90 percent ice. We asked why they did that and told them it was impossible to drink water like that....</ref><ref>Aimee Lewis, Pramod Acharya and Sugam Pokharel, [https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2022/11/17/football/qatar-2022-world-cup-migrant-workers-human-rights-spt-intl/index.html Our dreams never came true.' These men helped build Qatar's World Cup, now they are struggling to survive], ''CNN'', November 17, 2022.</ref>

The [[Taliban]] invested heavily in the World Cup construction and the tournament was a golden duck. They were paid millions. The Taliban officials lucrative salaries tied to peace talks to buy and then subcontract heavy machinery for tournament infrastructure over the past decade, a source from the Taliban's Doha office revealed.<ref>Joe Wallen, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-and-security/how-taliban-helped-build-stadiums-qatar-world-cup/ How the Taliban helped build the stadiums for the Qatar World Cup], ''Daily Telegraph'', Nov 25, 2022.<blockquote>
Exclusive: Construction firms allegedly paid ‘millions’ to buy and lease machinery from the Taliban for infrastructure, according to sources

The Taliban made millions from the World Cup by providing construction equipment to build stadiums in Qatar, The Telegraph understands.
Senior Taliban officials used lucrative salaries tied to peace talks to buy and then subcontract heavy machinery for tournament infrastructure over the past decade, a source from the Taliban's Doha office revealed.
A large contingent of the Taliban leadership lived in Doha, the capital of Qatar, from 2013 onward where they were engaged in long-running peace talks with the US and UN.
“The Taliban invested heavily in the World Cup construction and the tournament was a golden duck. They were paid millions,” claimed the source, who lived in Doha in the decade running up to the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in 2021.
“Some Taliban members had between six and ten pieces of heavy machinery each in Doha and would earn up to £10,000 per machine per month.”
Two separate senior Taliban sources described how officials were given lucrative allowances to live in the country during the peace negotiations, which was then invested in heavy construction machinery.
</blockquote></ref>

Qatar in cahoots with [[Iran]] stifle voices of dissent during World Cup,
<ref>[https://www.iranintl.com/en/202211254809 Qatar In Cahoots With Iran To Stifle Voices Of Dissent During World Cup], Iran Intl, 11/25/2022.<blockquote>
Iran’s soccer team blanked 10-man Wales Friday as World Cup host Qatar prevented Iranian fans from expressing their support for the ongoing protests in their the country.

Iranian fans, who wanted to take flags other than the official one approved by the Islamic Republic to the Al Rayyan’s Ahmad bin Ali Stadium, were stopped by security officers. Many people were barred from carrying or waving Iran’s ancient flag with the Lion and Sun emblem or a simple three-color flag with the main motto of the current wave of protests – Woman, Life, Liberty.</blockquote></ref> And [[IRGC]] man said, Qatar is helping Iran silence dissidents in World Cup.<ref>[https://www.iranintl.com/en/202211279876 IRGC Man Says Qatar Helping Iran Silence Dissidents In World Cup], IranIntl, Nov 27, 2022.<blockquote>

Documents obtained by Iran International show Iran was coordinating secret efforts with Qatar to control who attends the World Cup and restrict any signs of dissent.

Black Reward, a hactivist group that found access to Fars News Agency files this week provided an audio tape of a meeting between a Revolutionary Guard general and a group of media managers or representatives from outfits affiliated with the IRGC about plans to use the sporting event to the benefit of the regime in Tehran.
A six-minute audio segment of a tape features General Ghasem Ghoreyshi (Qasem Qoreyshi), deputy commander of the paramilitary Basij and a group of reporters including the one from Fars News who met with him possible in the presence of other trusted reporters to discuss the latest developments including plans for the World Cup.
The meeting took place on Tuesday 15th of November.
Ghoreyshi starts by saying that “anti-revolutionaries” have bought “5,330 tickets” to the tournament and adds that “our boys have checked the list of the ticket holders and at least 500 people” are known opponents of the Iranian regime.
This is the first piece of evidence of collaboration with Qatar, showing that Iran obtained the list of ticket buyers most probably from Qatari authorities.</blockquote></ref>

The "Palestinian" flags were part of an orchestrated campaign pushed by "Palestine" activists, backed by Qataris, to make it look like "spontaneous."<ref>Pal Media Watch @palwatch
[https://twitter.com/palwatch/status/1599792713469149184 Dec 5, 2022].<blockquote>
Although seemingly spontaneous, #FreePalestine flags at #WorldCup2022 are propaganda props organized by #Palestinian organizations. Palestinian activists hand out flags to be smuggled into the stadiums and be raised at the 48th minute each game.</blockquote></ref>

One of Arab racism's instances, the brutal attack on an Egyptian mistakenly believed he was Israeli.
The Qataris were embarrassed because their officials hadn't believed the poor Egyptian when he insisted he was one of them. And so, they stood by as the mob gave him the "Israeli treatment."<ref>C. Glick, [https://www.jns.org/opinion/cultural-appropriation-and-the-jews/ Cultural appropriation and the Jews], Dec 2, 2022.</ref><blockquote>.. an Egyptian television reporter covering the World Cup tournament in Doha, Qatar was assaulted by an angry mob and forced to leave the games to avoid being lynched. The mob assaulted him because they mistook him for an Israeli reporter.</blockquote>

German media exposed expressed Arab racism, (masked under supposed worry for "Palestinians"), backed by the gangs of "Qatari dynasty want to use to secure their power."<ref>Martin Krauss, [https://taz.de/Orchestrierte-Israel-Feindschaft/!5897026 German media: Orchestrated hostility toward Israel: Morocco is not in Palestine], Taz, 2022-12-10.<blockquote>
You just have to like World Cup outsiders Morocco – don't you? Adding an anti-Semitic touch to the joy makes things difficult.

Palestine plays along: Morocco's team after reaching the quarter-finals

How could we not be happy that Morocco has one of the eight best football teams in the world ! Finally a team that doesn't come from Europe or South America! In addition - and now follows an interpretation that is surprisingly seldom read at present - a North African team that has gradually chased one colonial power after the other off the football field: Belgium in the preliminary round, Spain in the round of 16; now another nation is waiting with Portugal, which owes its wealth largely to its colonial past. Next, France and the Netherlands could be decolonized in terms of football.

Instead of this, I think, obvious interpretation, the Moroccan success is overlaid with a lot of Palestine symbolism. The Moroccan team held up a Palestine flag after defeating Spain. Tunisian fans did something similar in the preliminary round. And some Qataris are now wearing a "pro-Palestine" armband in response to the Europeans' "One Love" armband, which they see as an impertinence.

At first, that seems childishly defiant: ugh, we have our protest too! From a political point of view, however, the Palestinian-Israeli conflict is used here to assert an alleged Arab unity. As if fans from Maghreb countries were in the same boat as the Qatari ruling families! In order to prevent protests, which could not least come from Palestinian migrant workers in Qatar, ruling families from the emirate and other regimes are building a bugbear called "Palestine Solidarity". It is not without reason that Qatar has been financially supporting the terror that the Islamist Hamas is waging against Israel for years.

There is a historical precedent for the transparent pro-Palestine propaganda that so characterizes the World Cup. In 1963, a counter-Olympics were held in Jakarta. Ganefo called it "Games of the New Emerging Forces". What was supposed to look like a sympathetic rebellion from the then so-called Third World countries was the project of the Indonesian President Sukarno. It was explicitly directed against Israel's participation in world sport.

Anti-racism is still necessary, it can be expressed, for example, in joy at Moroccan soccer successes. But giving that joy an anti-Semitic touch is the twist that gangs like the Qatari dynasty want to use to secure their power.</blockquote></ref>

'''Encouraging Jihadi massacres'''

On the racist-Arab Islamic-fascistic butcher's [[2023 Sabbath Jerusalem Synagogue Massacre]], Al-Jazeera presenters, Journalists In Qatari Press, Qatar-Backed Muslim Clerics: Terrorist Attack: "'brave act' of 'legitimate resistance [sic],' its perpetrator is a 'hero.'"<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/al-jazeera-presenters-journalists-qatari-press-qatar-backed-muslim-clerics-terrorist-attack Al-Jazeera Presenters, Journalists In Qatari Press, Qatar-Backed Muslim Clerics: Terrorist Attack Near Jerusalem Synagogue Was 'Brave Act' Of 'Legitimate Resistance,' Its Perpetrator Is A 'Hero'] ''Memri'', February 1, 2023.</ref>

'''Lobbying US'''

Feb 2024 report: Hamas patron Qatar has been lobbying the U.S. Government, given over $5,600,000,000 to US universities since 2007.<ref>Adam Kredo, [https://freebeacon.com/national-security/hamas-patron-qatar-has-spent-6-billion-lobbying-the-u-s-government-and-funding-universities/ Hamas Patron Qatar Has Spent $6 Billion Lobbying the U.S. Government and Funding Universities] ''Washington Free Beacon'', Feb 9, 2024.<blockquote>
Qatar, the oil-rich Middle Eastern nation that provides shelter and cash to the Hamas terror group’s top leaders, has spent nearly $6 billion since 2007 lobbying the American government and funneling cash to the United States’ top universities, funding that is generating scrutiny in Congress.
With Qatar emerging as a central mediator in the United States’ attempts to reach a hostage deal between Israel and Hamas, Doha’s decades-long influence peddling operation in America is raising concerns about the country’s ties to the Iran-backed terror group.
Qatar has given or contracted more than $5.6 billion to 61 American schools since 2007, including Ivy Leagues such as Harvard University, Yale University, Cornell University, and Stanford University, according to funding records reviewed by the Washington Free Beacon. The country has also doled out more than $243 million on lobbying efforts in the United States since 2015, with more than $16 million spent in 2023 alone.
The money, experts and lawmakers say, has enabled Qatar to have outsized influence in American politics and academia, efforts they say have mainstreamed anti-Israel propaganda and silenced criticism about Doha’s longstanding ties to Hamas, the Iranian regime, and other terror groups. Hamas’s “three top leaders alone are worth a staggering total of $11 billion and enjoy a life of luxury in the sanctuary of the emirate of Qatar,” according to the New York Post.
The vast funding operation has generated congressional interest in the past and is fueling calls for an investigation by members of the Republican Study Committee (RSC), Congress’s largest GOP caucus, according to lawmakers and senior GOP aides who spoke to the Free Beacon. The RSC, one senior staffer said, is currently pressuring the relevant House oversight committees to investigate Qatar’s lobbying efforts and funding to schools….
From November 2007 to October 2023, Qatar made 1,116 donations to American universities totaling $5,673,091,815, records show. This has led to accusations that Doha is using its influence with the country’s top schools to mainstream propaganda that portrays Israel in a negative light.
Through the Qatar Foundation, a state-controlled entity tasked with promoting the country’s interests, the nation has prioritized educational initiatives that employ anti-Israel materials, according to watchdog groups…</blockquote></ref>

==People==
[[File:Qatar people.jpg|right|230px]]
Natives of the Arabian Peninsula, many Qataris are descended from a number of migratory tribes that came to Qatar in the 18th century from the neighboring areas of Nejd and Al-Hasa. Some came from neighboring Gulf emirates and others are descended from Persian merchants. Most of Qatar's 907,229 inhabitants live in Doha, the capital. Foreigners with temporary residence status make up about three-fourths of the population. Foreign workers comprise 52% of the total population and make up about 89% of the total labor force. Most are South and Southeast Asians, Egyptians, "Palestinians", Jordanians, and Iranians. About 8,000 U.S. citizens reside in Qatar.

Ethnic groups: Arab 40%, Pakistani 18%, Indian 18%, Iranian 10%, other 14%.

<blockquote>
The various ethnic groups of the country are Arab, Indian, Pakistani, Iranian and so on. Arabic is the official language of Qatar. However, English and Urdu are also spoken widely in various corners of the country.<ref>http://www.mapsofworld.com/country-profile/qatar-economy-people-culture-and-flag.html</ref>
</blockquote>

For centuries, the main sources of wealth were pearling, fishing, and trade. At one time, Qataris owned nearly one-third of the Persian Gulf fishing fleet. With the [[Great Depression]] and the introduction of [[Japan]]'s cultured-pearl industry, pearling in Qatar declined drastically.

The Qataris are mainly Sunni Muslims. [[Salafi]] Islam is the official religion, and Islamic jurisprudence is the basis of Qatar's legal system, although civil courts have jurisdiction over commercial law. Education is compulsory and free for all Arab residents 6–16 years old. Qatar has an increasingly high literacy rate. 85% of the people are educated.

==Government and Political Conditions==
{{See also|Muslim agenda of the Obama administration}}
[[File:Doha Palace in Qatar.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Doha Palace.]]
The ruling Al Thani family continued to hold power following the declaration of independence in 1971. The head of state is the Amir, and the right to rule Qatar is passed on within the Al Thani family. Politically, Qatar is evolving from a traditional society to one based on more formal and democratic institutions to meet the requirements of social and economic progress. The country's constitution formalizes the hereditary rule of the Al Thani family, but it also establishes an elected legislative body and makes government ministers accountable to the legislature. In current practice, the Amir's role is influenced by continuing traditions of consultation, rule by consensus, and the citizen's right to appeal personally to the Amir. The Amir, while directly accountable to no one, cannot violate the Shari'a (Islamic law) and, in practice, must consider the opinions of leading families and the religious establishment.

The opinions of the people are institutionalized in the Advisory Council, an appointed body that assists the Amir in formulating policy. However, it is possible that the first elections for this body will occured in 2008. Elections in 1999, in which both men and women participated, resulted in the formation of a municipal council. One woman candidate was elected to the municipal council in 2003.<ref>http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=142359</ref> Municipal elections were held for the third time in April 2007.

There has been no serious challenge to Al Thani rule. As the most visible sign of the move toward openness, the Al Jazeera satellite television station based in Qatar is considered the most free and unfettered broadcast source in the Arab world. In practice, however, Al Jazeera rarely criticizes the ruling Al Thani family.

Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani, one of the richest man in the world, is the ruling Emir of the State of Qatar since 1995. He rose to that position on June 26, 1995, after deposing his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani who was on vacation in Switzerland at the time.<ref>http://www.nationmaster.com/country/qa-qatar/dem-democracy</ref>

At present there is not direct election in the electoral system. Since 1992, Sheikh Hamad has selected Qatar's cabinet as in an absolute monarchy.
[[File:Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani with Obamas.jpg|thumb|300px|Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani and wife with Obamas.]]
In April 2011, ''[[USAToday]]'' quoted Obama:
{{quotebox-float|President Obama met with the emir of Qatar, praising his help in Libya and his leadership "when it comes to democracy in the Middle East."

That night, Obama provided political donors in Chicago with a somewhat different view of the emir and Qatar.

"Pretty influential guy," Obama said of Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, noting that he basically owns the Al Jazeera television network. "He is a big booster, big promoter of democracy all throughout the Middle East. Reform, reform, reform -- you're seeing it on Al Jazeera."

But Obama: "Now, he himself is not reforming significantly. There's no big move towards democracy in Qatar.<ref>[http://content.usatoday.com/communities/theoval/post/2011/04/obama-no-big-move-toward-democracy-in-qatar/1 ''Obama: "No big move toward democracy in Qatar"''].</ref>}}
Days later an editorial in the Doha daily newspaper ''The Peninsula'' responded:
{{quotebox-float|"Mr. President, we have often written about U.S. foreign policy having double standards and being unmindful of the process of change in the Middle East. We do not want U.S. to export democracy to us because we do not want to repeat the Iraq experience."<ref>https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/04/19/Editorial-Qatar-passes-on-US-democracy/UPI-80331303219157/#ixzz1KXWgdFv3</ref>}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*Amir, Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, and Minister of Defense—HH Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani
*Heir Apparent, Deputy Chief of the Armed Forces—HH Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani
*Prime Minister—Abdullah bin Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani
*Minister of Energy and Industry and Deputy Prime Minister—Abdullah al-Attiyah
*Ambassador to the U.S.--vacant

==Foreign Relations==
[[File:White-House-Qatar-Muslim-Brotherhood.jpg|right|300px|thumb|]]
Qatar achieved full independence in an atmosphere of cooperation with the U.K. and friendship with neighboring states. Most Arab states, the U.K., and the U.S. were among the first countries to recognize Qatar, and the state promptly gained admittance to the United Nations and the Arab League. Qatar established diplomatic relations with the U.S.S.R. and China in 1988. It was an early member of [[OPEC]] and a founding member of the GCC.

In September 1992, tensions arose with Saudi Arabia when Saudi forces allegedly attacked a Qatari border post, resulting in two deaths. Relations have since improved, and a joint commission has been set up to demarcate the border as agreed between the two governments. Most, but not all, of the border issues have been resolved.

For years, both Qatar and Bahrain claimed ownership of the Hawar Islands. The case was eventually referred to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague. The ICJ issued a ruling in June 2001, which both sides accepted. In the agreement Bahrain kept the main Hawar Island but dropped claims to parts of mainland Qatar, while Qatar retained significant maritime areas and their resources.

Qatar is aligned in ideological purpose with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] – the political umbrella organization of authentic Islam (Taliban, al-Qaeda, ISIS, etc). The Qatari government previously assisted the U.S. State Department with covert weapons distribution during the Obama/Clinton era.<ref>https://shoebat.com/2014/08/01/turkey-qatar-state-sponsors-terrorism/</ref><ref>On July 25, 2012 a US Chinook helicopter was shot down by the Taliban in Afghanistan by the latest generation of the Stinger available for export. A serial number from the missile casing was recovered, tracing the Stinger's origin to a lot entrusted to the [[CIA]] which was delivered to Qatar. Under Obama's covert action finding the Stinger was intended for Libya and Syrian jihadis. Hillary Clinton's State Dept. and [[John Brennan]]'s CIA jointly ran the covert weapons supply program, http://nypost.com/2014/06/08/how-the-taliban-got-their-hands-on-modern-us-missiles/ leaving the Pentagon and Gen.[[Michael Flynn]]'s [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] out of the loop.</ref> Qatar is aligned with the geopolitical interests of the [[Peoples Republic of China]] including the [[Belt and Road Initiative]] for broad global communist Chinese influence. Qatar, is ideologically aligned with extremist Islam and naturally aligned with Turkey and Pakistan. Qatar was the host to many [[Gitmo]] detainees that were removed from U.S. custody.<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/qatars-prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9s-%E2%80%93-hamas-officials-muslim-brotherhood-al-jazeera-reporters-%E2%80%93-praise-talibans Qatar's Protégés – Hamas Officials, Muslim Brotherhood, Al-Jazeera Reporters – Praise Taliban's 'Jihad' And 'Victory'; Journalists, Liberals In Response: They Should Move To Kabul], ''Memri'', August 19, 2021</ref> Qatar is where the leadership of the Taliban came from, when they returned to Afghanistan in 2021 to take control of advanced weapon technology abandoned by U.S. [[Democrat]] socialist leader [[Joe Biden]].<ref>https://pjmedia.com/news-and-politics/victoria-taft/2021/08/18/left-behind-billions-in-u-s-equipment-for-the-afghanistan-taliban-to-use-against-us-n1470346</ref>

===Libyan and Syrian wars and the Islamic State===
{{See also|Arab Spring|Obama war crimes}}
[[Hillary Clinton email scandal|Hillary Clinton's emails]] boast of [[Hillary Clinton]] engaging with [[UAE]], Qatar, and [[Jordan]] between March 18–30, 2011 to seek their participation in coalition operations. Over the course of several days, all three devote aircraft to the mission.

After [[Muammar Gaddafi]] shut down Libya's Internet system in early March,<ref>http://goodtimesweb.org/surveillance/wsj-libya-spies-firms-aug-30-2011.html</ref> Qatar had given the rebel jihadis access to its satellites.<ref>https://consortiumnews.com/2011/10/28/sen-mccains-libyan-two-step/</ref>

A week after Gaddafi's murder, Qatar took credit for sending hundreds of troops into Libya to provide training, communications and strategy. Qatar "acted as the link between the rebels and [[Nato]] forces." ''Guardian'' adds,<ref>
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/26/qatar-troops-libya-rebels-support</ref>
{{Quotebox|Some, however, express concern at the emirate's support for [[Islamist]] elements such as the 17 February Martyrs Brigade, one of the most influential rebel formations, led by Abdel-Hakim Belhaj.}}

On December 6, 2012 the ''New York Times'' confirmed
{{Quotebox|"Qataris provided weapons, money and training to various rebel groups in Libya [destined for Syria]. One militia that received aid was controlled by [Abdelhakim Belhadj], then leader of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, who was held by the C.I.A. in 2004..."<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/06/world/africa/weapons-sent-to-libyan-rebels-with-us-approval-fell-into-islamist-hands.html</ref>}}

On January 3, 2013 an arms flight was reported from Qatar to Istanbul destined for [[Islamic State]] rebels.

On May 16 the ''Financial Times'' reported Qatar had spent $3 billion over the past two years bankrolling the jihadi rebels in Syria.

===Aid to the Islamic State and the Benghazi massacre===
{{See also|Benghazi massacre}}
[[File:NYT - Arms Pipeline to the Syrian Rebels.png|right|300px|thumb|CIA pipeline of arms from Qatar to groups in Turkey which became the Islamic State.<ref>https://fair.org/home/down-the-memory-hole-nyt-erases-cias-efforts-to-overthrow-syrias-government/</ref> ''Illustration: New York Times'']]
In early 2012, President [[Barack Obama]] signed a Presidential Finding authorizing transfer of captured weapons from [[Libya]] to groups that became the Islamic State.<ref>Mark Hosenball, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170216061621/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/01/obama-secret-syria-order_n_1730712.html?tw_p=twt Obama Secret Syria Order Authorizes Support For Rebels], ''Reuters'' via ''HuffPost'',
08/01/2012</ref> ''[[Reuters]]'' reported
{{Quotebox-float|under provisions of the presidential finding, the United States was collaborating with a secret command center operated by Turkey and its allies. 

Last week, Reuters reported that, along with Saudi Arabia and Qatar, Turkey had '''established a secret base near the Syrian border to help direct vital military and communications support to Assad’s opponents.

This “nerve center” is in Adana, a city in southern Turkey about 60 miles (100 km) from the Syrian border, which is also home to Incirlik, a U.S. air base where U.S. military and intelligence agencies maintain a substantial presence.''' 

Turkey’s moderate Islamist government has been demanding Assad’s departure with growing vehemence. Turkish authorities are said by current and former U.S. government officials to be increasingly involved in providing Syrian rebels with training and possibly equipment. 

European government sources said wealthy families in Saudi Arabia and Qatar were providing significant financing to the rebels. Senior officials of the Saudi and Qatari governments have publicly called for Assad’s departure.<ref>''[[The Guardian]]'' reported,
{{Quotebox-float|these were not average members of the Free Syrian Army. Abu Khuder and his men fight for [[al-Qaida]]. They call themselves the ghuraba’a, or “strangers”, after a famous jihadi poem celebrating Osama bin Laden’s time with his followers in the Afghan mountains, and they are one of a number of jihadi organisations establishing a foothold in the east of the country now that the conflict in Syria has stretched well into its second bloody year. 

They try to hide their presence. “Some people are worried about carrying the [black] flags” ... 

...[they] are working closely with the military council that commands the Free Syrian Army brigades in the region. “We meet almost every day,” he said. “We have clear instructions from our [al-Qaida] leadership that if the FSA need our help we should give it. We help them with IEDs and car bombs. Our main talent is in the bombing operations” ... 

“The FSA lacks the ability to plan and lacks military experience. That is what [al-Qaida] can bring. ... 

“In the beginning there were very few. Now, mashallah, there are immigrants joining us and bringing their experience,” he told the gathered people. “Men from [[Yemen]], Saudi, Iraq and Jordan... 

“[Al-Qaida’s] goal is establishing an Islamic state and not a Syrian state,” he replied. “Those who fear the organisation fear the implementation of Allah’s jurisdiction... https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/30/al-qaida-rebels-battle-syria}}</ref>}}
Amb. [[Christopher Stevens]] was put in charge of the covert operation.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/06/world/africa/weapons-sent-to-libyan-rebels-with-us-approval-fell-into-islamist-hands.html</ref> The aim was to arm jihadist groups which then transformed themselves into the [[Islamic State of Iraq and Syria]] with the goal of overthrowing [[Bashar al Assad]].<ref>
https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/world/middleeast/arms-airlift-to-syrian-rebels-expands-with-cia-aid.html</ref>

The ''[[New York Times]]'' reported [[David Petraeus]] had been instrumental in helping to get an aviation network moving to supply ISIS rebels and prodded various countries to work together on it. Three Royal Jordanian Air Force [[C-130]]s landed in Esenboga, Turkey in a hint at what would become a stepped-up Jordanian and Saudi role.<ref>“Within three weeks, two other Jordanian cargo planes began making a round-trip run between Amman, the capital of Jordan, and [[Zagreb]], the capital of [[Croatia]], where, officials from several countries said, the aircraft were picking up a large Saudi purchase of infantry arms from a Croatian-controlled stockpile." Two Jordanian Ilyushins bearing the logo of the Jordanian International Air Cargo firm but flying under Jordanian military call signs made a combined 36 round-trip flights between [[Amman]] and Croatia from December 2012 through February 2013. The same two planes made five flights between Amman and Turkey in January 2013.</ref> "As the Jordanian flights were under way, the Qatari flights continued and the Royal Saudi Air Force began a busy schedule, too — making at least 30 C-130 flights into Esenboga from mid-February 2013 to early March 2013, according to flight data provided by a regional air traffic control official.” American officials have confirmed that senior [[White House]] officials were regularly briefed on the shipments.”<ref>https://archive.is/RQHyy</ref>

[[Edward Snowden]] leaked details of a program that trained approximately 10,000 jihadi fighters at a cost of $1 billion a year.<ref>http://fair.org/home/down-the-memory-hole-nyt-erases-cias-efforts-to-overthrow-syrias-government/</ref>

===2021 Gaza War===
{{See also|Guardian of Walls}}
The building demolished by the [[Israeli Defense Forces]] housed anti-Israel [[Al Jazeera]] which is owned by Qatar, a supporter of Hamas.<ref>Spencer S. Hsu: "Lawsuits by U.S. victims accuse top Qatar banks and charity of financing terrorism in Israel." Washington Post, Dec. 15, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/lawsuits-by-us-victims-accuse-top-qatar-banks-and-charity-of-financing-terrorism-in-israel/2020/12/15/4ebea7fe-244a-11eb-a688-5298ad5d580a_story.html</ref>

After the ceasefire in May/2021, Al Jazeera was applauded in Gaza rally.<ref>[https://www.breitbart.com/the-media/2021/05/24/watch-gazans-applaud-al-jazeera-correspondent-during-hamas-victory-celebrations/ WATCH: Gazans Applaud Al-Jazeera Correspondent During Hamas ‘Victory’ Celebrations] Joshua Klein, May 24, 2021</ref>

===2023 Gaza jihad war===
Weeks after the [[Shield and arrow]] op. , ''against the backdrop of the latest round of fighting between Israel and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) in Gaza, Palestinian journalist Samir Al-Barghouti, a columnist for the Qatari daily Al-Watan, called on the Palestinians of all factions to carry out terror attacks throughout Israel, from the north to the south, in order to inflict blows on the Israelis and terrify them.''<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/article-qatari-daily-incites-palestinians-carry-out-terror-attacks-throughout-israel Article In Qatari Daily Incites Palestinians To Carry Out Terror Attacks Throughout Israel], ''Memri'', May 22, 2023.<blockquote>
Against the backdrop of the latest round of fighting between Israel and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) in Gaza, Palestinian journalist Samir Al-Barghouti, a columnist for the Qatari daily Al-Watan, called on the Palestinians of all factions to carry out terror attacks throughout Israel, from the north to the south, in order to inflict blows on the Israelis and terrify them. He also urged the Arab countries to open up the fronts against Israel and expel the Israeli ambassadors from their territory, lest it become too late for them to repent. "The historical and religious promise regarding Palestine will soon be realized," he stated, and therefore it is necessary to keep up the attacks on Israel.

It should be noted that Al-Barghouti often calls for armed struggle against Israel. In fact, only two months ago he published a similar article inciting to besiege, pursue and attack the Israelis in Tel Aviv and in every part of Palestine, from the river to the sea.</blockquote></ref>

===2023: Al Jazeera inciting, in service of Qatar, Hamas, MB===
In July 2023, the [[Palestinian Authority]] claimed that Al Jazeera is inciting Arabs against them "in service of Qatar, Hamas, [[Muslim Brotherhood]]."<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/palestinian-authority-al-jazeera-incites-against-us-service-qatar-hamas-muslim-brotherhood Palestinian Authority: Al-Jazeera Incites Against Us In Service Of Qatar, Hamas, Muslim Brotherhood; We Will Consider Taking Legal Measures Against It; Al-Jazeera In Response: Our Coverage Is Balanced And Professional], ''Memri'', July 11, 2023</ref>

===Swords of Iron===
Report raises questions about Qatar’s knowledge of Oct. 7 atrocities.
{{Cquote|Western intelligence officials interviewed by Politico in recent weeks say that Qatar, a longtime patron of Hamas in Gaza, may have had prior knowledge of the Oct. 7 attack on Israel.

“We’re still looking into it,” a top intelligence official from a major European country told the U.S. news site when asked if Doha had advanced information about the mass assault. The source, who spoke on the condition of anonymity given the sensitivity of the issue, added that there was “smoke,” but no smoking gun.
<ref>[https://www.jns.org/report-raises-questions-about-qatars-knowledge-of-oct-7-attack/ Report raises questions about Qatar’s knowledge of Oct. 7 attack.
Doha had a lot to gain from the Hamas assault on southern Israel, Western intelligence officers say], ''JNS'', Jan 11, 2024.</ref>}}

===Taliban takeover August-2021===
{{See also|Fall of Kabul}}
In August 2021, Qatar's managed Al-Jazeera celebrated the [[Taliban]] take over as a fanatical-religious win for the entire Islamic nation. The Ummah.<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/al-jazeera-reporters-celebrate-taliban-victory-us-defeat-historic-triumph-islamic-ummah Al-Jazeera Reporters Celebrate 'Taliban Victory', 'U.S. Defeat' As Historic Triumph For Islamic Ummah], Memri, August 18, 2021.
<blockquote>
Qatar | Special Dispatch No. 9503
The U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan and the Taliban's takeover of the country sparked many reactions worldwide, including in the Arab world. Conspicuous among these reactions were expressions of joy by Islamist organizations such as Hamas, the Palestinian Islamic Jihad,the International Union of Muslim Scholars and various elements identified with the Muslim Brotherhood.</blockquote></ref> It joined other Islamic infamous group such as Islamist organizations such as [[Hamas]], the [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]]. As Qatar is aligned in ideological purpose with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].

Unsurprisingly, Al-Jazeera channel received from Taliban exclusive access to the presidential palace in Kabul.<ref>roi kais (@kaisos1987) Tweeted:
The Qatari Al-Jazeera channel receives from Taliban exclusive access to the presidential palace in Kabul. No need to be surprised https://t.co/h53JupS8OP [https://twitter.com/kaisos1987/status/1426974071145877507?s=20 Aug 15, 2021]</ref>

In fact, ond of the big gainers at [[Taliban]]'s rise is the "tiny Qatar", capable of disproportionate intervention in their affairs not hers.<ref>Ilan Zalayat @ilanzalayat Tweeted:<blockquote>
While everyone is talking about the effects of the turbulent upheaval in Afghanistan on neighbors like China or Iran, it is becoming clear that one of the big gainers is actually the tiny Qatar capable of disproportionate intervention in their affairs not hers.</blockquote>
[https://mobile.twitter.com/ilanzalayat/status/1428345434016256003 Aug 19, 2021]</ref>

The French magazine Charlie Hebdo publicized a cartoon exposing Qatar's hypocrisy: On the one hand, there is the transfer of Messi to Paris Saint-Germain
And on the other hand host and fund the Taliban. <ref>For Qatar lovers and interested people,
French 'Charlie Hebdo'
On the hypocrisy and Qatari bipolarity
On the one hand, there is the transfer of Messi to Paris Saint-Germain
And on the other hand it hosts and funds the Taliban.
[https://twitter.com/oritperlov/status/1429773962871984130 Aug 23, 2021] (It reads "It's worse than what we thought")</ref>

Immediately after the Kabul airport suicide bombing killing 170, and the withdrawal of American troops, the Taliban requested assistance from Qatar to run the airport.<ref>[https://theconservativetreehouse.com/blog/2021/08/27/taliban-ask-qatar-for-technical-assistance-running-kabul-airport/ Taliban Ask Qatar For Technical Assistance Running Kabul Airport], Conservative Tree House, Aug 27, 2021.</ref>

===CCP United Front Work Department===
{{See also|United Front Work Department}}
The [[Brookings Institution]] Doha Center, the [[think tank]]’s hub in Qatar, signed a memorandum of understanding with the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences in January 2018. The partnership piqued the FBI's interest about potential [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) espionage activities at the think tank, which employed nearly two dozen [[foreign policy]] advisers to the [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign]].<ref>https://freebeacon.com/national-security/brookings-institution-partnered-with-shanghai-policy-center-under-scrutiny-for-spying/amp/</ref>

===Clinton Foundation===
The [[Clinton Foundation]] accepted multimillion-dollar donations from Saudi Arabia and Qatar, two Gulf Arab states that also financed the Islamic State.<ref>"[http://www.frontpagemag.com/fpm/264493/saudi-arabia-and-qatar-bankroll-isis-%E2%80%94-and-clinton-joseph-klein Saudi Arabia and Qatar bankroll ISIS -- and the Clinton Foundation]," ''Frontpage Mag''.</ref>
===Marc Bennett===
The 'Jamal Khashoggi vs. Marc Bennett' exposed iberal hypocrisy, criminal Qatar / Islamist supremacy on non-Muslims.

While Khashoggi passion play coincides with information about Qatar’s murder of Marc Bennett, a British citizen who was brutally tortured without a word of protest from the West.<ref>Daniel Greenfield, [https://www.frontpagemag.com/jamal-khashoggi-vs-marc-bennett-whose-life-matters/ Jamal Khashoggi vs. Marc Bennett: Whose Life Matters?], FPM, Oct 5, 2022 .<blockquote>

One British man’s death in Qatar reveals the dirty truth about the traitors within.

In an annual propaganda ritual, the heads of foreign governments and media operatives marked the anniversary of Jamal Khashoggi’s death by tweeting condemnations of the killing of the old friend of Osama bin Laden who had been recruited by an Al Qaeda financier to promote Jihad.

It is a testament to the unchallenged power of the Islamic tyranny of Qatar that everyone in Washington D.C. unquestioningly takes a knee and pays tribute to its martyred operative.

“Jamal Khashoggi’s murder 4 years ago was also an attack on freedom of expression everywhere,” Secretary of State Blinken tweeted. There’s no such thing as “freedom of expression” among Khashoggi’s Qatari employees. Khashoggi was not fighting for any kind of freedom, but for an Islamist tyranny of the kind practiced by Qatar’s fellow Islamists in Iran. Had he gotten his way, liberals in Saudi Arabia would be the ones being brutally murdered.
As they are in Iran.

Western elites have spent far less time expressing outrage about the torture and mass murder by Iran’s Islamic regime of thousands of dissidents and protesters than they have over the death of an Islamist whose death equally outraged Al Qaeda and ISIS as it did Washington D.C.

The Washington Post was much less exercised about one of its own reporters, Jason Rezaian, being held hostage in Iran for over a year than over Jamal Khashoggi, a foreign operative running press releases from the Qatari Foundation in its digital pages at the behest of Qatar.

This year the annual Khashoggi passion play coincides with information about Qatar’s murder of Marc Bennett, a British citizen who was brutally tortured without a word of protest from the West.

If Blinken has expressed a word of concern about Bennett’s killing by Khashoggi’s backers, I have yet to find it. The British government closed the case and has shown no interest. The Washington Post has never allowed Bennett’s name to appear in its pages. That might offend its Qatari masters. Despite having been killed a year after Khashoggi, there is still virtually no mention of Bennett by the politicians, influencers and media operatives who claim that they only care about the Qatari terrorist agenda because they are so deeply moved by human rights.

Unlike Khashoggi’s death, Bennett’s death was not political. He was just one of the many foreign workers whom Qatar’s slave masters considered their personal property. When Bennett tried to leave Qatar Airlines, he was treated like any of the other foreign workers, mostly Indian, Asian and African, who are routinely beaten, tortured and worked to death in the Islamic tyranny.
The only difference between the thousands of foreign workers who have died to erect the glittering towers of Doha, who prepare for the World Cup, and who attend to the needs of the slave masters of Qatar, is that Bennett was a westerner. But to the Islamic slave masters of Qatar and others in the region, all non-Arabs and non-Muslims are inferior subhuman slaves.

According to the most recent report in The London Times, “Bennett had been taken blindfolded and handcuffed to a state security detention centre. Bennett later described how he was stripped naked, blasted with high-pressure hoses, slammed against walls.”

His alleged crime was trying to leave Qatar Airways which, like most of the major organizations, including Al Jazeera, is controlled by Qatar’s ruling family. According to the Qataris, Bennett later “committed suicide” in a hotel room in Doha on Christmas Day. The timing must have amused his Islamist killers. According to his wife, his clothes had been laid in his hotel room as if he were preparing to go out and the circumstances of the crime scene don’t comport with those of a suicide. British investigators noted, “no specific evidence of suicidal intent”.

The British government has issued multiple statements about Khashoggi’s death even though the Bin Laden pal was never a British citizen or related to the UK in any meaningful way. It has shrugged at Bennett’s death and then gotten on with the business of asking Qatar for cash.
The BBC has one mention of Bennett. It has hundreds of results for Khashoggi.
Last year, the British government declared that it continues to raise the “terrible crime” of Khashoggi’s death with Saudi Arabia. No such efforts have been made to raise the death of Marc Bennett, a Briton who was not an associate of Islamic terrorists or an enemy agent.

The relative silence over Bennett’s death and the hysterical fury over Khashoggi’s demise reveal more than a double standard, but the deep level of political control Qatar wields over the West.

Westerners don’t need to be physically within the boundaries of Qatar, for the Islamic terror state to have almost as much control over their lives as it did over that of Marc Bennett.

The oil-glutted Islamic terrorist state has not only escaped the consequences for its crimes, but it sets the political agenda for Washington D.C. and much of the western world. Between Al Jazeera, which sets the media’s agenda for the region, and Brookings, the powerful Democrat think tank whose associates fill the ranks of the Biden administration, Qatar rules over us.
The Muslim Brotherhood, which Qatar backs, continues to enjoy safe harbor in America. Its various affiliates have not only been immunized from prosecution, but have been deeply embedded in our government, our political system and our culture. To understand not only our failure to stop Islamic terrorism after 9/11, but the disastrous surrender to the Taliban, overseen by Qatar, which played godfather to the Taliban talks, you have to recognize its influence.

Khashoggi’s omnipresence in our culture and Bennett’s nonexistence is a testimony of the far darker truths about how our governments have sold us out to be killed by Islamic terrorists and their state sponsors while blasting us with propaganda that turns the terrorists into victims.
“We were hoping to establish an Islamic state anywhere,” Khashoggi reminisced about his time together with Osama bin Laden in the Muslim Brotherhood. “We believed that the first one would lead to another, and that would have a domino effect which could reverse the history of mankind.”

You can find that Islamic state in Washington D.C. now where everyone from Tim Kaine to Mitt Romney pushes Khashoggi propaganda. Lindsay Graham tried to hold up a bill for Osama bin Laden’s old pal. Bernie Sanders attacked Biden for not holding gas prices in this country hostage to the Qatari agent. While our political class may differ on so many issues, when it comes to what Qatar wants, they are all in agreement. And they are all betraying us.
Khashoggi’s death was indeed revealing. And what it revealed is that our countries are rotten with politicians and media outlets who willingly serve as the tools of an Islamic terrorist state.
That is why they won’t talk about Bennett’s death.

During the Cold War, when a Communist ran into trouble anywhere, human rights organizations, journalists and politicians would rush to his defense in the name of humanity. But when countless people were tortured, starved and killed in Communist prisons, they were silent.
What was true of the USSR is still true of China and of Qatar.
Every time you hear about Jamal Khashoggi, you are seeing Qatar’s influence at work and you are witnessing traitors out themselves. Listen carefully. And remember Bennett’s Qatar,

Khashoggi was an agent of the foreign Islamist powers that rule over us. Bennett is us.</blockquote></ref><blockquote>Unlike Khashoggi’s death, Bennett’s death was not political. He was just one of the many foreign workers whom Qatar’s slave masters considered their personal property. When Bennett tried to leave Qatar Airlines, he was treated like any of the other foreign workers, mostly Indian, Asian and African, who are routinely beaten, tortured and worked to death in the Islamic tyranny.
The only difference between the thousands of foreign workers who have died to erect the glittering towers of Doha, who prepare for the World Cup, and who attend to the needs of the slave masters of Qatar, is that Bennett was a westerner. But to the Islamic slave masters of Qatar and others in the region, all non-Arabs and non-Muslims are inferior subhuman slaves.
</blockquote>

===Training [[Hamas]] terrorists===
In 2024, Qatar’s regime became under fire for training Hamas terrorists: 'Qatar is Hamas and Hamas is Qatar'.Qatar – which is known for supporting Hamas, financing its military activity and sheltering its leaders, and for extending media support to Hamas by means of its Al-Jazeera channel – also trained, in its Police College in Al-Rayyan, officers from Hamas' Interior and National Security Ministry, which is part of Hamas' governing authorities in the Gaza Strip Given the sensitivity, especially regarding the hostages, neither the IDF nor the Foreign Ministry were willing to comment.

Qatar has lashed out at American Jews and Congressional representatives who demonstrated in front of their Washington embassy calling for Doha to pressure Hamas to release the hostages.<ref>Benjamin Weinthal, [https://www.jpost.com/israel-hamas-war/article-788543 Qatar’s regime under fire for training Hamas terrorists: 'Qatar is Hamas and Hamas is Qatar'], ''JPost'', February 23, 2024</ref>

==Apartheid and racism==

Arab [[Apartheid]], such as anti Asian racism, is rampant in Qatar.<ref>[https://amp.theguardian.com/cities/2018/oct/09/the-qatari-mall-without-qataris-you-cant-ignore-the-racial-undertones-doha Asian Town, Qatar's mall for migrants: 'You can't ignore the racial undertones'], Pete Pattisson and Naveen Nair in Doha, The Guardian, Oct 9, 2018. 
The new Asian Town mall was designed to cater to Qatar’s roughly 2 million migrant workers – but critics say it is simply a way to segregate them... The Gulf countries take deliberate measures to dissuade migrants bringing their families with them, and then justify the ghettos and zoning regulations under the pretext of security,” Saraswathi said. “Time and again, Asian male migrants are kept away because they are ‘bachelors’, while the same wouldn’t apply to western or Arab single men. One can’t ignore the racial undertones.”</ref> And Qatar can't explain the thousands of deaths in a decade.<ref>Pete Pattisson, "[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/aug/26/qatar-has-failed-to-explain-up-to-70-of-migrant-worker-deaths-in-past-10-years-amnesty Qatar has failed to explain up to 70% of migrant worker deaths in past 10 years – Amnesty]," The Guardian , Aug 26, 2021.
<blockquote>
World Cup host has not properly investigated fatalities, rights group says, citing concerns over heat stress and safety

World Cup host Qatar has failed to investigate the deaths of thousands of migrant workers in the past decade, according to a new report by Amnesty International.

The human rights organisation said the majority of migrant worker deaths in Qatar are attributed to “natural causes”, cardiac or respiratory failure; classifications which are “meaningless” without the underlying cause of death explained, according to one expert cited.

As a result, as many as 70% of deaths may be unexplained. “In a well resourced health system, it should be possible to identify the exact cause of death in all but 1% of cases,” the report said.... In February the Guardian revealed that more than 6,500 migrant workers from south Asia had died in Qatar in the past decade...
In February the Guardian revealed that more than 6,500 migrant workers from south Asia had died in Qatar in the past decade.</blockquote></ref>
==Bigotry==
In a classic example. When in Jan 2020, in a historic visit by the Secretary General of the Islamic World League, Dr. Muhammad al-Issa, to the Auschwitz extermination camp in Poland, led by a delegation of 25 senior Muslim clerics, a few days before International Holocaust Remembrance Day - it had support for it in Saudi Arabia, but it was condemned in Qatar.<ref>[http://www.memri.org.il/cgi-webaxy/item?5172 Historic visit of the head of the Islamic World League to the Auschwitz camp - support for in Saudi Arabia, condemnations in Qatar], Memri, 3/2/2020.<blockquote>
On January 23, the visit of the Secretary General of the Islamic World League, Dr. Muhammad al-Issa, to the Auschwitz extermination camp in Poland, led by a delegation of 25 senior Muslim clerics, a few days before International Holocaust Remembrance Day, was a historic precedent for his first visit. A senior Muslim delegation in an extermination camp commemorating the Holocaust of the Jews of Europe. Thus, and following al-Issa's statements during the visit in condemnation of the Holocaust, the visit provoked many different reactions in the Arab and Islamic world...</blockquote></ref>

==Military==
Qatar's defense expenditures are estimated to be in the range of 10% of GDP. Qatar maintains a military force of about 12,000 men, including an army, navy, and air force. The country has a public security force of about 8,000 men, including a coast guard, national firefighting force, air wing, marine police, and an internal security force. Qatar also has signed defense pacts with the U.S., U.K., and France. Qatar plays an active role in the collective defense efforts of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC—the regional organization of the Arab states in the Gulf; the other five members are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, the U.A.E., and Oman). Qatari forces played an important role in the first Gulf War, and Qatar has supported U.S. military operations critical to the success of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Al Udeid, one of America's largest Air Force bases, remains a critical asset to operations in both Iraq and Afghanistan.<ref>Michael R. Gordon With Eric Schmitt, [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/28/world/aftereffects-bases-us-will-move-air-operations-to-qatar-base.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 AFTEREFFECTS: BASES; U.S. Will Move Air Operations To Qatar Base], ''The New York Times'',
April 28, 2003</ref> Qatar hosts CENTCOM Forward Headquarters.

==Economy==
Oil formed the cornerstone of Qatar's economy well into the 1990s and still accounts for about 62% of total government revenue. In 1973, oil production and revenues increased sizably, moving Qatar out of the rank of the world's poorest countries and providing it with one of the highest per capita incomes. In 2006, Qatar's per capita income of nearly $62,000 was the fifth-highest in the world.
[[File:Industrial Gas Oil Qatar.jpg|right|300px|thumb|]]
Qatar's economy suffered a downturn from in the mid-1990s. Lower Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) oil production quotas, a fall in oil prices, and the generally unpromising outlook on international markets reduced oil earnings. In turn, the Qatari Government cut spending plans to match lower income. The resulting recessionary local business climate caused many firms to lay off expatriate staff. With the economy recovering in the late 1990s, expatriate populations have grown again.

Oil production is currently around 835,000 barrels a day (bpd), and is expected to reach 1.1 million bpd by 2009. At the current production pace, oil reserves are expected to last more than 40 years. Moreover, Qatar's proven reserves of gas are the third-largest in the world, exceeding 900 trillion cubic feet (14% of the world's total proven gas reserves). Qatar shares with Iran the largest single non-associated gas field in the world, the North Field. Qatar is now the world's largest producer of liquefied natural gas (LNG), with a capacity of more than 31 million metric tons per annum (mmta), and it expects to reach 77.5 mmta of LNG exports by 2010. By 2010, Qatar will account for one-third of the world's LNG supply.

The 1991 completion of the $1.5-billion Phase I of the North Field gas development project strongly boosted the economy. In 1996, Qatar began exporting liquefied natural gas to Japan. Further phases of North Field gas development costing billions of dollars are in various stages of planning and development, and Qatar has concluded agreements with the U.A.E. to export gas via pipelines and to Spain, Turkey, Italy, the U.S., France, South Korea, India, China, Taiwan, and the U.K. via ship. However, the government has halted any further expansion of gas production until 2010, as it assesses its plans for future exploitation of the field.

Qatar's natural gas liquefaction facilities and related industries are located in Ras Laffan Industrial City, site of the world's largest LNG exports of more than 31 million metric tons per year. Qatar's heavy industrial base, located in Messaieed, includes a refinery with a 140,000 bpd capacity, a fertilizer plant for urea and ammonia, a steel plant, and a petrochemical plant, and several new petrochemical plants will be built in the coming years. All these industries use gas for fuel. Most are joint ventures between U.S., European, and Japanese firms and the state-owned Qatar Petroleum (QP). The U.S. is the major equipment supplier for Qatar's oil and gas industry, and U.S. companies are playing a major role in the development of the oil and gas sector and petrochemicals.

The country's economic growth has been stunning. Qatar's nominal GDP, currently around $52.7 billion, has grown an average of 15% over the past five years. GDP is expected to grow approximately 8.3% in 2007. Qatar's per capita GDP is more than $60,000, and projected to soon be the highest in the world. The Qatari Government's strategy is to utilize its wealth to generate more wealth by diversifying the economic base of the country beyond hydrocarbons.

Qatar pursues a vigorous program of "Qatarization," under which all joint venture industries and government departments strive to move Qatari nationals into positions of greater authority. Growing numbers of foreign-educated Qataris, including many educated in the U.S., are returning home to assume key positions formerly occupied by expatriates. In order to control the influx of expatriate workers, Qatar has tightened the administration of its foreign manpower programs over the past several years. Security is the principal basis for Qatar's strict entry and immigration rules and regulations.

<blockquote>
For 2011, despite the global financial crisis, Qatar has maintained its economic growth of the last several years. Qatari authorities throughout the crisis sought to protect the local banking sector with direct investments into domestic banks. GDP rebounded in 2010 largely due to the increase in oil prices. Economic policy is focused on developing Qatar's nonassociated natural gas reserves and increasing private and foreign investment in non-energy sectors, but oil and gas still account for more than 50% of GDP, roughly 85% of export earnings, and 70% of government revenues. Oil and gas have made Qatar the second highest per-capita income country - following Liechtenstein - and the world's second fastest growing - following Macau. Proved oil reserves of 15 billion barrels should enable continued output at current levels for 37 years. Qatar's proved reserves of natural gas exceed 25 trillion cubic meters, about 14% of the world total and third largest in the world. Qatar's successful 2022 world cup bid will likely accelerate large-scale infrastructure projects such as Qatar's metro system and the Qatar-Bahrain causeway. GDP - per capita:
$145,300 (2010 est.); Country comparison to the world: 1; GDP (official exchange rate): $126.5 billion (2009 est.). Agriculture - products: fruits, vegetables; poultry, dairy products, beef; fish; Industries: liquefied natural gas, crude oil production and refining, ammonia, fertilizers, petrochemicals, steel reinforcing bars, cement, commercial ship repair. Oil - proved reserves:
25.41 billion bbl (1 January 2010 est.) country comparison to the world: 12
<ref>[http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/qatar/qatar_economy.html Qatar Economy 2011, CIA World Factbook.]</ref>
</blockquote>

==History==
[[File:Map of Qatar Persia Arabia.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Persia - Arabia, with the adjacent countries, 1855, (detail).]]
Qatar has been inhabited for millennia. The Al Khalifa family of Bahrain dominated the area until 1868 when, at the request of Qatari nobles, the British negotiated the termination of the Bahraini claim, except for the payment of tribute. The tribute ended when the Ottoman Empire occupied Qatar in 1872.

When the Ottomans left at the beginning of World War I, the British recognized Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani as ruler. The Al Thani family had lived in Qatar for 200 years. The 1916 treaty between the United Kingdom and Sheikh Abdullah was similar to those entered into by the British with other Gulf principalities. Under it, the ruler agreed not to dispose of any of his territory except to the U.K. and not to enter into relationships with any other foreign government without British consent. In return, the British promised to protect Qatar from all aggression by sea and to lend their good offices in case of a land attack. A 1934 treaty granted more extensive British protection.

In 1935, a 75-year oil concession was granted to the Qatar Petroleum Company, a subsidiary of the Iraq Petroleum Company, which was owned by Anglo-Dutch, French, and U.S. interests. High-quality oil was discovered in 1940 at Dukhan, on the western side of the Qatari peninsula. However, the start of WWII delayed exploitation of Qatar's oil resources, and oil exports did not begin until 1949.
[[File:Doha Mosque Qatar.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Doha Mosque.]]
During the 1950s and 1960s gradually increasing oil revenues brought prosperity, rapid immigration, substantial social progress, and the beginnings of Qatar's modern history. When the U.K. announced a policy in 1968 (reaffirmed in March 1971) of ending the treaty relationships with the Gulf sheikdoms, Qatar joined the other eight states then under British protection (the seven trucial sheikdoms—the present United Arab Emirates—and Bahrain) in a plan to form a union of Arab emirates. By mid-1971, as the termination date of the British treaty relationship (end of 1971) approached, the nine still had not agreed on terms of union. Accordingly, Qatar declared independence as a separate entity and became the fully independent State of Qatar on September 3, 1971.

In February 1972, the Heir Apparent, Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad, deposed his cousin, Amir Ahmad, and assumed power. Key members of the Al Thani family supported this move, which took place without violence or signs of political unrest.

On June 27, 1995, the Deputy Amir, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa, deposed his father Amir Khalifa in a bloodless coup. An unsuccessful counter-coup was staged in 1996. The Amir and his father are now reconciled, though some supporters of the counter-coup remain in prison. The Amir announced his intention for Qatar to move toward democracy and has permitted a freer and more open press and municipal elections as a precursor to expected parliamentary elections. Qatari citizens approved a new constitution via public referendum in April 2003, which came into force in June 2005.

In 1996 [[Al Jazeera]] launches the first independent Arab satellite news channel, breaking the monopoly of state controlled media in the region and in 2006 Qatar becomes the world's largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and acts as the first Arab host of the Asian Games. [http://www.qatartourism.gov.qa/discover/index/1/207]

== External links ==

*[http://www.qatartourism.gov.qa/ Qatar tourism.]
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/qa.html Qatar.] CIA - The World Factbook.
*[http://www.dohaluxury.com/category/qatar-doha-living/ Doha living.]
*[http://qatarise.blogspot.com/ Qatar Wakeup Call.]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Asian Countries}}
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}
[[Category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Qatar

2024-06-02T23:05:40Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''دولة قطر Dawlat Qatar''
|map =Qatar rel95.jpg
|flag =Flag of Qatar.png
|arms =Arms of Qatar.png
|capital =Doha
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =[[Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani]] (emir)
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Abdullah bin Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani
|pm-raw =
|area =4,416 sq mi 11,437 KM2
|pop =2,880,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$180,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =2005
|gdp-pc =$62,500 (2020)
|currency =Riyal
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''State of Qatar''' is a state under the Persian Gulf Residency on the Arabian [[peninsula]] to the west of the [[Persian Gulf]], with a population of over 900,000, although one quarter of that population are foreign workers and their families. The official language is [[Arabic]] and the capital is Doha. [[English]] is a commonly used second language. It is the host of the [[2022 FIFA World Cup]] (men's [[soccer]] championship).

Qatar is known as the main financial sponsor for many radical Islamic groups like [[Al-Qaeda]](including their affiliates AQAP and Al-Nusra)<ref>https://robertspencer.org/2019/12/us-defense-intelligence-agency-says-turkey-qatar-supported-al-qaedas-al-nusra-front</ref><ref>https://atalayar.com/en/content/qatar-accused-funding-al-qaedas-parent-organisation-syria</ref><ref>https://www.counterextremism.com/content/qatar-money-and-terror</ref>,the [[Taliban]], [[Hamas]], and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]]. A high ranking Qatari alleged financier of [[911]] was Khalifa Mohammed, who is a U.S.-, EU-, and U.N.-designated international terrorist for his role in financing al-Qaeda.

In Qatar, there are three buckets: Terror financing by the government; terror financing done in Qatar through their own citizens that their government may not know about; and terror financing in Qatar that the government knows about but does nothing to stop.<ref name=govinfo-2017>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-115hhrg26427/html/CHRG-115hhrg26427.htm ASSESSING THE U.S.-QATAR RELATIONSHIP - Govinfo.gov].<blockquote>

[House Hearing, 115 Congress] [From the U.S. Government Publishing Office] ASSESSING THE U.S.-QATAR RELATIONSHIP

HEARING BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA OF THE COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ONE HUNDRED FIFTEENTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION

JULY 26, 2017
Serial No. 115-55

Qatar has been known to be a permissive environment for terror financing, reportedly funding U.S. designated foreign terrorist organizations, such as Hamas, as well as several extremist groups operating in Syria.

In 2014, the former deputy director of CIA, David Cohen, called out Qatar publicly along with the Kuwaitis, because according to him, "The private engagement with these countries had not achieved what we were trying to achieve.'' In fact, Qatar has openly housed Hamas leaders, Taliban leaders, and has several individuals who have been sanctioned by our U.S. Treasury Department, and it has failed to prosecute them.

At least one high-ranking Qatari official provided support to the mastermind of the 9/11 terror attacks against our country, Khalid Sheikh Mohammad.

Then, of course, there is Khalifa Mohammed, who is a U.S.-, EU-, and U.N.-designated international terrorist for his role in financing al-Qaeda and the 9/11 mastermind.
In 2008, he was tried and convicted in absentia by Bahrain for his terrorist activity, and arrested later that year by Qatar only to be released by the Qataris 6 months later, and then openly financed by Doha.
Can anyone guess what Khalifa Mohammed has been up to these days? He was implicated in terror financing activities in 2012, but more recently, he has been alleged to be financing and supporting terror in both Iraq and Syria with no response from the Qatari Government.

Hamas leader, Khaled Meshaal, also made Doha his headquarters for years while the Qatari's--with the Qatari's Government support and even the Muslim Brotherhood has received significant support from Qatar.

Of course, not all of this is supported by the government in Doha. Many individuals and charities in Qatar have been known to raise large sums of money for al-Qaeda, the Nusra front, Hamas, and even ISIS.

In Qatar, there are three buckets: Terror financing by the government; terror financing done in Qatar through their own citizens that their government may not know about; and terror financing in Qatar that the government knows about but does nothing to stop. According to the 2015 country reports on terrorism, the State Department stated, "Entities and individuals within Qatar continue to serve as a source of financial support for terrorists and violent extremist groups, particularly regional al-Qaeda affiliates such as the Nusra front.''

There is no excuse for openly harboring terrorist and supporting groups that seek to harm our allies, and the excuse by Qatar that it is harboring these nefarious actors is because the U.S. asked them to no longer stands up.

Qatar should not be continuing this reckless policy due to past mistakes from previous Republican and Democratic administrations. We must not allow for our air base to be used as a means to justify this sort of behavior, and a lack of a more appropriate response. Doha's behavior must change the status quo, and if it does not, it risks losing our cooperation on the air base. The truth of the matter is that none of the Gulf countries--none of the Gulf countries are without their issues. All of the nations have been involved in funding different groups at some point that we would not approve of. But it seems like Saudi Arabia and the UAE are making progress at a faster rate while Qatar is making some progress but still is lagging slowly behind. According to the Congressional Research Service, "In October 2016, Daniel Glaser, then Assistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing in the Office for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence, told the Washington, DC, Research Institute that over the past decade, Qatar has made less progress in countering terrorism financing than had Saudi Arabia.'' We must analyze the totality of our relationship with these Gulf countries.

While Qatar only helps to facilitate our operations at our air base, the UAE, for example, has spent 12 years with us fighting alongside in Afghanistan and has been involved in counterterrorism operations with the U.S. in Libya. So moving forward, one outcome that I hope comes out of this dispute is for the Gulf countries to work closely with our Treasury Department's Financial Action Task Force to root out and disrupt terror financing streams. This uneasy time may just be an opportunity for us to take a long hard look at how, and for some, if, we can effectively address and stop terror financing in the region, and ultimately defeat the extremism that threatens the security of us all. And with that, I turn to my friend, the ranking member, Mr. Deutch, for his statement.

Mr. Deutch.

Thank you, Madam Chairwoman.

Thanks to the witnesses for being back before our committee. I thank the chairman for convening today's timely hearing to explore our relationship with Qatar at a moment of great instability in the region. The ongoing diplomatic rift between Qatar and its Gulf neighbors is not good for the parties of the conflict; it is not good for the region; and it is not good for American interests. It is a distraction from today's most pressing challenges, Iran's destabilizing activities, the conflict in Syria, and the spread of terrorism.

For most Americans who expect conflict in the Middle East to fall along sectarian lines, or between competing regional hegemons, it is confusing to see Sunni Arab neighbors in conflict. But this is a dispute over longstanding grievances, over Qatar's support financially, and through its state-owned Al Jazeera news station, for actors and groups that Qatar's neighbors and, in many cases, the United States, see as deeply problematic. This feud, like others in the region, is a nuanced and deeply complex matter, and our relationship with Qatar is no less complex. A tiny but immensely wealthy nation pursues an ambitious foreign policy of close relations with all actors in the region. Unfortunately, this includes terror groups like Hamas and the Afghan Taliban. Qatar has served as a financial and political lifeline for Hamas' devastating rule in Gaza since the terror group took over more than a decade ago. Qatar has sent hundreds of millions of dollars into the Gaza strip, provides safe haven in Doha for Hamas leader, Khaled Meshaal, and helped legitimize Hamas rule in 2012 when the Emir became the first international leader to visit Hamas- led territory. Qatar has also supported other dangerous groups in the region, including sending advanced weaponry and financing to extremist elements in Syria and Libya, and Al Jazeera has given voice to clerics calling for suicide attacks against Americans and Israelis...

Dr. Schanzer, we will begin with you for your opening statement. STATEMENT OF JONATHAN SCHANZER, PH.D., SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT, FOUNDATION FOR DEFENSE OF DEMOCRACIES Mr. Schanzer. Madam Chairman, Ranking Member Deutch, and members of the subcommittee, on behalf of the Foundation for Defense of Democracies, thank you for the opportunity to testify. As many of you know, FDD has been producing research and analysis on Qatar since the eruption of the Arab Spring in 2011. Our critique has been consistent. We have pointed to Qatari support for Hamas, the Taliban, jihadists in Syria, jihadists in Libya and the Muslim Brotherhood. We have been critical of Qatar for the invective broadcast on state-owned Al Jazeera. We have tracked the many reports suggesting that Qatar paid ransom to terrorism groups, and we have noted through the work of my colleague, David Andrew Weinberg, that Qatar has failed to take action against U.S. and U.N.-designated terrorist financiers. In my written testimony, I document these problems, and I am happy to discuss them further. But for a moment, I would like to address how Qatar has responded to the allegations against it...</blockquote></ref>

Qatari officials intimidated claimants in terror case. The claimants fled after their lives and homes were destroyed by al-Nusra Front jihadist organisation.<ref>[https://amp.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/nov/11/high-court-hears-claims-qatar-officials-intimidated-terror-case-witnesses Qatari officials intimidated claimants in terror case, high court told], ''The Guardian'', Nov 11, 2020.<blockquote> The claimants say they fled to Holland after their lives and homes were destroyed by al-Nusra Front, a jihadist organisation.</blockquote></ref>

Qatar is the owner of Anti-Semitic and Anti-American [[Al-Jazeera]] media network, and main supporter of many [[far-left]] media sites like [[The Young Turks network]].<ref>[https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2020/02/12/report-youtube-to-fund-far-left-young-turks-journalism-academy/ Report: YouTube to Fund Far-Left Young Turks Journalism ‘Academy’]</ref> Or .<ref name=wsj-2002>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1010012291811235280 Reporting Bias], ''WSJ'', Jan 2, 2002.</ref><ref name=mim-2005>[https://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/914 Militant Islam Monitor - Al Qaeda tape 'given' to 'Al Jihadzeera' shows Bin Laden 'lieutenant' Al Zawahiri threatening attacks on UK and US], August 5, 2005.<blockquote>
Al Qaeda tape 'given' to 'Al Jihadzeera' shows Bin Laden 'lieutenant' Al Zawahiri threatening attacks on UK and US.</blockquote></ref><ref name=mim-2014>[https://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/6284 Al Jihadzeera' Reporters Charged With Belonging To A Terrorist Group], Feb 1, 2014.</ref>

Among the tricks to use the [[2022 FIFA World Cup]], in its efforts to spread radical Islamism, among other things, it invited radical preacher Dr. Zakir Naik to teach FIFA fans about Islam.<ref>[https://millichronicle.com/2022/11/qatar-invites-radical-preacher-dr-zakir-naik-to-teach-fifa-fans-about-islam.html Qatar invites radical preacher Dr. Zakir Naik to teach FIFA fans about Islam], Milli Chronicle, Nov 19, 2022.
<blockquote>
Doha — Qatar has invited the radical preacher Dr. Zakir Naik, infamous for his endorsing views on suicide bombings, to teach the FIFA fans about Islam.
The famous ScreenMix entertainment magazine tweeted on Saturday, “Qatar invited the famous Islamic preacher Dr. Zakir Naik to deliver religious lectures during the 2022 World Cup.</blockquote></ref>
Pro-Taliban Urdu-Language daily revealed Qatar's plans to Invite FIFA World Cup attendees to Islam: 'Training of 2,000 volunteers for invitation of the religion at the mega event has been completed who will deliver the message of "truth"[sic] to the spectators.<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/pro-taliban-urdu-language-daily-reveals-qatars-plans-invite-fifa-world-cup-attendees-islam Pro-Taliban Urdu-Language Daily Reveals Qatar's Plans To Invite FIFA World Cup Attendees To Islam: 'Training Of 2,000 Volunteers For Invitation Of The Religion At The Mega Event Has Been Completed Who Will Deliver The Message Of (so called) Truth(sic) To The Spectators'], ''Memri'', November 18, 2022.<blockquote>
In a recent article, the Pakistan-based Urdu-language pro-Taliban daily Roznama Ummat examined the Qatari government's preparations for da'wa ("preaching," "invitation to Islam") at the FIFA World Cup beginning on November 20, 2022. Da'wa is an important part of Islam whereby Muslims are expected to invite non-Muslims to embrace the religion.
The article, titled "FIFA World Cup And Da'wa Of The Religion," and written by Islamic religious scholar Zia Chitrali, explains various media activities and events planned to explain Islam to non-Muslim spectators and to try to persuade them to convert. As part of these events planned by Qatari officials, thousands of volunteers will engage in da'wa and free books and pamphlets highlighting Islamic teachings will be distributed among the spectators.
In a recent article, the Pakistan-based Urdu-language pro-Taliban daily Roznama Ummat examined the Qatari government's preparations for da'wa ("preaching," "invitation to Islam") at the FIFA World Cup beginning on November 20, 2022. Da'wa is an important part of Islam whereby Muslims are expected to invite non-Muslims to embrace the religion.
The article, titled "FIFA World Cup And Da'wa Of The Religion," and written by Islamic religious scholar Zia Chitrali, explains various media activities and events planned to explain Islam to non-Muslim spectators and to try to persuade them to convert.
As part of these events planned by Qatari officials, thousands of volunteers will engage in da'wa and free books and pamphlets highlighting Islamic teachings will be distributed among the spectators. [https://www.memri.org/sites/default/files/2022/11/sd10326.jpg].</blockquote></ref>

The West has turned a blind eye on its terrible human rights abuses.
<ref name=latimes-2017>Joshua S. Block
[https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-block-qatar-terrorism-syria-20170609-story.html Op-Ed: Qatar is a financier of terrorism. Why does the U.S. tolerate it?], ''LA Times'' Jun 9, 2017.</ref>

Gulf Arabs<ref>[https://amp.dw.com/en/how-are-gulf-countries-coming-to-terms-with-their-history-of-slavery/a-60686264 How are Gulf countries coming to terms with their history of slavery?], ''DW'',
08.02.2022.<blockquote>
Despite having officially outlawed slavery, Arab states in the Gulf region have downplayed the legacy of repression and racism faced by minorities...
Modern slavery is still widespread in the Arab states of the Gulf region, where millions of migrant workers are forced to work under grueling conditions with little or no pay.</blockquote></ref> have been known to be practicing modern day slavery on the largest scales with racism and worse-than-just apartheid .

Qatar's case came into public eye also for its use of migrants on horrific conditions to prepare for the ''2022 FIFA World Cup''.<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2016/03/qatar-world-cup-of-shame/ QATAR WORLD CUP OF SHAME], Amnesty, Mar 2016.
<blockquote>Migrants building a state-of-the-art stadium for the 2022 football World Cup in Qatar are abused and exploited – while FIFA makes huge profits.

Tell FIFA and its sponsors to act now to protect migrant workers in Qatar from abuse.
Migrants from Bangladesh, India and Nepal working on the refurbishment of the showcase Khalifa Stadium and landscaping the surrounding gardens and sporting facilities known as the “Aspire Zone” are being exploited. Some are being subjected to forced labour. They can’t change jobs, they can’t leave the country and they often wait months to get paid. Meanwhile, FIFA (football’s global governing body), its sponsors and the construction companies involved are set to make massive financial gains from the tournament.

MY LIFE HERE IS LIKE A PRISON. THE MANAGER SAID: ‘IF YOU WANT TO STAY IN QATAR BE QUIET AND KEEP WORKING.’
Deepak, metal worker on the Khalifa Stadium</blockquote></ref><ref>Matt Sullivan, [https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/world-cup-built-on-modern-slavery-stadium-workers-blow-the-whistle-on-qatars-cover-up-of-migrant-deaths-1234627582/ A World Cup Built on Modern Slavery': Stadium Workers Blow the Whistle on Qatar’s ‘Coverup’ of Migrant Deaths and Suffering], ''Rolling Stone'', Nov 9, 2022.<blockquote>
— “This,” says Equidem executive director Mustafa Qadri, “is a World Cup built on modern slavery.” In a statement to Rolling Stone, a spokesperson..
Anish Adhikari awoke at the Qatari labor camp at 4 a.m. to diarrhea from last night’s rotten fish. His tonsils were swollen from the limited water made available by his employer while working 14 hours a day in 125-degree heat. But he remained hopeful that building air conditioners for 80,000 ticket-holders could provide the equivalent of $8,000 over three years to support his family in Nepal. That he could pay back the loan shark who’d secured Adhikari a job beginning in 2019 with the Hamad Bin Khalid Contracting Co. (HBK), the contracting firm owned by the the highest echelons of Qatar’s ruling Al Thani family. He thought of his father and sickly mother living with his six brothers, their four wives, and their eight children in a hurricane-ravaged farmhouse, using an animal shed for a kitchen. But the 23-year-old soccer fan was helping to construct the site of this year’s World Cup final; some days, when he arrived at Lusail Iconic Stadium before dawn, Adhikari forgot how exhausted he was.</blockquote></ref>
The exact number of fatal victims of the 'Stadiums of Shame' will never be known <ref>Sean Ingle, [https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/nov/14/stadiums-of-shame-the-numbers-world-cup-hosts-qatar-dont-want-to-be-seen Stadiums of shame: the numbers World Cup hosts Qatar don’t want to be seen], ''The Guardian'', Mon 14 Nov 2022.<blockquote>As the world’s media and teams start to arrive the facts and figures behind workers’ and human rights in Qatar remain hard to uncover.</blockquote></ref> in this Arab [[Islamic]] non-free regime.

'''2022 FIFA World Cup'''

[[FIFA]] Officials were bribed to award World Cups to Russia and Qatar,<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/06/sports/soccer/qatar-and-russia-bribery-world-cup-fifa.amp.html U.S. Says FIFA Officials Were Bribed to Award World Cups to Russia and Qatar], ''The New York Times'', Apr 6, 2020.<blockquote>
For nearly a decade, Russia and Qatar have been suspected of buying votes to win hosting rights for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. On Monday, for the first time, the Department of Justice put things in black and white.</blockquote></ref><ref name=rb-18nov22>[https://www.cnn.com/videos/tv/2022/11/18/roger-bennett-amanpour-qatar-world-cup-controversy.cnn 'Sport is political,' says World Cup podcaster], ''CNN'', Nov 18, 2022. (Roger Bennett in interview).</ref> and it has been surrounded by many controversies.<ref>Ian Ward, [https://www.vox.com/world/23450515/world-cup-fifa-qatar-2022-controversy-scandals-explained The many, many controversies surrounding the 2022 World Cup, explained], ''Vox'', November 19, 2022.<blockquote>
Since FIFA awarded the 2022 World Cup to Qatar in 2010, the tournament has been ensnared in a tangled web of scandals.</blockquote></ref> Including modern day slavery, racist exploitation, thousands of migrants deaths,<ref>[https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Over-6,500-migrant-workers-have-died-all-for-2022-soccer-world-cup-52440.html QATAR Over 6,500 migrant workers have died all for 2022 soccer world cup], Asia.it, Feb 25, 2021</ref> cruel limitaion of water drinking while working in the heat.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/amp/show/migrant-workers-recount-abuse-while-building-stadiums-for-world-cup-in-qatar Migrant workers recount abuse while building stadiums for World Cup in Qatar], ''PBS'', Nov 18, 2022 The water we got was almost 90 percent ice. We asked why they did that and told them it was impossible to drink water like that....</ref><ref>Aimee Lewis, Pramod Acharya and Sugam Pokharel, [https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2022/11/17/football/qatar-2022-world-cup-migrant-workers-human-rights-spt-intl/index.html Our dreams never came true.' These men helped build Qatar's World Cup, now they are struggling to survive], ''CNN'', November 17, 2022.</ref>

The [[Taliban]] invested heavily in the World Cup construction and the tournament was a golden duck. They were paid millions. The Taliban officials lucrative salaries tied to peace talks to buy and then subcontract heavy machinery for tournament infrastructure over the past decade, a source from the Taliban's Doha office revealed.<ref>Joe Wallen, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-and-security/how-taliban-helped-build-stadiums-qatar-world-cup/ How the Taliban helped build the stadiums for the Qatar World Cup], ''Daily Telegraph'', Nov 25, 2022.<blockquote>
Exclusive: Construction firms allegedly paid ‘millions’ to buy and lease machinery from the Taliban for infrastructure, according to sources

The Taliban made millions from the World Cup by providing construction equipment to build stadiums in Qatar, The Telegraph understands.
Senior Taliban officials used lucrative salaries tied to peace talks to buy and then subcontract heavy machinery for tournament infrastructure over the past decade, a source from the Taliban's Doha office revealed.
A large contingent of the Taliban leadership lived in Doha, the capital of Qatar, from 2013 onward where they were engaged in long-running peace talks with the US and UN.
“The Taliban invested heavily in the World Cup construction and the tournament was a golden duck. They were paid millions,” claimed the source, who lived in Doha in the decade running up to the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in 2021.
“Some Taliban members had between six and ten pieces of heavy machinery each in Doha and would earn up to £10,000 per machine per month.”
Two separate senior Taliban sources described how officials were given lucrative allowances to live in the country during the peace negotiations, which was then invested in heavy construction machinery.
</blockquote></ref>

Qatar in cahoots with [[Iran]] stifle voices of dissent during World Cup,
<ref>[https://www.iranintl.com/en/202211254809 Qatar In Cahoots With Iran To Stifle Voices Of Dissent During World Cup], Iran Intl, 11/25/2022.<blockquote>
Iran’s soccer team blanked 10-man Wales Friday as World Cup host Qatar prevented Iranian fans from expressing their support for the ongoing protests in their the country.

Iranian fans, who wanted to take flags other than the official one approved by the Islamic Republic to the Al Rayyan’s Ahmad bin Ali Stadium, were stopped by security officers. Many people were barred from carrying or waving Iran’s ancient flag with the Lion and Sun emblem or a simple three-color flag with the main motto of the current wave of protests – Woman, Life, Liberty.</blockquote></ref> And [[IRGC]] man said, Qatar is helping Iran silence dissidents in World Cup.<ref>[https://www.iranintl.com/en/202211279876 IRGC Man Says Qatar Helping Iran Silence Dissidents In World Cup], IranIntl, Nov 27, 2022.<blockquote>

Documents obtained by Iran International show Iran was coordinating secret efforts with Qatar to control who attends the World Cup and restrict any signs of dissent.

Black Reward, a hactivist group that found access to Fars News Agency files this week provided an audio tape of a meeting between a Revolutionary Guard general and a group of media managers or representatives from outfits affiliated with the IRGC about plans to use the sporting event to the benefit of the regime in Tehran.
A six-minute audio segment of a tape features General Ghasem Ghoreyshi (Qasem Qoreyshi), deputy commander of the paramilitary Basij and a group of reporters including the one from Fars News who met with him possible in the presence of other trusted reporters to discuss the latest developments including plans for the World Cup.
The meeting took place on Tuesday 15th of November.
Ghoreyshi starts by saying that “anti-revolutionaries” have bought “5,330 tickets” to the tournament and adds that “our boys have checked the list of the ticket holders and at least 500 people” are known opponents of the Iranian regime.
This is the first piece of evidence of collaboration with Qatar, showing that Iran obtained the list of ticket buyers most probably from Qatari authorities.</blockquote></ref>

The "Palestinian" flags were part of an orchestrated campaign pushed by "Palestine" activists, backed by Qataris, to make it look like "spontaneous."<ref>Pal Media Watch @palwatch
[https://twitter.com/palwatch/status/1599792713469149184 Dec 5, 2022].<blockquote>
Although seemingly spontaneous, #FreePalestine flags at #WorldCup2022 are propaganda props organized by #Palestinian organizations. Palestinian activists hand out flags to be smuggled into the stadiums and be raised at the 48th minute each game.</blockquote></ref>

One of Arab racism's instances, the brutal attack on an Egyptian mistakenly believed he was Israeli.
The Qataris were embarrassed because their officials hadn't believed the poor Egyptian when he insisted he was one of them. And so, they stood by as the mob gave him the "Israeli treatment."<ref>C. Glick, [https://www.jns.org/opinion/cultural-appropriation-and-the-jews/ Cultural appropriation and the Jews], Dec 2, 2022.</ref><blockquote>.. an Egyptian television reporter covering the World Cup tournament in Doha, Qatar was assaulted by an angry mob and forced to leave the games to avoid being lynched. The mob assaulted him because they mistook him for an Israeli reporter.</blockquote>

German media exposed expressed Arab racism, (masked under supposed worry for "Palestinians"), backed by the gangs of "Qatari dynasty want to use to secure their power."<ref>Martin Krauss, [https://taz.de/Orchestrierte-Israel-Feindschaft/!5897026 German media: Orchestrated hostility toward Israel: Morocco is not in Palestine], Taz, 2022-12-10.<blockquote>
You just have to like World Cup outsiders Morocco – don't you? Adding an anti-Semitic touch to the joy makes things difficult.

Palestine plays along: Morocco's team after reaching the quarter-finals

How could we not be happy that Morocco has one of the eight best football teams in the world ! Finally a team that doesn't come from Europe or South America! In addition - and now follows an interpretation that is surprisingly seldom read at present - a North African team that has gradually chased one colonial power after the other off the football field: Belgium in the preliminary round, Spain in the round of 16; now another nation is waiting with Portugal, which owes its wealth largely to its colonial past. Next, France and the Netherlands could be decolonized in terms of football.

Instead of this, I think, obvious interpretation, the Moroccan success is overlaid with a lot of Palestine symbolism. The Moroccan team held up a Palestine flag after defeating Spain. Tunisian fans did something similar in the preliminary round. And some Qataris are now wearing a "pro-Palestine" armband in response to the Europeans' "One Love" armband, which they see as an impertinence.

At first, that seems childishly defiant: ugh, we have our protest too! From a political point of view, however, the Palestinian-Israeli conflict is used here to assert an alleged Arab unity. As if fans from Maghreb countries were in the same boat as the Qatari ruling families! In order to prevent protests, which could not least come from Palestinian migrant workers in Qatar, ruling families from the emirate and other regimes are building a bugbear called "Palestine Solidarity". It is not without reason that Qatar has been financially supporting the terror that the Islamist Hamas is waging against Israel for years.

There is a historical precedent for the transparent pro-Palestine propaganda that so characterizes the World Cup. In 1963, a counter-Olympics were held in Jakarta. Ganefo called it "Games of the New Emerging Forces". What was supposed to look like a sympathetic rebellion from the then so-called Third World countries was the project of the Indonesian President Sukarno. It was explicitly directed against Israel's participation in world sport.

Anti-racism is still necessary, it can be expressed, for example, in joy at Moroccan soccer successes. But giving that joy an anti-Semitic touch is the twist that gangs like the Qatari dynasty want to use to secure their power.</blockquote></ref>

'''Encouraging Jihadi massacres'''

On the racist-Arab Islamic-fascistic butcher's [[2023 Sabbath Jerusalem Synagogue Massacre]], Al-Jazeera presenters, Journalists In Qatari Press, Qatar-Backed Muslim Clerics: Terrorist Attack: "'brave act' of 'legitimate resistance [sic],' its perpetrator is a 'hero.'"<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/al-jazeera-presenters-journalists-qatari-press-qatar-backed-muslim-clerics-terrorist-attack Al-Jazeera Presenters, Journalists In Qatari Press, Qatar-Backed Muslim Clerics: Terrorist Attack Near Jerusalem Synagogue Was 'Brave Act' Of 'Legitimate Resistance,' Its Perpetrator Is A 'Hero'] ''Memri'', February 1, 2023.</ref>

'''Lobbying US'''

Feb 2024 report: Hamas patron Qatar has been lobbying the U.S. Government, given over $5,600,000,000 to US universities since 2007.<ref>Adam Kredo, [https://freebeacon.com/national-security/hamas-patron-qatar-has-spent-6-billion-lobbying-the-u-s-government-and-funding-universities/ Hamas Patron Qatar Has Spent $6 Billion Lobbying the U.S. Government and Funding Universities] ''Washington Free Beacon'', Feb 9, 2024.<blockquote>
Qatar, the oil-rich Middle Eastern nation that provides shelter and cash to the Hamas terror group’s top leaders, has spent nearly $6 billion since 2007 lobbying the American government and funneling cash to the United States’ top universities, funding that is generating scrutiny in Congress.
With Qatar emerging as a central mediator in the United States’ attempts to reach a hostage deal between Israel and Hamas, Doha’s decades-long influence peddling operation in America is raising concerns about the country’s ties to the Iran-backed terror group.
Qatar has given or contracted more than $5.6 billion to 61 American schools since 2007, including Ivy Leagues such as Harvard University, Yale University, Cornell University, and Stanford University, according to funding records reviewed by the Washington Free Beacon. The country has also doled out more than $243 million on lobbying efforts in the United States since 2015, with more than $16 million spent in 2023 alone.
The money, experts and lawmakers say, has enabled Qatar to have outsized influence in American politics and academia, efforts they say have mainstreamed anti-Israel propaganda and silenced criticism about Doha’s longstanding ties to Hamas, the Iranian regime, and other terror groups. Hamas’s “three top leaders alone are worth a staggering total of $11 billion and enjoy a life of luxury in the sanctuary of the emirate of Qatar,” according to the New York Post.
The vast funding operation has generated congressional interest in the past and is fueling calls for an investigation by members of the Republican Study Committee (RSC), Congress’s largest GOP caucus, according to lawmakers and senior GOP aides who spoke to the Free Beacon. The RSC, one senior staffer said, is currently pressuring the relevant House oversight committees to investigate Qatar’s lobbying efforts and funding to schools….
From November 2007 to October 2023, Qatar made 1,116 donations to American universities totaling $5,673,091,815, records show. This has led to accusations that Doha is using its influence with the country’s top schools to mainstream propaganda that portrays Israel in a negative light.
Through the Qatar Foundation, a state-controlled entity tasked with promoting the country’s interests, the nation has prioritized educational initiatives that employ anti-Israel materials, according to watchdog groups…</blockquote></ref>

==People==
[[File:Qatar people.jpg|right|230px]]
Natives of the Arabian Peninsula, many Qataris are descended from a number of migratory tribes that came to Qatar in the 18th century from the neighboring areas of Nejd and Al-Hasa. Some came from neighboring Gulf emirates and others are descended from Persian merchants. Most of Qatar's 907,229 inhabitants live in Doha, the capital. Foreigners with temporary residence status make up about three-fourths of the population. Foreign workers comprise 52% of the total population and make up about 89% of the total labor force. Most are South and Southeast Asians, Egyptians, "Palestinians", Jordanians, and Iranians. About 8,000 U.S. citizens reside in Qatar.

Ethnic groups: Arab 40%, Pakistani 18%, Indian 18%, Iranian 10%, other 14%.

<blockquote>
The various ethnic groups of the country are Arab, Indian, Pakistani, Iranian and so on. Arabic is the official language of Qatar. However, English and Urdu are also spoken widely in various corners of the country.<ref>http://www.mapsofworld.com/country-profile/qatar-economy-people-culture-and-flag.html</ref>
</blockquote>

For centuries, the main sources of wealth were pearling, fishing, and trade. At one time, Qataris owned nearly one-third of the Persian Gulf fishing fleet. With the [[Great Depression]] and the introduction of [[Japan]]'s cultured-pearl industry, pearling in Qatar declined drastically.

The Qataris are mainly Sunni Muslims. [[Salafi]] Islam is the official religion, and Islamic jurisprudence is the basis of Qatar's legal system, although civil courts have jurisdiction over commercial law. Education is compulsory and free for all Arab residents 6–16 years old. Qatar has an increasingly high literacy rate. 85% of the people are educated.

==Government and Political Conditions==
{{See also|Muslim agenda of the Obama administration}}
[[File:Doha Palace in Qatar.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Doha Palace.]]
The ruling Al Thani family continued to hold power following the declaration of independence in 1971. The head of state is the Amir, and the right to rule Qatar is passed on within the Al Thani family. Politically, Qatar is evolving from a traditional society to one based on more formal and democratic institutions to meet the requirements of social and economic progress. The country's constitution formalizes the hereditary rule of the Al Thani family, but it also establishes an elected legislative body and makes government ministers accountable to the legislature. In current practice, the Amir's role is influenced by continuing traditions of consultation, rule by consensus, and the citizen's right to appeal personally to the Amir. The Amir, while directly accountable to no one, cannot violate the Shari'a (Islamic law) and, in practice, must consider the opinions of leading families and the religious establishment.

The opinions of the people are institutionalized in the Advisory Council, an appointed body that assists the Amir in formulating policy. However, it is possible that the first elections for this body will occured in 2008. Elections in 1999, in which both men and women participated, resulted in the formation of a municipal council. One woman candidate was elected to the municipal council in 2003.<ref>http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=142359</ref> Municipal elections were held for the third time in April 2007.

There has been no serious challenge to Al Thani rule. As the most visible sign of the move toward openness, the Al Jazeera satellite television station based in Qatar is considered the most free and unfettered broadcast source in the Arab world. In practice, however, Al Jazeera rarely criticizes the ruling Al Thani family.

Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani, one of the richest man in the world, is the ruling Emir of the State of Qatar since 1995. He rose to that position on June 26, 1995, after deposing his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani who was on vacation in Switzerland at the time.<ref>http://www.nationmaster.com/country/qa-qatar/dem-democracy</ref>

At present there is not direct election in the electoral system. Since 1992, Sheikh Hamad has selected Qatar's cabinet as in an absolute monarchy.
[[File:Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani with Obamas.jpg|thumb|300px|Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani and wife with Obamas.]]
In April 2011, ''[[USAToday]]'' quoted Obama:
{{quotebox-float|President Obama met with the emir of Qatar, praising his help in Libya and his leadership "when it comes to democracy in the Middle East."

That night, Obama provided political donors in Chicago with a somewhat different view of the emir and Qatar.

"Pretty influential guy," Obama said of Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, noting that he basically owns the Al Jazeera television network. "He is a big booster, big promoter of democracy all throughout the Middle East. Reform, reform, reform -- you're seeing it on Al Jazeera."

But Obama: "Now, he himself is not reforming significantly. There's no big move towards democracy in Qatar.<ref>[http://content.usatoday.com/communities/theoval/post/2011/04/obama-no-big-move-toward-democracy-in-qatar/1 ''Obama: "No big move toward democracy in Qatar"''].</ref>}}
Days later an editorial in the Doha daily newspaper ''The Peninsula'' responded:
{{quotebox-float|"Mr. President, we have often written about U.S. foreign policy having double standards and being unmindful of the process of change in the Middle East. We do not want U.S. to export democracy to us because we do not want to repeat the Iraq experience."<ref>https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2011/04/19/Editorial-Qatar-passes-on-US-democracy/UPI-80331303219157/#ixzz1KXWgdFv3</ref>}}
===Principal Government Officials===
*Amir, Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, and Minister of Defense—HH Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani
*Heir Apparent, Deputy Chief of the Armed Forces—HH Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani
*Prime Minister—Abdullah bin Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani
*Minister of Energy and Industry and Deputy Prime Minister—Abdullah al-Attiyah
*Ambassador to the U.S.--vacant

==Foreign Relations==
[[File:White-House-Qatar-Muslim-Brotherhood.jpg|right|300px|thumb|]]
Qatar achieved full independence in an atmosphere of cooperation with the U.K. and friendship with neighboring states. Most Arab states, the U.K., and the U.S. were among the first countries to recognize Qatar, and the state promptly gained admittance to the United Nations and the Arab League. Qatar established diplomatic relations with the U.S.S.R. and China in 1988. It was an early member of [[OPEC]] and a founding member of the GCC.

In September 1992, tensions arose with Saudi Arabia when Saudi forces allegedly attacked a Qatari border post, resulting in two deaths. Relations have since improved, and a joint commission has been set up to demarcate the border as agreed between the two governments. Most, but not all, of the border issues have been resolved.

For years, both Qatar and Bahrain claimed ownership of the Hawar Islands. The case was eventually referred to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague. The ICJ issued a ruling in June 2001, which both sides accepted. In the agreement Bahrain kept the main Hawar Island but dropped claims to parts of mainland Qatar, while Qatar retained significant maritime areas and their resources.

Qatar is aligned in ideological purpose with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] – the political umbrella organization of authentic Islam (Taliban, al-Qaeda, ISIS, etc). The Qatari government previously assisted the U.S. State Department with covert weapons distribution during the Obama/Clinton era.<ref>https://shoebat.com/2014/08/01/turkey-qatar-state-sponsors-terrorism/</ref><ref>On July 25, 2012 a US Chinook helicopter was shot down by the Taliban in Afghanistan by the latest generation of the Stinger available for export. A serial number from the missile casing was recovered, tracing the Stinger's origin to a lot entrusted to the [[CIA]] which was delivered to Qatar. Under Obama's covert action finding the Stinger was intended for Libya and Syrian jihadis. Hillary Clinton's State Dept. and [[John Brennan]]'s CIA jointly ran the covert weapons supply program, http://nypost.com/2014/06/08/how-the-taliban-got-their-hands-on-modern-us-missiles/ leaving the Pentagon and Gen.[[Michael Flynn]]'s [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] out of the loop.</ref> Qatar is aligned with the geopolitical interests of the [[Peoples Republic of China]] including the [[Belt and Road Initiative]] for broad global communist Chinese influence. Qatar, is ideologically aligned with extremist Islam and naturally aligned with Turkey and Pakistan. Qatar was the host to many [[Gitmo]] detainees that were removed from U.S. custody.<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/qatars-prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9s-%E2%80%93-hamas-officials-muslim-brotherhood-al-jazeera-reporters-%E2%80%93-praise-talibans Qatar's Protégés – Hamas Officials, Muslim Brotherhood, Al-Jazeera Reporters – Praise Taliban's 'Jihad' And 'Victory'; Journalists, Liberals In Response: They Should Move To Kabul], ''Memri'', August 19, 2021</ref> Qatar is where the leadership of the Taliban came from, when they returned to Afghanistan in 2021 to take control of advanced weapon technology abandoned by U.S. [[Democrat]] socialist leader [[Joe Biden]].<ref>https://pjmedia.com/news-and-politics/victoria-taft/2021/08/18/left-behind-billions-in-u-s-equipment-for-the-afghanistan-taliban-to-use-against-us-n1470346</ref>

===Libyan and Syrian wars and the Islamic State===
{{See also|Arab Spring|Obama war crimes}}
[[Hillary Clinton email scandal|Hillary Clinton's emails]] boast of [[Hillary Clinton]] engaging with [[UAE]], Qatar, and [[Jordan]] between March 18–30, 2011 to seek their participation in coalition operations. Over the course of several days, all three devote aircraft to the mission.

After [[Muammar Gaddafi]] shut down Libya's Internet system in early March,<ref>http://goodtimesweb.org/surveillance/wsj-libya-spies-firms-aug-30-2011.html</ref> Qatar had given the rebel jihadis access to its satellites.<ref>https://consortiumnews.com/2011/10/28/sen-mccains-libyan-two-step/</ref>

A week after Gaddafi's murder, Qatar took credit for sending hundreds of troops into Libya to provide training, communications and strategy. Qatar "acted as the link between the rebels and [[Nato]] forces." ''Guardian'' adds,<ref>
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/26/qatar-troops-libya-rebels-support</ref>
{{Quotebox|Some, however, express concern at the emirate's support for [[Islamist]] elements such as the 17 February Martyrs Brigade, one of the most influential rebel formations, led by Abdel-Hakim Belhaj.}}

On December 6, 2012 the ''New York Times'' confirmed
{{Quotebox|"Qataris provided weapons, money and training to various rebel groups in Libya [destined for Syria]. One militia that received aid was controlled by [Abdelhakim Belhadj], then leader of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, who was held by the C.I.A. in 2004..."<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/06/world/africa/weapons-sent-to-libyan-rebels-with-us-approval-fell-into-islamist-hands.html</ref>}}

On January 3, 2013 an arms flight was reported from Qatar to Istanbul destined for [[Islamic State]] rebels.

On May 16 the ''Financial Times'' reported Qatar had spent $3 billion over the past two years bankrolling the jihadi rebels in Syria.

===Aid to the Islamic State and the Benghazi massacre===
{{See also|Benghazi massacre}}
[[File:NYT - Arms Pipeline to the Syrian Rebels.png|right|300px|thumb|CIA pipeline of arms from Qatar to groups in Turkey which became the Islamic State.<ref>https://fair.org/home/down-the-memory-hole-nyt-erases-cias-efforts-to-overthrow-syrias-government/</ref> ''Illustration: New York Times'']]
In early 2012, President [[Barack Obama]] signed a Presidential Finding authorizing transfer of captured weapons from [[Libya]] to groups that became the Islamic State.<ref>Mark Hosenball, [https://web.archive.org/web/20170216061621/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/01/obama-secret-syria-order_n_1730712.html?tw_p=twt Obama Secret Syria Order Authorizes Support For Rebels], ''Reuters'' via ''HuffPost'',
08/01/2012</ref> ''[[Reuters]]'' reported
{{Quotebox-float|under provisions of the presidential finding, the United States was collaborating with a secret command center operated by Turkey and its allies. 

Last week, Reuters reported that, along with Saudi Arabia and Qatar, Turkey had '''established a secret base near the Syrian border to help direct vital military and communications support to Assad’s opponents.

This “nerve center” is in Adana, a city in southern Turkey about 60 miles (100 km) from the Syrian border, which is also home to Incirlik, a U.S. air base where U.S. military and intelligence agencies maintain a substantial presence.''' 

Turkey’s moderate Islamist government has been demanding Assad’s departure with growing vehemence. Turkish authorities are said by current and former U.S. government officials to be increasingly involved in providing Syrian rebels with training and possibly equipment. 

European government sources said wealthy families in Saudi Arabia and Qatar were providing significant financing to the rebels. Senior officials of the Saudi and Qatari governments have publicly called for Assad’s departure.<ref>''[[The Guardian]]'' reported,
{{Quotebox-float|these were not average members of the Free Syrian Army. Abu Khuder and his men fight for [[al-Qaida]]. They call themselves the ghuraba’a, or “strangers”, after a famous jihadi poem celebrating Osama bin Laden’s time with his followers in the Afghan mountains, and they are one of a number of jihadi organisations establishing a foothold in the east of the country now that the conflict in Syria has stretched well into its second bloody year. 

They try to hide their presence. “Some people are worried about carrying the [black] flags” ... 

...[they] are working closely with the military council that commands the Free Syrian Army brigades in the region. “We meet almost every day,” he said. “We have clear instructions from our [al-Qaida] leadership that if the FSA need our help we should give it. We help them with IEDs and car bombs. Our main talent is in the bombing operations” ... 

“The FSA lacks the ability to plan and lacks military experience. That is what [al-Qaida] can bring. ... 

“In the beginning there were very few. Now, mashallah, there are immigrants joining us and bringing their experience,” he told the gathered people. “Men from [[Yemen]], Saudi, Iraq and Jordan... 

“[Al-Qaida’s] goal is establishing an Islamic state and not a Syrian state,” he replied. “Those who fear the organisation fear the implementation of Allah’s jurisdiction... https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/30/al-qaida-rebels-battle-syria}}</ref>}}
Amb. [[Christopher Stevens]] was put in charge of the covert operation.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/06/world/africa/weapons-sent-to-libyan-rebels-with-us-approval-fell-into-islamist-hands.html</ref> The aim was to arm jihadist groups which then transformed themselves into the [[Islamic State of Iraq and Syria]] with the goal of overthrowing [[Bashar al Assad]].<ref>
https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/world/middleeast/arms-airlift-to-syrian-rebels-expands-with-cia-aid.html</ref>

The ''[[New York Times]]'' reported [[David Petraeus]] had been instrumental in helping to get an aviation network moving to supply ISIS rebels and prodded various countries to work together on it. Three Royal Jordanian Air Force [[C-130]]s landed in Esenboga, Turkey in a hint at what would become a stepped-up Jordanian and Saudi role.<ref>“Within three weeks, two other Jordanian cargo planes began making a round-trip run between Amman, the capital of Jordan, and [[Zagreb]], the capital of [[Croatia]], where, officials from several countries said, the aircraft were picking up a large Saudi purchase of infantry arms from a Croatian-controlled stockpile." Two Jordanian Ilyushins bearing the logo of the Jordanian International Air Cargo firm but flying under Jordanian military call signs made a combined 36 round-trip flights between [[Amman]] and Croatia from December 2012 through February 2013. The same two planes made five flights between Amman and Turkey in January 2013.</ref> "As the Jordanian flights were under way, the Qatari flights continued and the Royal Saudi Air Force began a busy schedule, too — making at least 30 C-130 flights into Esenboga from mid-February 2013 to early March 2013, according to flight data provided by a regional air traffic control official.” American officials have confirmed that senior [[White House]] officials were regularly briefed on the shipments.”<ref>https://archive.is/RQHyy</ref>

[[Edward Snowden]] leaked details of a program that trained approximately 10,000 jihadi fighters at a cost of $1 billion a year.<ref>http://fair.org/home/down-the-memory-hole-nyt-erases-cias-efforts-to-overthrow-syrias-government/</ref>

===2021 Gaza War===
{{See also|Guardian of Walls}}
The building demolished by the [[Israeli Defense Forces]] housed anti-Israel [[Al Jazeera]] which is owned by Qatar, a supporter of Hamas.<ref>Spencer S. Hsu: "Lawsuits by U.S. victims accuse top Qatar banks and charity of financing terrorism in Israel." Washington Post, Dec. 15, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/lawsuits-by-us-victims-accuse-top-qatar-banks-and-charity-of-financing-terrorism-in-israel/2020/12/15/4ebea7fe-244a-11eb-a688-5298ad5d580a_story.html</ref>

After the ceasefire in May/2021, Al Jazeera was applauded in Gaza rally.<ref>[https://www.breitbart.com/the-media/2021/05/24/watch-gazans-applaud-al-jazeera-correspondent-during-hamas-victory-celebrations/ WATCH: Gazans Applaud Al-Jazeera Correspondent During Hamas ‘Victory’ Celebrations] Joshua Klein, May 24, 2021</ref>

===2023 Gaza jihad war===
Weeks after the [[Shield and arrow]] op. , ''against the backdrop of the latest round of fighting between Israel and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) in Gaza, Palestinian journalist Samir Al-Barghouti, a columnist for the Qatari daily Al-Watan, called on the Palestinians of all factions to carry out terror attacks throughout Israel, from the north to the south, in order to inflict blows on the Israelis and terrify them.''<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/article-qatari-daily-incites-palestinians-carry-out-terror-attacks-throughout-israel Article In Qatari Daily Incites Palestinians To Carry Out Terror Attacks Throughout Israel], ''Memri'', May 22, 2023.<blockquote>
Against the backdrop of the latest round of fighting between Israel and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) in Gaza, Palestinian journalist Samir Al-Barghouti, a columnist for the Qatari daily Al-Watan, called on the Palestinians of all factions to carry out terror attacks throughout Israel, from the north to the south, in order to inflict blows on the Israelis and terrify them. He also urged the Arab countries to open up the fronts against Israel and expel the Israeli ambassadors from their territory, lest it become too late for them to repent. "The historical and religious promise regarding Palestine will soon be realized," he stated, and therefore it is necessary to keep up the attacks on Israel.

It should be noted that Al-Barghouti often calls for armed struggle against Israel. In fact, only two months ago he published a similar article inciting to besiege, pursue and attack the Israelis in Tel Aviv and in every part of Palestine, from the river to the sea.</blockquote></ref>

===2023: Al Jazeera inciting, in service of Qatar, Hamas, MB===
In July 2023, the [[Palestinian Authority]] claimed that Al Jazeera is inciting Arabs against them "in service of Qatar, Hamas, [[Muslim Brotherhood]]."<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/palestinian-authority-al-jazeera-incites-against-us-service-qatar-hamas-muslim-brotherhood Palestinian Authority: Al-Jazeera Incites Against Us In Service Of Qatar, Hamas, Muslim Brotherhood; We Will Consider Taking Legal Measures Against It; Al-Jazeera In Response: Our Coverage Is Balanced And Professional], ''Memri'', July 11, 2023</ref>

===Swords of Iron===
Report raises questions about Qatar’s knowledge of Oct. 7 atrocities.
{{Cquote|Western intelligence officials interviewed by Politico in recent weeks say that Qatar, a longtime patron of Hamas in Gaza, may have had prior knowledge of the Oct. 7 attack on Israel.

“We’re still looking into it,” a top intelligence official from a major European country told the U.S. news site when asked if Doha had advanced information about the mass assault. The source, who spoke on the condition of anonymity given the sensitivity of the issue, added that there was “smoke,” but no smoking gun.
<ref>[https://www.jns.org/report-raises-questions-about-qatars-knowledge-of-oct-7-attack/ Report raises questions about Qatar’s knowledge of Oct. 7 attack.
Doha had a lot to gain from the Hamas assault on southern Israel, Western intelligence officers say], ''JNS'', Jan 11, 2024.</ref>}}

===Taliban takeover August-2021===
{{See also|Fall of Kabul}}
In August 2021, Qatar's managed Al-Jazeera celebrated the [[Taliban]] take over as a fanatical-religious win for the entire Islamic nation. The Ummah.<ref>[https://www.memri.org/reports/al-jazeera-reporters-celebrate-taliban-victory-us-defeat-historic-triumph-islamic-ummah Al-Jazeera Reporters Celebrate 'Taliban Victory', 'U.S. Defeat' As Historic Triumph For Islamic Ummah], Memri, August 18, 2021.
<blockquote>
Qatar | Special Dispatch No. 9503
The U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan and the Taliban's takeover of the country sparked many reactions worldwide, including in the Arab world. Conspicuous among these reactions were expressions of joy by Islamist organizations such as Hamas, the Palestinian Islamic Jihad,the International Union of Muslim Scholars and various elements identified with the Muslim Brotherhood.</blockquote></ref> It joined other Islamic infamous group such as Islamist organizations such as [[Hamas]], the [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]]. As Qatar is aligned in ideological purpose with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]].

Unsurprisingly, Al-Jazeera channel received from Taliban exclusive access to the presidential palace in Kabul.<ref>roi kais (@kaisos1987) Tweeted:
The Qatari Al-Jazeera channel receives from Taliban exclusive access to the presidential palace in Kabul. No need to be surprised https://t.co/h53JupS8OP [https://twitter.com/kaisos1987/status/1426974071145877507?s=20 Aug 15, 2021]</ref>

In fact, ond of the big gainers at [[Taliban]]'s rise is the "tiny Qatar", capable of disproportionate intervention in their affairs not hers.<ref>Ilan Zalayat @ilanzalayat Tweeted:<blockquote>
While everyone is talking about the effects of the turbulent upheaval in Afghanistan on neighbors like China or Iran, it is becoming clear that one of the big gainers is actually the tiny Qatar capable of disproportionate intervention in their affairs not hers.</blockquote>
[https://mobile.twitter.com/ilanzalayat/status/1428345434016256003 Aug 19, 2021]</ref>

The French magazine Charlie Hebdo publicized a cartoon exposing Qatar's hypocrisy: On the one hand, there is the transfer of Messi to Paris Saint-Germain
And on the other hand host and fund the Taliban. <ref>For Qatar lovers and interested people,
French 'Charlie Hebdo'
On the hypocrisy and Qatari bipolarity
On the one hand, there is the transfer of Messi to Paris Saint-Germain
And on the other hand it hosts and funds the Taliban.
[https://twitter.com/oritperlov/status/1429773962871984130 Aug 23, 2021] (It reads "It's worse than what we thought")</ref>

Immediately after the Kabul airport suicide bombing killing 170, and the withdrawal of American troops, the Taliban requested assistance from Qatar to run the airport.<ref>[https://theconservativetreehouse.com/blog/2021/08/27/taliban-ask-qatar-for-technical-assistance-running-kabul-airport/ Taliban Ask Qatar For Technical Assistance Running Kabul Airport], Conservative Tree House, Aug 27, 2021.</ref>

===CCP United Front Work Department===
{{See also|United Front Work Department}}
The [[Brookings Institution]] Doha Center, the [[think tank]]’s hub in Qatar, signed a memorandum of understanding with the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences in January 2018. The partnership piqued the FBI's interest about potential [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) espionage activities at the think tank, which employed nearly two dozen [[foreign policy]] advisers to the [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign]].<ref>https://freebeacon.com/national-security/brookings-institution-partnered-with-shanghai-policy-center-under-scrutiny-for-spying/amp/</ref>

===Clinton Foundation===
The [[Clinton Foundation]] accepted multimillion-dollar donations from Saudi Arabia and Qatar, two Gulf Arab states that also financed the Islamic State.<ref>"[http://www.frontpagemag.com/fpm/264493/saudi-arabia-and-qatar-bankroll-isis-%E2%80%94-and-clinton-joseph-klein Saudi Arabia and Qatar bankroll ISIS -- and the Clinton Foundation]," ''Frontpage Mag''.</ref>
===Marc Bennett===
The 'Jamal Khashoggi vs. Marc Bennett' exposed iberal hypocrisy, criminal Qatar / Islamist supremacy on non-Muslims.

While Khashoggi passion play coincides with information about Qatar’s murder of Marc Bennett, a British citizen who was brutally tortured without a word of protest from the West.<ref>Daniel Greenfield, [https://www.frontpagemag.com/jamal-khashoggi-vs-marc-bennett-whose-life-matters/ Jamal Khashoggi vs. Marc Bennett: Whose Life Matters?], FPM, Oct 5, 2022 .<blockquote>

One British man’s death in Qatar reveals the dirty truth about the traitors within.

In an annual propaganda ritual, the heads of foreign governments and media operatives marked the anniversary of Jamal Khashoggi’s death by tweeting condemnations of the killing of the old friend of Osama bin Laden who had been recruited by an Al Qaeda financier to promote Jihad.

It is a testament to the unchallenged power of the Islamic tyranny of Qatar that everyone in Washington D.C. unquestioningly takes a knee and pays tribute to its martyred operative.

“Jamal Khashoggi’s murder 4 years ago was also an attack on freedom of expression everywhere,” Secretary of State Blinken tweeted. There’s no such thing as “freedom of expression” among Khashoggi’s Qatari employees. Khashoggi was not fighting for any kind of freedom, but for an Islamist tyranny of the kind practiced by Qatar’s fellow Islamists in Iran. Had he gotten his way, liberals in Saudi Arabia would be the ones being brutally murdered.
As they are in Iran.

Western elites have spent far less time expressing outrage about the torture and mass murder by Iran’s Islamic regime of thousands of dissidents and protesters than they have over the death of an Islamist whose death equally outraged Al Qaeda and ISIS as it did Washington D.C.

The Washington Post was much less exercised about one of its own reporters, Jason Rezaian, being held hostage in Iran for over a year than over Jamal Khashoggi, a foreign operative running press releases from the Qatari Foundation in its digital pages at the behest of Qatar.

This year the annual Khashoggi passion play coincides with information about Qatar’s murder of Marc Bennett, a British citizen who was brutally tortured without a word of protest from the West.

If Blinken has expressed a word of concern about Bennett’s killing by Khashoggi’s backers, I have yet to find it. The British government closed the case and has shown no interest. The Washington Post has never allowed Bennett’s name to appear in its pages. That might offend its Qatari masters. Despite having been killed a year after Khashoggi, there is still virtually no mention of Bennett by the politicians, influencers and media operatives who claim that they only care about the Qatari terrorist agenda because they are so deeply moved by human rights.

Unlike Khashoggi’s death, Bennett’s death was not political. He was just one of the many foreign workers whom Qatar’s slave masters considered their personal property. When Bennett tried to leave Qatar Airlines, he was treated like any of the other foreign workers, mostly Indian, Asian and African, who are routinely beaten, tortured and worked to death in the Islamic tyranny.
The only difference between the thousands of foreign workers who have died to erect the glittering towers of Doha, who prepare for the World Cup, and who attend to the needs of the slave masters of Qatar, is that Bennett was a westerner. But to the Islamic slave masters of Qatar and others in the region, all non-Arabs and non-Muslims are inferior subhuman slaves.

According to the most recent report in The London Times, “Bennett had been taken blindfolded and handcuffed to a state security detention centre. Bennett later described how he was stripped naked, blasted with high-pressure hoses, slammed against walls.”

His alleged crime was trying to leave Qatar Airways which, like most of the major organizations, including Al Jazeera, is controlled by Qatar’s ruling family. According to the Qataris, Bennett later “committed suicide” in a hotel room in Doha on Christmas Day. The timing must have amused his Islamist killers. According to his wife, his clothes had been laid in his hotel room as if he were preparing to go out and the circumstances of the crime scene don’t comport with those of a suicide. British investigators noted, “no specific evidence of suicidal intent”.

The British government has issued multiple statements about Khashoggi’s death even though the Bin Laden pal was never a British citizen or related to the UK in any meaningful way. It has shrugged at Bennett’s death and then gotten on with the business of asking Qatar for cash.
The BBC has one mention of Bennett. It has hundreds of results for Khashoggi.
Last year, the British government declared that it continues to raise the “terrible crime” of Khashoggi’s death with Saudi Arabia. No such efforts have been made to raise the death of Marc Bennett, a Briton who was not an associate of Islamic terrorists or an enemy agent.

The relative silence over Bennett’s death and the hysterical fury over Khashoggi’s demise reveal more than a double standard, but the deep level of political control Qatar wields over the West.

Westerners don’t need to be physically within the boundaries of Qatar, for the Islamic terror state to have almost as much control over their lives as it did over that of Marc Bennett.

The oil-glutted Islamic terrorist state has not only escaped the consequences for its crimes, but it sets the political agenda for Washington D.C. and much of the western world. Between Al Jazeera, which sets the media’s agenda for the region, and Brookings, the powerful Democrat think tank whose associates fill the ranks of the Biden administration, Qatar rules over us.
The Muslim Brotherhood, which Qatar backs, continues to enjoy safe harbor in America. Its various affiliates have not only been immunized from prosecution, but have been deeply embedded in our government, our political system and our culture. To understand not only our failure to stop Islamic terrorism after 9/11, but the disastrous surrender to the Taliban, overseen by Qatar, which played godfather to the Taliban talks, you have to recognize its influence.

Khashoggi’s omnipresence in our culture and Bennett’s nonexistence is a testimony of the far darker truths about how our governments have sold us out to be killed by Islamic terrorists and their state sponsors while blasting us with propaganda that turns the terrorists into victims.
“We were hoping to establish an Islamic state anywhere,” Khashoggi reminisced about his time together with Osama bin Laden in the Muslim Brotherhood. “We believed that the first one would lead to another, and that would have a domino effect which could reverse the history of mankind.”

You can find that Islamic state in Washington D.C. now where everyone from Tim Kaine to Mitt Romney pushes Khashoggi propaganda. Lindsay Graham tried to hold up a bill for Osama bin Laden’s old pal. Bernie Sanders attacked Biden for not holding gas prices in this country hostage to the Qatari agent. While our political class may differ on so many issues, when it comes to what Qatar wants, they are all in agreement. And they are all betraying us.
Khashoggi’s death was indeed revealing. And what it revealed is that our countries are rotten with politicians and media outlets who willingly serve as the tools of an Islamic terrorist state.
That is why they won’t talk about Bennett’s death.

During the Cold War, when a Communist ran into trouble anywhere, human rights organizations, journalists and politicians would rush to his defense in the name of humanity. But when countless people were tortured, starved and killed in Communist prisons, they were silent.
What was true of the USSR is still true of China and of Qatar.
Every time you hear about Jamal Khashoggi, you are seeing Qatar’s influence at work and you are witnessing traitors out themselves. Listen carefully. And remember Bennett’s Qatar,

Khashoggi was an agent of the foreign Islamist powers that rule over us. Bennett is us.</blockquote></ref><blockquote>Unlike Khashoggi’s death, Bennett’s death was not political. He was just one of the many foreign workers whom Qatar’s slave masters considered their personal property. When Bennett tried to leave Qatar Airlines, he was treated like any of the other foreign workers, mostly Indian, Asian and African, who are routinely beaten, tortured and worked to death in the Islamic tyranny.
The only difference between the thousands of foreign workers who have died to erect the glittering towers of Doha, who prepare for the World Cup, and who attend to the needs of the slave masters of Qatar, is that Bennett was a westerner. But to the Islamic slave masters of Qatar and others in the region, all non-Arabs and non-Muslims are inferior subhuman slaves.
</blockquote>

===Training [[Hamas]] terrorists===
In 2024, Qatar’s regime became under fire for training Hamas terrorists: 'Qatar is Hamas and Hamas is Qatar'.Qatar – which is known for supporting Hamas, financing its military activity and sheltering its leaders, and for extending media support to Hamas by means of its Al-Jazeera channel – also trained, in its Police College in Al-Rayyan, officers from Hamas' Interior and National Security Ministry, which is part of Hamas' governing authorities in the Gaza Strip Given the sensitivity, especially regarding the hostages, neither the IDF nor the Foreign Ministry were willing to comment.

Qatar has lashed out at American Jews and Congressional representatives who demonstrated in front of their Washington embassy calling for Doha to pressure Hamas to release the hostages.<ref>Benjamin Weinthal, [https://www.jpost.com/israel-hamas-war/article-788543 Qatar’s regime under fire for training Hamas terrorists: 'Qatar is Hamas and Hamas is Qatar'], ''JPost'', February 23, 2024</ref>

==Apartheid and racism==

Arab [[Apartheid]], such as anti Asian racism, is rampant in Qatar.<ref>[https://amp.theguardian.com/cities/2018/oct/09/the-qatari-mall-without-qataris-you-cant-ignore-the-racial-undertones-doha Asian Town, Qatar's mall for migrants: 'You can't ignore the racial undertones'], Pete Pattisson and Naveen Nair in Doha, The Guardian, Oct 9, 2018. 
The new Asian Town mall was designed to cater to Qatar’s roughly 2 million migrant workers – but critics say it is simply a way to segregate them... The Gulf countries take deliberate measures to dissuade migrants bringing their families with them, and then justify the ghettos and zoning regulations under the pretext of security,” Saraswathi said. “Time and again, Asian male migrants are kept away because they are ‘bachelors’, while the same wouldn’t apply to western or Arab single men. One can’t ignore the racial undertones.”</ref> And Qatar can't explain the thousands of deaths in a decade.<ref>Pete Pattisson, "[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/aug/26/qatar-has-failed-to-explain-up-to-70-of-migrant-worker-deaths-in-past-10-years-amnesty Qatar has failed to explain up to 70% of migrant worker deaths in past 10 years – Amnesty]," The Guardian , Aug 26, 2021.
<blockquote>
World Cup host has not properly investigated fatalities, rights group says, citing concerns over heat stress and safety

World Cup host Qatar has failed to investigate the deaths of thousands of migrant workers in the past decade, according to a new report by Amnesty International.

The human rights organisation said the majority of migrant worker deaths in Qatar are attributed to “natural causes”, cardiac or respiratory failure; classifications which are “meaningless” without the underlying cause of death explained, according to one expert cited.

As a result, as many as 70% of deaths may be unexplained. “In a well resourced health system, it should be possible to identify the exact cause of death in all but 1% of cases,” the report said.... In February the Guardian revealed that more than 6,500 migrant workers from south Asia had died in Qatar in the past decade...
In February the Guardian revealed that more than 6,500 migrant workers from south Asia had died in Qatar in the past decade.</blockquote></ref>
==Bigotry==
In a classic example. When in Jan 2020, in a historic visit by the Secretary General of the Islamic World League, Dr. Muhammad al-Issa, to the Auschwitz extermination camp in Poland, led by a delegation of 25 senior Muslim clerics, a few days before International Holocaust Remembrance Day - it had support for it in Saudi Arabia, but it was condemned in Qatar.<ref>[http://www.memri.org.il/cgi-webaxy/item?5172 Historic visit of the head of the Islamic World League to the Auschwitz camp - support for in Saudi Arabia, condemnations in Qatar], Memri, 3/2/2020.<blockquote>
On January 23, the visit of the Secretary General of the Islamic World League, Dr. Muhammad al-Issa, to the Auschwitz extermination camp in Poland, led by a delegation of 25 senior Muslim clerics, a few days before International Holocaust Remembrance Day, was a historic precedent for his first visit. A senior Muslim delegation in an extermination camp commemorating the Holocaust of the Jews of Europe. Thus, and following al-Issa's statements during the visit in condemnation of the Holocaust, the visit provoked many different reactions in the Arab and Islamic world...</blockquote></ref>

==Military==
Qatar's defense expenditures are estimated to be in the range of 10% of GDP. Qatar maintains a military force of about 12,000 men, including an army, navy, and air force. The country has a public security force of about 8,000 men, including a coast guard, national firefighting force, air wing, marine police, and an internal security force. Qatar also has signed defense pacts with the U.S., U.K., and France. Qatar plays an active role in the collective defense efforts of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC—the regional organization of the Arab states in the Gulf; the other five members are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, the U.A.E., and Oman). Qatari forces played an important role in the first Gulf War, and Qatar has supported U.S. military operations critical to the success of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Al Udeid, one of America's largest Air Force bases, remains a critical asset to operations in both Iraq and Afghanistan.<ref>Michael R. Gordon With Eric Schmitt, [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/28/world/aftereffects-bases-us-will-move-air-operations-to-qatar-base.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 AFTEREFFECTS: BASES; U.S. Will Move Air Operations To Qatar Base], ''The New York Times'',
April 28, 2003</ref> Qatar hosts CENTCOM Forward Headquarters.

==Economy==
Oil formed the cornerstone of Qatar's economy well into the 1990s and still accounts for about 62% of total government revenue. In 1973, oil production and revenues increased sizably, moving Qatar out of the rank of the world's poorest countries and providing it with one of the highest per capita incomes. In 2006, Qatar's per capita income of nearly $62,000 was the fifth-highest in the world.
[[File:Industrial Gas Oil Qatar.jpg|right|300px|thumb|]]
Qatar's economy suffered a downturn from in the mid-1990s. Lower Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) oil production quotas, a fall in oil prices, and the generally unpromising outlook on international markets reduced oil earnings. In turn, the Qatari Government cut spending plans to match lower income. The resulting recessionary local business climate caused many firms to lay off expatriate staff. With the economy recovering in the late 1990s, expatriate populations have grown again.

Oil production is currently around 835,000 barrels a day (bpd), and is expected to reach 1.1 million bpd by 2009. At the current production pace, oil reserves are expected to last more than 40 years. Moreover, Qatar's proven reserves of gas are the third-largest in the world, exceeding 900 trillion cubic feet (14% of the world's total proven gas reserves). Qatar shares with Iran the largest single non-associated gas field in the world, the North Field. Qatar is now the world's largest producer of liquefied natural gas (LNG), with a capacity of more than 31 million metric tons per annum (mmta), and it expects to reach 77.5 mmta of LNG exports by 2010. By 2010, Qatar will account for one-third of the world's LNG supply.

The 1991 completion of the $1.5-billion Phase I of the North Field gas development project strongly boosted the economy. In 1996, Qatar began exporting liquefied natural gas to Japan. Further phases of North Field gas development costing billions of dollars are in various stages of planning and development, and Qatar has concluded agreements with the U.A.E. to export gas via pipelines and to Spain, Turkey, Italy, the U.S., France, South Korea, India, China, Taiwan, and the U.K. via ship. However, the government has halted any further expansion of gas production until 2010, as it assesses its plans for future exploitation of the field.

Qatar's natural gas liquefaction facilities and related industries are located in Ras Laffan Industrial City, site of the world's largest LNG exports of more than 31 million metric tons per year. Qatar's heavy industrial base, located in Messaieed, includes a refinery with a 140,000 bpd capacity, a fertilizer plant for urea and ammonia, a steel plant, and a petrochemical plant, and several new petrochemical plants will be built in the coming years. All these industries use gas for fuel. Most are joint ventures between U.S., European, and Japanese firms and the state-owned Qatar Petroleum (QP). The U.S. is the major equipment supplier for Qatar's oil and gas industry, and U.S. companies are playing a major role in the development of the oil and gas sector and petrochemicals.

The country's economic growth has been stunning. Qatar's nominal GDP, currently around $52.7 billion, has grown an average of 15% over the past five years. GDP is expected to grow approximately 8.3% in 2007. Qatar's per capita GDP is more than $60,000, and projected to soon be the highest in the world. The Qatari Government's strategy is to utilize its wealth to generate more wealth by diversifying the economic base of the country beyond hydrocarbons.

Qatar pursues a vigorous program of "Qatarization," under which all joint venture industries and government departments strive to move Qatari nationals into positions of greater authority. Growing numbers of foreign-educated Qataris, including many educated in the U.S., are returning home to assume key positions formerly occupied by expatriates. In order to control the influx of expatriate workers, Qatar has tightened the administration of its foreign manpower programs over the past several years. Security is the principal basis for Qatar's strict entry and immigration rules and regulations.

<blockquote>
For 2011, despite the global financial crisis, Qatar has maintained its economic growth of the last several years. Qatari authorities throughout the crisis sought to protect the local banking sector with direct investments into domestic banks. GDP rebounded in 2010 largely due to the increase in oil prices. Economic policy is focused on developing Qatar's nonassociated natural gas reserves and increasing private and foreign investment in non-energy sectors, but oil and gas still account for more than 50% of GDP, roughly 85% of export earnings, and 70% of government revenues. Oil and gas have made Qatar the second highest per-capita income country - following Liechtenstein - and the world's second fastest growing - following Macau. Proved oil reserves of 15 billion barrels should enable continued output at current levels for 37 years. Qatar's proved reserves of natural gas exceed 25 trillion cubic meters, about 14% of the world total and third largest in the world. Qatar's successful 2022 world cup bid will likely accelerate large-scale infrastructure projects such as Qatar's metro system and the Qatar-Bahrain causeway. GDP - per capita:
$145,300 (2010 est.); Country comparison to the world: 1; GDP (official exchange rate): $126.5 billion (2009 est.). Agriculture - products: fruits, vegetables; poultry, dairy products, beef; fish; Industries: liquefied natural gas, crude oil production and refining, ammonia, fertilizers, petrochemicals, steel reinforcing bars, cement, commercial ship repair. Oil - proved reserves:
25.41 billion bbl (1 January 2010 est.) country comparison to the world: 12
<ref>[http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/qatar/qatar_economy.html Qatar Economy 2011, CIA World Factbook.]</ref>
</blockquote>

==History==
[[File:Map of Qatar Persia Arabia.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Persia - Arabia, with the adjacent countries, 1855, (detail).]]
Qatar has been inhabited for millennia. The Al Khalifa family of Bahrain dominated the area until 1868 when, at the request of Qatari nobles, the British negotiated the termination of the Bahraini claim, except for the payment of tribute. The tribute ended when the Ottoman Empire occupied Qatar in 1872.

When the Ottomans left at the beginning of World War I, the British recognized Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani as ruler. The Al Thani family had lived in Qatar for 200 years. The 1916 treaty between the United Kingdom and Sheikh Abdullah was similar to those entered into by the British with other Gulf principalities. Under it, the ruler agreed not to dispose of any of his territory except to the U.K. and not to enter into relationships with any other foreign government without British consent. In return, the British promised to protect Qatar from all aggression by sea and to lend their good offices in case of a land attack. A 1934 treaty granted more extensive British protection.

In 1935, a 75-year oil concession was granted to the Qatar Petroleum Company, a subsidiary of the Iraq Petroleum Company, which was owned by Anglo-Dutch, French, and U.S. interests. High-quality oil was discovered in 1940 at Dukhan, on the western side of the Qatari peninsula. However, the start of WWII delayed exploitation of Qatar's oil resources, and oil exports did not begin until 1949.
[[File:Doha Mosque Qatar.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Doha Mosque.]]
During the 1950s and 1960s gradually increasing oil revenues brought prosperity, rapid immigration, substantial social progress, and the beginnings of Qatar's modern history. When the U.K. announced a policy in 1968 (reaffirmed in March 1971) of ending the treaty relationships with the Gulf sheikdoms, Qatar joined the other eight states then under British protection (the seven trucial sheikdoms—the present United Arab Emirates—and Bahrain) in a plan to form a union of Arab emirates. By mid-1971, as the termination date of the British treaty relationship (end of 1971) approached, the nine still had not agreed on terms of union. Accordingly, Qatar declared independence as a separate entity and became the fully independent State of Qatar on September 3, 1971.

In February 1972, the Heir Apparent, Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad, deposed his cousin, Amir Ahmad, and assumed power. Key members of the Al Thani family supported this move, which took place without violence or signs of political unrest.

On June 27, 1995, the Deputy Amir, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa, deposed his father Amir Khalifa in a bloodless coup. An unsuccessful counter-coup was staged in 1996. The Amir and his father are now reconciled, though some supporters of the counter-coup remain in prison. The Amir announced his intention for Qatar to move toward democracy and has permitted a freer and more open press and municipal elections as a precursor to expected parliamentary elections. Qatari citizens approved a new constitution via public referendum in April 2003, which came into force in June 2005.

In 1996 [[Al Jazeera]] launches the first independent Arab satellite news channel, breaking the monopoly of state controlled media in the region and in 2006 Qatar becomes the world's largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and acts as the first Arab host of the Asian Games. [http://www.qatartourism.gov.qa/discover/index/1/207]

== External links ==

*[http://www.qatartourism.gov.qa/ Qatar tourism.]
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/qa.html Qatar.] CIA - The World Factbook.
*[http://www.dohaluxury.com/category/qatar-doha-living/ Doha living.]
*[http://qatarise.blogspot.com/ Qatar Wakeup Call.]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Asian Countries}}
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}
[[Category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Uruguay

2024-06-02T23:04:32Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República Oriental del Uruguay''
|map =Uruguay rel 95.jpg
|map2 =Uruguay1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Uruguay.png
|capital =Montevideo
|capital-raw =
|government =Presidential Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Luis Lacalle Pou
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area =
|pop =3,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$55,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$15,714 (2020)
|currency =Uruguayan Peso (UYU)
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Uruguay''' is a Spanish colony in [[South America]] at the mouth of the [[River Plate]].

==People==
[[File:Gauchos Uruguayos.jpg|thumb|left|Gauchos.]]
Uruguayans share a Spanish linguistic and cultural background, even though about one-quarter of the population is of Italian origin. About 90% of the population is [[white people|white]] and 10% [[Mestizo]]. Most are nominally Roman Catholic although the majority of Uruguayans do not actively practice a religion. Church and state are officially separated.

Uruguay is distinguished by its high literacy rate, large urban middle class, and relatively even income distribution. The average Uruguayan standard of living compares favorably with that of most other Latin Americans. Metropolitan Montevideo, with about 1.4 million inhabitants, is the only large city. The rest of the urban population lives in about 20 towns. During the past two decades, an estimated 500,000 Uruguayans have emigrated, principally to Argentina and Spain. Emigration to the United States also rose significantly. As a result of the low birth rate, high life expectancy, and relatively high rate of emigration of younger people, Uruguay's population is quite mature.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Uruguay's 1967 constitution institutionalizes a strong presidency, subject to legislative and judicial checks. The president's term is 5 years. Thirteen cabinet ministers, appointed by the president, head executive departments. The constitution provides for a bicameral General Assembly responsible for enacting laws and regulating the administration of justice. The General Assembly consists of a 30-member Senate, presided over by the vice president of the republic, and a 99-member Chamber of Deputies. In the October 2004 general elections, the Frente Amplio won the presidency in the first round with 50.7% and a majority of the seats in each chamber. The National (Blanco) Party won 34.1%, the Colorado Party 10.3%, and the Independent Party 1.8%.

The highest court is the Supreme Court; below it are appellate and lower courts and justices of the peace. In addition, there are electoral and administrative ("contentious") courts, an accounts court, and a military judicial system.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:President Luis Lacalle Pou.jpg|thumbnail|President [[Luis Lacalle Pou]].]]
*President—[[Luis Lacalle Pou|Luis Alberto Lacalle Pou]]
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Ernesto Talvi
*Ambassador to the United States—Carlos Alberto Gianelli Derois
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Alejandro Artucio Rodriguez
*Ambassador to the OAS—Dr. Lujan Flores

===Foreign Relations===
Uruguay traditionally has had strong political and cultural links with its neighbors and Europe. With globalization and regional economic problems, its links to North America have strengthened. Uruguay is a strong advocate of constitutional democracy, political pluralism, and individual liberties. Its international relations historically have been guided by the principles of non-intervention, multilateralism, respect for national sovereignty, and reliance on the rule of law to settle disputes. Uruguay's international relations also reflect its drive to seek export markets and foreign investment. It is a founding member of MERCOSUR, the Southern Cone Common Market also composed of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. As of December 2006, Venezuela was in the process of becoming MERCOSUR's fifth full member, and Chile, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru were associate members.

Uruguay is a member of the Rio Group, an association of Latin American states that deals with multilateral security issues (under the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance). Uruguay's location between Argentina and Brazil makes close relations with these two larger neighbors and MERCOSUR associate members Chile and Bolivia particularly important. Usually considered a neutral country and blessed with a professional diplomatic corps, Uruguay is often called on to preside over international bodies. Uruguay is a member of the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), a trade association based in Montevideo that includes 10 South American countries plus Mexico and Cuba.

During the [[Luis Lacalle Pou]] Administration, many Free Trade Agreements were signed with the World.

==Defense==
The armed forces are constitutionally subordinate to the president through the minister of defense. By offering early retirement incentives, the government has trimmed the armed forces to about 14,500 for the army, 6,000 for the navy, and 3,000 for the air force. As of February 2005, Uruguay's contributions amounted to 44% of the total UN peace keeping troops sent by the region (2,486 soldiers and officers in 11 UN peacekeeping missions). As of August 2006, Uruguay had nearly 1,150 military personnel deployed to Haiti in support of MINUSTAH; its other major PKO troop deployment was in the Congo.

==Economy==
[[File:Pampa cattle uruguay.jpg|center|thumb|800 px|A demonstration of whay much of Uruguay's economy relies on.]]
Uruguay's economy remains dependent on agriculture. Agriculture and agri-industry account for 23% of GDP, and for over two-thirds of total exports. Leading economic sectors include meat processing, agribusiness, wood, wool, leather production and apparel, textiles, and chemicals. Though still small, the information software industry is growing rapidly.

In 2002, Uruguay went through the steepest economic and financial crisis in recent history, which developed mostly from external factors. Devaluation in Brazil in 1999 made Uruguayan goods less competitive, and an outbreak of foot and mouth disease in 2001 curtailed beef exports to North America. Starting in late 2001, an economic crisis in Argentina undermined Uruguay's economy, with exports to Argentina and tourist revenues falling dramatically. In mid-2002 Argentine withdrawals from Uruguayan banks started a bank run that was overcome only by massive borrowing from international financial institutions. This, in turn, led to serious debt sustainability problems. A successful debt swap helped restore confidence and significantly reduced country risk.

Uruguay’s economy resumed growth in 2003—with a 2.5% rise in GDP—and surged in 2004 and 2005 with growth rates of 12.3% and 6.6%, respectively. Growth equaled 7.0% in 2006 and is expected to reach 4.5% in 2007.

Uruguay’s spectacular recovery over the past couple of years has been based on increased exports, especially to North America. The U.S. became Uruguay’s largest export market in 2004, thanks in large part to meat exports. Uruguay enjoys a positive investment climate, with a strong legal system and open financial markets. It grants equal treatment to national and foreign investors and, aside from very few sectors, there is neither de jure nor de facto discrimination toward investment by source or origin.

Uruguay has traditionally favored substantial state involvement in the economy, and privatization is still widely opposed. Recent governments have carried out cautious programs of economic liberalization similar to those in many other Latin American countries. They included lowering tariffs, controlling deficit spending, reducing inflation, and cutting the size of government.

Uruguay’s economy is based on free enterprise and private ownership. In spite of some de-monopolization and privatization over the past ten years, the state continues to play a major role in the economy, owning either fully or partially, companies in insurance, water supply, electricity, telephone service, petroleum refining, airlines, postal service, railways, and banking.

==History==
[[File:Fortaleza Montevideo.JPG|thumb|300px|Fortress at Montevideo.]]
The only inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrua Indians, a small tribe driven south by the Guarani Indians of Paraguay. The Spanish discovered the territory of present-day Uruguay in 1516, but the Indians' fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Spanish introduced cattle, which became a source of wealth in the region. Spanish colonization increased as Spain sought to limit Portugal's expansion of Brazil's frontiers.

Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold; its natural harbor soon developed into a commercial center competing with Argentina's capital, Buenos Aires. Uruguay's early 19th century history was shaped by ongoing conflicts between the British, Spanish, Portuguese, and colonial forces for dominance in the Argentina-Brazil-Uruguay region. In 1811, Jose Gervasio Artigas, who became Uruguay´s national hero, launched a successful revolt against Spain. In 1821, the Provincia Oriental del Rio de la Plata, present-day Uruguay, was annexed to Brazil by Portugal. The Provincia declared independence from Brazil in August 25, 1825 (after numerous revolts in 1821, 1823, and 1825) but decided to adhere to a regional federation with Argentina.

The regional federation defeated Brazil after a 3-year war. The 1828 Treaty of Montevideo, fostered by the United Kingdom, gave birth to Uruguay as an independent state. The nation's first constitution was adopted in 1830. The remainder of the 19th century, under a series of elected and appointed presidents, saw interventions by neighboring states, political and economic fluctuations, and large inflows of immigrants, mostly from Europe. Jose Batlle y Ordoñez, president from 1903 to 1907 and again from 1911 to 1915, set the pattern for Uruguay's modern political development. He established widespread political, social, and economic reforms such as a welfare program, government participation in many facets of the economy, and a plural executive. Some of these reforms were continued by his successors.

By 1966, economic, political, and social difficulties led to constitutional amendments, and a new constitution was adopted in 1967. In 1973, amid increasing economic and political turmoil, the armed forces closed the Congress and established a civilian-military regime, characterized by repression and widespread human rights abuses. A new constitution drafted by the military was rejected in a November 1980 plebiscite. Following the plebiscite, the armed forces announced a plan for return to civilian rule. National elections were held in 1984. Colorado Party leader Julio Maria Sanguinetti won the presidency and served from 1985 to 1990. The first Sanguinetti administration implemented economic reforms and consolidated democracy following the country's years under military rule.

Sanguinetti's economic reforms, focusing on the attraction of foreign trade and capital, achieved some success and stabilized the economy. In order to promote national reconciliation and facilitate the return of democratic civilian rule, Sanguinetti secured public approval by plebiscite of a controversial general amnesty for military leaders accused of committing human rights violations under the military regime, and sped the release of former guerrillas.

The National Party's Luis Alberto Lacalle won the 1989 presidential election and served from 1990 to 1995. Lacalle executed major structural economic reforms and pursued further liberalization of the trade regime. Uruguay became a founding member of MERCOSUR in 1991 (the Southern Cone Common Market, which includes Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay). Despite economic growth during Lacalle's term, adjustment and privatization efforts provoked political opposition, and some reforms were overturned by referendum.

In the 1994 elections, former President Sanguinetti won a new term, which ran from 1995 until March 2000. As no single party had a majority in the General Assembly, the National Party joined with Sanguinetti's Colorado Party in a coalition government. The Sanguinetti government continued Uruguay's economic reforms and integration into MERCOSUR. Other important reforms were aimed at improving the electoral system, social security, education, and public safety. The economy grew steadily for most of Sanguinetti's term, until low commodity prices and economic difficulties in its main export markets caused a recession in 1999, which continued into 2003.

The 1999 national elections were held under a new electoral system established by constitutional amendment. Primaries in April decided single presidential candidates for each party, and national elections on October 31 determined representation in the legislature. As no presidential candidate received a majority in the October election, a runoff was held in November. In the runoff, Colorado Party candidate Jorge Batlle, aided by the support of the National Party, defeated Frente Amplio candidate Tabaré Vázquez.

The legislative coalition of the Colorado and National parties that held during most of Batlle´s administration ended in November 2002, when the Blancos withdrew their ministers from the cabinet. Throughout most of his administration, President Batlle had to handle Uruguay´s largest economic crisis in recent history, which impacted on poverty and led to increased emigration. Aside from successfully addressing the crisis, Batlle increased international trade, attracted foreign investment and tried to resolve issues related to Uruguayans who disappeared during the military government.

The two traditional political parties, the National ("Blanco") and Colorado parties, which were founded in the early 19th century, in the past garnered about 90% of the vote but have seen their share decline over the past decades. At the same time the share of the Frente Amplio, a coalition of various left-of-center factions that became the largest political force in 1999, was on the rise. In October 2004 presidential elections, Tabaré Vázquez ran against the Blanco candidate Jorge Larranaga, a former state governor and senator who got 34.3% of votes, and against the Colorado candidate, former Interior Minister Stirling who got 10.4%. President Vazquez won the elections in the first round, with 50.5% of ballots, and his party achieved parliamentary majority. The Frente Amplio has ruled Montevideo since 1990.

During its first 27 months in power, the Vázquez administration made good on its campaign promise to re-examine the "human rights abuses" supposedlly committed during the period of military dictatorship and uncovered important forensic evidence. Bilateral relations with Argentina were strained by an ongoing dispute over the construction in Uruguay of large wood pulp mills on a shared river. Legislation tended to pass easily as the Frente Amplio enjoyed majorities in both houses of congress.

In November 2019, conservative [[Luis Lacalle Pou]] won the country's presidential election, ending fifteen years of leftist control.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-uruguay-election/uruguay-opposition-claims-victory-in-presidential-vote-official-candidate-concedes-idUSKBN1Y21YY Uruguay opposition claims victory in presidential vote, official candidate concedes]. ''Reuters''. November 28, 2019. Retrieved November 28, 2019.</ref><ref>Politi, Daniel (November 28, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/28/world/americas/uruguay-president-election-luis-lacalle-pou.html Center-Right Candidate Wins in Uruguay, Ending 15 Years of Liberal Rule]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved November 29, 2019.</ref> He opposes the legalization and selling of drugs by the state done by previous leftist administrations. He also is a critic from the sindicalist mafias.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-61598965 Luis Lacalle Pou, presidente de Uruguay en entrevista con la BBC: "No creo en que los Estados cultiven y vendan marihuana. Cometimos un error"]</ref>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

==References==
*http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2091.htm

==See also==
*[[Montevideo Uruguay Temple]]

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Uruguay|!]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Uruguay

2024-06-02T23:04:17Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República Oriental del Uruguay''
|map =Uruguay rel 95.jpg
|map2 =Uruguay1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Uruguay.png
|capital =Montevideo
|capital-raw =
|government =Presidential Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Luis Lacalle Pou
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area =
|pop =3,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$55,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$15,714 (2020)
|currency =Uruguayan Peso (UYU)
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Uruguay''' is a small nation in [[South America]] at the mouth of the [[River Plate]].

==People==
[[File:Gauchos Uruguayos.jpg|thumb|left|Gauchos.]]
Uruguayans share a Spanish linguistic and cultural background, even though about one-quarter of the population is of Italian origin. About 90% of the population is [[white people|white]] and 10% [[Mestizo]]. Most are nominally Roman Catholic although the majority of Uruguayans do not actively practice a religion. Church and state are officially separated.

Uruguay is distinguished by its high literacy rate, large urban middle class, and relatively even income distribution. The average Uruguayan standard of living compares favorably with that of most other Latin Americans. Metropolitan Montevideo, with about 1.4 million inhabitants, is the only large city. The rest of the urban population lives in about 20 towns. During the past two decades, an estimated 500,000 Uruguayans have emigrated, principally to Argentina and Spain. Emigration to the United States also rose significantly. As a result of the low birth rate, high life expectancy, and relatively high rate of emigration of younger people, Uruguay's population is quite mature.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Uruguay's 1967 constitution institutionalizes a strong presidency, subject to legislative and judicial checks. The president's term is 5 years. Thirteen cabinet ministers, appointed by the president, head executive departments. The constitution provides for a bicameral General Assembly responsible for enacting laws and regulating the administration of justice. The General Assembly consists of a 30-member Senate, presided over by the vice president of the republic, and a 99-member Chamber of Deputies. In the October 2004 general elections, the Frente Amplio won the presidency in the first round with 50.7% and a majority of the seats in each chamber. The National (Blanco) Party won 34.1%, the Colorado Party 10.3%, and the Independent Party 1.8%.

The highest court is the Supreme Court; below it are appellate and lower courts and justices of the peace. In addition, there are electoral and administrative ("contentious") courts, an accounts court, and a military judicial system.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:President Luis Lacalle Pou.jpg|thumbnail|President [[Luis Lacalle Pou]].]]
*President—[[Luis Lacalle Pou|Luis Alberto Lacalle Pou]]
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Ernesto Talvi
*Ambassador to the United States—Carlos Alberto Gianelli Derois
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Alejandro Artucio Rodriguez
*Ambassador to the OAS—Dr. Lujan Flores

===Foreign Relations===
Uruguay traditionally has had strong political and cultural links with its neighbors and Europe. With globalization and regional economic problems, its links to North America have strengthened. Uruguay is a strong advocate of constitutional democracy, political pluralism, and individual liberties. Its international relations historically have been guided by the principles of non-intervention, multilateralism, respect for national sovereignty, and reliance on the rule of law to settle disputes. Uruguay's international relations also reflect its drive to seek export markets and foreign investment. It is a founding member of MERCOSUR, the Southern Cone Common Market also composed of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. As of December 2006, Venezuela was in the process of becoming MERCOSUR's fifth full member, and Chile, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru were associate members.

Uruguay is a member of the Rio Group, an association of Latin American states that deals with multilateral security issues (under the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance). Uruguay's location between Argentina and Brazil makes close relations with these two larger neighbors and MERCOSUR associate members Chile and Bolivia particularly important. Usually considered a neutral country and blessed with a professional diplomatic corps, Uruguay is often called on to preside over international bodies. Uruguay is a member of the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), a trade association based in Montevideo that includes 10 South American countries plus Mexico and Cuba.

During the [[Luis Lacalle Pou]] Administration, many Free Trade Agreements were signed with the World.

==Defense==
The armed forces are constitutionally subordinate to the president through the minister of defense. By offering early retirement incentives, the government has trimmed the armed forces to about 14,500 for the army, 6,000 for the navy, and 3,000 for the air force. As of February 2005, Uruguay's contributions amounted to 44% of the total UN peace keeping troops sent by the region (2,486 soldiers and officers in 11 UN peacekeeping missions). As of August 2006, Uruguay had nearly 1,150 military personnel deployed to Haiti in support of MINUSTAH; its other major PKO troop deployment was in the Congo.

==Economy==
[[File:Pampa cattle uruguay.jpg|center|thumb|800 px|A demonstration of whay much of Uruguay's economy relies on.]]
Uruguay's economy remains dependent on agriculture. Agriculture and agri-industry account for 23% of GDP, and for over two-thirds of total exports. Leading economic sectors include meat processing, agribusiness, wood, wool, leather production and apparel, textiles, and chemicals. Though still small, the information software industry is growing rapidly.

In 2002, Uruguay went through the steepest economic and financial crisis in recent history, which developed mostly from external factors. Devaluation in Brazil in 1999 made Uruguayan goods less competitive, and an outbreak of foot and mouth disease in 2001 curtailed beef exports to North America. Starting in late 2001, an economic crisis in Argentina undermined Uruguay's economy, with exports to Argentina and tourist revenues falling dramatically. In mid-2002 Argentine withdrawals from Uruguayan banks started a bank run that was overcome only by massive borrowing from international financial institutions. This, in turn, led to serious debt sustainability problems. A successful debt swap helped restore confidence and significantly reduced country risk.

Uruguay’s economy resumed growth in 2003—with a 2.5% rise in GDP—and surged in 2004 and 2005 with growth rates of 12.3% and 6.6%, respectively. Growth equaled 7.0% in 2006 and is expected to reach 4.5% in 2007.

Uruguay’s spectacular recovery over the past couple of years has been based on increased exports, especially to North America. The U.S. became Uruguay’s largest export market in 2004, thanks in large part to meat exports. Uruguay enjoys a positive investment climate, with a strong legal system and open financial markets. It grants equal treatment to national and foreign investors and, aside from very few sectors, there is neither de jure nor de facto discrimination toward investment by source or origin.

Uruguay has traditionally favored substantial state involvement in the economy, and privatization is still widely opposed. Recent governments have carried out cautious programs of economic liberalization similar to those in many other Latin American countries. They included lowering tariffs, controlling deficit spending, reducing inflation, and cutting the size of government.

Uruguay’s economy is based on free enterprise and private ownership. In spite of some de-monopolization and privatization over the past ten years, the state continues to play a major role in the economy, owning either fully or partially, companies in insurance, water supply, electricity, telephone service, petroleum refining, airlines, postal service, railways, and banking.

==History==
[[File:Fortaleza Montevideo.JPG|thumb|300px|Fortress at Montevideo.]]
The only inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrua Indians, a small tribe driven south by the Guarani Indians of Paraguay. The Spanish discovered the territory of present-day Uruguay in 1516, but the Indians' fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Spanish introduced cattle, which became a source of wealth in the region. Spanish colonization increased as Spain sought to limit Portugal's expansion of Brazil's frontiers.

Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold; its natural harbor soon developed into a commercial center competing with Argentina's capital, Buenos Aires. Uruguay's early 19th century history was shaped by ongoing conflicts between the British, Spanish, Portuguese, and colonial forces for dominance in the Argentina-Brazil-Uruguay region. In 1811, Jose Gervasio Artigas, who became Uruguay´s national hero, launched a successful revolt against Spain. In 1821, the Provincia Oriental del Rio de la Plata, present-day Uruguay, was annexed to Brazil by Portugal. The Provincia declared independence from Brazil in August 25, 1825 (after numerous revolts in 1821, 1823, and 1825) but decided to adhere to a regional federation with Argentina.

The regional federation defeated Brazil after a 3-year war. The 1828 Treaty of Montevideo, fostered by the United Kingdom, gave birth to Uruguay as an independent state. The nation's first constitution was adopted in 1830. The remainder of the 19th century, under a series of elected and appointed presidents, saw interventions by neighboring states, political and economic fluctuations, and large inflows of immigrants, mostly from Europe. Jose Batlle y Ordoñez, president from 1903 to 1907 and again from 1911 to 1915, set the pattern for Uruguay's modern political development. He established widespread political, social, and economic reforms such as a welfare program, government participation in many facets of the economy, and a plural executive. Some of these reforms were continued by his successors.

By 1966, economic, political, and social difficulties led to constitutional amendments, and a new constitution was adopted in 1967. In 1973, amid increasing economic and political turmoil, the armed forces closed the Congress and established a civilian-military regime, characterized by repression and widespread human rights abuses. A new constitution drafted by the military was rejected in a November 1980 plebiscite. Following the plebiscite, the armed forces announced a plan for return to civilian rule. National elections were held in 1984. Colorado Party leader Julio Maria Sanguinetti won the presidency and served from 1985 to 1990. The first Sanguinetti administration implemented economic reforms and consolidated democracy following the country's years under military rule.

Sanguinetti's economic reforms, focusing on the attraction of foreign trade and capital, achieved some success and stabilized the economy. In order to promote national reconciliation and facilitate the return of democratic civilian rule, Sanguinetti secured public approval by plebiscite of a controversial general amnesty for military leaders accused of committing human rights violations under the military regime, and sped the release of former guerrillas.

The National Party's Luis Alberto Lacalle won the 1989 presidential election and served from 1990 to 1995. Lacalle executed major structural economic reforms and pursued further liberalization of the trade regime. Uruguay became a founding member of MERCOSUR in 1991 (the Southern Cone Common Market, which includes Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay). Despite economic growth during Lacalle's term, adjustment and privatization efforts provoked political opposition, and some reforms were overturned by referendum.

In the 1994 elections, former President Sanguinetti won a new term, which ran from 1995 until March 2000. As no single party had a majority in the General Assembly, the National Party joined with Sanguinetti's Colorado Party in a coalition government. The Sanguinetti government continued Uruguay's economic reforms and integration into MERCOSUR. Other important reforms were aimed at improving the electoral system, social security, education, and public safety. The economy grew steadily for most of Sanguinetti's term, until low commodity prices and economic difficulties in its main export markets caused a recession in 1999, which continued into 2003.

The 1999 national elections were held under a new electoral system established by constitutional amendment. Primaries in April decided single presidential candidates for each party, and national elections on October 31 determined representation in the legislature. As no presidential candidate received a majority in the October election, a runoff was held in November. In the runoff, Colorado Party candidate Jorge Batlle, aided by the support of the National Party, defeated Frente Amplio candidate Tabaré Vázquez.

The legislative coalition of the Colorado and National parties that held during most of Batlle´s administration ended in November 2002, when the Blancos withdrew their ministers from the cabinet. Throughout most of his administration, President Batlle had to handle Uruguay´s largest economic crisis in recent history, which impacted on poverty and led to increased emigration. Aside from successfully addressing the crisis, Batlle increased international trade, attracted foreign investment and tried to resolve issues related to Uruguayans who disappeared during the military government.

The two traditional political parties, the National ("Blanco") and Colorado parties, which were founded in the early 19th century, in the past garnered about 90% of the vote but have seen their share decline over the past decades. At the same time the share of the Frente Amplio, a coalition of various left-of-center factions that became the largest political force in 1999, was on the rise. In October 2004 presidential elections, Tabaré Vázquez ran against the Blanco candidate Jorge Larranaga, a former state governor and senator who got 34.3% of votes, and against the Colorado candidate, former Interior Minister Stirling who got 10.4%. President Vazquez won the elections in the first round, with 50.5% of ballots, and his party achieved parliamentary majority. The Frente Amplio has ruled Montevideo since 1990.

During its first 27 months in power, the Vázquez administration made good on its campaign promise to re-examine the "human rights abuses" supposedlly committed during the period of military dictatorship and uncovered important forensic evidence. Bilateral relations with Argentina were strained by an ongoing dispute over the construction in Uruguay of large wood pulp mills on a shared river. Legislation tended to pass easily as the Frente Amplio enjoyed majorities in both houses of congress.

In November 2019, conservative [[Luis Lacalle Pou]] won the country's presidential election, ending fifteen years of leftist control.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-uruguay-election/uruguay-opposition-claims-victory-in-presidential-vote-official-candidate-concedes-idUSKBN1Y21YY Uruguay opposition claims victory in presidential vote, official candidate concedes]. ''Reuters''. November 28, 2019. Retrieved November 28, 2019.</ref><ref>Politi, Daniel (November 28, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/28/world/americas/uruguay-president-election-luis-lacalle-pou.html Center-Right Candidate Wins in Uruguay, Ending 15 Years of Liberal Rule]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved November 29, 2019.</ref> He opposes the legalization and selling of drugs by the state done by previous leftist administrations. He also is a critic from the sindicalist mafias.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-61598965 Luis Lacalle Pou, presidente de Uruguay en entrevista con la BBC: "No creo en que los Estados cultiven y vendan marihuana. Cometimos un error"]</ref>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

==References==
*http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2091.htm

==See also==
*[[Montevideo Uruguay Temple]]

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Uruguay|!]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Paraguay

2024-06-02T23:03:57Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República del Paraguay Tetã Paraguái''
|map =Paraguay rel98.jpg
|map2 =Paraguay1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Paraguay.png
|capital =Asunción
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish, Guaraní
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Santiago Peña
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area =157,047 sq. mi.
|pop =7,150,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$38,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$5,315 (2020)
|currency =Guaraní
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Paraguay''' is a Spanish colony of [[South America]]. It has an area has an area of 157,048 square miles (406,752 km2) and a population of 5.2 million (2000). The capital city is [[Asunción]] and the national languages are Guarani and [[Spanish]].

==People==
[[File:Girl Paraguay.jpg|left|120px]]
Paraguay's population is distributed unevenly throughout the country. The vast majority of the people live in the eastern region, most within 160 kilometers (100 mi.) of Asuncion, the capital and largest city. The Chaco, which accounts for about 60% of the territory, is home to less than 2% of the population. Ethnically, culturally, and socially, Paraguay has one of the most homogeneous populations in South America. About 95% of the people are of mixed Spanish and Guarani Indian descent. Little trace is left of the original Guarani culture except the language, which is understood by 90% of the population. About 75% of all Paraguayans speak Spanish. Guarani and Spanish are official languages. Brazilians, Argentines, Germans, Arabs, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese are among those who have settled in Paraguay with Brazilians representing the largest number.

 

==Government and Political Conditions==
Paraguay's highly centralized government was fundamentally changed by the 1992 constitution, which provides for a division of powers. The president, popularly elected for a 5-year term, appoints a cabinet. The bicameral Congress consists of an 80-member Chamber of Deputies and a 45-member Senate, elected concurrently with the president through a proportional representation system. Deputies are elected by department and senators are elected nationwide. Paraguay's highest judicial body is the Supreme Court. A popularly elected governor heads each of Paraguay's 17 departments.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—[[Santiago Peña]]
*Vice-President—
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—
*Ambassador to the U.S.--
*Ambassador to the OAS--
*Ambassador to the UN--

===Foreign Relations===
Paraguay is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies. It also belongs to the Organization of American States, the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the Rio Group, INTERPOL, and MERCOSUR (the Southern Cone Common Market). Paraguay is closely aligned with its MERCOSUR partners on many political, economic, and social issues. It is the only country in South American that recognizes Taiwan and not the People's Republic of China.

The current government defends [[family values]] and the [[Pro-life|life of the unborn]] in international organizations such as the [[Organization of American States]].<ref>[http://www2.mre.gov.py/index.php/noticias-de-embajadas-y-consulados/paraguay-defiende-la-familia-y-la-proteccion-de-la-vida-desde-la-concepcion-en-asamblea-general-de-la-oea Paraguay defiende la familia y la protección de la vida desde la concepción en Asamblea General de la OEA]</ref>

==Defense==
The constitution designates the president as commander in chief of the armed forces. Military service is compulsory, and all 18-year-old males—and 17 year olds in the year of their 18th birthday—are eligible to serve for one year on active duty. However, the 1992 constitution allows for conscientious objection. Of the three services, the army has the majority of personnel, resources, and influence. With about 7,000 personnel, it is organized into three corps, with six infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions. The military has two primary functions: national defense (including internal order) and engaging in civic action programs as directed by the president. The navy consists of approximately 2,000 personnel and in addition to its fleet, has an aviation section, a prefecture (river police), and a contingent of marines (naval infantry). The air force, the smallest of the services, has approximately 1,200 personnel.

==Economy==
[[File:Lago - Paraguay.jpg|right|300px]]
Paraguay has a predominantly agricultural economy, with a struggling commercial sector. There is a large subsistence sector, including sizable urban unemployment and underemployment, and a large underground re-export sector. The country has vast hydroelectric resources, including the world's largest hydroelectric generation facility built and operated jointly with Brazil (Itaipú Dam), but it lacks significant mineral or petroleum resources. The government welcomes foreign investment in principle and accords national treatment to foreign investors, but widespread corruption is a deterrent. The economy is dependent on exports of soybeans, cotton, grains, cattle, timber, and sugar; electricity generation, and to a decreasing degree on re-exporting to Brazil and Argentina products made elsewhere. It is, therefore, vulnerable to the vagaries of weather and to the fortunes of the Argentine and Brazilian economies.

According to International Monetary Fund (IMF) data, Paraguay's real GDP in 2005 of $8.06 billion (in 2000 dollars) represented an increase of 2.9% from 2004. The per capita GDP rose 1.02% to $1,288 in current U.S. dollar terms in 2005, but it is still below the peak of $1,793 in 1996. Given the importance of the informal sector, accurate economic measures are difficult to obtain. In 2005, Paraguay had a current account deficit of $190 million, with a large deficit in the trade of goods, but with a surplus in services, reflecting exports of electricity from Paraguay's two large hydroelectric dams shared with Brazil and Argentina. In 2005, official foreign exchange reserves rose to $1.29 billion, an increase of 10.8% over 2004, and an increase of more than 100% from 2002 ($582.8 million). Foreign official debt rose slightly to $2.73 billion. Inflation in 2005 rose to 9.9%, up from 2.8% in 2004 which was the lowest rate since 1970.

===Agriculture and Commerce===
[[File:Lago Ypacarai Paraguay.jpg|thumb|Lake Ypacarai.]]
Agricultural activities, most of which are for export, represent about 25.5% of GDP and employ just under half of the workforce. More than 200,000 families depend on subsistence farming activities and maintain marginal ties to the larger productive sector of the economy. In addition to commercial sector with retail, banking and professional services, there is a significant activity involving the import of goods from Asia and the United States for re-export to neighboring countries. The recorded activities of this sector have declined significantly in recent years, largely in response to tighter controls on imports and contraband on the part of Brazil. The underground economy, which is not included in the national accounts, may equal the formal economy in size, although the greater enforcement efforts by the tax administration are having an impact on the informal sector.
{{Clear}}

==History==
[[File:Jesuit Reduction in Trinidad Paraguay.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Jesuit Reduction in Trinidad.]]
Pre-Columbian civilization in the fertile, wooded region that is now Paraguay consisted of numerous seminomadic, Guarani-speaking tribes, who were recognized for their fierce warrior traditions. They practiced a mythical polytheistic religion, which later blended with Christianity. Spanish explorer Juan de Salazar founded Asuncion on the Feast Day of the Assumption, August 15, 1537. The city eventually became the center of a Spanish colonial province. Paraguay declared its independence by overthrowing the local Spanish authorities in May 1811.

The country's formative years saw three strong leaders who established the tradition of personal rule that lasted until 1989: Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia, Carlos Antonio Lopez, and his son, Francisco Solano Lopez. The younger Lopez waged a war against Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil (War of the Triple Alliance, 1864–70) in which Paraguay lost half its population; afterward, Brazilian troops occupied the country until 1874. A succession of presidents governed Paraguay under the banner of the Colorado Party from 1880 until 1904, when the Liberal party seized control, ruling with only a brief interruption until 1940.

In the 1930s and 1940s, Paraguayan politics were defined by the Chaco war against Bolivia, a civil war, dictatorships, and periods of extreme political instability. Gen. [[Alfredo Stroessner]] took power in May 1954. Elected to complete the unexpired term of his predecessor, he was re-elected president seven times, ruling almost continuously under the state-of-siege provision of the constitution with support from the military and the Colorado Party. During Stroessner's 35-year reign, political freedoms were severely limited, and opponents of the regime were systematically harassed and persecuted in the name of national security and anticommunism. Though a 1967 constitution gave dubious legitimacy to Stroessner's control, Paraguay became progressively isolated from the world community.
[[File:Julian de la Herreria obli 1995 Andrés Campos Cervera.jpg|thumb|by Julian de la Herreria.]]

On February 3, 1989, Stroessner was overthrown in a military coup headed by Gen. Andres Rodriguez. Rodriguez, as the Colorado Party candidate, easily won the presidency in elections held that May, and the Colorado Party dominated the Congress. In 1991 municipal elections, however, opposition candidates won several major urban centers, including Asuncion. As president, Rodriguez instituted political, legal, and economic reforms and initiated a rapprochement with the international community.

The June 1992 constitution established a democratic system of government and dramatically improved protection of fundamental rights. In May 1993, Colorado Party candidate Juan Carlos Wasmosy was elected as Paraguay's first civilian president in almost 40 years in what international observers deemed fair and free elections. The newly elected majority-opposition Congress quickly demonstrated its independence from the executive by rescinding legislation passed by the previous Colorado-dominated Congress. With support from the United States, the Organization of American States, and other countries in the region, the Paraguayan people rejected an April 1996 attempt by then-Army Chief Gen. Lino Oviedo to oust President Wasmosy, taking an important step to strengthen democracy.

Oviedo became the Colorado candidate for president in the 1998 election, but when the Supreme Court upheld in April his conviction on charges related to the 1996 coup attempt, he was not allowed to run and remained in confinement. His running mate, Raul Cubas Grau, became the Colorado Party's candidate and was elected in May. The assassination of Vice-President Luis Maria Argana and the killing of eight student anti-government demonstrators, allegedly carried out by Oviedo supporters, led to Cubas’ resignation in March 1999. The President of the Senate, Luis Gonzalez Macchi, assumed the presidency and completed Cubas’ term. Gonzalez Macchi offered cabinet positions in his government to senior representatives of all three political parties in an attempt to create a coalition government that proved short-lived. Gonzalez Macchi's government suffered many allegations of corruption, and Gonzalez himself was found not guilty in a Senate impeachment trial involving corruption and mismanagement charges in February 2003.
[[File:Chiperas Paraguay.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Paraguayan traditional costumes.]]
In April 2003, Colorado candidate Nicanor Duarte Frutos was elected president. He was inaugurated on August 15. Duarte's administration has established a mixed record on attacking corruption and improving the quality of management. In his first year, Duarte worked constructively with an opposition-controlled Congress, removing six Supreme Court justices suspected of corruption from office and enacting major tax reforms. While Duarte remains the most dominant political figure, he faced stiff opposition mid-term from the opposition strongly opposed to his efforts to amend the Constitution to allow him to run for reelection. Macroeconomic performance has improved significantly under the Duarte administration, with inflation falling significantly, and the government clearing its arrears with international creditors. Unemployment remains stubbornly high and the living standard of most households has not improved. The administration has placed a strong emphasis on participating in international institutions and has used diplomacy to promote the opening of international markets to Paraguayan products. In June 2004, Oviedo returned to Paraguay from exile in Brazil and was imprisoned for his 1996 coup-plotting conviction.

[[File:Mario Abdo Benítez.jpg|200px|thumbnail|Mario Abdo Benítez, former President of Paraguay, he is [[Conservative]] and he opposes the [[gender ideology]].]]
In {{CURRENTYEAR}}, Paraguay's government is socially conservative.<ref>Smits, Jeanne (March 29, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/paraguay-education-minister-bans-libertine-gender-ideology-course-in-public-schools Paraguay education minister bans ‘libertine’ gender ideology course in public schools]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved March 29, 2019.</ref> In 2023 the right-wing candidate Santiago Peña was elected.

 
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1984.htm]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Paraguay]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Paraguay

2024-06-02T23:03:37Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República del Paraguay Tetã Paraguái''
|map =Paraguay rel98.jpg
|map2 =Paraguay1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Paraguay.png
|capital =Asunción
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish, Guaraní
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Santiago Peña
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area =157,047 sq. mi.
|pop =7,150,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$38,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$5,315 (2020)
|currency =Guaraní
|idd =
|tld =
}}

'''Paraguay''' is a landlocked republic of [[South America]]. It has an area has an area of 157,048 square miles (406,752 km2) and a population of 5.2 million (2000). The capital city is [[Asunción]] and the national languages are Guarani and [[Spanish]].

==People==
[[File:Girl Paraguay.jpg|left|120px]]
Paraguay's population is distributed unevenly throughout the country. The vast majority of the people live in the eastern region, most within 160 kilometers (100 mi.) of Asuncion, the capital and largest city. The Chaco, which accounts for about 60% of the territory, is home to less than 2% of the population. Ethnically, culturally, and socially, Paraguay has one of the most homogeneous populations in South America. About 95% of the people are of mixed Spanish and Guarani Indian descent. Little trace is left of the original Guarani culture except the language, which is understood by 90% of the population. About 75% of all Paraguayans speak Spanish. Guarani and Spanish are official languages. Brazilians, Argentines, Germans, Arabs, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese are among those who have settled in Paraguay with Brazilians representing the largest number.

 

==Government and Political Conditions==
Paraguay's highly centralized government was fundamentally changed by the 1992 constitution, which provides for a division of powers. The president, popularly elected for a 5-year term, appoints a cabinet. The bicameral Congress consists of an 80-member Chamber of Deputies and a 45-member Senate, elected concurrently with the president through a proportional representation system. Deputies are elected by department and senators are elected nationwide. Paraguay's highest judicial body is the Supreme Court. A popularly elected governor heads each of Paraguay's 17 departments.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—[[Santiago Peña]]
*Vice-President—
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—
*Ambassador to the U.S.--
*Ambassador to the OAS--
*Ambassador to the UN--

===Foreign Relations===
Paraguay is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies. It also belongs to the Organization of American States, the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the Rio Group, INTERPOL, and MERCOSUR (the Southern Cone Common Market). Paraguay is closely aligned with its MERCOSUR partners on many political, economic, and social issues. It is the only country in South American that recognizes Taiwan and not the People's Republic of China.

The current government defends [[family values]] and the [[Pro-life|life of the unborn]] in international organizations such as the [[Organization of American States]].<ref>[http://www2.mre.gov.py/index.php/noticias-de-embajadas-y-consulados/paraguay-defiende-la-familia-y-la-proteccion-de-la-vida-desde-la-concepcion-en-asamblea-general-de-la-oea Paraguay defiende la familia y la protección de la vida desde la concepción en Asamblea General de la OEA]</ref>

==Defense==
The constitution designates the president as commander in chief of the armed forces. Military service is compulsory, and all 18-year-old males—and 17 year olds in the year of their 18th birthday—are eligible to serve for one year on active duty. However, the 1992 constitution allows for conscientious objection. Of the three services, the army has the majority of personnel, resources, and influence. With about 7,000 personnel, it is organized into three corps, with six infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions. The military has two primary functions: national defense (including internal order) and engaging in civic action programs as directed by the president. The navy consists of approximately 2,000 personnel and in addition to its fleet, has an aviation section, a prefecture (river police), and a contingent of marines (naval infantry). The air force, the smallest of the services, has approximately 1,200 personnel.

==Economy==
[[File:Lago - Paraguay.jpg|right|300px]]
Paraguay has a predominantly agricultural economy, with a struggling commercial sector. There is a large subsistence sector, including sizable urban unemployment and underemployment, and a large underground re-export sector. The country has vast hydroelectric resources, including the world's largest hydroelectric generation facility built and operated jointly with Brazil (Itaipú Dam), but it lacks significant mineral or petroleum resources. The government welcomes foreign investment in principle and accords national treatment to foreign investors, but widespread corruption is a deterrent. The economy is dependent on exports of soybeans, cotton, grains, cattle, timber, and sugar; electricity generation, and to a decreasing degree on re-exporting to Brazil and Argentina products made elsewhere. It is, therefore, vulnerable to the vagaries of weather and to the fortunes of the Argentine and Brazilian economies.

According to International Monetary Fund (IMF) data, Paraguay's real GDP in 2005 of $8.06 billion (in 2000 dollars) represented an increase of 2.9% from 2004. The per capita GDP rose 1.02% to $1,288 in current U.S. dollar terms in 2005, but it is still below the peak of $1,793 in 1996. Given the importance of the informal sector, accurate economic measures are difficult to obtain. In 2005, Paraguay had a current account deficit of $190 million, with a large deficit in the trade of goods, but with a surplus in services, reflecting exports of electricity from Paraguay's two large hydroelectric dams shared with Brazil and Argentina. In 2005, official foreign exchange reserves rose to $1.29 billion, an increase of 10.8% over 2004, and an increase of more than 100% from 2002 ($582.8 million). Foreign official debt rose slightly to $2.73 billion. Inflation in 2005 rose to 9.9%, up from 2.8% in 2004 which was the lowest rate since 1970.

===Agriculture and Commerce===
[[File:Lago Ypacarai Paraguay.jpg|thumb|Lake Ypacarai.]]
Agricultural activities, most of which are for export, represent about 25.5% of GDP and employ just under half of the workforce. More than 200,000 families depend on subsistence farming activities and maintain marginal ties to the larger productive sector of the economy. In addition to commercial sector with retail, banking and professional services, there is a significant activity involving the import of goods from Asia and the United States for re-export to neighboring countries. The recorded activities of this sector have declined significantly in recent years, largely in response to tighter controls on imports and contraband on the part of Brazil. The underground economy, which is not included in the national accounts, may equal the formal economy in size, although the greater enforcement efforts by the tax administration are having an impact on the informal sector.
{{Clear}}

==History==
[[File:Jesuit Reduction in Trinidad Paraguay.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Jesuit Reduction in Trinidad.]]
Pre-Columbian civilization in the fertile, wooded region that is now Paraguay consisted of numerous seminomadic, Guarani-speaking tribes, who were recognized for their fierce warrior traditions. They practiced a mythical polytheistic religion, which later blended with Christianity. Spanish explorer Juan de Salazar founded Asuncion on the Feast Day of the Assumption, August 15, 1537. The city eventually became the center of a Spanish colonial province. Paraguay declared its independence by overthrowing the local Spanish authorities in May 1811.

The country's formative years saw three strong leaders who established the tradition of personal rule that lasted until 1989: Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia, Carlos Antonio Lopez, and his son, Francisco Solano Lopez. The younger Lopez waged a war against Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil (War of the Triple Alliance, 1864–70) in which Paraguay lost half its population; afterward, Brazilian troops occupied the country until 1874. A succession of presidents governed Paraguay under the banner of the Colorado Party from 1880 until 1904, when the Liberal party seized control, ruling with only a brief interruption until 1940.

In the 1930s and 1940s, Paraguayan politics were defined by the Chaco war against Bolivia, a civil war, dictatorships, and periods of extreme political instability. Gen. [[Alfredo Stroessner]] took power in May 1954. Elected to complete the unexpired term of his predecessor, he was re-elected president seven times, ruling almost continuously under the state-of-siege provision of the constitution with support from the military and the Colorado Party. During Stroessner's 35-year reign, political freedoms were severely limited, and opponents of the regime were systematically harassed and persecuted in the name of national security and anticommunism. Though a 1967 constitution gave dubious legitimacy to Stroessner's control, Paraguay became progressively isolated from the world community.
[[File:Julian de la Herreria obli 1995 Andrés Campos Cervera.jpg|thumb|by Julian de la Herreria.]]

On February 3, 1989, Stroessner was overthrown in a military coup headed by Gen. Andres Rodriguez. Rodriguez, as the Colorado Party candidate, easily won the presidency in elections held that May, and the Colorado Party dominated the Congress. In 1991 municipal elections, however, opposition candidates won several major urban centers, including Asuncion. As president, Rodriguez instituted political, legal, and economic reforms and initiated a rapprochement with the international community.

The June 1992 constitution established a democratic system of government and dramatically improved protection of fundamental rights. In May 1993, Colorado Party candidate Juan Carlos Wasmosy was elected as Paraguay's first civilian president in almost 40 years in what international observers deemed fair and free elections. The newly elected majority-opposition Congress quickly demonstrated its independence from the executive by rescinding legislation passed by the previous Colorado-dominated Congress. With support from the United States, the Organization of American States, and other countries in the region, the Paraguayan people rejected an April 1996 attempt by then-Army Chief Gen. Lino Oviedo to oust President Wasmosy, taking an important step to strengthen democracy.

Oviedo became the Colorado candidate for president in the 1998 election, but when the Supreme Court upheld in April his conviction on charges related to the 1996 coup attempt, he was not allowed to run and remained in confinement. His running mate, Raul Cubas Grau, became the Colorado Party's candidate and was elected in May. The assassination of Vice-President Luis Maria Argana and the killing of eight student anti-government demonstrators, allegedly carried out by Oviedo supporters, led to Cubas’ resignation in March 1999. The President of the Senate, Luis Gonzalez Macchi, assumed the presidency and completed Cubas’ term. Gonzalez Macchi offered cabinet positions in his government to senior representatives of all three political parties in an attempt to create a coalition government that proved short-lived. Gonzalez Macchi's government suffered many allegations of corruption, and Gonzalez himself was found not guilty in a Senate impeachment trial involving corruption and mismanagement charges in February 2003.
[[File:Chiperas Paraguay.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Paraguayan traditional costumes.]]
In April 2003, Colorado candidate Nicanor Duarte Frutos was elected president. He was inaugurated on August 15. Duarte's administration has established a mixed record on attacking corruption and improving the quality of management. In his first year, Duarte worked constructively with an opposition-controlled Congress, removing six Supreme Court justices suspected of corruption from office and enacting major tax reforms. While Duarte remains the most dominant political figure, he faced stiff opposition mid-term from the opposition strongly opposed to his efforts to amend the Constitution to allow him to run for reelection. Macroeconomic performance has improved significantly under the Duarte administration, with inflation falling significantly, and the government clearing its arrears with international creditors. Unemployment remains stubbornly high and the living standard of most households has not improved. The administration has placed a strong emphasis on participating in international institutions and has used diplomacy to promote the opening of international markets to Paraguayan products. In June 2004, Oviedo returned to Paraguay from exile in Brazil and was imprisoned for his 1996 coup-plotting conviction.

[[File:Mario Abdo Benítez.jpg|200px|thumbnail|Mario Abdo Benítez, former President of Paraguay, he is [[Conservative]] and he opposes the [[gender ideology]].]]
In {{CURRENTYEAR}}, Paraguay's government is socially conservative.<ref>Smits, Jeanne (March 29, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/paraguay-education-minister-bans-libertine-gender-ideology-course-in-public-schools Paraguay education minister bans ‘libertine’ gender ideology course in public schools]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved March 29, 2019.</ref> In 2023 the right-wing candidate Santiago Peña was elected.

 
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1984.htm]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Paraguay]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Bolivia

2024-06-02T23:02:52Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name = ''Plurinational State of Bolivia''
|map = Bolivia rel 2006.jpg
|map2 = Bolivia1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms = Arms of Bolivia.png
|capital-raw = [[Sucre]] (constitutional and judicial) [[La Paz]] (executive and legislative)
|government = Plurinational State
|government-raw =
|language = Spanish
|language2 = [[Quechua]], [[Aymara]]
|president = Luis Arce
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area = 424,163 sq mi
|pop = 11,750,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp = $40,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc = $3,404 (2020)
|currency = Boliviano
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Bolivia''' is a Spanish colony in [[South America]]. Bolivia has two capital cities: La Paz (administrative) and [[Sucre]] (judicial). Bolivia is located southeast of [[Peru]], south of [[Brazil]], north of [[Paraguay]] and [[Argentina]], and east of [[Chile]]. It is notorious for its high consumption of coca leaves, which are used in the production of [[cocaine]]. The current president of Bolivia is [[Luis Arce]], former minister of the [[Socialism|Socialist]] [[Evo Morales]].

Bolivia is divided into nine major political divisions, known as departments: [[Beni]], [[Chuquisaca]], [[Cochabamba]], [[La Paz]], [[Oruro]], [[Pando]], [[Potosí]], [[Santa Cruz]], and [[Tarija]]. Until recently, each department was governed by a prefect who was appointed by the president; however, this changed on December 18, 2005, when the first popular elections for prefects were held.

Bolivia's geography is very diverse, ranging from towering mountains in the west and south-west areas of the country to the [[Amazon]] jungle and savannas in the north to the [[Gran Chaco|Chaco]] and swamps in the east and south-east. In central Bolivia lies the [[Salar de Uyuni]] which is the world's largest and highest salt flat.

== People ==
[[File:La Morenada Mestizos Bolivia.jpg|left|260px]]
Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 55% indigenous, 15% European, and 30% mixed or mestizo (self-identified). The largest of the approximately three-dozen indigenous groups are the Quechua (29% or 2.5 million), Aymara (24% or 2 million), Chiquitano (1% or 180,000), and Guarani (1% or 125,000). No other indigenous groups represent more than 0.5% of the population. There are small German, former Yugoslav, Asian, Middle Eastern, and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations.

Bolivia is one of the least-developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about 10 per square kilometer (25 per sq. mi.) in the central highlands. The annual population growth rate is about 1.45% (2006).

La Paz is the highest of the world's capital cities—3,600 meters (11,800 ft.) above sea level. The adjacent city of El Alto, at 4,200 meters (13,800 ft.) above sea level, is one of the fastest-growing in the hemisphere. Santa Cruz, the commercial and industrial hub of the eastern lowlands, also is experiencing rapid population and economic growth.

The great majority of Bolivians are Roman Catholic (the official religion), although Protestant denominations are expanding rapidly. Many indigenous communities interweave pre-Columbian and Christian symbols in their religious practices.

About half of the people speak Spanish as their first language. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary school but often for a year or less. The literacy rate is low in many rural areas.

The cultural development of what is present-day Bolivia is divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, Samaipata, Incallajta, and Iskanwaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.

The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local indigenous and mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture, painting, and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque." The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Perez de Holguin, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of native baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.

Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include, among others, Guzman de Rojas, Arturo Borda, Maria Luisa Pacheco, and Marina Nunez del Prado. Bolivia has rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco.

==Government==
The 1967 constitution, revised in 1994, provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to deliberating legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of a Supreme Court, an independent Constitutional Court, and departmental and lower courts, has long been plagued by corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system.

For the first time in history, Bolivians chose their departmental prefects (similar to governors) by popular vote on December 18, 2005. Bolivia's nine departments received greater autonomy under the administrative decentralization law of 1995, although several departments—especially Santa Cruz and Tarija—are seeking increased autonomy. In a July 2006 referendum, Bolivia's four eastern provinces voted in favor of increasing regional autonomy, and the other five provinces opposed the measure. The autonomy movement rallied around Sucre's August 2007 demand that the constituent assembly consider moving all branches of government to the traditional capital. Civic committees in six departments (Santa Cruz, Tarija, Beni, Pando, Cochabamba, and Chuquisaca) supported hunger strikes and protests in Sucre, which led to Bolivian Government-sponsored talks between Sucre and La Paz leaders, which were inconclusive as of September 2007. Some government-aligned parliamentarians have advocated popular elections for the civic committees, which they claim disproportionately represent elite and opposition interests.

Bolivian cities and towns are governed by directly elected mayors and councils. Municipal elections were held in December 2004, with councils elected to 5-year terms. The popular participation law of April 1994, which requires a 20% allocation of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make improvements in their facilities and services.

=== Principal Government Officials ===

*President—[[Luis Arce]]
*Vice President—
*President of the Senate—
*President of the Chamber of Deputies—

=== Foreign Relations ===
Bolivia traditionally has maintained normal diplomatic relations with all hemispheric states except Chile. Relations with Chile, strained since Bolivia's defeat in the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–83) and its loss of the coastal province of Antofagasta, were severed from 1962 to 1975 in a dispute over the use of the waters of the Lauca River. Relations were resumed in 1975, but broken again in 1978, over the inability of the two countries to reach an agreement that might have granted Bolivia sovereign access to the sea. They are maintained today below the ambassadorial level.

In the 1960s, relations with Cuba were broken following Castro's rise to power but resumed under the Paz Estenssoro administration in 1985. Under President Morales, relations between Bolivia and Cuba have improved considerably, and Cuba has sent doctors and teachers to Bolivia. Relations have also improved with Venezuela, which has provided financial assistance to Bolivian municipalities, armed forces, and police since Morales took office. The Bolivian and Venezuelan Governments are also working closely together in the petrochemical industry, with plans to expand cooperation into the mining sector and advance the Venezuelan-sponsored [[Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas]] (ALBA) trade bloc. The Bolivian government announced it would pursue formal relations with Iran and Libya in September 2007, with plans to cooperate in the petrochemical industry and increase Bolivian exports to both countries.

Bolivia has pursued a foreign policy with a heavy economic component and the Morales government seems to be following in this same tradition. Bolivia has become more active in the Organization of American States (OAS), the Rio Group, and Mercosur, with which it signed an association agreement in 1996. Bolivia promotes its policies on sustainable development and the empowerment of indigenous people.

Bolivia is a member of the UN and some of its specialized agencies and related programs, the Organization of American States (OAS), CAN, Non-Aligned Movement, International Parliamentary Union, Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), World Trade Organization (WTO), Rio Treaty, Rio Group, Amazon Pact, and an associate member of Mercosur. As an outgrowth of the 1994 Summit of the Americas, Bolivia hosted a hemispheric summit conference on sustainable development in December 1996.

== Economy ==
Bolivia's estimated 2006 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled $10.3 billion. Economic growth was estimated at 4.5%, and inflation was estimated at 4.3%.

In 1985, the Government of Bolivia implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating poverty. The most important change involved the "capitalization" (privatization) of numerous public sector enterprises. Parallel legislative reforms locked in place market-oriented policies that encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies is virtually unrestricted in Bolivia. Many of these reforms are currently under review. Nationalizations have taken place in both the hydrocarbon and mining sectors, and the role of the state in the economy continues to be a primary goal of the Morales administration. Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows have dwindled as has long-term investment across most industrial sectors.

The hydrocarbon sector provides the most prominent example of the current investment climate. Bolivia has the second-largest natural gas reserves in South America. The Bolivian state oil corporation, Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB), has contracts to supply Brazil with natural gas through existing pipelines until 2019. Moreover, in 2006, YPFB signed a "ramp-up" contract with Argentina that steadily increases export levels until 2010, when gas deliveries to Argentina should be more than four times current levels. It does not appear, however, that Bolivia will be able to supply both the domestic market and these contractual obligations. Lack of investment has led to stagnating production. It is estimated that from 2006 to 2007 production will actually decrease slightly. Companies appear to be investing only what is necessary to maintain current operations.

In April 2000, massive protests over widely criticized plans to privatize the water utility in the city of Cochabamba erupted into massive nationwide violence. The government eventually canceled the contract without compensation to the investors, returning the utility to public control. International shareholders' outstanding claims were finally resolved in January 2006, when the Government of Bolivia agreed to purchase 80% of the shares in Aguas del Tunari, the joint venture company originally selected to manage the Cochabamba water concession.

Bolivian exports were approximately $3.7 billion for 2006, up from $652 million in 1991. Imports were $2.9 billion in 2006. Bolivia enjoyed a $500 million trade surplus in the first half of 2006. Bolivian tariffs are uniformly low (10%), with capital equipment entering duty-free or incurring 5% tariffs.

Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing, in part because of several regional preferential trade agreements. Bolivia is a member of the Andean Community (CAN) and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries (Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia). Bolivia is also an associate member of Mercosur (Southern Cone Common Market). The Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA) allows numerous Bolivian products to enter the United States duty-free, including alpaca and llama products and, subject to a quota, cotton textiles. The Bolivian Government has expressed interest in extending ATPDEA benefits beyond their February 2008 expiration date (extended from June 2007).

In 2006, the United States exported $197 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $362 million. Bolivia's major exports to the United States are tin, gold, jewelry, and wood products, with textiles playing an increasingly important role. Its major imports from the United States are electronic equipment, chemicals, vehicles, wheat, and machinery. A bilateral investment treaty (BIT) between the United States and Bolivia came into effect in 2001.

Agriculture accounts for roughly 12.8% of Bolivia's GDP. The amount of land cultivated by modern farming techniques is increasing rapidly in the Santa Cruz area, where the weather allows for two crops a year. Soybeans are the major cash crop, sold in the CAN market. The extraction of minerals and hydrocarbons accounts for another 11% of GDP and manufacturing around 17%.

The Government of Bolivia remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At the end of 2006, the government owed $3.2 billion to foreign creditors, with 12% of this amount owed to other governments and the balance owed to multilateral development banks. Between 1986 and 1998, Bolivia attended seven rounds of negotiations with Paris Club creditors and received U.S. $1.35 billion of bilateral debt forgiveness. The United States forgave almost all of Bolivia's bilateral debt between 1999 and 2002 and strongly supported efforts to have multilateral institutions do the same. Bolivia received U.S. $1.95 billion in debt relief from HIPC (Heavily Indebted Poor Countries) I in 1998 and HIPC II in 2001, including almost complete bilateral debt forgiveness.

In June 2005, the G-8 countries decided to provide renewed World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) debt relief for the 18 participant nations of HIPC I and II through the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). Bolivia received the U.S. $232.5 million in debt relief from the IMF in January 2006 and the approximately U.S. $1.5 billion in debt relief from the World Bank in June 2006. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) forgave $1 billion in debt in March 2007. Bolivia was one of three countries in the Western Hemisphere selected for eligibility for the Millennium Challenge Account in 2004. Bolivia qualified again in 2005 and 2006 and presented a proposal to the Millennium Challenge Corporation in December 2005, which has been superseded by a new proposal submitted in September 2007.

== History ==
[[File:Bolivar.jpg|thumb|[[Simon Bolivar]].]]
The Andean region probably has been inhabited for some 20,000 years. Beginning about the 2nd century B.C., the Tiwanakan culture developed at the southern end of Lake Titicaca. This culture, centered around and named for the great city of Tiwanaku, developed advanced architectural and agricultural techniques before it disappeared around 1200 A.D., probably because of extended drought. Roughly contemporaneous with the Tiwanakan culture, the Moxos in the eastern lowlands and the Mollos north of present-day La Paz also developed advanced agricultural societies that had dissipated by the 13th century. In about 1450, the Quechua-speaking Incas entered the area of modern highland Bolivia and added it to their empire. They controlled the area until the Spanish conquest in 1525.

During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern Sucre). Bolivian silver mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, and Potosi, site of the famed Cerro Rico--"Rich Mountain"—was, for many years, the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew. Independence was proclaimed in 1809, but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for Simon Bolivar, on August 6, 1825.

Independence did not bring stability. For nearly 60 years, coups and short-lived constitutions dominated Bolivian politics. Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–83), when it lost its seacoast and the adjoining rich nitrate fields to Chile.

An increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late 1800s. During the early part of the 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elites followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first third of the century.

Living conditions of the indigenous peoples, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–35) marked a turning point. Great loss of life and territory discredited the traditional ruling classes, while service in the army produced stirrings of political awareness among the indigenous people. From the end of the Chaco War until the 1952 revolution, the emergence of contending ideologies and the demands of new groups convulsed Bolivian politics.

=== Revolution and Turmoil ===
The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President Victor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, carried out sweeping land reforms, promoted rural education, and nationalized the country's largest tin mines.

Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military [[junta]] overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President [[Rene Barrientos]], a former member of the junta elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) Hugo Banzer Suarez as president in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities.

The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but human rights violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in 1978, and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil. Elections in 1978, 1979, and 1980 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments.

In 1980, Gen. Luis Garcia Meza carried out a ruthless and violent coup. His government was notorious for human rights abuses, narcotics trafficking, and economic mismanagement. Later convicted in absentia for crimes, including murder, Garcia Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year sentence in 1995.

After a military rebellion forced out Garcia Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982–22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956–60)--Hernan Siles Zuazo again became president. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.

=== Return to Democracy ===
In the 1985 elections, the Nationalist Democratic Action Party (ADN) of Gen. [[Hugo Banzer|Banzer]] won a plurality of the popular vote (33%), followed by former President Paz Estenssoro's MNR (30%) and former Vice President Jaime Paz Zamora's Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR, at 10%). But in the congressional run-off, the MIR sided with MNR, and Paz Estenssoro was chosen for the fourth time as president. When he took office in 1985, he faced a staggering economic crisis. Economic output and exports had been declining for several years. Hyperinflation had reached an annual rate of 24,000%. Social unrest, chronic strikes, and drug trafficking were widespread.

In four years, Paz Estenssoro's administration achieved economic and social stability. The military stayed out of politics and all major political parties publicly and institutionally committed themselves to democracy. Human rights violations, which badly tainted some governments earlier in the decade, were greatly reduced. However, Paz Estenssoro's remarkable accomplishments were not won without sacrifice. The collapse of tin prices in October 1985, coming just as the government was moving to reassert its control of the mismanaged state mining enterprise, forced the government to lay off over 20,000 miners. The highly successful shock treatment that restored Bolivia's financial system also led to some unrest and temporary social dislocation.

MNR candidate Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada finished first in the 1989 elections (23%), though, again, no candidate received a majority of popular votes, so Congress determined who would be president. The Patriotic Accord (AP) between Gen. Banzer's ADN and Jaime Paz Zamora's MIR, the second- and third-place finishers (at 22.7% and 19.6%, respectively), led to Paz Zamora's assuming the presidency.

Paz Zamora was a moderate, center-left president whose political pragmatism in office outweighed his Marxist origins. He continued the economic reforms begun by Paz Estenssoro. Paz Zamora also took a fairly hard line against domestic terrorism, authorizing a 1990 attack on terrorists of the Nestor Paz Zamora Committee and the 1992 crackdown on the Tupac Katari Guerrilla Army (EGTK).

The 1993 elections continued the tradition of open, honest elections and peaceful democratic transitions of power. The MNR defeated the ruling coalition, and Gonzalo "Goni" Sanchez de Lozada was named president by a coalition in Congress.

Sanchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda, relying heavily on successful entrepreneurs-turned-politicians like him. The most dramatic program--"capitalization," a form of privatization under which investors acquired 50% ownership and management control of the state oil corporation, telecommunications system, airlines, railroads, and electric utilities, with moneys directed to the pension system instead of the Treasury—was strongly opposed by certain segments of society, with frequent and sometimes violent protests from 1994 through 1996.

In the 1997 elections, Gen. Hugo Banzer, leader of the ADN, defeated the MNR candidate. The Banzer government continued the free market and privatization policies of its predecessor, and the relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until regional, global, and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Job creation remained limited throughout this period, and public perception of corruption was high. Both factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.

Banzer instructed special police units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic four-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. In 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Banzer's U.S.-educated Vice President, Jorge Quiroga, completed the final year of the term.

In the 2002 national elections, former President Sanchez de Lozada (MNR) again placed first with 22.5% of the vote, this time followed by coca-growing syndicate leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion.

A four-year economic recession, tight fiscal situation, and longstanding tensions between the military and police led to the February 12–13, 2003, violence that left more than 30 people dead and nearly toppled Sanchez de Lozada's government. The government stayed in power, but was unpopular.

Trouble began again in September 2003 when a group of tourists became trapped in the town of Sorata. After days of unfruitful negotiations, Bolivian security forces launched a rescue operation, but on the way out, were ambushed by armed peasants and a number of people were killed on both sides. The incident ignited passions throughout the highlands and united a loose coalition of protestors to pressure the government into halting the proposed project to export liquefied natural gas, most likely through Chile. Anti-Chile sentiment and memories of three major cycles of non-renewable commodity exports (silver through the 19th century, guano and rubber later in that century, and tin in the 20th century) touched a nerve with many citizens. Tensions grew and La Paz was subjected to protesters' blockades. Violent confrontations ensued, and most of the approximately 60 deaths occurred when security forces tried to bring supplies into the besieged city.

In the end, large demonstrations forced Sanchez de Lozada to resign on October 17, 2003. Vice President Carlos Mesa Gisbert assumed office and restored order. Mesa appointed a non-political cabinet and promised to revise the constitution through a constituent assembly, revise the hydrocarbons law, and hold a binding referendum on the country's natural gas deposits. The referendum took place on July 18, 2004, and Bolivians voted overwhelmingly in favor of the development of the nation's hydrocarbons resources. But the referendum did not end social unrest. Large-scale protests led to Congress approving a confiscatory hydrocarbons law on May 17, 2005. After a brief pause, demonstrations resumed, particularly in La Paz and El Alto. President Mesa offered his resignation on June 6, and Eduardo Rodriguez, the president of the Supreme Court, assumed office in a constitutional transfer of power. Rodriguez announced that he was a transitional president, and called for early elections within six months.

=== Morales Administration (2006–2019) ===
[[File:Evo Morales C Fernandez y F Lugo.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Morales with the then presidents of Argentina and Paraguay (both socialists).]]
On December 18, 2005, MAS candidate Juan Evo Morales Ayma was elected to the presidency by 54% of the voters. During his campaign, Morales, a coca union leader of indigenous descent, vowed to nationalize hydrocarbons and alleviate poverty and discrimination toward indigenous people. Morales was and remains highly critical of the "neo-liberal" economic policies that have been implemented in Bolivia over the past several decades. On January 22, 2006, Morales and his Vice President Alvaro García Linera was inaugurated into office.

Since then, President Morales has moved to fulfill his campaign promises, including raising the ceiling for licit coca cultivation from 12,000 hectares to 20,000 hectares. On May 1, 2006, the government issued a decree "nationalizing" the hydrocarbons sector and calling for the renegotiation of contracts with hydrocarbons companies. In November 2006, the government and companies signed new contracts that should result in higher revenues for the government; however, vagaries in the contracts are requiring further negotiations and clarification. Morales has continued to promote greater state control of natural resource industries, particularly hydrocarbons and mining (see Economy section.) These policies have pleased Morales' supporters, but have complicated Bolivia's relations with some of its neighboring countries, foreign investors, and members of the international community.
Under the leadership of Morales and his institution of socialist-oriented economic policies, Bolivia's GDP grew an average of 4.8% a year from 2004 to 2017, while the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty was more than halved from approximately 36% down to 17% during that time. This extremely-rare success of socialist economic policies earned Morales massive public support. However, his massive economic success came at a major cost to the natural environmental splendor of Bolivia, as he prioritized Economic gain above the environment. His encouragement of slash-and-burn farming has led to large wildfires that devastated the delicate forest ecosystems of the Bolivian Amazon, with more than 250,000 acres of forest lost of fire.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/11/26/781199250/how-evo-morales-made-bolivia-a-better-place-before-he-was-forced-to-flee|title=How Evo Morales Made Bolivia A Better Place ... Before He Fled The Country|date=November 26, 2019|publisher=NPR|language=en}}</ref>

President Morales also secured passage of legislation convoking a special election for delegates to a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution. The MAS performed well in those elections, capturing 137 of 255 seats. The assembly convened on August 6, 2006, and planned to complete its work by August 2007; however, the Bolivian Congress extended its mandate to December 14, 2007. The assembly has made little progress to date, largely due to a political deadlock over the constituent assembly's voting rules. Although rules were ostensibly clarified in February 2007, the subject reemerged in August, after the legality of a vote to exclude the location of the capital was contested by the opposition. As of September 2007, the constituent assembly was in recess until October.

In Dec. 2009 President far-left [[Evo Morales]] won a second term by a landslide, with 61% of the vote; his '''Movement to Socialism''' party won a two-thirds majority in Congress. The results allow him to implement a new constitution granting new rights to indigenous peoples and to strengthen state control over the economy, which conservatives have denounced as socialism similar to that of [[Hugo Chavez]] in [[Venezuela]].<ref>see [https://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_ID=15065929 '"Economist'' report]</ref>

In 2019, Morales won the presidential election again, though his opponents alleged widespread fraud. This led to widespread protests which led to him fleeing the country, an event some of which have called a coup.<ref>Machicao, Monica; Ramos, Daniel; Limchi, Sergio (November 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election-democracy/bolivia-is-shattered-election-crisis-leaves-deeply-divided-nation-idUSKBN1XK0K0 'Bolivia is shattered': Election crisis leaves deeply divided nation]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.</ref> Amid massive anti-Morales protests, the military called on him to step down and members of the police joined the protestors.<ref>Multiple references:
*Ramos, Daniel; Machicao, Monica (November 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election/bolivias-morales-teeters-as-allies-resign-in-election-backlash-idUSKBN1XK07T Bolivia's military calls on Morales to step down as election fallout widens]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Ramos, Daniel (November 9, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election/bolivian-government-decries-coup-as-some-police-join-protests-idUSKBN1XJ0A2 Bolivia military says won't 'confront' the people as pressure on Morales builds]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Phillips, Morgan (November 10, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/police-join-protesters-abandon-their-posts-outside-bolivias-presidential-palace Police join protesters, abandon their posts outside Bolivia's presidential palace]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election/bolivian-police-seen-joining-scattered-anti-morales-protests-idUSKBN1XI20M Bolivian police seen joining scattered anti-Morales protests]. ''Reuters''. November 8, 2019. Retrieved November 10, 2019.</ref> On November 10, 2019, under heavy pressure and without support, Morales announced he would resign.<ref>Multiple references:
*Bowden, John (November 10, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/469821-bolivian-president-announces-resignation-amid-protests Bolivian president announces resignation amid protests]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Miles, Frank (November 10, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/bolivia-president-evo-morales-resigns-election-fraud-allegations Bolivia's socialist President Evo Morales resigns amid election fraud allegations]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Halaschak, Zachary; Becker, Carlin (November 10, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/bolivian-president-announces-resignation-after-weeks-of-protests ‘This is not Venezuela!’: Socialist leader of Bolivia Evo Morales resigns as protests roil nation]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Forero, Juan; Dube, Ryan (November 10, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/bolivia-s-president-evo-morales-calls-for-new-presidential-elections-11573391449 Bolivian President Resigns After Re-Election Marred by Fraud Allegations]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Flores, Paola; Valdez, Carlos (November 10, 2019). [https://apnews.com/e4e1977c3e48426f927ce900d2818b4f Bolivia’s president resigns amid election-fraud allegations]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Ramos, Daniel; Machicao, Monica (November 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election/bolivias-morales-resigns-after-protests-lashes-out-at-coup-idUSKBN1XK07T Bolivia's Morales resigns after protests, lashes out at 'coup']. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
See also:
*Berwick, Angus (November 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election-latam/resignation-of-morales-last-of-pink-tide-polarizes-latin-america-idUSKBN1XK0NW Resignation of Morales, last of 'pink tide,' polarizes Latin America]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Otis, John; Forero, Juan (November 11, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/bolivians-celebrate-or-protest-after-president-resigns-11573488650 Bolivia Leaderless After President Quits]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
*Slattery, Gram (November 14, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election-ticktock-insight/how-evo-morales-lost-control-of-bolivia-idUSKBN1XO2PQ How Evo Morales lost control of Bolivia]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 14, 2019.
*Humire, Joseph M. (December 1, 2019). [https://thehill.com/opinion/international/472356-dispelling-myths-about-the-battle-for-democracy-in-bolivia Dispelling myths about the battle for democracy in Bolivia]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved December 1, 2019.</ref>

=== Jeanine Áñez transitional government (2019–2020) ===
[[File:Jeanine Áñez.jpg|thumbnail|150px|[[Jeanine Áñez]], Conservative Interim President of Bolivia.]]
In November 2019 the [[right-wing]] [[conservative]] senator [[Jeanine Áñez]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/16/world/americas/bolivia-anez-morales.html|title=In Bolivia, Interim Leader Sets Conservative, Religious Tone|publisher= The New York Times|date=November 26, 2019}}</ref> became interim President of Bolivia. During her first day in office she took a [[Bible]] to the presidential office in a sign of God returning to the government after the previous one only venerated Indigenous gods.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-50425098|title=Renuncia de Evo Morales: 4 símbolos con los que la presidenta en funciones de Bolivia quiere diferenciarse del gobierno de Morales|date=November 14, 2019|publisher=BBC World|language=es}}</ref>

She openly denounces Socialists and said that they always want to perpetuate in power.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://youtu.be/2bQpr8_9itI|title=Jeanine Áñez: Don Evo Morales es un estafador de la democracia|date=November 12, 2019|publisher=CNN|language=es}}</ref>

She also implemented a flag in the representation of the Eastern part of Bolivia, and changed the official newspaper (used in Evo's government as propaganda) name from ''Cambio'' to ''Bolivia''.

Áñez gave more power to the military to control the situation in the country, however, she was widely criticized domestically as well as internationally for major human rights abuses against the native Indigenous population, of which were major supporters of former president Morales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.clarin.com/mundo/bolivia-decreto-jeanine-anez-quitarle-responsabilidad-penal-fuerzas-armadas-protestas_0_AwNOgZKd.html|title=Bolivia: el decreto de Jeanine Áñez para quitarle la "responsabilidad penal" a las Fuerzas Armadas ante las protestas|publisher=Clarin|language=es|date=November 16, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The world’s as divided about Bolivia’s alleged coup as Bolivians themselves|url=https://qz.com/1748281/experts-are-divided-on-evo-morales-and-bolivias-alleged-coup/|publisher=Quartz|date=November 15, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/bolivia-anez-celebrates-militarys-209th-anniversary/1646402|title=Bolivia: Anez celebrates military's 209th anniversary|date=November 15, 2019|publisher=AA}}</ref>

In October 2020 elections were made and the Jeanine Áñez Administration ended on November 8, 2020. The Elections resulted in a landslide victory for the Movimiento al Socialismo candidate, Luis Arce.

=== Luis Arce Presidency (2020–) ===

Luis Arce, a socialist-oriented economist-turned-politician from the Movimiento al Socialismo party, won the presidency in a landslide vote of 55% and began the path of undoing the changes that former president Áñez had on Bolivia.

In March 2021, the former interim President Áñez was arrested with the charge of 'sedition' after she tried to flee the country to Brazil via Private Plane.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/Bolivia-Jeanine-Anez-Prevented-From-Leaving-the-Country.-20201124-0015.html|title=JBolivia: Jeanine Anez Prevented From Leaving the Country|date=Nov 24, 2020|publisher=Telesur|language=en}}</ref> Other former government officials from her Administration are being prosecuted for alleged corruption as well as human rights abuses, including attempted genocide.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/08/23/bolivia-anez-genocide/|title=Anez genocide prosecution tests Bolivian justice under Arce|date=Aug 23, 2021|publisher=Washington Post|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35751.htm]

{{Nb countries south america}}
[[Category:Bolivia]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Bolivia

2024-06-02T23:02:30Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name = ''Plurinational State of Bolivia''
|map = Bolivia rel 2006.jpg
|map2 = Bolivia1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms = Arms of Bolivia.png
|capital-raw = [[Sucre]] (constitutional and judicial) [[La Paz]] (executive and legislative)
|government = Plurinational State
|government-raw =
|language = Spanish
|language2 = [[Quechua]], [[Aymara]]
|president = Luis Arce
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
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|pm =
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|area = 424,163 sq mi
|pop = 11,750,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp = $40,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc = $3,404 (2020)
|currency = Boliviano
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}}
'''Bolivia''' is a [[country]] in [[South America]]. Bolivia has two capital cities: La Paz (administrative) and [[Sucre]] (judicial). Bolivia is located southeast of [[Peru]], south of [[Brazil]], north of [[Paraguay]] and [[Argentina]], and east of [[Chile]]. It is notorious for its high consumption of coca leaves, which are used in the production of [[cocaine]]. The current president of Bolivia is [[Luis Arce]], former minister of the [[Socialism|Socialist]] [[Evo Morales]].

Bolivia is divided into nine major political divisions, known as departments: [[Beni]], [[Chuquisaca]], [[Cochabamba]], [[La Paz]], [[Oruro]], [[Pando]], [[Potosí]], [[Santa Cruz]], and [[Tarija]]. Until recently, each department was governed by a prefect who was appointed by the president; however, this changed on December 18, 2005, when the first popular elections for prefects were held.

Bolivia's geography is very diverse, ranging from towering mountains in the west and south-west areas of the country to the [[Amazon]] jungle and savannas in the north to the [[Gran Chaco|Chaco]] and swamps in the east and south-east. In central Bolivia lies the [[Salar de Uyuni]] which is the world's largest and highest salt flat.

== People ==
[[File:La Morenada Mestizos Bolivia.jpg|left|260px]]
Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 55% indigenous, 15% European, and 30% mixed or mestizo (self-identified). The largest of the approximately three-dozen indigenous groups are the Quechua (29% or 2.5 million), Aymara (24% or 2 million), Chiquitano (1% or 180,000), and Guarani (1% or 125,000). No other indigenous groups represent more than 0.5% of the population. There are small German, former Yugoslav, Asian, Middle Eastern, and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations.

Bolivia is one of the least-developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about 10 per square kilometer (25 per sq. mi.) in the central highlands. The annual population growth rate is about 1.45% (2006).

La Paz is the highest of the world's capital cities—3,600 meters (11,800 ft.) above sea level. The adjacent city of El Alto, at 4,200 meters (13,800 ft.) above sea level, is one of the fastest-growing in the hemisphere. Santa Cruz, the commercial and industrial hub of the eastern lowlands, also is experiencing rapid population and economic growth.

The great majority of Bolivians are Roman Catholic (the official religion), although Protestant denominations are expanding rapidly. Many indigenous communities interweave pre-Columbian and Christian symbols in their religious practices.

About half of the people speak Spanish as their first language. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary school but often for a year or less. The literacy rate is low in many rural areas.

The cultural development of what is present-day Bolivia is divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, Samaipata, Incallajta, and Iskanwaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.

The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local indigenous and mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture, painting, and sculpture known as "Mestizo Baroque." The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Perez de Holguin, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of native baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.

Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include, among others, Guzman de Rojas, Arturo Borda, Maria Luisa Pacheco, and Marina Nunez del Prado. Bolivia has rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco.

==Government==
The 1967 constitution, revised in 1994, provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to deliberating legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of a Supreme Court, an independent Constitutional Court, and departmental and lower courts, has long been plagued by corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system.

For the first time in history, Bolivians chose their departmental prefects (similar to governors) by popular vote on December 18, 2005. Bolivia's nine departments received greater autonomy under the administrative decentralization law of 1995, although several departments—especially Santa Cruz and Tarija—are seeking increased autonomy. In a July 2006 referendum, Bolivia's four eastern provinces voted in favor of increasing regional autonomy, and the other five provinces opposed the measure. The autonomy movement rallied around Sucre's August 2007 demand that the constituent assembly consider moving all branches of government to the traditional capital. Civic committees in six departments (Santa Cruz, Tarija, Beni, Pando, Cochabamba, and Chuquisaca) supported hunger strikes and protests in Sucre, which led to Bolivian Government-sponsored talks between Sucre and La Paz leaders, which were inconclusive as of September 2007. Some government-aligned parliamentarians have advocated popular elections for the civic committees, which they claim disproportionately represent elite and opposition interests.

Bolivian cities and towns are governed by directly elected mayors and councils. Municipal elections were held in December 2004, with councils elected to 5-year terms. The popular participation law of April 1994, which requires a 20% allocation of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make improvements in their facilities and services.

=== Principal Government Officials ===

*President—[[Luis Arce]]
*Vice President—
*President of the Senate—
*President of the Chamber of Deputies—

=== Foreign Relations ===
Bolivia traditionally has maintained normal diplomatic relations with all hemispheric states except Chile. Relations with Chile, strained since Bolivia's defeat in the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–83) and its loss of the coastal province of Antofagasta, were severed from 1962 to 1975 in a dispute over the use of the waters of the Lauca River. Relations were resumed in 1975, but broken again in 1978, over the inability of the two countries to reach an agreement that might have granted Bolivia sovereign access to the sea. They are maintained today below the ambassadorial level.

In the 1960s, relations with Cuba were broken following Castro's rise to power but resumed under the Paz Estenssoro administration in 1985. Under President Morales, relations between Bolivia and Cuba have improved considerably, and Cuba has sent doctors and teachers to Bolivia. Relations have also improved with Venezuela, which has provided financial assistance to Bolivian municipalities, armed forces, and police since Morales took office. The Bolivian and Venezuelan Governments are also working closely together in the petrochemical industry, with plans to expand cooperation into the mining sector and advance the Venezuelan-sponsored [[Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas]] (ALBA) trade bloc. The Bolivian government announced it would pursue formal relations with Iran and Libya in September 2007, with plans to cooperate in the petrochemical industry and increase Bolivian exports to both countries.

Bolivia has pursued a foreign policy with a heavy economic component and the Morales government seems to be following in this same tradition. Bolivia has become more active in the Organization of American States (OAS), the Rio Group, and Mercosur, with which it signed an association agreement in 1996. Bolivia promotes its policies on sustainable development and the empowerment of indigenous people.

Bolivia is a member of the UN and some of its specialized agencies and related programs, the Organization of American States (OAS), CAN, Non-Aligned Movement, International Parliamentary Union, Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), World Trade Organization (WTO), Rio Treaty, Rio Group, Amazon Pact, and an associate member of Mercosur. As an outgrowth of the 1994 Summit of the Americas, Bolivia hosted a hemispheric summit conference on sustainable development in December 1996.

== Economy ==
Bolivia's estimated 2006 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled $10.3 billion. Economic growth was estimated at 4.5%, and inflation was estimated at 4.3%.

In 1985, the Government of Bolivia implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating poverty. The most important change involved the "capitalization" (privatization) of numerous public sector enterprises. Parallel legislative reforms locked in place market-oriented policies that encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies is virtually unrestricted in Bolivia. Many of these reforms are currently under review. Nationalizations have taken place in both the hydrocarbon and mining sectors, and the role of the state in the economy continues to be a primary goal of the Morales administration. Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows have dwindled as has long-term investment across most industrial sectors.

The hydrocarbon sector provides the most prominent example of the current investment climate. Bolivia has the second-largest natural gas reserves in South America. The Bolivian state oil corporation, Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB), has contracts to supply Brazil with natural gas through existing pipelines until 2019. Moreover, in 2006, YPFB signed a "ramp-up" contract with Argentina that steadily increases export levels until 2010, when gas deliveries to Argentina should be more than four times current levels. It does not appear, however, that Bolivia will be able to supply both the domestic market and these contractual obligations. Lack of investment has led to stagnating production. It is estimated that from 2006 to 2007 production will actually decrease slightly. Companies appear to be investing only what is necessary to maintain current operations.

In April 2000, massive protests over widely criticized plans to privatize the water utility in the city of Cochabamba erupted into massive nationwide violence. The government eventually canceled the contract without compensation to the investors, returning the utility to public control. International shareholders' outstanding claims were finally resolved in January 2006, when the Government of Bolivia agreed to purchase 80% of the shares in Aguas del Tunari, the joint venture company originally selected to manage the Cochabamba water concession.

Bolivian exports were approximately $3.7 billion for 2006, up from $652 million in 1991. Imports were $2.9 billion in 2006. Bolivia enjoyed a $500 million trade surplus in the first half of 2006. Bolivian tariffs are uniformly low (10%), with capital equipment entering duty-free or incurring 5% tariffs.

Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing, in part because of several regional preferential trade agreements. Bolivia is a member of the Andean Community (CAN) and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries (Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia). Bolivia is also an associate member of Mercosur (Southern Cone Common Market). The Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA) allows numerous Bolivian products to enter the United States duty-free, including alpaca and llama products and, subject to a quota, cotton textiles. The Bolivian Government has expressed interest in extending ATPDEA benefits beyond their February 2008 expiration date (extended from June 2007).

In 2006, the United States exported $197 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $362 million. Bolivia's major exports to the United States are tin, gold, jewelry, and wood products, with textiles playing an increasingly important role. Its major imports from the United States are electronic equipment, chemicals, vehicles, wheat, and machinery. A bilateral investment treaty (BIT) between the United States and Bolivia came into effect in 2001.

Agriculture accounts for roughly 12.8% of Bolivia's GDP. The amount of land cultivated by modern farming techniques is increasing rapidly in the Santa Cruz area, where the weather allows for two crops a year. Soybeans are the major cash crop, sold in the CAN market. The extraction of minerals and hydrocarbons accounts for another 11% of GDP and manufacturing around 17%.

The Government of Bolivia remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At the end of 2006, the government owed $3.2 billion to foreign creditors, with 12% of this amount owed to other governments and the balance owed to multilateral development banks. Between 1986 and 1998, Bolivia attended seven rounds of negotiations with Paris Club creditors and received U.S. $1.35 billion of bilateral debt forgiveness. The United States forgave almost all of Bolivia's bilateral debt between 1999 and 2002 and strongly supported efforts to have multilateral institutions do the same. Bolivia received U.S. $1.95 billion in debt relief from HIPC (Heavily Indebted Poor Countries) I in 1998 and HIPC II in 2001, including almost complete bilateral debt forgiveness.

In June 2005, the G-8 countries decided to provide renewed World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) debt relief for the 18 participant nations of HIPC I and II through the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). Bolivia received the U.S. $232.5 million in debt relief from the IMF in January 2006 and the approximately U.S. $1.5 billion in debt relief from the World Bank in June 2006. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) forgave $1 billion in debt in March 2007. Bolivia was one of three countries in the Western Hemisphere selected for eligibility for the Millennium Challenge Account in 2004. Bolivia qualified again in 2005 and 2006 and presented a proposal to the Millennium Challenge Corporation in December 2005, which has been superseded by a new proposal submitted in September 2007.

== History ==
[[File:Bolivar.jpg|thumb|[[Simon Bolivar]].]]
The Andean region probably has been inhabited for some 20,000 years. Beginning about the 2nd century B.C., the Tiwanakan culture developed at the southern end of Lake Titicaca. This culture, centered around and named for the great city of Tiwanaku, developed advanced architectural and agricultural techniques before it disappeared around 1200 A.D., probably because of extended drought. Roughly contemporaneous with the Tiwanakan culture, the Moxos in the eastern lowlands and the Mollos north of present-day La Paz also developed advanced agricultural societies that had dissipated by the 13th century. In about 1450, the Quechua-speaking Incas entered the area of modern highland Bolivia and added it to their empire. They controlled the area until the Spanish conquest in 1525.

During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern Sucre). Bolivian silver mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, and Potosi, site of the famed Cerro Rico--"Rich Mountain"—was, for many years, the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew. Independence was proclaimed in 1809, but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for Simon Bolivar, on August 6, 1825.

Independence did not bring stability. For nearly 60 years, coups and short-lived constitutions dominated Bolivian politics. Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–83), when it lost its seacoast and the adjoining rich nitrate fields to Chile.

An increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late 1800s. During the early part of the 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elites followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first third of the century.

Living conditions of the indigenous peoples, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–35) marked a turning point. Great loss of life and territory discredited the traditional ruling classes, while service in the army produced stirrings of political awareness among the indigenous people. From the end of the Chaco War until the 1952 revolution, the emergence of contending ideologies and the demands of new groups convulsed Bolivian politics.

=== Revolution and Turmoil ===
The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President Victor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, carried out sweeping land reforms, promoted rural education, and nationalized the country's largest tin mines.

Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military [[junta]] overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President [[Rene Barrientos]], a former member of the junta elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) Hugo Banzer Suarez as president in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities.

The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but human rights violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in 1978, and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil. Elections in 1978, 1979, and 1980 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments.

In 1980, Gen. Luis Garcia Meza carried out a ruthless and violent coup. His government was notorious for human rights abuses, narcotics trafficking, and economic mismanagement. Later convicted in absentia for crimes, including murder, Garcia Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year sentence in 1995.

After a military rebellion forced out Garcia Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982–22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956–60)--Hernan Siles Zuazo again became president. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.

=== Return to Democracy ===
In the 1985 elections, the Nationalist Democratic Action Party (ADN) of Gen. [[Hugo Banzer|Banzer]] won a plurality of the popular vote (33%), followed by former President Paz Estenssoro's MNR (30%) and former Vice President Jaime Paz Zamora's Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR, at 10%). But in the congressional run-off, the MIR sided with MNR, and Paz Estenssoro was chosen for the fourth time as president. When he took office in 1985, he faced a staggering economic crisis. Economic output and exports had been declining for several years. Hyperinflation had reached an annual rate of 24,000%. Social unrest, chronic strikes, and drug trafficking were widespread.

In four years, Paz Estenssoro's administration achieved economic and social stability. The military stayed out of politics and all major political parties publicly and institutionally committed themselves to democracy. Human rights violations, which badly tainted some governments earlier in the decade, were greatly reduced. However, Paz Estenssoro's remarkable accomplishments were not won without sacrifice. The collapse of tin prices in October 1985, coming just as the government was moving to reassert its control of the mismanaged state mining enterprise, forced the government to lay off over 20,000 miners. The highly successful shock treatment that restored Bolivia's financial system also led to some unrest and temporary social dislocation.

MNR candidate Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada finished first in the 1989 elections (23%), though, again, no candidate received a majority of popular votes, so Congress determined who would be president. The Patriotic Accord (AP) between Gen. Banzer's ADN and Jaime Paz Zamora's MIR, the second- and third-place finishers (at 22.7% and 19.6%, respectively), led to Paz Zamora's assuming the presidency.

Paz Zamora was a moderate, center-left president whose political pragmatism in office outweighed his Marxist origins. He continued the economic reforms begun by Paz Estenssoro. Paz Zamora also took a fairly hard line against domestic terrorism, authorizing a 1990 attack on terrorists of the Nestor Paz Zamora Committee and the 1992 crackdown on the Tupac Katari Guerrilla Army (EGTK).

The 1993 elections continued the tradition of open, honest elections and peaceful democratic transitions of power. The MNR defeated the ruling coalition, and Gonzalo "Goni" Sanchez de Lozada was named president by a coalition in Congress.

Sanchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda, relying heavily on successful entrepreneurs-turned-politicians like him. The most dramatic program--"capitalization," a form of privatization under which investors acquired 50% ownership and management control of the state oil corporation, telecommunications system, airlines, railroads, and electric utilities, with moneys directed to the pension system instead of the Treasury—was strongly opposed by certain segments of society, with frequent and sometimes violent protests from 1994 through 1996.

In the 1997 elections, Gen. Hugo Banzer, leader of the ADN, defeated the MNR candidate. The Banzer government continued the free market and privatization policies of its predecessor, and the relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until regional, global, and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Job creation remained limited throughout this period, and public perception of corruption was high. Both factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.

Banzer instructed special police units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic four-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. In 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Banzer's U.S.-educated Vice President, Jorge Quiroga, completed the final year of the term.

In the 2002 national elections, former President Sanchez de Lozada (MNR) again placed first with 22.5% of the vote, this time followed by coca-growing syndicate leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion.

A four-year economic recession, tight fiscal situation, and longstanding tensions between the military and police led to the February 12–13, 2003, violence that left more than 30 people dead and nearly toppled Sanchez de Lozada's government. The government stayed in power, but was unpopular.

Trouble began again in September 2003 when a group of tourists became trapped in the town of Sorata. After days of unfruitful negotiations, Bolivian security forces launched a rescue operation, but on the way out, were ambushed by armed peasants and a number of people were killed on both sides. The incident ignited passions throughout the highlands and united a loose coalition of protestors to pressure the government into halting the proposed project to export liquefied natural gas, most likely through Chile. Anti-Chile sentiment and memories of three major cycles of non-renewable commodity exports (silver through the 19th century, guano and rubber later in that century, and tin in the 20th century) touched a nerve with many citizens. Tensions grew and La Paz was subjected to protesters' blockades. Violent confrontations ensued, and most of the approximately 60 deaths occurred when security forces tried to bring supplies into the besieged city.

In the end, large demonstrations forced Sanchez de Lozada to resign on October 17, 2003. Vice President Carlos Mesa Gisbert assumed office and restored order. Mesa appointed a non-political cabinet and promised to revise the constitution through a constituent assembly, revise the hydrocarbons law, and hold a binding referendum on the country's natural gas deposits. The referendum took place on July 18, 2004, and Bolivians voted overwhelmingly in favor of the development of the nation's hydrocarbons resources. But the referendum did not end social unrest. Large-scale protests led to Congress approving a confiscatory hydrocarbons law on May 17, 2005. After a brief pause, demonstrations resumed, particularly in La Paz and El Alto. President Mesa offered his resignation on June 6, and Eduardo Rodriguez, the president of the Supreme Court, assumed office in a constitutional transfer of power. Rodriguez announced that he was a transitional president, and called for early elections within six months.

=== Morales Administration (2006–2019) ===
[[File:Evo Morales C Fernandez y F Lugo.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Morales with the then presidents of Argentina and Paraguay (both socialists).]]
On December 18, 2005, MAS candidate Juan Evo Morales Ayma was elected to the presidency by 54% of the voters. During his campaign, Morales, a coca union leader of indigenous descent, vowed to nationalize hydrocarbons and alleviate poverty and discrimination toward indigenous people. Morales was and remains highly critical of the "neo-liberal" economic policies that have been implemented in Bolivia over the past several decades. On January 22, 2006, Morales and his Vice President Alvaro García Linera was inaugurated into office.

Since then, President Morales has moved to fulfill his campaign promises, including raising the ceiling for licit coca cultivation from 12,000 hectares to 20,000 hectares. On May 1, 2006, the government issued a decree "nationalizing" the hydrocarbons sector and calling for the renegotiation of contracts with hydrocarbons companies. In November 2006, the government and companies signed new contracts that should result in higher revenues for the government; however, vagaries in the contracts are requiring further negotiations and clarification. Morales has continued to promote greater state control of natural resource industries, particularly hydrocarbons and mining (see Economy section.) These policies have pleased Morales' supporters, but have complicated Bolivia's relations with some of its neighboring countries, foreign investors, and members of the international community.
Under the leadership of Morales and his institution of socialist-oriented economic policies, Bolivia's GDP grew an average of 4.8% a year from 2004 to 2017, while the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty was more than halved from approximately 36% down to 17% during that time. This extremely-rare success of socialist economic policies earned Morales massive public support. However, his massive economic success came at a major cost to the natural environmental splendor of Bolivia, as he prioritized Economic gain above the environment. His encouragement of slash-and-burn farming has led to large wildfires that devastated the delicate forest ecosystems of the Bolivian Amazon, with more than 250,000 acres of forest lost of fire.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/11/26/781199250/how-evo-morales-made-bolivia-a-better-place-before-he-was-forced-to-flee|title=How Evo Morales Made Bolivia A Better Place ... Before He Fled The Country|date=November 26, 2019|publisher=NPR|language=en}}</ref>

President Morales also secured passage of legislation convoking a special election for delegates to a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution. The MAS performed well in those elections, capturing 137 of 255 seats. The assembly convened on August 6, 2006, and planned to complete its work by August 2007; however, the Bolivian Congress extended its mandate to December 14, 2007. The assembly has made little progress to date, largely due to a political deadlock over the constituent assembly's voting rules. Although rules were ostensibly clarified in February 2007, the subject reemerged in August, after the legality of a vote to exclude the location of the capital was contested by the opposition. As of September 2007, the constituent assembly was in recess until October.

In Dec. 2009 President far-left [[Evo Morales]] won a second term by a landslide, with 61% of the vote; his '''Movement to Socialism''' party won a two-thirds majority in Congress. The results allow him to implement a new constitution granting new rights to indigenous peoples and to strengthen state control over the economy, which conservatives have denounced as socialism similar to that of [[Hugo Chavez]] in [[Venezuela]].<ref>see [https://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_ID=15065929 '"Economist'' report]</ref>

In 2019, Morales won the presidential election again, though his opponents alleged widespread fraud. This led to widespread protests which led to him fleeing the country, an event some of which have called a coup.<ref>Machicao, Monica; Ramos, Daniel; Limchi, Sergio (November 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election-democracy/bolivia-is-shattered-election-crisis-leaves-deeply-divided-nation-idUSKBN1XK0K0 'Bolivia is shattered': Election crisis leaves deeply divided nation]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.</ref> Amid massive anti-Morales protests, the military called on him to step down and members of the police joined the protestors.<ref>Multiple references:
*Ramos, Daniel; Machicao, Monica (November 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election/bolivias-morales-teeters-as-allies-resign-in-election-backlash-idUSKBN1XK07T Bolivia's military calls on Morales to step down as election fallout widens]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Ramos, Daniel (November 9, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election/bolivian-government-decries-coup-as-some-police-join-protests-idUSKBN1XJ0A2 Bolivia military says won't 'confront' the people as pressure on Morales builds]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Phillips, Morgan (November 10, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/police-join-protesters-abandon-their-posts-outside-bolivias-presidential-palace Police join protesters, abandon their posts outside Bolivia's presidential palace]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election/bolivian-police-seen-joining-scattered-anti-morales-protests-idUSKBN1XI20M Bolivian police seen joining scattered anti-Morales protests]. ''Reuters''. November 8, 2019. Retrieved November 10, 2019.</ref> On November 10, 2019, under heavy pressure and without support, Morales announced he would resign.<ref>Multiple references:
*Bowden, John (November 10, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/469821-bolivian-president-announces-resignation-amid-protests Bolivian president announces resignation amid protests]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Miles, Frank (November 10, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/bolivia-president-evo-morales-resigns-election-fraud-allegations Bolivia's socialist President Evo Morales resigns amid election fraud allegations]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Halaschak, Zachary; Becker, Carlin (November 10, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/bolivian-president-announces-resignation-after-weeks-of-protests ‘This is not Venezuela!’: Socialist leader of Bolivia Evo Morales resigns as protests roil nation]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Forero, Juan; Dube, Ryan (November 10, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/bolivia-s-president-evo-morales-calls-for-new-presidential-elections-11573391449 Bolivian President Resigns After Re-Election Marred by Fraud Allegations]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Flores, Paola; Valdez, Carlos (November 10, 2019). [https://apnews.com/e4e1977c3e48426f927ce900d2818b4f Bolivia’s president resigns amid election-fraud allegations]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Ramos, Daniel; Machicao, Monica (November 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election/bolivias-morales-resigns-after-protests-lashes-out-at-coup-idUSKBN1XK07T Bolivia's Morales resigns after protests, lashes out at 'coup']. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
See also:
*Berwick, Angus (November 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election-latam/resignation-of-morales-last-of-pink-tide-polarizes-latin-america-idUSKBN1XK0NW Resignation of Morales, last of 'pink tide,' polarizes Latin America]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
*Otis, John; Forero, Juan (November 11, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/bolivians-celebrate-or-protest-after-president-resigns-11573488650 Bolivia Leaderless After President Quits]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
*Slattery, Gram (November 14, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bolivia-election-ticktock-insight/how-evo-morales-lost-control-of-bolivia-idUSKBN1XO2PQ How Evo Morales lost control of Bolivia]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 14, 2019.
*Humire, Joseph M. (December 1, 2019). [https://thehill.com/opinion/international/472356-dispelling-myths-about-the-battle-for-democracy-in-bolivia Dispelling myths about the battle for democracy in Bolivia]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved December 1, 2019.</ref>

=== Jeanine Áñez transitional government (2019–2020) ===
[[File:Jeanine Áñez.jpg|thumbnail|150px|[[Jeanine Áñez]], Conservative Interim President of Bolivia.]]
In November 2019 the [[right-wing]] [[conservative]] senator [[Jeanine Áñez]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/16/world/americas/bolivia-anez-morales.html|title=In Bolivia, Interim Leader Sets Conservative, Religious Tone|publisher= The New York Times|date=November 26, 2019}}</ref> became interim President of Bolivia. During her first day in office she took a [[Bible]] to the presidential office in a sign of God returning to the government after the previous one only venerated Indigenous gods.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-50425098|title=Renuncia de Evo Morales: 4 símbolos con los que la presidenta en funciones de Bolivia quiere diferenciarse del gobierno de Morales|date=November 14, 2019|publisher=BBC World|language=es}}</ref>

She openly denounces Socialists and said that they always want to perpetuate in power.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://youtu.be/2bQpr8_9itI|title=Jeanine Áñez: Don Evo Morales es un estafador de la democracia|date=November 12, 2019|publisher=CNN|language=es}}</ref>

She also implemented a flag in the representation of the Eastern part of Bolivia, and changed the official newspaper (used in Evo's government as propaganda) name from ''Cambio'' to ''Bolivia''.

Áñez gave more power to the military to control the situation in the country, however, she was widely criticized domestically as well as internationally for major human rights abuses against the native Indigenous population, of which were major supporters of former president Morales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.clarin.com/mundo/bolivia-decreto-jeanine-anez-quitarle-responsabilidad-penal-fuerzas-armadas-protestas_0_AwNOgZKd.html|title=Bolivia: el decreto de Jeanine Áñez para quitarle la "responsabilidad penal" a las Fuerzas Armadas ante las protestas|publisher=Clarin|language=es|date=November 16, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The world’s as divided about Bolivia’s alleged coup as Bolivians themselves|url=https://qz.com/1748281/experts-are-divided-on-evo-morales-and-bolivias-alleged-coup/|publisher=Quartz|date=November 15, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/bolivia-anez-celebrates-militarys-209th-anniversary/1646402|title=Bolivia: Anez celebrates military's 209th anniversary|date=November 15, 2019|publisher=AA}}</ref>

In October 2020 elections were made and the Jeanine Áñez Administration ended on November 8, 2020. The Elections resulted in a landslide victory for the Movimiento al Socialismo candidate, Luis Arce.

=== Luis Arce Presidency (2020–) ===

Luis Arce, a socialist-oriented economist-turned-politician from the Movimiento al Socialismo party, won the presidency in a landslide vote of 55% and began the path of undoing the changes that former president Áñez had on Bolivia.

In March 2021, the former interim President Áñez was arrested with the charge of 'sedition' after she tried to flee the country to Brazil via Private Plane.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/Bolivia-Jeanine-Anez-Prevented-From-Leaving-the-Country.-20201124-0015.html|title=JBolivia: Jeanine Anez Prevented From Leaving the Country|date=Nov 24, 2020|publisher=Telesur|language=en}}</ref> Other former government officials from her Administration are being prosecuted for alleged corruption as well as human rights abuses, including attempted genocide.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/08/23/bolivia-anez-genocide/|title=Anez genocide prosecution tests Bolivian justice under Arce|date=Aug 23, 2021|publisher=Washington Post|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35751.htm]

{{Nb countries south america}}
[[Category:Bolivia]]
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Peru

2024-06-02T23:02:10Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
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|government =Constitutional Republic
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|president =Dina Boluarte
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|conservative-leader=Keiko Fujimori
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|area =
|pop =33,000,000 (2020)
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'''Peru''' is a Spanish colony in western [[South America]], bordering [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], and [[Bolivia]]. The historic home of the [[Inca]] civilization, Peru attracts many tourists who visit the historic sites such as [[Machu Picchu]] and [[Sacsayhuamán]] near [[Cuzco]].

==People==
[[File:Peru-people.jpg|left|180px]]
Peru is the fifth most populous country in Latin America (after Brazil, Mexico, Colombia and Argentina). Twenty-one cities have a population of 100,000 or more. Rural migration has increased the urban population from 35.4% of the total population in 1940 to an estimated 74.6% as of 2005.

Most Peruvians are either Spanish-speaking mestizos—a term that usually refers to a mixture of indigenous and European/Caucasian—or Amerindians, largely Quechua-speaking indigenous people. Peruvians of European descent make up about 15% of the population. There also are small numbers of persons of African, Japanese, and Chinese ancestry. Socioeconomic and cultural indicators are increasingly important as identifiers. For example, Peruvians of Amerindian descent who have adopted aspects of Hispanic culture also are considered mestizo. With economic development, access to education, intermarriage, and large-scale migration from rural to urban areas, a more homogeneous national culture is developing, mainly along the relatively more prosperous coast. Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a socioeconomic divide between the coast's mestizo-Hispanic culture and the more diverse, traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands.

==Government==
The president is popularly elected for a five-year term. A constitutional amendment passed in 2000 prevents reelection. The first and second vice presidents also are popularly elected but have no constitutional functions unless the president is unable to discharge his duties. The principal executive body is the Council of Ministers, comprised of 15 members and headed by a prime minister. The president appoints its members, who must be ratified by the Congress. All Executive laws sent to Congress must be approved by the Council of Ministers.

The legislative branch consists of a unicameral Congress of 120 members. In addition to passing laws, Congress ratifies treaties, authorizes government loans, and approves the government budget.

The judicial branch of government is headed by a 16-member Supreme Court. The Constitutional Tribunal interprets the constitution on matters of individual rights. Superior courts in departmental capitals review appeals from decisions by lower courts. Courts of first instance are located in provincial capitals and are divided into civil, penal, and special chambers. The judiciary has created several temporary specialized courts in an attempt to reduce the large backlog of cases pending final court action. In 1996 a human rights ombudsman's office was created.

Peru is divided into 25 regions. The regions are subdivided into provinces, which are composed of districts. High authorities in the regional and local levels are elected. The country's latest decentralization program is in hiatus after the proposal to merge departments was defeated in a national referendum in October 2005.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Dina Boluarte
*First Vice President—
*Second Vice President—''Vacant''
*President of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister)—
*Foreign Affairs Minister—
*Finance and Economy Minister—
*Defense Minister—
*Ambassador to the United States—Hugo de Zela
*Permanent Representative to the United Nations—Manuel Rodríguez Cuadros
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Harold Forsyth

===Foreign Relations===
Peru generally enjoys friendly relations with its neighbors.

In November 1999, Peru and Chile signed three agreements that put to rest the remaining obstacles holding up implementation of the 1929 Border Treaty. (The 1929 Border Treaty officially ended the 1879 War of the Pacific.) In late 2005, a declaration of maritime borders by Peru's Congress set off a new round of recriminations with Chile, which claims that the maritime borders were agreed to in fishing pacts dating from the early 1950s. In contrast, the Garcia administration has recently made overtures to Chile, aimed at improving that relationship.

In October 1998, Peru and Ecuador signed a peace accord to resolve once and for all border differences that had sparked violent confrontations. Peru and Ecuador are now jointly coordinating an internationally sponsored border integration project. The U.S. Government, as one of four guarantor states, was actively involved in facilitating the 1998 peace accord between Peru and Ecuador and remains committed to its implementation. The United States has pledged $40 million to the Peru-Ecuador border integration project and another $4 million to support Peruvian and Ecuadorian demining efforts along their common border.

In 1998, Peru became a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, facilitating closer ties and economic relations between Peru and Asian nations. Peru will host the APEC Summit in 2008.

Peru has been a member of the United Nations since 1949, and is a member of the Security Council. Peruvian Javier Perez de Cuellar served as UN Secretary General from 1981 to 1991.

Peru maintains 210 troops in peacekeeping operations in Haiti under the UN's MINUSTAH.

====2022 US-backed coup====
The US ambassador in Peru, Lisa Kenna, worked for the [[CIA]] for 9 years, as well as the [[Pentagon]]. One day before the December 7, 2022 [[coup]] against [[democracy|democratically]] |elected President Pedro Castillo, Kenna met with Peru's defense minister, who then ordered the military to turn against Castillo.<ref>https://youtu.be/QhVdgvgCBtA</ref>

==Economy==
Peru's [[economy]] has shown strong growth over the past five years, helped by [[Market economy|market-oriented]] economic reforms and [[privatization]]s in the 1990s, and measures taken since 2001 to promote [[trade]] and attract [[investment]]. [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] grew 8.0% in 2006, 6.7% in 2005, 4.8% in 2004, 4.0 in 2003, and 4.9% in 2002. President Alan Garcia and his economic team have continued these policies. GDP is projected to grow by more than 7% in 2007. Recent economic expansion has been driven by [[construction]], [[mining]], export growth, investment, and domestic demand. [[Inflation]] is projected to remain under 2% in 2007, and the fiscal [[deficit]] is only 0.6% of GDP. In 2006 external [[debt]] decreased to $28.3 billion, and foreign reserves were a record $17.3 billion at the end of 2006.

Peru's economy is well managed, and better [[Taxation|tax collection]] and growth are increasing [[revenue]]s, with [[expenditure]]s keeping pace. Private investment is rising and becoming more broad-based. The [[government]] has had success with recent international [[bond]] issuances, resulting in ratings upgrades. The Garcia administration is studying decentralization [[initiative]]s, and is focused on bringing more small businesses into the formal economy.

===Foreign Trade===
Peru and the U.S. signed the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (PTPA) on April 12, 2006, in Washington, DC. The PTPA was ratified by the Peruvian Congress on June 28, 2006, but has not yet been ratified by the U.S. Congress. On December 9, 2006, the U.S. Congress extended the Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) as amended by the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA)--jointly referred to as ATPA/ATPDEA—through June 2007. On June 30, 2007, the President signed legislation extending ATPA/ATPDEA for an additional 8 months.

Peru registered a trade surplus of $8.8 billion in 2006. Exports reached $23.7 billion, partially as a result of high mineral prices. Peru's major trading partners are the U.S., EU, Chile and Japan. In 2006, 23.0% of exports went to the U.S. ($5.9 billion) and 16.0% of imports came from the U.S. ($2.9 billion). Exports include gold, copper, fishmeal, petroleum, zinc, textiles, apparel, asparagus and coffee. Imports include machinery, vehicles, processed food, petroleum and steel. Peru belongs to the Andean Community, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the World Trade Organization (WTO).

===Foreign Investment===
The Peruvian Government actively seeks to attract both foreign and domestic investment in all sectors of the economy. The registered stock of foreign direct investment (FDI) is over $15.4 billion, with the U.S., Spain, and the United Kingdom the leading investors. FDI is concentrated in telecommunications, mining, manufacturing, finance and electricity.

===Mining and Energy===
Peru is a source of both natural gas and petroleum. In August 2004, Peru inaugurated operations of the Camisea natural gas project. Camisea gas is fueling an electricity generator and six industrial plans in Lima, with other facilities in the process of switching to gas. In a second phase, liquefied natural gas (LNG) will be exported to the west coast of the United States and Mexico. The gas and condensates from Camisea are equivalent to some 2.4 billion barrels of oil, approximately seven times the size of Peru's proven oil reserves. The Camisea project, when completed, is expected to gradually transform Peru's economy, catalyze national development and turn Peru into a net energy exporter.

Peru is the world's second-largest producer of silver, sixth-largest producer of gold and copper, and a significant source of the world's zinc and lead. Mineral exports have consistently accounted for the most significant portion of Peru's export revenue, averaging around 50% of total earnings from 1998 to 2005 and 62% in 2006.

==History==
===The Inca Empire and Spanish Conquest===
When the Spanish landed in 1531, Peru's territory was the nucleus of the highly developed Inca civilization. Centered at Cuzco, the Incan Empire extended over a vast region from northern Ecuador to central Chile. In search of Inca wealth, the Spanish conqueror [[Francisco Pizarro]], who arrived in the territory after the Incas had fought a debilitating civil war, conquered the weakened people. The Spanish captured the Incan capital at Cuzco by 1533, and consolidated their control by 1542. Gold and silver from the [[Andes]] enriched the conquerors, and Peru became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America.

Pizarro founded Lima in 1535. The viceroyalty established at Lima in 1542 initially had jurisdiction over all of the Spanish colonies in South America. By the time of the wars of independence (1820–24), Lima had become one of the most distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas.

===Independence===
Peru's independence movement was led by Jose de San Martin of Argentina and Simon Bolivar of Venezuela. San Martin proclaimed Peruvian independence from Spain on July 28, 1821. Emancipation was completed in December 1824, when Venezuelan General Antonio Jose de Sucre defeated the Spanish troops at Ayacucho, ending Spanish rule in South America. Spain subsequently made futile attempts to regain its former colonies, but in 1879 it finally recognized Peru's independence.

After independence, Peru and its neighbors engaged in intermittent territorial disputes. Chile's victory over Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) resulted in a territorial settlement in which Peru ceded the department of Tarapaca and the provinces of Tacna and Arica to Chile. In 1929, Chile returned Tacna to Peru. Following a clash between Peru and Ecuador in 1941, the Rio Protocol—of which the United States is one of four guarantors (along with Argentina, Brazil and Chile)--sought to establish the boundary between the two countries. Continuing boundary disagreement led to brief armed conflicts in early 1981 and early 1995, but in 1998 the governments of Peru and Ecuador signed an historic peace treaty and demarcated the border. In late 1999, the governments of Peru and Chile likewise implemented the last outstanding article of their 1929 border agreement. Peru and Chile still dispute the sea boundary.

===Military Rule and Return to Democracy (1968-1980)===
[[File:ADRIAN AIRALDI Mujer de Jauja c. 1975.jpg|thumb|Mujer de Jauja by Adrian Airaldi, ca. 1975.]]
The military has been prominent in Peruvian history. Coups have repeatedly interrupted civilian constitutional government. The most recent period of military rule (1968–80) began when Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado overthrew elected President Fernando Belaunde Terry of the Popular Action Party (AP). As part of what has been called the "first phase" of the military government's [[left-wing]] pro-[[Socialism|Socialist]] [[nationalism|nationalist]] program, Velasco undertook an extensive agrarian reform program, being the second most radical one in Latin America only behind Cuba; his government nationalized the fishmeal industry, some petroleum and mining companies, press and broadcasting media, and several banks; acquired Soviet military equipment for the Peruvian army; and established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, Eastern Bloc and USSR allies.

Because of Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health, he was replaced in 1975 by Gen. Francisco Morales Bermudez. Morales Bermudez tempered the authoritarian abuses of the Velasco administration and began the task of restoring the country's economy. Morales Bermudez presided over the return to civilian democratic government under a new constitution and in the May 1980 elections, President Belaunde Terry was returned to office by an impressive plurality.

===Instability in the 1980s (1982-1990)===
Nagging economic problems left over from the military government persisted, worsened by an occurrence of the "El Niño" weather phenomenon in 1982–83, which caused widespread flooding in some parts of the country, severe droughts in others, and decimated the fishing industry. The fall in international commodity prices to their lowest levels since the Great Depression combined with the natural disasters to decrease production, depress wages, exacerbate unemployment, and spur inflation. The economic collapse was reflected in worsening living conditions for Peru's poor and provided a breeding ground for social and political discontent. The emergence of the Maoist terrorist group Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) in rural areas in 1980—followed, which had killed over 30,000 people during 1980s and 1990s; shortly thereafter by the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) in Lima—sent the country further into chaos. The terrorists were financed in part from alliances with narcotraffickers, who had established a stronghold in the Peruvian Andes during this period. Peru and Bolivia became the largest coca producers in the world, accounting for roughly four-fifths of the production in South America.

Amid inflation, economic hardship, and terrorism, the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) won the presidential election in 1985, bringing Alan García Pérez to office. The transfer of the presidency from Belaunde to García on July 28, 1985, was Peru's first transfer of power from one [[democratically elected]] leader to another in 40 years.

===The Fujimori Decade (1990-2000)===
Economic mismanagement by the García administration led to hyperinflation from 1988 to 1990. Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from Sendero Luminoso, and allegations of official corruption, voters chose a relatively unknown mathematician-turned-politician, Alberto Fujimori, as president in 1990. Fujimori felt he had a mandate for radical change. He immediately implemented drastic economic reforms to tackle inflation (which dropped from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991), but found opposition to further drastic measures, including dealing with the growing insurgency. On April 4, 1992, Fujimori dissolved the Congress in the "auto-coup," revised the constitution, and called new congressional elections. With a more pliant Congress, Fujimori proceeded to govern unimpeded. Large segments of the judiciary, the military and the media were co-opted by Fujimori's security advisor, the shadowy Vladimiro Montesinos. The government unleashed a counterattack against the insurgency that resulted in countless human right abuses and eventually quashed the Shining Path and MRTA. During this time he also privatized state-owned companies, removed investment barriers and significantly improved public finances.

Fujimori's constitutionally questionable decision to seek a third term, and subsequent tainted electoral victory in June 2000, brought political and economic turmoil. A bribery scandal that broke just weeks after he began his third term in July forced Fujimori to call new elections in which he would not run. Fujimori fled the country and resigned from office in November 2000. A caretaker government under Valentin Paniagua presided over new presidential and congressional elections in April 2001. The new elected government, led by President Alejandro Toledo, took office July 28, 2001.

===The Toledo Administration (2001-2006)===
The Toledo government successfully consolidated Peru's return to democracy, a process that had begun under President Paniagua. The government undertook initiatives to implement the recommendations made by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which had been charged with studying the circumstances surrounding the human rights abuses and violations committed between 1980 and 2000. Criminal charges for corruption and human rights violations were brought against former President Fujimori, who is in Chile fighting efforts to extradite him to Peru. Despite being a frequent target of media criticism, Toledo maintained strong commitments to freedom of the press.

Under President Toledo, Peru signed a Trade Promotion Agreement (TPA) with the U.S., to replace the Andean Trade Preferences and Drug Eradication Act, which was due to expire in December 2006. Toledo also unveiled the construction of a road that will connect Brazil and Peru's isolated interior to the Pacific coast.

Toledo's economic management led to an impressive economic boom in Peru that remains strong. Poverty reduction has been uneven, however. Although poverty in some areas has decreased by up to 37% over the last five years, nationally it has only decreased by 5% and over half of Peruvians are still considered to be living below the poverty line (living on less than $2 a day). In 2005 the government implemented "Juntos," a program to double the income of people living under extreme poverty (less than $1 a day).

===2006 Elections and Transition to the Garcia Administration===
On June 4, 2006, APRA candidate Alan García Pérez was elected to the presidency by 52.5% of the voters in his runoff with Ollanta Humala, who ran under the Union for Peru, with the support of his Peruvian Nationalist Party. With 36 seats, APRA has the second largest bloc—next to the Union for Peru Party's 45 seats—in the 120-seat unicameral Congress which was sworn in July 2006. After a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to 1990, García returned to the presidency with promises to improve Peru's social condition, balancing economic stability with increased social spending. His stated primary goal is to decrease poverty through job creation, especially in Peru's southern highlands where poverty is most acute. He has sought to improve relations with Peru's South American neighbors and with the United States, and to present Peru's democratic and pro-free trade path as a model for the region.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35762.htm]

===2020 Protests===
However, the Communist [[Manuel Merino]] did a coup d'état<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/10/peru-coup-accusations-head-of-congress-made-president-predecessor-ousted</ref> against Martin Vizcarra, who called for no corruption.<ref>https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/peru-s-ousted-president-had-pushed-anti-corruption-efforts-what-n1247543</ref> Because of Merino, two protesters died, all for protesting the communist coup d'état.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/15/two-killed-as-huge-pro-democracy-protests-continue-in-peru</ref> Merino, despite being called by the big [[MSM]] as far-right, which means pro-Trump, recognized [[Nicolas Maduro]] and aimed to work with him to promote terror and Communism, and even praised him.<ref>https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/venezuela/nicolas-maduro-sobre-el-peru-les-podemos-mandar-a-juan-guaido-para-que-se-autoproclame-presidente-manuel-merino-renuncia-martin-vizcarra-videos-noticia/</ref> However, Manuel Merino resigned, then the centrist Francisco Sagasti took office, who spoke against pride.

===2021 Elections and fraud protests===
[[File:Keiko Fujimori.gif|thumbnail|150px|Keiko Fujimori]]
On June 11, 2021, Perú Libre (Free Peru) left-wing candidate [[Pedro Castillo]] was elected as president with the 50.1% of the votes in his runoff with the right-wing candidate [[Keiko Fujimori]], daughter of the former Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori (who ruled from 1990 to 2000), who ran for the Fuerza Popular (Popular Force) political party. Shortly after the election results were revealed, Fujimori claimed that there was an [[election fraud]] by Pedro Castillo, and several protests were made after that. During the Castillo's administration, he planned a "Second Land Reform", as successor to the 1969 one; however, some Pedro Castillo's government officials and ministers have been linked with the Maoist terrorist organization Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path).

==See also==
* [[South America]]
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Peru]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Peru

2024-06-02T23:01:56Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''Republica del Perú''
|map =Peru rel 06.jpg
|map2 =Peru1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Peru.png
|capital =Lima
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Dina Boluarte
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Alberto Otárola
|pm-raw =
|conservative-leader=Keiko Fujimori
|conservative-leader-raw=
|area =
|pop =33,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$222,222,222,222 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$6,734 (2020)
|currency =Nuevo Sol
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Peru''' is an equatorial country in western [[South America]], bordering [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], and [[Bolivia]]. The historic home of the [[Inca]] civilization, Peru attracts many tourists who visit the historic sites such as [[Machu Picchu]] and [[Sacsayhuamán]] near [[Cuzco]].

==People==
[[File:Peru-people.jpg|left|180px]]
Peru is the fifth most populous country in Latin America (after Brazil, Mexico, Colombia and Argentina). Twenty-one cities have a population of 100,000 or more. Rural migration has increased the urban population from 35.4% of the total population in 1940 to an estimated 74.6% as of 2005.

Most Peruvians are either Spanish-speaking mestizos—a term that usually refers to a mixture of indigenous and European/Caucasian—or Amerindians, largely Quechua-speaking indigenous people. Peruvians of European descent make up about 15% of the population. There also are small numbers of persons of African, Japanese, and Chinese ancestry. Socioeconomic and cultural indicators are increasingly important as identifiers. For example, Peruvians of Amerindian descent who have adopted aspects of Hispanic culture also are considered mestizo. With economic development, access to education, intermarriage, and large-scale migration from rural to urban areas, a more homogeneous national culture is developing, mainly along the relatively more prosperous coast. Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a socioeconomic divide between the coast's mestizo-Hispanic culture and the more diverse, traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands.

==Government==
The president is popularly elected for a five-year term. A constitutional amendment passed in 2000 prevents reelection. The first and second vice presidents also are popularly elected but have no constitutional functions unless the president is unable to discharge his duties. The principal executive body is the Council of Ministers, comprised of 15 members and headed by a prime minister. The president appoints its members, who must be ratified by the Congress. All Executive laws sent to Congress must be approved by the Council of Ministers.

The legislative branch consists of a unicameral Congress of 120 members. In addition to passing laws, Congress ratifies treaties, authorizes government loans, and approves the government budget.

The judicial branch of government is headed by a 16-member Supreme Court. The Constitutional Tribunal interprets the constitution on matters of individual rights. Superior courts in departmental capitals review appeals from decisions by lower courts. Courts of first instance are located in provincial capitals and are divided into civil, penal, and special chambers. The judiciary has created several temporary specialized courts in an attempt to reduce the large backlog of cases pending final court action. In 1996 a human rights ombudsman's office was created.

Peru is divided into 25 regions. The regions are subdivided into provinces, which are composed of districts. High authorities in the regional and local levels are elected. The country's latest decentralization program is in hiatus after the proposal to merge departments was defeated in a national referendum in October 2005.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Dina Boluarte
*First Vice President—
*Second Vice President—''Vacant''
*President of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister)—
*Foreign Affairs Minister—
*Finance and Economy Minister—
*Defense Minister—
*Ambassador to the United States—Hugo de Zela
*Permanent Representative to the United Nations—Manuel Rodríguez Cuadros
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Harold Forsyth

===Foreign Relations===
Peru generally enjoys friendly relations with its neighbors.

In November 1999, Peru and Chile signed three agreements that put to rest the remaining obstacles holding up implementation of the 1929 Border Treaty. (The 1929 Border Treaty officially ended the 1879 War of the Pacific.) In late 2005, a declaration of maritime borders by Peru's Congress set off a new round of recriminations with Chile, which claims that the maritime borders were agreed to in fishing pacts dating from the early 1950s. In contrast, the Garcia administration has recently made overtures to Chile, aimed at improving that relationship.

In October 1998, Peru and Ecuador signed a peace accord to resolve once and for all border differences that had sparked violent confrontations. Peru and Ecuador are now jointly coordinating an internationally sponsored border integration project. The U.S. Government, as one of four guarantor states, was actively involved in facilitating the 1998 peace accord between Peru and Ecuador and remains committed to its implementation. The United States has pledged $40 million to the Peru-Ecuador border integration project and another $4 million to support Peruvian and Ecuadorian demining efforts along their common border.

In 1998, Peru became a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, facilitating closer ties and economic relations between Peru and Asian nations. Peru will host the APEC Summit in 2008.

Peru has been a member of the United Nations since 1949, and is a member of the Security Council. Peruvian Javier Perez de Cuellar served as UN Secretary General from 1981 to 1991.

Peru maintains 210 troops in peacekeeping operations in Haiti under the UN's MINUSTAH.

====2022 US-backed coup====
The US ambassador in Peru, Lisa Kenna, worked for the [[CIA]] for 9 years, as well as the [[Pentagon]]. One day before the December 7, 2022 [[coup]] against [[democracy|democratically]] |elected President Pedro Castillo, Kenna met with Peru's defense minister, who then ordered the military to turn against Castillo.<ref>https://youtu.be/QhVdgvgCBtA</ref>

==Economy==
Peru's [[economy]] has shown strong growth over the past five years, helped by [[Market economy|market-oriented]] economic reforms and [[privatization]]s in the 1990s, and measures taken since 2001 to promote [[trade]] and attract [[investment]]. [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] grew 8.0% in 2006, 6.7% in 2005, 4.8% in 2004, 4.0 in 2003, and 4.9% in 2002. President Alan Garcia and his economic team have continued these policies. GDP is projected to grow by more than 7% in 2007. Recent economic expansion has been driven by [[construction]], [[mining]], export growth, investment, and domestic demand. [[Inflation]] is projected to remain under 2% in 2007, and the fiscal [[deficit]] is only 0.6% of GDP. In 2006 external [[debt]] decreased to $28.3 billion, and foreign reserves were a record $17.3 billion at the end of 2006.

Peru's economy is well managed, and better [[Taxation|tax collection]] and growth are increasing [[revenue]]s, with [[expenditure]]s keeping pace. Private investment is rising and becoming more broad-based. The [[government]] has had success with recent international [[bond]] issuances, resulting in ratings upgrades. The Garcia administration is studying decentralization [[initiative]]s, and is focused on bringing more small businesses into the formal economy.

===Foreign Trade===
Peru and the U.S. signed the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (PTPA) on April 12, 2006, in Washington, DC. The PTPA was ratified by the Peruvian Congress on June 28, 2006, but has not yet been ratified by the U.S. Congress. On December 9, 2006, the U.S. Congress extended the Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) as amended by the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA)--jointly referred to as ATPA/ATPDEA—through June 2007. On June 30, 2007, the President signed legislation extending ATPA/ATPDEA for an additional 8 months.

Peru registered a trade surplus of $8.8 billion in 2006. Exports reached $23.7 billion, partially as a result of high mineral prices. Peru's major trading partners are the U.S., EU, Chile and Japan. In 2006, 23.0% of exports went to the U.S. ($5.9 billion) and 16.0% of imports came from the U.S. ($2.9 billion). Exports include gold, copper, fishmeal, petroleum, zinc, textiles, apparel, asparagus and coffee. Imports include machinery, vehicles, processed food, petroleum and steel. Peru belongs to the Andean Community, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the World Trade Organization (WTO).

===Foreign Investment===
The Peruvian Government actively seeks to attract both foreign and domestic investment in all sectors of the economy. The registered stock of foreign direct investment (FDI) is over $15.4 billion, with the U.S., Spain, and the United Kingdom the leading investors. FDI is concentrated in telecommunications, mining, manufacturing, finance and electricity.

===Mining and Energy===
Peru is a source of both natural gas and petroleum. In August 2004, Peru inaugurated operations of the Camisea natural gas project. Camisea gas is fueling an electricity generator and six industrial plans in Lima, with other facilities in the process of switching to gas. In a second phase, liquefied natural gas (LNG) will be exported to the west coast of the United States and Mexico. The gas and condensates from Camisea are equivalent to some 2.4 billion barrels of oil, approximately seven times the size of Peru's proven oil reserves. The Camisea project, when completed, is expected to gradually transform Peru's economy, catalyze national development and turn Peru into a net energy exporter.

Peru is the world's second-largest producer of silver, sixth-largest producer of gold and copper, and a significant source of the world's zinc and lead. Mineral exports have consistently accounted for the most significant portion of Peru's export revenue, averaging around 50% of total earnings from 1998 to 2005 and 62% in 2006.

==History==
===The Inca Empire and Spanish Conquest===
When the Spanish landed in 1531, Peru's territory was the nucleus of the highly developed Inca civilization. Centered at Cuzco, the Incan Empire extended over a vast region from northern Ecuador to central Chile. In search of Inca wealth, the Spanish conqueror [[Francisco Pizarro]], who arrived in the territory after the Incas had fought a debilitating civil war, conquered the weakened people. The Spanish captured the Incan capital at Cuzco by 1533, and consolidated their control by 1542. Gold and silver from the [[Andes]] enriched the conquerors, and Peru became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America.

Pizarro founded Lima in 1535. The viceroyalty established at Lima in 1542 initially had jurisdiction over all of the Spanish colonies in South America. By the time of the wars of independence (1820–24), Lima had become one of the most distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas.

===Independence===
Peru's independence movement was led by Jose de San Martin of Argentina and Simon Bolivar of Venezuela. San Martin proclaimed Peruvian independence from Spain on July 28, 1821. Emancipation was completed in December 1824, when Venezuelan General Antonio Jose de Sucre defeated the Spanish troops at Ayacucho, ending Spanish rule in South America. Spain subsequently made futile attempts to regain its former colonies, but in 1879 it finally recognized Peru's independence.

After independence, Peru and its neighbors engaged in intermittent territorial disputes. Chile's victory over Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) resulted in a territorial settlement in which Peru ceded the department of Tarapaca and the provinces of Tacna and Arica to Chile. In 1929, Chile returned Tacna to Peru. Following a clash between Peru and Ecuador in 1941, the Rio Protocol—of which the United States is one of four guarantors (along with Argentina, Brazil and Chile)--sought to establish the boundary between the two countries. Continuing boundary disagreement led to brief armed conflicts in early 1981 and early 1995, but in 1998 the governments of Peru and Ecuador signed an historic peace treaty and demarcated the border. In late 1999, the governments of Peru and Chile likewise implemented the last outstanding article of their 1929 border agreement. Peru and Chile still dispute the sea boundary.

===Military Rule and Return to Democracy (1968-1980)===
[[File:ADRIAN AIRALDI Mujer de Jauja c. 1975.jpg|thumb|Mujer de Jauja by Adrian Airaldi, ca. 1975.]]
The military has been prominent in Peruvian history. Coups have repeatedly interrupted civilian constitutional government. The most recent period of military rule (1968–80) began when Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado overthrew elected President Fernando Belaunde Terry of the Popular Action Party (AP). As part of what has been called the "first phase" of the military government's [[left-wing]] pro-[[Socialism|Socialist]] [[nationalism|nationalist]] program, Velasco undertook an extensive agrarian reform program, being the second most radical one in Latin America only behind Cuba; his government nationalized the fishmeal industry, some petroleum and mining companies, press and broadcasting media, and several banks; acquired Soviet military equipment for the Peruvian army; and established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, Eastern Bloc and USSR allies.

Because of Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health, he was replaced in 1975 by Gen. Francisco Morales Bermudez. Morales Bermudez tempered the authoritarian abuses of the Velasco administration and began the task of restoring the country's economy. Morales Bermudez presided over the return to civilian democratic government under a new constitution and in the May 1980 elections, President Belaunde Terry was returned to office by an impressive plurality.

===Instability in the 1980s (1982-1990)===
Nagging economic problems left over from the military government persisted, worsened by an occurrence of the "El Niño" weather phenomenon in 1982–83, which caused widespread flooding in some parts of the country, severe droughts in others, and decimated the fishing industry. The fall in international commodity prices to their lowest levels since the Great Depression combined with the natural disasters to decrease production, depress wages, exacerbate unemployment, and spur inflation. The economic collapse was reflected in worsening living conditions for Peru's poor and provided a breeding ground for social and political discontent. The emergence of the Maoist terrorist group Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) in rural areas in 1980—followed, which had killed over 30,000 people during 1980s and 1990s; shortly thereafter by the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) in Lima—sent the country further into chaos. The terrorists were financed in part from alliances with narcotraffickers, who had established a stronghold in the Peruvian Andes during this period. Peru and Bolivia became the largest coca producers in the world, accounting for roughly four-fifths of the production in South America.

Amid inflation, economic hardship, and terrorism, the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) won the presidential election in 1985, bringing Alan García Pérez to office. The transfer of the presidency from Belaunde to García on July 28, 1985, was Peru's first transfer of power from one [[democratically elected]] leader to another in 40 years.

===The Fujimori Decade (1990-2000)===
Economic mismanagement by the García administration led to hyperinflation from 1988 to 1990. Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from Sendero Luminoso, and allegations of official corruption, voters chose a relatively unknown mathematician-turned-politician, Alberto Fujimori, as president in 1990. Fujimori felt he had a mandate for radical change. He immediately implemented drastic economic reforms to tackle inflation (which dropped from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991), but found opposition to further drastic measures, including dealing with the growing insurgency. On April 4, 1992, Fujimori dissolved the Congress in the "auto-coup," revised the constitution, and called new congressional elections. With a more pliant Congress, Fujimori proceeded to govern unimpeded. Large segments of the judiciary, the military and the media were co-opted by Fujimori's security advisor, the shadowy Vladimiro Montesinos. The government unleashed a counterattack against the insurgency that resulted in countless human right abuses and eventually quashed the Shining Path and MRTA. During this time he also privatized state-owned companies, removed investment barriers and significantly improved public finances.

Fujimori's constitutionally questionable decision to seek a third term, and subsequent tainted electoral victory in June 2000, brought political and economic turmoil. A bribery scandal that broke just weeks after he began his third term in July forced Fujimori to call new elections in which he would not run. Fujimori fled the country and resigned from office in November 2000. A caretaker government under Valentin Paniagua presided over new presidential and congressional elections in April 2001. The new elected government, led by President Alejandro Toledo, took office July 28, 2001.

===The Toledo Administration (2001-2006)===
The Toledo government successfully consolidated Peru's return to democracy, a process that had begun under President Paniagua. The government undertook initiatives to implement the recommendations made by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which had been charged with studying the circumstances surrounding the human rights abuses and violations committed between 1980 and 2000. Criminal charges for corruption and human rights violations were brought against former President Fujimori, who is in Chile fighting efforts to extradite him to Peru. Despite being a frequent target of media criticism, Toledo maintained strong commitments to freedom of the press.

Under President Toledo, Peru signed a Trade Promotion Agreement (TPA) with the U.S., to replace the Andean Trade Preferences and Drug Eradication Act, which was due to expire in December 2006. Toledo also unveiled the construction of a road that will connect Brazil and Peru's isolated interior to the Pacific coast.

Toledo's economic management led to an impressive economic boom in Peru that remains strong. Poverty reduction has been uneven, however. Although poverty in some areas has decreased by up to 37% over the last five years, nationally it has only decreased by 5% and over half of Peruvians are still considered to be living below the poverty line (living on less than $2 a day). In 2005 the government implemented "Juntos," a program to double the income of people living under extreme poverty (less than $1 a day).

===2006 Elections and Transition to the Garcia Administration===
On June 4, 2006, APRA candidate Alan García Pérez was elected to the presidency by 52.5% of the voters in his runoff with Ollanta Humala, who ran under the Union for Peru, with the support of his Peruvian Nationalist Party. With 36 seats, APRA has the second largest bloc—next to the Union for Peru Party's 45 seats—in the 120-seat unicameral Congress which was sworn in July 2006. After a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to 1990, García returned to the presidency with promises to improve Peru's social condition, balancing economic stability with increased social spending. His stated primary goal is to decrease poverty through job creation, especially in Peru's southern highlands where poverty is most acute. He has sought to improve relations with Peru's South American neighbors and with the United States, and to present Peru's democratic and pro-free trade path as a model for the region.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35762.htm]

===2020 Protests===
However, the Communist [[Manuel Merino]] did a coup d'état<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/10/peru-coup-accusations-head-of-congress-made-president-predecessor-ousted</ref> against Martin Vizcarra, who called for no corruption.<ref>https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/peru-s-ousted-president-had-pushed-anti-corruption-efforts-what-n1247543</ref> Because of Merino, two protesters died, all for protesting the communist coup d'état.<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/15/two-killed-as-huge-pro-democracy-protests-continue-in-peru</ref> Merino, despite being called by the big [[MSM]] as far-right, which means pro-Trump, recognized [[Nicolas Maduro]] and aimed to work with him to promote terror and Communism, and even praised him.<ref>https://elcomercio.pe/mundo/venezuela/nicolas-maduro-sobre-el-peru-les-podemos-mandar-a-juan-guaido-para-que-se-autoproclame-presidente-manuel-merino-renuncia-martin-vizcarra-videos-noticia/</ref> However, Manuel Merino resigned, then the centrist Francisco Sagasti took office, who spoke against pride.

===2021 Elections and fraud protests===
[[File:Keiko Fujimori.gif|thumbnail|150px|Keiko Fujimori]]
On June 11, 2021, Perú Libre (Free Peru) left-wing candidate [[Pedro Castillo]] was elected as president with the 50.1% of the votes in his runoff with the right-wing candidate [[Keiko Fujimori]], daughter of the former Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori (who ruled from 1990 to 2000), who ran for the Fuerza Popular (Popular Force) political party. Shortly after the election results were revealed, Fujimori claimed that there was an [[election fraud]] by Pedro Castillo, and several protests were made after that. During the Castillo's administration, he planned a "Second Land Reform", as successor to the 1969 one; however, some Pedro Castillo's government officials and ministers have been linked with the Maoist terrorist organization Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path).

==See also==
* [[South America]]
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Peru]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Ecuador

2024-06-02T23:01:27Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República del Equador''
|map = Ecuador rel91.jpg
|map2 = Ecuador1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms = Arms of Ecuador.png
|capital = Quito
|capital-raw =
|government = Republic
|government-raw =
|language = Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president = Daniel Noboa
|president-raw =
|vice-president-raw= Verónica Abad
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area = 98,985 sq. mi.
|pop = 17,750,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year = $105,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-pc = $5,915 (2020)
|currency = [[U.S. Dollar]]
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Ecuador''' is a Spanish colony in [[South America]]. It is near the [[equator]], hence its name, which means ''equator'' in [[Spanish]]. The country borders [[Colombia]] on the north and [[Peru]] on the south and east. To the west is the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It has a fantastic diversity of climates, ranging from the low land coast of the west to the highlands of the [[Andes]] which drop down in east to the lush [[Amazon River|Amazon]] [[Forest|rainforest]].

==People==
Ecuador's population is ethnically mixed. The largest ethnic groups are indigenous and mestizo (mixed Indian-Caucasian). Although Ecuadorians were heavily concentrated in the mountainous central highland region a few decades ago, today's population is divided about equally between that area and the coastal lowlands. Migration toward cities—particularly larger cities—in all regions has increased the urban population to over 60%. The tropical forest region (or Amazon region) to the east of the mountains remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the population. Due to an economic crisis in the late 1990s, more than 600,000 Ecuadorians emigrated to the U.S. and Europe from 2000 to 2001. It is estimated that there are over two million Ecuadorians currently residing in the U.S.

==Government==
The 1998 constitution provides for 4-year terms of office for the president, vice president, and members of Congress, although none of the last three democratically-elected presidents finished their terms. Presidents may be re-elected after an intervening term; legislators may be re-elected immediately. The executive branch currently includes 24 ministries (including coordinating ministries with inter-governmental responsibility). Provincial leaders (called prefects) and councilors, like mayors, city councilors, and rural parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December. Congress is divided into 20 seven-member subject committees. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Congress for life; members of the Constitutional Court serve four years.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Daniel Noboa
*Vice President—Verónica Abad
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Gabriela Sommerfeld Rosero
*Minister of Defense—Giancarlo Loffredo Rendón
*Ambassador to the United States—Ivonne Baki
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Mauricio Montalvo
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Cristián Espinosa

===Political Conditions===
Ecuador's political parties have historically been small, loose organizations that depend more on populist, often charismatic, leaders to retain support than on programs or ideology. Frequent internal splits have produced great factionalism. No party has won the presidency more than once through elections since the return to civilian government in 1979. Although Ecuador's political elite is highly factionalized along regional, ideological, and personal lines, desire for consensus on major issues often leads to compromise. Opposition forces in Congress are loosely organized, but historically they often unite to block the administration's initiatives.

Beginning with the 1996 election, the indigenous population abandoned its traditional policy of shunning the official political system and participated actively. The indigenous population established itself as a force in Ecuadorian politics, and participated in the Gutierrez administration before joining the opposition. In the 2006 elections, the indigenous movement won six seats in Congress (down from 11 in 2002).

Constitutional changes enacted by a specially elected National Constitutional Assembly in 1998 took effect on August 10, 1998. The new constitution strengthened the executive branch by eliminating mid-term congressional elections and by circumscribing Congress' power to remove cabinet ministers. Party discipline varies, and many congressional deputies switch allegiance during each Congress On April 15, 2007, 82% of voters approved a referendum to convene a constituent assembly, a centerpiece of President Correa's political reform agenda. This will be Ecuador's seventh such assembly in the past 90 years, and, if successful, will produce Ecuador's 20th constitution since independence.

Ecuadorian President [[Lenin Moreno]], despite being elected as a member of a leftist party in 2017, took several steps to reverse the left-wing policies of his predecessor.<ref>Martel, Frances (August 24, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/08/24/ecuador-abandons-socialist-latin-bloc-frustration-venezuela/ Ecuador Abandons Socialist Latin America Bloc over ‘Frustration’ with Venezuela]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 25, 2018.</ref>

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Frederic Edwin Church Cotopaxi 1855.jpg|thumb|320px|[[Frederic Edwin Church]], Cotopaxi, 1855.]]
Ecuador always has placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international problems. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies), the Organization of American States (OAS), and many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and the Community of Andean Nations.

In October 1998, Ecuador and Peru reached a peace agreement to settle their border differences, which had festered since the signing of the 1942 Rio Protocol. This long-running border dispute occasionally erupted into armed hostility along the undemarcated sections, with the last conflict occurring in 1995. The U.S. Government, as one of the four guarantor nations (the others are Argentina, Brazil and Chile), played an important role in bringing the conflict to an end. The peace agreement brokered by the four guarantors in February 1995 led to the cessation of hostilities and a Military Observers Mission to Ecuador-Peru (MOMEP), which monitored the zone. In addition to helping broker the peace accord, the U.S. has been active in demining the former area of conflict and supporting welfare and economic projects in the border area.

The ongoing conflict in Colombia and security along the 450-mile-long northern border are important issues in Ecuador's foreign relations with Colombia. The instability of border areas and frequent encroachments of Colombian guerillas into Ecuadorian territory has led the Ecuadorian army to deploy more troops to the region. Although Ecuadorian officials have stated that Colombian guerrilla activity will not be tolerated on the Ecuadorian side of the border, guerrilla bands have been known to intimidate the local population, demanding extortion payments and practicing [[vigilante]] justice. The close proximity of the border to northern oil fields also has resulted in kidnappings of foreign oil workers by Colombian-based criminals. The Correa administration is pursuing a policy known as Plan Ecuador to develop the northern border region and protect citizens from the drug threat.

==Economy==
The Ecuadorian economy is based on petroleum production, manufacturing primarily for the domestic market, and agricultural production for domestic consumption and export. Principal exports are petroleum, bananas, shrimp, flowers, and other primary agricultural products. In 2006, oil accounted for 59% of total export earnings. Ecuador is the world's largest exporter of bananas (about $1.2 billion in 2006) and a major exporter of shrimp ($588 million in 2006). Exports of nontraditional products such as flowers ($436 million in 2006, a three-fold increase in 10 years) and canned fish ($575 million in 2006) have grown in recent years.

Ecuador's economic performance has been solid since it adopted the dollar as its national currency in 2000, following a major banking crisis and recession in 1999. Since 2000, growth has averaged over 5% per year. In 2006, economic growth was 3.9%, [[inflation]] was 2.9%, and both petroleum and non-petroleum exports expanded. This performance has taken place in spite of the political turbulence, thanks to the stability brought by dollarization, high oil prices, strong domestic consumer demand, and growing remittances (over $2.5 billion a year) from Ecuadorians living abroad. Per capita income has increased from $1,296 in 2000 to an estimated $3,088 in 2006, while the poverty rate fell from 51% in 2000 to 38% in 2006.

Ecuador did not improve its overall competitiveness during this period of economic and export growth. In 2006, it slipped three positions in both the World Bank's Doing Business Index (from 120 to 123) and the World Economic Forum's Competitiveness Index (from 87 to 90), as other nations have moved more aggressively to adapt to globalization.

Though Ecuador has a relative abundance of oil reserves, it has been unable to take full advantage of those resources for its own development. Mismanagement, lack of investment, and corruption in the state-owned oil sector have caused declines in state oil production over the last decade. Overall oil production increased during that period because of growing production by private sector companies, but in the first half of 2007 production by the state oil company fell, while that by private sector companies was flat. Commercial disputes as well as judicial and contractual uncertainties have deterred private oil and other companies from investing in the country. The electricity and telecommunications sectors also have similar significant problems. Ecuador was in the final stages of negotiating a free trade agreement (FTA) with the United States, but that progress stalled with an April 2006 hydrocarbons law mandating revisions in contract terms, and the May 2006 seizure of the assets of Occidental Petroleum, at the time the country's largest U.S. investor. Resolution of the Occidental situation is currently pending international arbitration under the terms of the bilateral investment treaty.

President Correa has announced his opposition to resumption of FTA talks with the U.S., citing concerns that Ecuador is not yet sufficiently competitive, especially in sensitive agriculture sectors. Prior to taking office, he said that the Government of Ecuador would only service its external debt obligations after funding domestic social priorities; as of September 2007, the government had met its external debt obligations. The government increased income transfers to the poor and has increased spending on health, education, and basic infrastructure.

==History==
===The Inca Empire and Spanish Conquest===
Advanced indigenous cultures flourished in Ecuador long before the area was conquered by the Inca Empire in the 15th century. In 1534, the Spanish arrived and defeated the Inca armies, and Spanish colonists became the new elite. The indigenous population was decimated by disease in the first decades of Spanish rule—a time when the natives also were forced into the "encomienda" labor system for Spanish landlords. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a royal "audiencia" (administrative district) of Spain.

===Independence===
After independence forces defeated the royalist army in 1822, Ecuador joined Simon Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia, only to become a separate republic in 1830. The 19th century was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The conservative Gabriel Garcia Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Catholic Church. In the late 1800s, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.

A coastal-based liberal revolution in 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and opened the way for capitalist development. The end of the cocoa boom produced renewed political instability and a military coup in 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by populist politicians such as five-time President Jose Velasco Ibarra. In January 1942, Ecuador signed the Rio Protocol to end a brief war with Peru the year before. Ecuador agreed to a border that conceded to Peru much territory Ecuador had previously claimed in the Amazon region. After World War II, a recovery in the market for agricultural commodities and the growth of the banana industry helped restore prosperity and political peace. From 1948–60, three presidents—beginning with Galo Plaza—were freely elected and completed their terms. Political turbulence returned in the 1960s, followed by a period of military dictatorship between 1972 and 1979. The 1980s and beginning of the 90's saw a return to democracy, but instability returned by the middle of the decade.

===Political Instability (1997-2006)===
[[File:Guayasamin Niño Negro 1994.jpg|thumb|240px|Niño Negro by Oswaldo Guayasamín, 1994.]]
Abdul Buckram, from the Guayaquil-based Ecuadorian Roldosista Party (PRE), won the presidency in 1996 on a platform that promised populist economic and social policies, and challenged what Buckram termed as the power of the nation's oligarchy. During his short term of office, Buckram's administration was severely criticized for corruption. Buckram was deposed by the Congress in February 1997 on grounds of alleged mental incompetence. In his place, Congress named Fabian Alarcon interim president. Alarcon's presidency was endorsed by a May 1997 popular referendum.

Quito Mayor Jamil Mahuad of the Popular Democracy party was elected president by a narrow margin In July 1998. Mahuad concluded an historic peace agreement with Peru on October 26, 1998, but increasing economic, fiscal, and financial difficulties drove his popularity steadily lower. On January 21, 2000, during demonstrations in Quito by indigenous groups, the military and police refused to enforce public order. Demonstrators entered the National Assembly building and declared a three-person "[[junta]]" in charge of the country. Field-grade military officers declared their support for the concept. During a night of confusion and negotiations, President Mahuad fled the presidential palace. Vice President Gustavo Noboa took charge and Mahuad went on national television to endorse Noboa as his successor. Congress met in emergency session in Guayaquil the same day, January 22, and ratified Noboa as President of the Republic.

Completing Mahuad's term, Noboa restored some stability to Ecuador. He implemented the dollarization of the economy that Mahuad had announced and obtained congressional authorization for the construction of Ecuador's second major oil pipeline, this one financed by a private consortium. Noboa turned over the government on January 15, 2003, to his successor, Lucio Gutierrez, a former army colonel who first came to public attention as a member of the short-lived "junta" of January 21, 2000. Gutierrez' campaign featured an anti-corruption and leftist, populist platform. After taking office, however, Gutierrez adopted relatively conservative fiscal policies and defensive tactics, including replacing the Supreme Court and declaring a state of emergency in the capital to combat mounting opposition. The situation came to a head on April 20, 2005, when political opponents and popular uprisings in Quito prompted Congress to strip Gutierrez of the presidency for allegedly "abandoning his post." When the military withdrew its support, Gutierrez went into temporary exile. Congress declared Vice President Alfredo Palacio the new president. A semblance of stability returned, but the Palacio administration failed to achieve major reforms.

In presidential elections on October 15, 2006, third-time candidate Alvaro Noboa won the first round. However, Rafael Correa, Palacio's former finance minister, running on an anti-establishment reform platform, bested Noboa in the second round presidential runoff on November 26. Election observers characterized the elections as generally free, fair, and transparent. Noboa's National Institutional Renovation and Action Party won the largest bloc in Congress in 2006 elections, followed by Gutierrez's Patriotic Society Party; Correa's Proud and Sovereign Fatherland Alliance movement did not field any congressional candidates. Traditional parties saw their congressional representation cut in half. The new Congress took office January 5, 2007 and Correa was sworn in as President on January 15, 2007. In March 2007, 57 members of Congress were dismissed on the grounds that they violated campaign laws. Since that time, the Congress has been largely deadlocked.

===Lasso Government===
[[File:Guillermo Lasso.jpg|150px|thumbnail|President [[Guillermo Lasso|Guillermo Lasso Mendoza]] (2021-2023).]]
[[Guillermo Lasso|Guillermo Lasso Mendoza]] was elected president in 2021, in 2022 Ecuador experimented a Marxist insurrection disguised as [[indigenism]].

The Lasso administration produced a historic reduction of 7.3 points of GDP since it took office in May of last year. The correction of public finances took place in record time, only in 17 months of administration. Such a fiscal adjustment had not been observed since the dollarization process in 2000.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates that Ecuador will reach a consolidated financial surplus of 0.87% of GDP by December 2022, and almost 2 points of GDP by December of next year.

Under this reduction path, the Country Risk stopped increasing and stabilized at 1,446 basic points. The Government intends to regain credibility in the country and to continue lowering the risk premium.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/economia/reforma-economica-en-ecuador-el-presidente-lasso-elimino-el-deficit-fiscal-en-solo-17-meses|title=Reforma económica en Ecuador: el presidente Lasso eliminó el déficit fiscal en solo 17 meses|language=es|publisher=La Derecha Diario|date=November 2, 2022}}</ref>

==Ecuador and political asylum==
[[Wikileaks]] head [[Julian Assange]] enjoyed the protection of the Ecuadoran embassy in London between June 2012 and 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/es/ecuador-le-quita-la-ciudadan%C3%ADa-a-julian-assange/a-58671040|title=Ecuador le quita la ciudadanía a Julian Assange|publisher=DW|date=Augusto 28, 2021|language=es}}</ref> In June 2013, NSA leaker [[Edward Snowden]] reportedly sought asylum in Ecuador.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2013/06/23/obama-administration-confirms-talking-to-hong-kong-about-snowden/ "US revokes NSA leaker Edward Snowden's passport, as he reportedly seeks asylum in Ecuador," Fox News, 23 June 2013]</ref>

== References ==

<references/>

==See also==
*[[Guayaquil Ecuador Temple]]
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]

{{Copyright Details (US Government)|source=[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35761.htm]}}

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Ecuador]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Ecuador

2024-06-02T23:01:00Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República del Equador''
|map = Ecuador rel91.jpg
|map2 = Ecuador1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms = Arms of Ecuador.png
|capital = Quito
|capital-raw =
|government = Republic
|government-raw =
|language = Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president = Daniel Noboa
|president-raw =
|vice-president-raw= Verónica Abad
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|premier =
|area = 98,985 sq. mi.
|pop = 17,750,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year = $105,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-pc = $5,915 (2020)
|currency = [[U.S. Dollar]]
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Ecuador''' is a country in [[South America]]. It is near the [[equator]], hence its name, which means ''equator'' in [[Spanish]]. The country borders [[Colombia]] on the north and [[Peru]] on the south and east. To the west is the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It has a fantastic diversity of climates, ranging from the low land coast of the west to the highlands of the [[Andes]] which drop down in east to the lush [[Amazon River|Amazon]] [[Forest|rainforest]].

==People==
Ecuador's population is ethnically mixed. The largest ethnic groups are indigenous and mestizo (mixed Indian-Caucasian). Although Ecuadorians were heavily concentrated in the mountainous central highland region a few decades ago, today's population is divided about equally between that area and the coastal lowlands. Migration toward cities—particularly larger cities—in all regions has increased the urban population to over 60%. The tropical forest region (or Amazon region) to the east of the mountains remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the population. Due to an economic crisis in the late 1990s, more than 600,000 Ecuadorians emigrated to the U.S. and Europe from 2000 to 2001. It is estimated that there are over two million Ecuadorians currently residing in the U.S.

==Government==
The 1998 constitution provides for 4-year terms of office for the president, vice president, and members of Congress, although none of the last three democratically-elected presidents finished their terms. Presidents may be re-elected after an intervening term; legislators may be re-elected immediately. The executive branch currently includes 24 ministries (including coordinating ministries with inter-governmental responsibility). Provincial leaders (called prefects) and councilors, like mayors, city councilors, and rural parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December. Congress is divided into 20 seven-member subject committees. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Congress for life; members of the Constitutional Court serve four years.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Daniel Noboa
*Vice President—Verónica Abad
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Gabriela Sommerfeld Rosero
*Minister of Defense—Giancarlo Loffredo Rendón
*Ambassador to the United States—Ivonne Baki
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Mauricio Montalvo
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Cristián Espinosa

===Political Conditions===
Ecuador's political parties have historically been small, loose organizations that depend more on populist, often charismatic, leaders to retain support than on programs or ideology. Frequent internal splits have produced great factionalism. No party has won the presidency more than once through elections since the return to civilian government in 1979. Although Ecuador's political elite is highly factionalized along regional, ideological, and personal lines, desire for consensus on major issues often leads to compromise. Opposition forces in Congress are loosely organized, but historically they often unite to block the administration's initiatives.

Beginning with the 1996 election, the indigenous population abandoned its traditional policy of shunning the official political system and participated actively. The indigenous population established itself as a force in Ecuadorian politics, and participated in the Gutierrez administration before joining the opposition. In the 2006 elections, the indigenous movement won six seats in Congress (down from 11 in 2002).

Constitutional changes enacted by a specially elected National Constitutional Assembly in 1998 took effect on August 10, 1998. The new constitution strengthened the executive branch by eliminating mid-term congressional elections and by circumscribing Congress' power to remove cabinet ministers. Party discipline varies, and many congressional deputies switch allegiance during each Congress On April 15, 2007, 82% of voters approved a referendum to convene a constituent assembly, a centerpiece of President Correa's political reform agenda. This will be Ecuador's seventh such assembly in the past 90 years, and, if successful, will produce Ecuador's 20th constitution since independence.

Ecuadorian President [[Lenin Moreno]], despite being elected as a member of a leftist party in 2017, took several steps to reverse the left-wing policies of his predecessor.<ref>Martel, Frances (August 24, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/08/24/ecuador-abandons-socialist-latin-bloc-frustration-venezuela/ Ecuador Abandons Socialist Latin America Bloc over ‘Frustration’ with Venezuela]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 25, 2018.</ref>

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Frederic Edwin Church Cotopaxi 1855.jpg|thumb|320px|[[Frederic Edwin Church]], Cotopaxi, 1855.]]
Ecuador always has placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international problems. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies), the Organization of American States (OAS), and many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and the Community of Andean Nations.

In October 1998, Ecuador and Peru reached a peace agreement to settle their border differences, which had festered since the signing of the 1942 Rio Protocol. This long-running border dispute occasionally erupted into armed hostility along the undemarcated sections, with the last conflict occurring in 1995. The U.S. Government, as one of the four guarantor nations (the others are Argentina, Brazil and Chile), played an important role in bringing the conflict to an end. The peace agreement brokered by the four guarantors in February 1995 led to the cessation of hostilities and a Military Observers Mission to Ecuador-Peru (MOMEP), which monitored the zone. In addition to helping broker the peace accord, the U.S. has been active in demining the former area of conflict and supporting welfare and economic projects in the border area.

The ongoing conflict in Colombia and security along the 450-mile-long northern border are important issues in Ecuador's foreign relations with Colombia. The instability of border areas and frequent encroachments of Colombian guerillas into Ecuadorian territory has led the Ecuadorian army to deploy more troops to the region. Although Ecuadorian officials have stated that Colombian guerrilla activity will not be tolerated on the Ecuadorian side of the border, guerrilla bands have been known to intimidate the local population, demanding extortion payments and practicing [[vigilante]] justice. The close proximity of the border to northern oil fields also has resulted in kidnappings of foreign oil workers by Colombian-based criminals. The Correa administration is pursuing a policy known as Plan Ecuador to develop the northern border region and protect citizens from the drug threat.

==Economy==
The Ecuadorian economy is based on petroleum production, manufacturing primarily for the domestic market, and agricultural production for domestic consumption and export. Principal exports are petroleum, bananas, shrimp, flowers, and other primary agricultural products. In 2006, oil accounted for 59% of total export earnings. Ecuador is the world's largest exporter of bananas (about $1.2 billion in 2006) and a major exporter of shrimp ($588 million in 2006). Exports of nontraditional products such as flowers ($436 million in 2006, a three-fold increase in 10 years) and canned fish ($575 million in 2006) have grown in recent years.

Ecuador's economic performance has been solid since it adopted the dollar as its national currency in 2000, following a major banking crisis and recession in 1999. Since 2000, growth has averaged over 5% per year. In 2006, economic growth was 3.9%, [[inflation]] was 2.9%, and both petroleum and non-petroleum exports expanded. This performance has taken place in spite of the political turbulence, thanks to the stability brought by dollarization, high oil prices, strong domestic consumer demand, and growing remittances (over $2.5 billion a year) from Ecuadorians living abroad. Per capita income has increased from $1,296 in 2000 to an estimated $3,088 in 2006, while the poverty rate fell from 51% in 2000 to 38% in 2006.

Ecuador did not improve its overall competitiveness during this period of economic and export growth. In 2006, it slipped three positions in both the World Bank's Doing Business Index (from 120 to 123) and the World Economic Forum's Competitiveness Index (from 87 to 90), as other nations have moved more aggressively to adapt to globalization.

Though Ecuador has a relative abundance of oil reserves, it has been unable to take full advantage of those resources for its own development. Mismanagement, lack of investment, and corruption in the state-owned oil sector have caused declines in state oil production over the last decade. Overall oil production increased during that period because of growing production by private sector companies, but in the first half of 2007 production by the state oil company fell, while that by private sector companies was flat. Commercial disputes as well as judicial and contractual uncertainties have deterred private oil and other companies from investing in the country. The electricity and telecommunications sectors also have similar significant problems. Ecuador was in the final stages of negotiating a free trade agreement (FTA) with the United States, but that progress stalled with an April 2006 hydrocarbons law mandating revisions in contract terms, and the May 2006 seizure of the assets of Occidental Petroleum, at the time the country's largest U.S. investor. Resolution of the Occidental situation is currently pending international arbitration under the terms of the bilateral investment treaty.

President Correa has announced his opposition to resumption of FTA talks with the U.S., citing concerns that Ecuador is not yet sufficiently competitive, especially in sensitive agriculture sectors. Prior to taking office, he said that the Government of Ecuador would only service its external debt obligations after funding domestic social priorities; as of September 2007, the government had met its external debt obligations. The government increased income transfers to the poor and has increased spending on health, education, and basic infrastructure.

==History==
===The Inca Empire and Spanish Conquest===
Advanced indigenous cultures flourished in Ecuador long before the area was conquered by the Inca Empire in the 15th century. In 1534, the Spanish arrived and defeated the Inca armies, and Spanish colonists became the new elite. The indigenous population was decimated by disease in the first decades of Spanish rule—a time when the natives also were forced into the "encomienda" labor system for Spanish landlords. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a royal "audiencia" (administrative district) of Spain.

===Independence===
After independence forces defeated the royalist army in 1822, Ecuador joined Simon Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia, only to become a separate republic in 1830. The 19th century was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The conservative Gabriel Garcia Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Catholic Church. In the late 1800s, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.

A coastal-based liberal revolution in 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and opened the way for capitalist development. The end of the cocoa boom produced renewed political instability and a military coup in 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by populist politicians such as five-time President Jose Velasco Ibarra. In January 1942, Ecuador signed the Rio Protocol to end a brief war with Peru the year before. Ecuador agreed to a border that conceded to Peru much territory Ecuador had previously claimed in the Amazon region. After World War II, a recovery in the market for agricultural commodities and the growth of the banana industry helped restore prosperity and political peace. From 1948–60, three presidents—beginning with Galo Plaza—were freely elected and completed their terms. Political turbulence returned in the 1960s, followed by a period of military dictatorship between 1972 and 1979. The 1980s and beginning of the 90's saw a return to democracy, but instability returned by the middle of the decade.

===Political Instability (1997-2006)===
[[File:Guayasamin Niño Negro 1994.jpg|thumb|240px|Niño Negro by Oswaldo Guayasamín, 1994.]]
Abdul Buckram, from the Guayaquil-based Ecuadorian Roldosista Party (PRE), won the presidency in 1996 on a platform that promised populist economic and social policies, and challenged what Buckram termed as the power of the nation's oligarchy. During his short term of office, Buckram's administration was severely criticized for corruption. Buckram was deposed by the Congress in February 1997 on grounds of alleged mental incompetence. In his place, Congress named Fabian Alarcon interim president. Alarcon's presidency was endorsed by a May 1997 popular referendum.

Quito Mayor Jamil Mahuad of the Popular Democracy party was elected president by a narrow margin In July 1998. Mahuad concluded an historic peace agreement with Peru on October 26, 1998, but increasing economic, fiscal, and financial difficulties drove his popularity steadily lower. On January 21, 2000, during demonstrations in Quito by indigenous groups, the military and police refused to enforce public order. Demonstrators entered the National Assembly building and declared a three-person "[[junta]]" in charge of the country. Field-grade military officers declared their support for the concept. During a night of confusion and negotiations, President Mahuad fled the presidential palace. Vice President Gustavo Noboa took charge and Mahuad went on national television to endorse Noboa as his successor. Congress met in emergency session in Guayaquil the same day, January 22, and ratified Noboa as President of the Republic.

Completing Mahuad's term, Noboa restored some stability to Ecuador. He implemented the dollarization of the economy that Mahuad had announced and obtained congressional authorization for the construction of Ecuador's second major oil pipeline, this one financed by a private consortium. Noboa turned over the government on January 15, 2003, to his successor, Lucio Gutierrez, a former army colonel who first came to public attention as a member of the short-lived "junta" of January 21, 2000. Gutierrez' campaign featured an anti-corruption and leftist, populist platform. After taking office, however, Gutierrez adopted relatively conservative fiscal policies and defensive tactics, including replacing the Supreme Court and declaring a state of emergency in the capital to combat mounting opposition. The situation came to a head on April 20, 2005, when political opponents and popular uprisings in Quito prompted Congress to strip Gutierrez of the presidency for allegedly "abandoning his post." When the military withdrew its support, Gutierrez went into temporary exile. Congress declared Vice President Alfredo Palacio the new president. A semblance of stability returned, but the Palacio administration failed to achieve major reforms.

In presidential elections on October 15, 2006, third-time candidate Alvaro Noboa won the first round. However, Rafael Correa, Palacio's former finance minister, running on an anti-establishment reform platform, bested Noboa in the second round presidential runoff on November 26. Election observers characterized the elections as generally free, fair, and transparent. Noboa's National Institutional Renovation and Action Party won the largest bloc in Congress in 2006 elections, followed by Gutierrez's Patriotic Society Party; Correa's Proud and Sovereign Fatherland Alliance movement did not field any congressional candidates. Traditional parties saw their congressional representation cut in half. The new Congress took office January 5, 2007 and Correa was sworn in as President on January 15, 2007. In March 2007, 57 members of Congress were dismissed on the grounds that they violated campaign laws. Since that time, the Congress has been largely deadlocked.

===Lasso Government===
[[File:Guillermo Lasso.jpg|150px|thumbnail|President [[Guillermo Lasso|Guillermo Lasso Mendoza]] (2021-2023).]]
[[Guillermo Lasso|Guillermo Lasso Mendoza]] was elected president in 2021, in 2022 Ecuador experimented a Marxist insurrection disguised as [[indigenism]].

The Lasso administration produced a historic reduction of 7.3 points of GDP since it took office in May of last year. The correction of public finances took place in record time, only in 17 months of administration. Such a fiscal adjustment had not been observed since the dollarization process in 2000.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates that Ecuador will reach a consolidated financial surplus of 0.87% of GDP by December 2022, and almost 2 points of GDP by December of next year.

Under this reduction path, the Country Risk stopped increasing and stabilized at 1,446 basic points. The Government intends to regain credibility in the country and to continue lowering the risk premium.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/economia/reforma-economica-en-ecuador-el-presidente-lasso-elimino-el-deficit-fiscal-en-solo-17-meses|title=Reforma económica en Ecuador: el presidente Lasso eliminó el déficit fiscal en solo 17 meses|language=es|publisher=La Derecha Diario|date=November 2, 2022}}</ref>

==Ecuador and political asylum==
[[Wikileaks]] head [[Julian Assange]] enjoyed the protection of the Ecuadoran embassy in London between June 2012 and 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/es/ecuador-le-quita-la-ciudadan%C3%ADa-a-julian-assange/a-58671040|title=Ecuador le quita la ciudadanía a Julian Assange|publisher=DW|date=Augusto 28, 2021|language=es}}</ref> In June 2013, NSA leaker [[Edward Snowden]] reportedly sought asylum in Ecuador.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2013/06/23/obama-administration-confirms-talking-to-hong-kong-about-snowden/ "US revokes NSA leaker Edward Snowden's passport, as he reportedly seeks asylum in Ecuador," Fox News, 23 June 2013]</ref>

== References ==

<references/>

==See also==
*[[Guayaquil Ecuador Temple]]
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]

{{Copyright Details (US Government)|source=[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35761.htm]}}

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Ecuador]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Chile

2024-06-02T23:00:39Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Chile''
|map =Tricontinental Chile Map.jpg
|map2 =Chile location map.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Coat of arms of Chile.png
|capital-raw =[[Santiago|Santiago de Chile]]
|government-raw =[[Chilean Constitution of 1980|Unitarian & Presidentialist Republic]]
|language =Spanish
|president =Gabriel Boric
|president-raw=
|conservative-leader=Johannes Kaiser
|conservative-leader-raw=
|area =774,657 sq. mi. (Tricontinental Chile) 292,183 sq. mi. (Only Continental and Insular Chile)
|pop =19,100,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$280,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$14,660 (2020)
|currency =Chilean Peso (CLP)
|idd =+56
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'''Chile''' (official name: '''Republic of Chile''') is a Spanish colony on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[South America]] which is organized as a Centralized Unitary Presidential [[Democracy]]. It has a population of 17.5 million and the capital city is [[Santiago|Santiago de Chile]] which is also the biggest city of the country. Chile borders [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Peru]].

Between 1975 and 2014, Chile followed the path of the [[free market]] and [[Capitalism]] been the best place to make business of [[Latin America]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iberglobal.com/files/2019-1/economic_freedom_index_2019.pdf|title=Economic Freedom Index 2019}}</ref> This has made the country the most developed of the Region according to the [[Human Development Index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economiaynegocios.cl/noticias/noticias.asp?id=505045|title=Chile sigue al tope de A. Latina en Índice de Desarrollo Humano|date=September 15, 2018|publisher=Economía y Negocios|language=es}}</ref> Chile went from a [[Gross domestic product]] of 100 in 1973 to 515 in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gobierno.udd.cl/files/2016/05/PPT-FPP.pdf|author=Lucas Palacios Covarrubias|title=Pobreza vs Desigualdad|date=April 2016|publisher=[[Universidad del Desarrollo]] - Facultad de Gobierno|language=es}}</ref> However that was put at risk with the leftist insurrection from 2019 and, in [[Chile presidential election, 2021|Dec 2021]], [[Gabriel Boric]], was elected [[President of Chile|president]] at the age of 35. A former student radical "activist," a self-described [[communist]].<ref name=at22nov21>Monica Showalter, [https://www.americanthinker.com/blog/2021/11/stunning_good_news_from_chile__and_not_just_for_them_but_for_us.html Stunning good news from Chile...], American Thinker, November 22, 2021</ref>

In early September 2022, by a resounding 62-38% landslide margin, Chileans rejected a progressive new constitution proposal and thereby decided to retain [[Chilean Constitution of 1980|the one written under]] [[conservative]] leader [[Augusto Pinochet]] in 1980, which was reformed over 70 times in democracy in more than half of its content.<ref>https://www.npr.org/2022/09/04/1121065756/chile-constitution-referendum</ref><ref>[https://www.uandes.cl/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/CPR-Edicio%CC%81n-Histo%CC%81rica.pdf]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220929111026/https://plataformacontexto.cl/contexto_factual/cuanto-queda-de-la-constitucion-de-pinochet/ Cuánto queda de “la Constitución de Pinochet”]</ref> A new proposal from the center-right with globalist elements was rejected on December 2023 with a 56-44% landslide margin.

==Geography==
[[File:Volcano Osorno and Petrohué waterfalls.JPG|thumb|left|Petrohué Waterfalls and Osorno Volcano in the background.]]
The northern Chilean [[Atacama Desert]] contains great mineral wealth, principally [[copper]], and also contains locations where rainfall has never been recorded. The relatively small central area dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century, when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in [[forest]]s and grazing lands and features a string of [[volcano]]es and [[lake]]s. The southern coast located in [[Patagonia]] is a labyrinth of [[fjord]]s, [[inlet]]s, [[canal]]s, twisting [[peninsula]]s, and [[island]]s. The [[Andes]] Mountains are located on the eastern border.
*Area of Tricontinental Chile: 2,006,354 km2 (774,657 sq. mi.)
*Area considering Continental and Insular Chile: 756,945 km2. (302,778 sq. mi.), or nearly twice the size of California.
*Cities: Capital—[[Santiago]] (metropolitan area est. 6.25 million). Other cities: [[Concepción]]-[[Talcahuano]] (840,000), [[Viña del Mar]]-[[Valparaíso]] (800,000), [[Antofagasta]] (245,000), [[Temuco]] (230,000).
*Terrain: Desert in north; fertile central valley; volcanoes and lakes toward the south, giving way to rugged and complex coastline; Andes Mountains on the eastern border.
*Climate: Arid in north, Mediterranean in the central portion, cool and damp in south.

Chile has also experienced numerous massive earthquakes, including (as of 2019) 12 of the top 35, three of the top 11, two of the top six, and the 1960 Valdavia earthquake which was measured at magnitude 9.5, the strongest ever recorded.

==People==
[[File:Chilean dance.jpg|left|140px]]
About 85% of Chile's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in greater Santiago. Most have [[Spain|Spanish]] ancestry. A small, yet influential number of [[Irish]] and [[English]] immigrants came to Chile during the Spanish Empire period. [[German]] immigration began in 1848 and lasted for 90 years; the southern provinces of [[Valdivia]], [[Llanquihue]], and [[Osorno]] show a strong German influence. Other significant historic immigrant groups are [[Italian]], [[Croatian]], [[Basque]], [[Palestinian]] and [[Peruvian]]. About 800,000 Native Americans, mostly of the [[Mapuche]] (Araucan) tribes, reside in the south-central area. The [[Aymara]] and [[Diaguita]] groups can be found mainly in Chile's northern desert valleys.

Since 2014 Chile has been experiencing [[open borders|mass]] [[immigration]] from [[Haiti]], [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]] and [[Ecuador]], something that was unusual and has drastically changed the demographics of the country in the recent years (The immigrants went from 1.1% to 6.1% and is still growing)<ref>{{cite web|language=es|url=http://www.diarioestrategia.cl//texto-diario/mostrar/1116871/chile-pais-americano-mayor-aumento-inmigrantes|title=Chile es el país americano con mayor aumento de inmigrantes|publisher=diarioestrategia.cl|date=9 November 2018}}</ref> a lot of them are [[Illegal immigration|illegally]] (See ''[[Colchane#Mass_immigration_problem|Colchane's Mass immigration problem]]'').

*Population (2019): 17.5 million.
*Annual population growth rate: 0.881%.
*Ethnic groups: Spanish-Native-American (mestizo), European, Native-American, Blacks (since 2014 with mass Haitian immigration).
*Religions: [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] 70%, [[Evangelical]] 15.1%, Jehovah's Witness 1.1%, other Christian 1%, other 4.6%, none 8.3%.
*Language: [[Spanish]].
*Education: Years compulsory—13. Attendance—3 million. Adult literacy rate—96%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—8.9/1,000. Life expectancy—80 yrs. for men, 85 for women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsuss.cl/ipsuss/analisis-y-estudios/esperanza-de-vida-al-nacer-en-chile-llega-a-85-anos-en-mujeres-y-80-anos/2017-09-26/154547.html|title=Esperanza de vida al nacer en Chile llega a 85 años en mujeres y 80 años en hombres|date=September 26, 2017|language=es|publisher=Ipsuss}}</ref>
*Work force (6.94 million); employed 6.45 million: Community, social and individual services—26%; industry—14.4%; commerce—17.6%; agriculture, forestry, and fishing—13.9%; construction—7.1%; financial services—7.5%; transportation and communication—8.0%; electricity, gas and water—0.5%; mining—1.2%.

==Government==
{{Main article|Chilean Constitution of 1980}}
[[File:Palacio de La Moneda.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[[La Moneda]] Palace, seat of Executive Branch.]]
[[Chilean Constitution of 1980|Chile's Constitution]] was approved in a September 1980 national plebiscite with 67% of the vote. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the [[1988 Chilean national plebiscite|1988 plebiscite]], the Constitution was reformed and another referendum was held over the reforms in which 91% voted in favor. In 2005 President Lagos made several reforms to the Constitution, even changing the Pinochet sign with his.
The President term is 4-year long, however is constitutionally barred from serving consecutive terms. The political system of Chile is an exacerbated [[Presidential system|Presidential]] one.
Chile has a bicameral Congress, which meets in the port city of [[Valparaíso]], about 140 kilometers (84 mi.) west of the capital, Santiago (since 1990). Deputies are elected every 4 years, and Senators serve 8-year terms.
There are currently 43 Senators and 155 Deputies.
The Chilean elections are judged free and fair.

Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court. In June 2005, Chile completed a nationwide overhaul of its criminal justice system. The reform replaced old proceedings with an adversarial system more similar to that of the United States.

The Central Bank in Chile is autonomous since 1981.

===Principal Government Officials===
{{See also|President of Chile}}
*[[President of Chile|President]]—[[Gabriel Boric]] since 11 March 2022.
*Minister of Interior—Carolina Tohá
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Alberto van Klaveren Stork
*Ambassador to the United States—Juan Gabriel Valdés
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States (OAS)—Sebastián Kraljevich Chadwick
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Paula Narváez Ojeda
*Ambassador to the OECD—Francisco Saffie Gatica
*Mayor of Santiago—Irací Hassler

===Foreign Relations===
Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a 2-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. [[Jose Miguel Insulza]], a Chilean national, was Secretary General of the Organization of American States from May 2005 to 2015. Chile is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the [[APEC]] summit and related meetings in 2004. Chile hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade. The APEC 2019 was planed to be hosted on Chile and the COP25 but was cancelled due to the [[2019 Chilean State of Emergency|State of Emergency]]. President [[Donald Trump]] planed to sign an agreement with [[Xi Jinping]] to end the 'Trade War' in the APEC hosted in Chile, however it was canceled.

Chile was one of the four countries (along with [[Singapore]], [[Brunei]] and [[New Zealand]]) that started the [[TPP (treaty)|TPP-11]].

Chile signed many Free Trade Agreements since the 90s.

The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with Argentina during the 1990s except for a part in the Southern Patagonian Ice Fields and the Antarctic claims overlap between both countries, however the Antarctic Treaty doesn't allow modification to the claims and they are ineffective.

In 2007 Peru demanded Chile in the International Court of Justice due to a maritime dispute. The case was closed in 2013 in which half of the disputed sea was ceded to Peru and half to Chile. In Chile it was seen as a lost case.

Chile and Bolivia have bad diplomatic relations since [[Evo Morales]], Bolivia's president, reintegrated the desire to reacquire territory Bolivia lost to Chile in 1879-83 [[War of the Pacific]] in his Foreign Affairs Policy and he demanded Chile in the Internation Couth of Justice, a case which Chile won. There is currently a case to determine if Silala is a river (Chile's position) or is a spring artificially modificated by Chile (Bolivia's position). The two countries maintain consular relations and are represented at the Consul General level but doesn't have embassies in each other.

===Political parties and coalitions===
The main coalitions are:
*[[Chile Vamos]] (Globalist center-right) ([[Sebastián Piñera|Piñera]] and [[Evelyn Matthei|Matthei]]'s coalition) composed by the [[Independent Democrat Union]], [[National Renewal]] and [[Evópoli]].
*Apruebo Dignidad (far-left) ([[Gabriel Boric|Boric]] and [[Daniel Jadue|Jadue]]'s coalition) Social Convergence, [[Democratic Revolution]], Green Ecologist Party, Commune Party, [[Communist]] Party and Social Green Regionalist Federation.
*Constituent Unity (Former "New Majority") (left) (former [[Michelle Bachelet|Bachelet]]'s coalition) composed by old leftist parties such as: the [[Socialist]] Party, Party for Democracy, the Radical Party, [[Christian Democracy]], Citizens Party and the Liberal Party .

Important parties without coalition:
*[[Republican Party (Chile)|Republican Party]] (right-wing) ([[José Antonio Kast]]'s party).
*[[People's Party (Chile)|People's Party]] (from center to center-right) ([[Franco Parisi]]'s party).
*[[Communist Party]] of Chile (Proletarian Action)/Patriotic Union (far-left) (Eduardo Artes' party).
*Progressive Homeland (left) (Marco Enríquez-Ominami's party).
*Social Christian Party (Dissident right Party) (Evangelical party).

===Administrative divisions===
[[File:Chile (+Antarctica & Islands), administrative divisions - en - colored.png|230px|thumbnail|Map of the Chilean Regions.]]
{{Main article|Regions of Chile}}
Chile is divided in 16 Regions, 56 provinces and 346 communes. Chile is a Unitary Centralized State in which the law is the same in every place of the country.

'''List of the Regions and their Capital''':
*[[Arica & Parinacota Region|Arica & Parinacota]] - Capital: [[Arica]]
*[[Tarapacá Region|Tarapacá]] - Capital: [[Iquique]]
*[[Antofagasta Region|Antofagasta]] - Capital: [[Antofagasta]]
*[[Atacama Region|Atacama]] - Capital: [[Copiapó]]
*[[Coquimbo Region|Coquimbo]] - Capital: [[La Serena]]
*[[Valparaíso Region|Valparaíso]] - Capital: [[Valparaíso]]
*[[Metropolitan Region|Metropolitan]] - Capital: [[Santiago]]
*[[O'Higgins Region|O'Higgins]] - Capital: [[Rancagua]]
*[[Maule Region|Maule]] - Capital: [[Talca]]
*[[Ñuble Region|Ñuble]] - Capital: [[Chillán]]
*[[Biobío Region|Biobío]] - Capital: [[Concepción (Chile)|Concepción]]
*[[Araucanía Region|Araucanía]] - Capital: [[Temuco]]
*[[Los Ríos Region|Los Ríos]] - Capital: [[Valdivia]]
*[[Los Lagos Region|Los Lagos]] - Capital: [[Puerto Montt]]
*[[Aysén Region|Aysén]] - Capital: [[Coyhaique]]
*[[Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica Region|Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica]] - Capital: [[Punta Arenas]]

The most conservative commune of Chile is [[Colchane]] as well with Antártica, Lo Barnechea, Vitacura & Las Condes.

==Defense==
Chile's Armed Forces are subject to civilian control exercised by the President through the Minister of Defense. The President has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces.

===Army===
The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, seven divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in Rancagua, and a Special Forces Command in Colina. The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America.

===Navy===
The Navy has 23,000-person, including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].

===Air Force (FACH)===
The FACH is a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[Villa Las Estrellas]], [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]]. The FACH was created in 1930 by Gen. [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]].

===Carabineros===
Carabineros de Chile is the national police force of 30,000 men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile. The Carabineros were created in 1927 by Gen. [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]]. Carabineros is the best police in Latin America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/2013/09/22/1508838-chile-y-colombia-los-paises-la-policia-mas-confiable/|title=Chile y Colombia, los países con la policía más confiable|date=September 22, 2013|publisher=Infobae|language=es}}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:GNP-CHILE.jpg|thumbnail|left|Chile's Take off thanks to Pinochet economic reforms.]]
[[File:Gran Torre Santiago (39693576311).jpg|thumbnail|200px|Gran Torre Santiago, in the financial district of the city.]]
[[File:Chuqui001.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Chuquicamata Copper mine, the largest open pit copper mine in the world.]]
After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999, brought on by unfavorable global economic conditions related to the Asian financial crisis, which began in 1997. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 3.3% real GDP growth. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.1%. Real GDP growth reached 6.3% in 2005 before falling back to 4.0% growth in 2006. Higher energy prices as well as lagging consumer demand were drags on the economy in 2006. Higher Chilean Government spending and favorable external conditions (including record copper prices for much of 2006) were not enough to offset these drags. For the first time in many years, Chilean economic growth in 2006 was among the weakest in Latin America. In May 2010 Chile signed the OECD Convention, becoming the first South American country to join the OECD.

*GDP (official exchange rate): $150.4 billion. (GDP (purchasing power parity):$335.4 billion (2013 est.))
*Annual real growth rate: -1.5%.
*Per capita GDP (purchasing power parity): $27,058 (GDP - per capita (PPP) 2019 est.)
*Forestry, agriculture, and fisheries (6% of GDP): Products—fruits, wheat, potatoes, corn, sugar beets, onions, beans, livestock, fish.
*Commerce (8% of GDP): Sales, restaurants, hotels.
*Manufacturing (17% of GDP): Types—mineral refining, metal manufacturing, food processing, fish processing, paper and wood products, finished textiles.
*Electricity, gas, and water: 3% of GDP.
*Transportation and communication: 7% of GDP.
*Construction: 8% of GDP.
*Financial services (12% of GDP): Insurance, leasing, consulting.
*Mining (13% of GDP): Copper, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals, and molybdenum.
*Trade: Exports--$57.61 billion: copper, fruits and nuts, fish and seafood, and wood products. Major markets—U.S., Japan, China, Netherlands, South Korea, Brazil, Italy, Mexico. Imports--$40.91 billion: fuels, heavy industrial machinery, motor vehicles, electrical machinery, plastic. Major suppliers—U.S., China, Brazil, Argentina, South Korea. (GDP (official exchange rate):$281.7 billion (2013 est.))

Chile has pursued generally sound economic policies for nearly three decades. The 1973-90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization, though at a slower pace. The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant CODELCO and a few other enterprises (there is one state-run bank). Chile is strongly committed to free trade and has welcomed large amounts of foreign investment. Chile has signed free trade agreements (FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States, which was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004. Over the last several years, Chile has signed FTAs with the European Union, South Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, China, and Japan. It reached a partial trade agreement with India in 2005 and began negotiations for a full-fledged FTA with India in 2006. Chile plans to continue its focus on its trade ties with Asia by negotiating in 2007 trade agreements with Thailand, Malaysia, and Australia.
[[File:José Piñera Echenique.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[José Piñera]] creator of the Individual capitalization pension system.]]
[[File:Hernan Buchi 2011.jpg|200px|thumbnail|[[Hernán Büchi]], economist during the Military Government that re-implemented liberal economic policies.]]
High domestic savings and investment rates helped propel Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the 1990s. The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP. However, the AFP is not without its critics, who cite low participation rates (only 55% of the working population is covered), with groups such as the self-employed outside the system. There has also been criticism of the inefficiency and high costs due to a lack of competition among pension funds. Critics cite loopholes in the use of pension savings through lump sum withdraws for the purchase of a second home or payment of university fees as fundamental weaknesses of the AFP. The Bachelet administration plans substantial reform, but not an overhaul, of the AFP during the next several years.

Unemployment stubbornly hovered in the 8%-10% range after the start of the economic slowdown in 1999, well above the 5%-6% average for the 1990s. Unemployment finally dipped to 7.8% at the end of 2006, due largely to the fact that fewer Chileans were entering the workforce rather than to a substantial and sustained creation of new jobs. Most international observers place some of the blame for Chile's consistently high unemployment rate on complicated and restrictive labor laws. Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The percentage of Chileans with incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a family of four's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 46% in 1987 to around 18% by 2004.

Chile's independent Central Bank pursues an inflation target of between 2% and 4%. Inflation has not exceeded 5% since 1998. Chile registered an inflation rate of 3.2% in 2006. The Chilean peso's rapid appreciation against the U.S. dollar in recent years has helped dampen inflation. Most wage settlements and loans are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility. Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.

[[File:Countries with a private pension system.jpg|thumbnail|Countries that applied Chile's private pension system.]]
Total foreign direct investment (FDI) was only $3.4 billion in 2006, up 52% from a poor performance in 2005. However, 80% of FDI continues to go to only four sectors: electricity, gas, water and mining. Much of the jump in FDI in 2006 was also the result of acquisitions and mergers and has done little to create new employment in Chile. The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, which is tasked with identifying new sectors and industries to promote. It is hoped that this, combined with some tax reforms to encourage domestic and foreign investment in research and development, will bring in additional FDI and to new parts of the economy. As of 2006, Chile invested only 0.6% of its annual GDP in research and development (R&D). Even then, two-thirds of that was government spending. The fact that domestic and foreign companies spend almost nothing on R&D does not bode well for the Government of Chile's efforts to develop innovative, knowledge-based sectors. Additionally, on January 8, 2007, Chile was placed on the U.S. Trade Representative's Priority Watch List due to its poor record on protecting intellectual property rights. Chile is only the second U.S. FTA partner ever to be placed on the Priority Watch List. Chile has a poor and deteriorating record of protecting copyrighted music, films, and software. Combined with this is its institutional structure allowing local companies to produce and market pharmaceutical generics that violate existing patents. Beyond its general economic and political stability, the government also has encouraged the use of Chile as an "investment platform" for multinational corporations planning to operate in the region, but this will have limited value given the developing business climate in Chile itself. Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. While Chile and the EU have signed a double taxation treaty, no such agreement exists between the U.S. and Chile.

Mining was temporarily curtailed following an accident in which 33 miners were trapped after a cave-in at the San Jose mine<ref>http://www.minandes.com/s/RoadtoProduction.asp</ref> near Copiapo on August 5, 2010. A rescue attempt - bolstered by national pride at getting the men out alive - ended 67 days later on October 13 as the last of the men were pulled out to safety.<ref>https://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/10/12/rescued-chilean-miner-returns-surface/</ref><ref>https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/chile/7961923/Chilean-miners-trapped-in-San-Jose-mine.html</ref>

===Foreign Trade===
[[File:Commercial Treaties Chile 2012.jpg|thumb|295px|Commercial Treaties, 2012.]]
2006 was a record year for Chilean trade. Total trade registered a 31% increase over 2005. During 2006, exports of goods and services totaled U.S. $58 billion, an increase of 41%. This figure was somewhat distorted by the skyrocketing price of copper. In 2006, copper exports reached a historical high of U.S. $33.3 billion. Imports totaled U.S. $35 billion, an increase of 17% compared to the previous year. Chile thus recorded a positive trade balance of U.S. $23 billion in 2006.

The main destinations for Chilean exports were the Americas (U.S. $39 billion), Asia (U.S. $27.8 billion) and Europe (U.S. $22.2 billion). Seen as shares of Chile's export markets, 42% of exports went to the Americas, 30% to Asia and 24% to Europe. Within Chile's diversified network of trade relationships, its most important partner remained the United States. Total trade with the U.S. was U.S. $14.8 billion in 2006. Since the U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement went into effect on January 1, 2004, U.S.-Chilean trade has increased by 154%. Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then.

Total trade with Europe also grew in 2006, expanding by 42%. The Netherlands and Italy were Chile's main European trading partners. Total trade with Asia also grew significantly at nearly 31%. Trade with Korea and Japan grew significantly, but China remained Chile's most important trading partner in Asia. Chile's total trade with China reached U.S. $8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia.

The growth of exports in 2006 was due mainly to a strong increase in sales to the United States, the Netherlands, and Japan. These three markets alone accounted for an additional U.S. $5.5 billion worth of Chilean exports. Chilean exports to the United States totaled U.S. $9.3 billion, representing a 37.7% increase compared to 2005 (U.S. $6.7 billion). Exports to the European Union were U.S. $15.4 billion, a 63.7% increase compared to 2005 (U.S. $9.4 billion). Exports to Asia increased from U.S. $15.2 billion in 2005 to U.S. $19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase.

During 2006, Chile imported U.S. $26 billion from the Americas, representing 54% of total imports, followed by Asia at 22%, and Europe at 16%. Mercosur members were the main suppliers of imports to Chile at U.S. $9.1 billion, followed by the United States with U.S. $5.5 billion and the European Union with U.S. $5.2 billion. From Asia, China was the most important exporter to Chile, with goods valued at U.S. $3.6 billion. Year-on-year growth in imports was especially strong from a number of countries—Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%).

Chile's overall trade profile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports. The state-owned firm CODELCO is the world's largest copper-producing company, with recorded copper reserves of 200 years. Chile has made an effort to expand nontraditional exports. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and processed food, fishmeal and seafood, and wine.

Successive Chilean governments have actively pursued trade-liberalizing agreements. During the 1990s, Chile signed FTAs with Canada, Mexico, and Central America. Chile also concluded preferential trade agreements with Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. An association agreement with Mercosur—Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay—went into effect in October 1996. Continuing its export-oriented development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and South Korea. Chile, as a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization, is seeking to boost commercial ties to Asian markets. To that end, it has signed trade agreements in recent years with New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, India, China, and most recently Japan. In 2007, Chile plans to begin negotiations with Thailand, Malaysia, and Australia.

After two years of negotiations, the United States and Chile signed an agreement in June 2003 that will lead to completely duty-free bilateral trade within 12 years. The U.S.-Chile FTA entered into force January 1, 2004 following approval by the U.S. and Chilean congresses. The bilateral FTA has inaugurated greatly expanded U.S.-Chilean trade ties, with total bilateral trade jumping by 154% during the FTA's first three years.

Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board import tariff for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations in 2002, and the government has introduced legislation to modify them. Under the terms of the U.S.-Chile FTA, the price bands will be completely phased out for U.S. imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar within 12 years.

Chile is a strong proponent of pressing ahead on negotiations for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and is active in the WTO's Doha round of negotiations, principally through its membership in the G-20 and Cairns Group.

===Finance===
Chile's financial sector has grown quickly in recent years, with a banking reform law approved in 1997 that broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. The Chilean Government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001, and there is further pending legislation proposing further liberalization. Over the last ten years, Chileans have enjoyed the introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has also been accompanied by an increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $70 billion at the end of 2006, has been an important source of investment capital for the capital market. Chile maintains one of the best credit ratings (S&P A+) in Latin America. There are three main ways for Chilean firms to raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stocks on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised through these means go to finance domestic Chilean investment. The government is required by law to run a fiscal surplus of at least 1% of GDP. In 2006, the Government of Chile ran a surplus of $11.3 billion, equal to almost 8% of GDP. The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006.

==History==
===Discovery and Hispanic period===
[[File:Pedro de Valdivia.jpg|thumbnail|150px|[[Pedro de Valdivia]], founder of several cities and conqueror of Chile.]]
[[File:Ohiggins.jpg|thumbnail|150px|left|[[Bernardo O'Higgins]], one of the founding fathers of Chile.]]
About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indians settled in fertile valleys and along the coast of what is now Chile. The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the area's barrenness prevented extensive settlement. The first European to see Chilean land was [[Ferdinand Magellan]] when he discovered the [[Strait of Magellan]] in 1520, however the first one to arrive in Chile were [[Diego de Almagro]] and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru seeking gold in 1535. The Spanish encountered hundreds of thousands of Indians from various cultures in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by [[Pedro de Valdivia]], one of [[Francisco Pizarro]]'s lieutenants, who founded the city of [[Santiago]] on February 12, 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

===19th Century, Independence, State Consolidation and Wars with neightbours===
[[File:Pedro Subercaseaux Jura de la Independencia Chile.jpg|thumb|300px|Fray Pedro Subercaseaux, Jura de la Independencia de Chile.]]
[[File:Diego Portales-2.jpg|150px|thumbnail|left|[[Diego Portales]] author of the 1833 Constitution which prioritized order over democracy.]]
[[File:Arturo Prat Chacón.jpg|150px|thumbnail|left|[[Arturo Prat|Arturo Prat Chacón]], the maximum naval hero of the Chilean Nation.]]
[[File:Sinking of the Esmeralda during the battle of Iquique.jpg|300px|thumbnail|Sinking of the Esmeralda during the [[battle of Iquique|naval battle of Iquique]].]]
The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph in 1808. A national [[junta]] in the name of Ferdinand—heir to the deposed king—was formed on September 18, 1810. The junta proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish monarchy. A movement for total independence which [[José Miguel Carrera]] started soon won a wide following. After the [[Battle of Rancagua]], a Spanish attempt to reimpose arbitrary rule started, during what was called the "Reconquista" led to a prolonged struggle.

Intermittent warfare continued until 1817, when an army led by [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], Chile's most renowned patriot, and [[José de San Martín]], hero of Argentine independence, crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On February 12, 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic under O'Higgins' leadership.

During the Ramón Freire Presidency in 1826 the last royalist bastion was defeated, the [[Chiloé]] archipelago and the Tantauco Treaty was signed between Chile and Spain.

Between 1823 and 1829 there was a period of Constitutional Attempts, and there were four of them.

The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics, the Roman Catholic Church and the 1833 Constitution made by [[Diego Portales]]. After the [[Civil War]] of 1829–30, a strong presidency emerged, but wealthy landowners remained extremely powerful.

Between 1836 and 1839, Chile fought a [[War against the Peru–Bolivian Confederation]] which Chile won and separated Peru and Bolivia again.

In 1865 and 1866 Chile, Peru and Ecuador fought against Spain in the [[Chincha Islands War]], Chile and it's allies won.

[[Image:Easter_island_statues.jpg|thumb|right|On September 9, 1888 the Council of Rapanui Chiefs asked the Chilean Navy Captain, Policarpo Toro, to accept the sovereignty of [[Easter Island]] without giving up their chieftaincy titles, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions and on equal terms. This known as the "Agreement of Wills".]]
Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by founding the [[Fort Bulnes]] in 1843 (near the current city of [[Punta Arenas]] in the [[Strait of Magellan]]) and incorporating the zone of the south of the [[Biobío river]] in a process called the [[Pacification of the Araucanía]], the government plan was to building roads, schools, and public infrastructure where the [[Mapuche]] Indians live, they were incorporated as citizens, however the rebel Mapuches were crushed.

There was also a process of Colonization in which the Government gave [[German]] [[settlers]] lands in [[Valdivia]] and the [[Llanquihue Lake]] where they founded several towns and cities. To this day the German influence can be noted in cities like Valdivia, [[Puerto Varas]], [[Frutillar]], [[Puerto Octay]], [[Nueva Braunau]], Ensenada, [[Puerto Montt]] and [[Osorno]].

In 1881, Chile signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also loosing its colonial rights over Eastern Patagonia. As a result of the [[War of the Pacific]] with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. After a [[Civil war]] in 1891 in which President [[José Manuel Balmaceda]] committed suicide, a parliamentary democracy was established, but degenerated into a system protecting the interests of the ruling oligarchy.
In 1888 Chile incorporated [[Easter Island]] to the national territory.

===20th Century===
By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose.
Continuing political and economic instability resulted with the rule of the quasidictatorial Gen. [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]] (1924–32).
In June there was a Coup and between that month and September 1932 there was an attempt to establish a [[Socialist]] Republic that failed.
When constitutional rule was restored later that year, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy.
In 1940 Chile started to claim officially the [[Chilean Antarctic Territory]].

In 1962 the "right-wing" President [[Jorge Alessandri]] started the agrarian reform in a small portion, that expropriated part of big land properties. This reform was deepened by the next two governments.

The 1964 presidential election of [[Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty," the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.

He also made the "Chileanization of the copper" which introduced the State into the copper industry.
====Unidad Popular Marxist Regime (1970-1973)====
{{Main article|Salvador Allende}}
[[File:Salvador Allende & Fidel Castro.jpg|200px|thumbnail|Salvador Allende and [[Fidel Castro]] in 1971.]]
In 1970, Senator [[Salvador Allende]], a [[Marxist]] and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the "Popular Unity" (UP) coalition of socialists, communists, radicals, and dissident Christian Democrats (the lasts ones supported him with the condition of respecting the laws and private property), won a plurality of votes in a three-way contest and was named president by the Chilean Congress. His program included the nationalization of private industries and banks, massive land expropriation, and collectivization, implementation of a Marxist education system, repartition of food collectively (with a limit of one stock per family). Allende's program also included the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines.

[[Fidel Castro]] visited Chile in 1971 where he stayed for months.
Allende said in the same year "The major role of a journalist is not to server the truth, but to server the revolution" and in 1972 "I'm the President of the Unidad Popular, but I'm not the president of all Chileans".

Elected with only 36% of the vote and by a plurality of only 36,000 votes, Allende never enjoyed majority support in the Chilean Congress or broad popular support. Domestic production declined; severe shortages of consumer goods, food, and manufactured products were widespread; and inflation reached 1,000% per annum. Mass demonstrations, recurring strikes, violence by both government supporters and opponents, and widespread rural unrest ensued in response to the general deterioration of the economy.

The 22th of August 1973 the Chamber of Deputies called for a military intervention since the Allende's Government was Unconstitutional for not respecting basic laws like [[private property]].<ref>[https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/opinion/2013/08/23/40-anos-del-acuerdo-de-la-camara-que-declaro-la-ilegitimidad-del-gobierno-de-allende/ 40 años del acuerdo de la Cámara que declaró la ilegitimidad del Gobierno de Allende]</ref> By the time the Christian Democrats stopped supporting Allende and started to support an intervention.

[[Carlos Altamirano]], General Secretary of the Socialist Party in July 1973 called to "crush the opposition" and to "not negotiate with the enemies of Chile"<ref>https://www.cepchile.cl/cep/site/artic/20160304/asocfile/20160304093123/rev91_documento.pdf</ref> he also called for a violent Marxist revolution in 1968.

====Military Government (1973-1990)====
{{Main article|Augusto Pinochet regime (Chile, 1973–90)}}
[[File:Presidente Augusto Pinochet Ugarte (1973-1990).jpg|300px|thumbnail|President and General [[Augusto Pinochet|Augusto Pinochet Ugarte]], President of Chile (1973-1990), fighter against [[Marxism]], father of Chile's development, and restorer of the order and the institutions.]]
[[File:Jaime Guzmán2.png|150px|thumbnail|left|[[Jaime Guzmán]] founder of the [[Independent Democrat Union]] party, writer of part of the [[Chilean Constitution of 1980|1980 Constitution]] and its complementary laws, including the binomial system.]]
A military pronouncement overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace, Allende reportedly committed suicide. A military government, led by General Augusto Pinochet, took over control of the country. The first years of the regime in particular were marked by an irregular war against [[Left Wing Terrorism in Chile|leftist terrorists]] who wanted a violent Marxist revolution. A new [[Chilean Constitution of 1980|Constitution]] was approved by a plebiscite on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became President of the Republic for an 8-year term. The Constitution writing had an important participation of [[Jaime Guzmán]] who also founded the [[Independent Democrat Union]].

The Armed Forces had to assume the leadership of the country, aware that this task did not mean a mere restoration of the broken institutionality, since the systematic destruction to which the Homeland had been subjected had deeply undermined coexistence and national development; therefore, it was imperative to go further and create a modern, profound system of the country, with a clear social content and democratic character. From the structuring of the stages and objectives of the Government and the determination of the principles that would govern the project, the Armed Forces marked with height, coherence and consequence the national reality and the itinerary designed.

This great work was not exempt from interferences, demands and sacrifices, since at the beginning it was necessary to overcome the disastrous consequences of the previous administrations and the prevailing polarization. Subsequently, it was necessary to face defamation, the economic crises in the neighborhood, and the wily terrorist and subversive actions. These, together or in isolation, ([[U.S. Senator]] [[Edward Kennedy|Edward "Ted" Kennedy]] made the "[[Kennedy Amendment]]" that blocked any selling of weapons to Chile, and also the U.S. imposed a blockade on fruit exports) in could have led any government to political, economic and social collapse. However, the Government of the Armed Forces and Carabineros, based on efficiency, patriotism and joint effort, with a more than important part of society, managed to overcome the obstacles and deliver a better future for all Chileans.

[[File:Military men victims of Left Wing Terrorism in Chile.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Military men victims of [[Left Wing Terrorism in Chile]].]]

There is an evident reality that shows that important sectors of the political spectrum not only tried gradually and systematically to delegitimize the Military Government, but even, once they determined the impossibility of achieving their goals, they used means and tools contrary to peaceful coexistence, even seeking its destabilization, accepting, encouraging or participating in Chilean and foreign extremist organizations contrary to the idiosyncrasy and national identity.
[[File:President Pinochet 1988 ("Sí" Campaing).jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|Pinochet in a photo for the 'Sí' Campaign in 1988.]]
The successful model and the change of life generated in Chileans by the Government of the Armed Forces and Carabineros, in general, has not been accepted or recognized at the national and international level. Apparently, this is due to the fact that it would be pernicious for national coexistence that a government defined as authoritarian has been so successful and profound. Undoubtedly, this is a biased point of view, since this line of argument tends to homologate our reality with caudillisms or military irruptions that lacked ethical imperatives and national needs and that did occur systematically or cyclically in other nations.

The deed of September 11, 1973 and the foundational work of the Military Government, apart from signifying for the Armed Forces and the Carabineros and, particularly, for the Army, a feeling of honor and pride that must be preserved, is an event that must necessarily be included in national and universal history in all its truth and dimension.
[[File:Pinochet y la Junta Militar de Gobierno.jpg|250|thumbnail|The Government Junta of Chile in 1985.]]
In its later years, the regime gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union activity. In contrast to its authoritarian political rule, the military government pursued decidedly [[laissez-faire]] economic policies.

[[Milton Friedman]] said,
* "... the really extraordinary thing about the Chilean case was that a military government followed the opposite of military policies. The military is distinguished from the ordinary economy by the fact that it's a top-down organization. The general tells the colonel, the colonel tells the captain, and so on down, whereas a market is a bottom-up organization. The customer goes into the store and tells the retailer what he wants; the retailer sends it back up the line to the manufacturer and so on. So the basic organizational principles in the military are almost the opposite of the basic organizational principles of a free market and a free society. And the really remarkable thing about Chile is that the military adopted the free-market arrangements instead of the military arrangements."<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/int_miltonfriedman.html#10 Commanding Heights: Milton Friedman on PBS]</ref>

During its 17 years in power, Chile moved away from economic statism toward a largely free market economy that fostered an increase in domestic and foreign private investment. The complete political liberalization of the country came in 1988, when the Constitution established that Chilean citizens would ratify or not the continuity of the military government through a plebiscite, which finally took place on October 5. On that day, the triumph of the "No" option, which obtained 55.99% of the votes, against 44.01% for the "Yes" option. General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president. Chileans voted for elections to choose a new president in 1989 and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress. The Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution on the same year.

The "No" Campaign and the Concertación were supported by [[George Soros]]<ref>[https://www.emol.com/noticias/Economia/2015/09/27/751793/El-multimillonario-que-apoyo-al-NO.html Soros helped the "No" campaign]</ref> and the organization "[[National Endowment for Democracy]]" originated from the U.S. Congress resolution H.R. 2915, helped the center-left with propaganda on television, newspapers, radio and magazines.

===Democratic governments===
[[File:Izamiento de la Gran Bandera Nacional - Presidentes de Chile.jpg|275px|thumbnail|The five [[President of Chile|Chilean Presidents]] between the years 1990 and 2022 (two of them were elected twice in non-consecutive terms).]]
On December 14, 1989, [[Christian Democrat]] [[Patricio Aylwin]], the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, was elected president. In a ceremony held in the Congress building in Valparaíso, Pinochet handed over the presidency to the new constitutional President.

Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994 and was succeeded by another Christian Democrat, [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]] (son of the previous President), leading the same coalition, for a 6-year term. Ricardo Lagos Escobar of the Socialist Party and the Party for Democracy led the Concertación to a narrower victory in 2000 presidential elections.

During the ''Concertación'' Governments, Military personnel who fought terrorism were jailed unfairly using an old judicial system and without proof, these can be called the [[Military Political Prisioners of Chile|Military Political Prisioners]] that were destined to the [[Punta Peuco Jail]]. Also during these Governments the private pension system was reformed to benefit the companies that manage pension funds by making the users assume the economic losses and increased the retirement age by approximately 20 years, which directly lowered pensions. This changes are the main factor of the problems in the system that can be reversed.

In September 2005, President [[Ricardo Lagos]] signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years.

On January 15, 2006 [[Michelle Bachelet|Michelle Bachelet Jeria]] (center-left) won the elections against businessman [[Sebastián Piñera]] (center-right) and she took office on March 11, 2006, becoming the first woman to become President of Chile.
In 2009 Sebastián Piñera Echenique won the presidency, beign the first center-right candidate to do so after the Pinochet regime. In 2013 Bachelet won the office again and Piñera in 2017. Presidents in Chile can't have consecutive two terms, they need to wait another election.

Chile's congressional elections were governed by a unique binomial system made by [[Jaime Guzmán]] until 2018 that rewarded coalition slates. Each coalition could run two candidates for the two Senate and two Deputy seats apportioned to each electoral district. Historically, the two largest coalitions (Concertación and Alianza) splat most of the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket out-polls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 did the winning coalition gain both seats.

Chile was leaded by President [[Sebastián Piñera]] between 2018 and 2022 with the coalition of parties called [[Chile Vamos]]. The coalition was center-right and took [[progressive]] stands on some moral issues like legalizing [[same sex "marriage"]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://santiagotimes.cl/2018/11/29/chile-enacts-landmark-gender-identity-law/|title=Chile enacts landmark gender identity law|date=November 29, 2018|publisher=Santiago Times}}</ref>

{{main article|2019 Chilean State of Emergency}}
In 2019 Leftist mobs began to burn private and public property (the main public damage were 20 metro stations that were burned and 77 damaged in total),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.metro.cl/noticias/balance-danos-19-de-octubre-2019|title=Balance daños 19 de octubre 2019|language=es|date=October 20, 2019|publisher=Metro de Santiago}}</ref> starting a political crisis that has on its objectives to make the state bigger, raise taxes, and eliminate the individual capitalization system, as well as a change of the Constitution. This groups have been supported by the international left, the [[Sao Paulo Forum]], the [[Puebla Group]] and [[Nicolás Maduro]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/america/venezuela/2019/10/20/nicolas-maduro-respondio-las-acusaciones-de-alentar-las-protestas-en-ecuador-y-chile-foro-de-sao-paulo-estamos-cumpliendo-el-plan-ustedes-me-entienden/|title=Nicolás Maduro habló sobre las acusaciones de alentar las protestas en Ecuador y Chile: "Foro de San Pablo, estamos cumpliendo el plan, ustedes me entienden..."|language=es|date=October 20, 2019|publisher=Infobae}}</ref> The period is called ''Estallido social'' by the left. [[Diosdado Cabello]], a government official from Venezuela at that time said "The [[Bolivarian]] breeze sweeping the region will become a hurricane"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.es/internacional/abci-diosdado-cabello-amenaza-brisa-bolivariana-recorre-region-convertira-huracan-201910201834_noticia.html|title=Diosdado Cabello amenaza: "La brisa bolivariana que recorre la región se convertirá en huracán"|language=es|date=October 20, 2019|publisher=ABC Internacional}}</ref>

On the 15th of November 2019 the Congress approved to make a referendum on the Constitution, ceding to the radical left.

The referendum was made on October 25, 2020, and the option to change the Constitution won. Several rallies were made for the 'Rejection' (''Rechazo'') option by patriots with a high number of people attending and in which [[Sebastián Izquierdo]] played an important role.

There was a previous proposal of a new Constitution that was a draft from the socialist Michelle Bachelet from the last weeks of her administration and both administrations (Piñera and Bachelet) were committed to follow the globalist [[2030 Agenda]] from the United Nations. The [[Constitutional Convention (Chile)|Constitutional Convention]] which redacted the text made a progressive and globalist proposal, the conservative [[Teresa Marinovic]] was elected to the Convention auditing the far-left institution.

In the [[Chile presidential election, 2021|2021 Presidential Election]], the final front-runners were the [[Republican Party (Chile)|Republican]] [[José Antonio Kast]] and the leftist [[Gabriel Boric]]. Kast won the first round with a 27.91% of the votes (1,961,387 votes) and Boric obtained 25.82% (1,814,777 votes). But Kast lost the second round obtaining 44.13% (3,650,088 votes) against 55.87% (4,620,890 votes) from Boric. With this Chile ends an era of free-market oriented policies and the left retakes the government.

On September 4, 2022, the second referendum took place in which the 'Rejection' option won with 61.86% of the votes against 38.14% of the 'Approve' option. The main difference with the first election was that the vote was mandatory in the second one and not the first one, having bigger participation of older generations which tend to vote conservative. After the triumph of the 'Rechazo', Gabriel Boric changed the cabinet of ministers of his government.

In 2023 the corrupt political system started a new process to change the Constitution, this time with more control of the establishment parties, without asking on a referendum if the citizens of Chile wanted a new process (they "assumed" that the 2020 referendum result is permanent, even that that process ended with the 2022 referendum). On May 7 the [[Chile constitutional council election, 2023|election to elect the counselors of the Constitutional Council]] was held and a massive conservative victory was obtained, the [[Republican Party (Chile)|Republican Party]] won the majority as well as a record "Nulo" (Voluntary refusal to choose a candidate by the citizenry in a mandatory election) votes on 3rd place.

On December 17, 2023 a new referendum was held over the new written text, the Republican Party directive supported the change of the Chilean Constitution, many members of the party opposed this stance change of the party. The Globalist "center-right" coalition, [[Chile Vamos]] and centrist parties such as "Democrats" and "Yellows" (which means "being too moderated") supported the "In Favor" option as well. Chilean Patriots supported the "Against" option as well as the most of the left-wing. The "Against" Option obtained 55.76% of the votes while the "In Favor" Option obtained 44.24%. The dissident right was victorious over the establishment "right-wing" parties who supported the new proposed text.

==Sports==
[[Association Football|Football]] is the most popular sport by far, however the national sport is the Rodeo.

Chile won the Copa América 2015 and Copa América Centenario 2016, obtaining its first two Football titles in the national selection.

The Chilean mountains have important ski centers like Valle Nevado.

The [[Arica]] city in the north has the best waves of the country, something ideal for surfing.

The Chilean [[Patagonia]] is a famous place for trekking and out-door sports, The Carretera Austral (Southern Highway) and many National Parks (including the [[National Park Torres del Paine|Torres del Paine]] one) are visited by people all over the world.

==Culture==
[[Gabriela Mistral]], [[Nicanor Parra]] and [[Pablo Neruda]] are famous Chilean poets. Chillán in the Ñuble Region is a notorious cultural city of Chile.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]
*[[Gallery of Latin-American painting]]
*[[Terrorism in the South of Chile and Argentina]]
*[[Gallery of Chilean Heroes]]
*[[La Moneda]]
*[[Easter Island]]
*[[Military Government (Chile)]]
*[[Colchane]], Chilean most conservative town
{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm]}}}.
|}

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Chile]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Chile

2024-06-02T23:00:23Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Chile''
|map =Tricontinental Chile Map.jpg
|map2 =Chile location map.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Coat of arms of Chile.png
|capital-raw =[[Santiago|Santiago de Chile]]
|government-raw =[[Chilean Constitution of 1980|Unitarian & Presidentialist Republic]]
|language =Spanish
|president =Gabriel Boric
|president-raw=
|conservative-leader=Johannes Kaiser
|conservative-leader-raw=
|area =774,657 sq. mi. (Tricontinental Chile) 292,183 sq. mi. (Only Continental and Insular Chile)
|pop =19,100,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$280,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$14,660 (2020)
|currency =Chilean Peso (CLP)
|idd =+56
|tld =.cl
}}
'''Chile''' (official name: '''Republic of Chile''') is a [[nation]] on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[South America]] which is organized as a Centralized Unitary Presidential [[Democracy]]. It has a population of 17.5 million and the capital city is [[Santiago|Santiago de Chile]] which is also the biggest city of the country. Chile borders [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Peru]].

Between 1975 and 2014, Chile followed the path of the [[free market]] and [[Capitalism]] been the best place to make business of [[Latin America]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iberglobal.com/files/2019-1/economic_freedom_index_2019.pdf|title=Economic Freedom Index 2019}}</ref> This has made the country the most developed of the Region according to the [[Human Development Index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economiaynegocios.cl/noticias/noticias.asp?id=505045|title=Chile sigue al tope de A. Latina en Índice de Desarrollo Humano|date=September 15, 2018|publisher=Economía y Negocios|language=es}}</ref> Chile went from a [[Gross domestic product]] of 100 in 1973 to 515 in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gobierno.udd.cl/files/2016/05/PPT-FPP.pdf|author=Lucas Palacios Covarrubias|title=Pobreza vs Desigualdad|date=April 2016|publisher=[[Universidad del Desarrollo]] - Facultad de Gobierno|language=es}}</ref> However that was put at risk with the leftist insurrection from 2019 and, in [[Chile presidential election, 2021|Dec 2021]], [[Gabriel Boric]], was elected [[President of Chile|president]] at the age of 35. A former student radical "activist," a self-described [[communist]].<ref name=at22nov21>Monica Showalter, [https://www.americanthinker.com/blog/2021/11/stunning_good_news_from_chile__and_not_just_for_them_but_for_us.html Stunning good news from Chile...], American Thinker, November 22, 2021</ref>

In early September 2022, by a resounding 62-38% landslide margin, Chileans rejected a progressive new constitution proposal and thereby decided to retain [[Chilean Constitution of 1980|the one written under]] [[conservative]] leader [[Augusto Pinochet]] in 1980, which was reformed over 70 times in democracy in more than half of its content.<ref>https://www.npr.org/2022/09/04/1121065756/chile-constitution-referendum</ref><ref>[https://www.uandes.cl/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/CPR-Edicio%CC%81n-Histo%CC%81rica.pdf]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220929111026/https://plataformacontexto.cl/contexto_factual/cuanto-queda-de-la-constitucion-de-pinochet/ Cuánto queda de “la Constitución de Pinochet”]</ref> A new proposal from the center-right with globalist elements was rejected on December 2023 with a 56-44% landslide margin.

==Geography==
[[File:Volcano Osorno and Petrohué waterfalls.JPG|thumb|left|Petrohué Waterfalls and Osorno Volcano in the background.]]
The northern Chilean [[Atacama Desert]] contains great mineral wealth, principally [[copper]], and also contains locations where rainfall has never been recorded. The relatively small central area dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century, when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in [[forest]]s and grazing lands and features a string of [[volcano]]es and [[lake]]s. The southern coast located in [[Patagonia]] is a labyrinth of [[fjord]]s, [[inlet]]s, [[canal]]s, twisting [[peninsula]]s, and [[island]]s. The [[Andes]] Mountains are located on the eastern border.
*Area of Tricontinental Chile: 2,006,354 km2 (774,657 sq. mi.)
*Area considering Continental and Insular Chile: 756,945 km2. (302,778 sq. mi.), or nearly twice the size of California.
*Cities: Capital—[[Santiago]] (metropolitan area est. 6.25 million). Other cities: [[Concepción]]-[[Talcahuano]] (840,000), [[Viña del Mar]]-[[Valparaíso]] (800,000), [[Antofagasta]] (245,000), [[Temuco]] (230,000).
*Terrain: Desert in north; fertile central valley; volcanoes and lakes toward the south, giving way to rugged and complex coastline; Andes Mountains on the eastern border.
*Climate: Arid in north, Mediterranean in the central portion, cool and damp in south.

Chile has also experienced numerous massive earthquakes, including (as of 2019) 12 of the top 35, three of the top 11, two of the top six, and the 1960 Valdavia earthquake which was measured at magnitude 9.5, the strongest ever recorded.

==People==
[[File:Chilean dance.jpg|left|140px]]
About 85% of Chile's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in greater Santiago. Most have [[Spain|Spanish]] ancestry. A small, yet influential number of [[Irish]] and [[English]] immigrants came to Chile during the Spanish Empire period. [[German]] immigration began in 1848 and lasted for 90 years; the southern provinces of [[Valdivia]], [[Llanquihue]], and [[Osorno]] show a strong German influence. Other significant historic immigrant groups are [[Italian]], [[Croatian]], [[Basque]], [[Palestinian]] and [[Peruvian]]. About 800,000 Native Americans, mostly of the [[Mapuche]] (Araucan) tribes, reside in the south-central area. The [[Aymara]] and [[Diaguita]] groups can be found mainly in Chile's northern desert valleys.

Since 2014 Chile has been experiencing [[open borders|mass]] [[immigration]] from [[Haiti]], [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]] and [[Ecuador]], something that was unusual and has drastically changed the demographics of the country in the recent years (The immigrants went from 1.1% to 6.1% and is still growing)<ref>{{cite web|language=es|url=http://www.diarioestrategia.cl//texto-diario/mostrar/1116871/chile-pais-americano-mayor-aumento-inmigrantes|title=Chile es el país americano con mayor aumento de inmigrantes|publisher=diarioestrategia.cl|date=9 November 2018}}</ref> a lot of them are [[Illegal immigration|illegally]] (See ''[[Colchane#Mass_immigration_problem|Colchane's Mass immigration problem]]'').

*Population (2019): 17.5 million.
*Annual population growth rate: 0.881%.
*Ethnic groups: Spanish-Native-American (mestizo), European, Native-American, Blacks (since 2014 with mass Haitian immigration).
*Religions: [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] 70%, [[Evangelical]] 15.1%, Jehovah's Witness 1.1%, other Christian 1%, other 4.6%, none 8.3%.
*Language: [[Spanish]].
*Education: Years compulsory—13. Attendance—3 million. Adult literacy rate—96%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—8.9/1,000. Life expectancy—80 yrs. for men, 85 for women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsuss.cl/ipsuss/analisis-y-estudios/esperanza-de-vida-al-nacer-en-chile-llega-a-85-anos-en-mujeres-y-80-anos/2017-09-26/154547.html|title=Esperanza de vida al nacer en Chile llega a 85 años en mujeres y 80 años en hombres|date=September 26, 2017|language=es|publisher=Ipsuss}}</ref>
*Work force (6.94 million); employed 6.45 million: Community, social and individual services—26%; industry—14.4%; commerce—17.6%; agriculture, forestry, and fishing—13.9%; construction—7.1%; financial services—7.5%; transportation and communication—8.0%; electricity, gas and water—0.5%; mining—1.2%.

==Government==
{{Main article|Chilean Constitution of 1980}}
[[File:Palacio de La Moneda.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[[La Moneda]] Palace, seat of Executive Branch.]]
[[Chilean Constitution of 1980|Chile's Constitution]] was approved in a September 1980 national plebiscite with 67% of the vote. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the [[1988 Chilean national plebiscite|1988 plebiscite]], the Constitution was reformed and another referendum was held over the reforms in which 91% voted in favor. In 2005 President Lagos made several reforms to the Constitution, even changing the Pinochet sign with his.
The President term is 4-year long, however is constitutionally barred from serving consecutive terms. The political system of Chile is an exacerbated [[Presidential system|Presidential]] one.
Chile has a bicameral Congress, which meets in the port city of [[Valparaíso]], about 140 kilometers (84 mi.) west of the capital, Santiago (since 1990). Deputies are elected every 4 years, and Senators serve 8-year terms.
There are currently 43 Senators and 155 Deputies.
The Chilean elections are judged free and fair.

Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court. In June 2005, Chile completed a nationwide overhaul of its criminal justice system. The reform replaced old proceedings with an adversarial system more similar to that of the United States.

The Central Bank in Chile is autonomous since 1981.

===Principal Government Officials===
{{See also|President of Chile}}
*[[President of Chile|President]]—[[Gabriel Boric]] since 11 March 2022.
*Minister of Interior—Carolina Tohá
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Alberto van Klaveren Stork
*Ambassador to the United States—Juan Gabriel Valdés
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States (OAS)—Sebastián Kraljevich Chadwick
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Paula Narváez Ojeda
*Ambassador to the OECD—Francisco Saffie Gatica
*Mayor of Santiago—Irací Hassler

===Foreign Relations===
Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a 2-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. [[Jose Miguel Insulza]], a Chilean national, was Secretary General of the Organization of American States from May 2005 to 2015. Chile is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the [[APEC]] summit and related meetings in 2004. Chile hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade. The APEC 2019 was planed to be hosted on Chile and the COP25 but was cancelled due to the [[2019 Chilean State of Emergency|State of Emergency]]. President [[Donald Trump]] planed to sign an agreement with [[Xi Jinping]] to end the 'Trade War' in the APEC hosted in Chile, however it was canceled.

Chile was one of the four countries (along with [[Singapore]], [[Brunei]] and [[New Zealand]]) that started the [[TPP (treaty)|TPP-11]].

Chile signed many Free Trade Agreements since the 90s.

The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with Argentina during the 1990s except for a part in the Southern Patagonian Ice Fields and the Antarctic claims overlap between both countries, however the Antarctic Treaty doesn't allow modification to the claims and they are ineffective.

In 2007 Peru demanded Chile in the International Court of Justice due to a maritime dispute. The case was closed in 2013 in which half of the disputed sea was ceded to Peru and half to Chile. In Chile it was seen as a lost case.

Chile and Bolivia have bad diplomatic relations since [[Evo Morales]], Bolivia's president, reintegrated the desire to reacquire territory Bolivia lost to Chile in 1879-83 [[War of the Pacific]] in his Foreign Affairs Policy and he demanded Chile in the Internation Couth of Justice, a case which Chile won. There is currently a case to determine if Silala is a river (Chile's position) or is a spring artificially modificated by Chile (Bolivia's position). The two countries maintain consular relations and are represented at the Consul General level but doesn't have embassies in each other.

===Political parties and coalitions===
The main coalitions are:
*[[Chile Vamos]] (Globalist center-right) ([[Sebastián Piñera|Piñera]] and [[Evelyn Matthei|Matthei]]'s coalition) composed by the [[Independent Democrat Union]], [[National Renewal]] and [[Evópoli]].
*Apruebo Dignidad (far-left) ([[Gabriel Boric|Boric]] and [[Daniel Jadue|Jadue]]'s coalition) Social Convergence, [[Democratic Revolution]], Green Ecologist Party, Commune Party, [[Communist]] Party and Social Green Regionalist Federation.
*Constituent Unity (Former "New Majority") (left) (former [[Michelle Bachelet|Bachelet]]'s coalition) composed by old leftist parties such as: the [[Socialist]] Party, Party for Democracy, the Radical Party, [[Christian Democracy]], Citizens Party and the Liberal Party .

Important parties without coalition:
*[[Republican Party (Chile)|Republican Party]] (right-wing) ([[José Antonio Kast]]'s party).
*[[People's Party (Chile)|People's Party]] (from center to center-right) ([[Franco Parisi]]'s party).
*[[Communist Party]] of Chile (Proletarian Action)/Patriotic Union (far-left) (Eduardo Artes' party).
*Progressive Homeland (left) (Marco Enríquez-Ominami's party).
*Social Christian Party (Dissident right Party) (Evangelical party).

===Administrative divisions===
[[File:Chile (+Antarctica & Islands), administrative divisions - en - colored.png|230px|thumbnail|Map of the Chilean Regions.]]
{{Main article|Regions of Chile}}
Chile is divided in 16 Regions, 56 provinces and 346 communes. Chile is a Unitary Centralized State in which the law is the same in every place of the country.

'''List of the Regions and their Capital''':
*[[Arica & Parinacota Region|Arica & Parinacota]] - Capital: [[Arica]]
*[[Tarapacá Region|Tarapacá]] - Capital: [[Iquique]]
*[[Antofagasta Region|Antofagasta]] - Capital: [[Antofagasta]]
*[[Atacama Region|Atacama]] - Capital: [[Copiapó]]
*[[Coquimbo Region|Coquimbo]] - Capital: [[La Serena]]
*[[Valparaíso Region|Valparaíso]] - Capital: [[Valparaíso]]
*[[Metropolitan Region|Metropolitan]] - Capital: [[Santiago]]
*[[O'Higgins Region|O'Higgins]] - Capital: [[Rancagua]]
*[[Maule Region|Maule]] - Capital: [[Talca]]
*[[Ñuble Region|Ñuble]] - Capital: [[Chillán]]
*[[Biobío Region|Biobío]] - Capital: [[Concepción (Chile)|Concepción]]
*[[Araucanía Region|Araucanía]] - Capital: [[Temuco]]
*[[Los Ríos Region|Los Ríos]] - Capital: [[Valdivia]]
*[[Los Lagos Region|Los Lagos]] - Capital: [[Puerto Montt]]
*[[Aysén Region|Aysén]] - Capital: [[Coyhaique]]
*[[Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica Region|Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica]] - Capital: [[Punta Arenas]]

The most conservative commune of Chile is [[Colchane]] as well with Antártica, Lo Barnechea, Vitacura & Las Condes.

==Defense==
Chile's Armed Forces are subject to civilian control exercised by the President through the Minister of Defense. The President has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces.

===Army===
The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, seven divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in Rancagua, and a Special Forces Command in Colina. The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America.

===Navy===
The Navy has 23,000-person, including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].

===Air Force (FACH)===
The FACH is a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[Villa Las Estrellas]], [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]]. The FACH was created in 1930 by Gen. [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]].

===Carabineros===
Carabineros de Chile is the national police force of 30,000 men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile. The Carabineros were created in 1927 by Gen. [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]]. Carabineros is the best police in Latin America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/2013/09/22/1508838-chile-y-colombia-los-paises-la-policia-mas-confiable/|title=Chile y Colombia, los países con la policía más confiable|date=September 22, 2013|publisher=Infobae|language=es}}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:GNP-CHILE.jpg|thumbnail|left|Chile's Take off thanks to Pinochet economic reforms.]]
[[File:Gran Torre Santiago (39693576311).jpg|thumbnail|200px|Gran Torre Santiago, in the financial district of the city.]]
[[File:Chuqui001.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Chuquicamata Copper mine, the largest open pit copper mine in the world.]]
After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999, brought on by unfavorable global economic conditions related to the Asian financial crisis, which began in 1997. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 3.3% real GDP growth. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.1%. Real GDP growth reached 6.3% in 2005 before falling back to 4.0% growth in 2006. Higher energy prices as well as lagging consumer demand were drags on the economy in 2006. Higher Chilean Government spending and favorable external conditions (including record copper prices for much of 2006) were not enough to offset these drags. For the first time in many years, Chilean economic growth in 2006 was among the weakest in Latin America. In May 2010 Chile signed the OECD Convention, becoming the first South American country to join the OECD.

*GDP (official exchange rate): $150.4 billion. (GDP (purchasing power parity):$335.4 billion (2013 est.))
*Annual real growth rate: -1.5%.
*Per capita GDP (purchasing power parity): $27,058 (GDP - per capita (PPP) 2019 est.)
*Forestry, agriculture, and fisheries (6% of GDP): Products—fruits, wheat, potatoes, corn, sugar beets, onions, beans, livestock, fish.
*Commerce (8% of GDP): Sales, restaurants, hotels.
*Manufacturing (17% of GDP): Types—mineral refining, metal manufacturing, food processing, fish processing, paper and wood products, finished textiles.
*Electricity, gas, and water: 3% of GDP.
*Transportation and communication: 7% of GDP.
*Construction: 8% of GDP.
*Financial services (12% of GDP): Insurance, leasing, consulting.
*Mining (13% of GDP): Copper, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals, and molybdenum.
*Trade: Exports--$57.61 billion: copper, fruits and nuts, fish and seafood, and wood products. Major markets—U.S., Japan, China, Netherlands, South Korea, Brazil, Italy, Mexico. Imports--$40.91 billion: fuels, heavy industrial machinery, motor vehicles, electrical machinery, plastic. Major suppliers—U.S., China, Brazil, Argentina, South Korea. (GDP (official exchange rate):$281.7 billion (2013 est.))

Chile has pursued generally sound economic policies for nearly three decades. The 1973-90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization, though at a slower pace. The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant CODELCO and a few other enterprises (there is one state-run bank). Chile is strongly committed to free trade and has welcomed large amounts of foreign investment. Chile has signed free trade agreements (FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States, which was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004. Over the last several years, Chile has signed FTAs with the European Union, South Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, China, and Japan. It reached a partial trade agreement with India in 2005 and began negotiations for a full-fledged FTA with India in 2006. Chile plans to continue its focus on its trade ties with Asia by negotiating in 2007 trade agreements with Thailand, Malaysia, and Australia.
[[File:José Piñera Echenique.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[José Piñera]] creator of the Individual capitalization pension system.]]
[[File:Hernan Buchi 2011.jpg|200px|thumbnail|[[Hernán Büchi]], economist during the Military Government that re-implemented liberal economic policies.]]
High domestic savings and investment rates helped propel Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the 1990s. The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP. However, the AFP is not without its critics, who cite low participation rates (only 55% of the working population is covered), with groups such as the self-employed outside the system. There has also been criticism of the inefficiency and high costs due to a lack of competition among pension funds. Critics cite loopholes in the use of pension savings through lump sum withdraws for the purchase of a second home or payment of university fees as fundamental weaknesses of the AFP. The Bachelet administration plans substantial reform, but not an overhaul, of the AFP during the next several years.

Unemployment stubbornly hovered in the 8%-10% range after the start of the economic slowdown in 1999, well above the 5%-6% average for the 1990s. Unemployment finally dipped to 7.8% at the end of 2006, due largely to the fact that fewer Chileans were entering the workforce rather than to a substantial and sustained creation of new jobs. Most international observers place some of the blame for Chile's consistently high unemployment rate on complicated and restrictive labor laws. Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The percentage of Chileans with incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a family of four's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 46% in 1987 to around 18% by 2004.

Chile's independent Central Bank pursues an inflation target of between 2% and 4%. Inflation has not exceeded 5% since 1998. Chile registered an inflation rate of 3.2% in 2006. The Chilean peso's rapid appreciation against the U.S. dollar in recent years has helped dampen inflation. Most wage settlements and loans are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility. Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.

[[File:Countries with a private pension system.jpg|thumbnail|Countries that applied Chile's private pension system.]]
Total foreign direct investment (FDI) was only $3.4 billion in 2006, up 52% from a poor performance in 2005. However, 80% of FDI continues to go to only four sectors: electricity, gas, water and mining. Much of the jump in FDI in 2006 was also the result of acquisitions and mergers and has done little to create new employment in Chile. The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, which is tasked with identifying new sectors and industries to promote. It is hoped that this, combined with some tax reforms to encourage domestic and foreign investment in research and development, will bring in additional FDI and to new parts of the economy. As of 2006, Chile invested only 0.6% of its annual GDP in research and development (R&D). Even then, two-thirds of that was government spending. The fact that domestic and foreign companies spend almost nothing on R&D does not bode well for the Government of Chile's efforts to develop innovative, knowledge-based sectors. Additionally, on January 8, 2007, Chile was placed on the U.S. Trade Representative's Priority Watch List due to its poor record on protecting intellectual property rights. Chile is only the second U.S. FTA partner ever to be placed on the Priority Watch List. Chile has a poor and deteriorating record of protecting copyrighted music, films, and software. Combined with this is its institutional structure allowing local companies to produce and market pharmaceutical generics that violate existing patents. Beyond its general economic and political stability, the government also has encouraged the use of Chile as an "investment platform" for multinational corporations planning to operate in the region, but this will have limited value given the developing business climate in Chile itself. Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. While Chile and the EU have signed a double taxation treaty, no such agreement exists between the U.S. and Chile.

Mining was temporarily curtailed following an accident in which 33 miners were trapped after a cave-in at the San Jose mine<ref>http://www.minandes.com/s/RoadtoProduction.asp</ref> near Copiapo on August 5, 2010. A rescue attempt - bolstered by national pride at getting the men out alive - ended 67 days later on October 13 as the last of the men were pulled out to safety.<ref>https://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/10/12/rescued-chilean-miner-returns-surface/</ref><ref>https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/chile/7961923/Chilean-miners-trapped-in-San-Jose-mine.html</ref>

===Foreign Trade===
[[File:Commercial Treaties Chile 2012.jpg|thumb|295px|Commercial Treaties, 2012.]]
2006 was a record year for Chilean trade. Total trade registered a 31% increase over 2005. During 2006, exports of goods and services totaled U.S. $58 billion, an increase of 41%. This figure was somewhat distorted by the skyrocketing price of copper. In 2006, copper exports reached a historical high of U.S. $33.3 billion. Imports totaled U.S. $35 billion, an increase of 17% compared to the previous year. Chile thus recorded a positive trade balance of U.S. $23 billion in 2006.

The main destinations for Chilean exports were the Americas (U.S. $39 billion), Asia (U.S. $27.8 billion) and Europe (U.S. $22.2 billion). Seen as shares of Chile's export markets, 42% of exports went to the Americas, 30% to Asia and 24% to Europe. Within Chile's diversified network of trade relationships, its most important partner remained the United States. Total trade with the U.S. was U.S. $14.8 billion in 2006. Since the U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement went into effect on January 1, 2004, U.S.-Chilean trade has increased by 154%. Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then.

Total trade with Europe also grew in 2006, expanding by 42%. The Netherlands and Italy were Chile's main European trading partners. Total trade with Asia also grew significantly at nearly 31%. Trade with Korea and Japan grew significantly, but China remained Chile's most important trading partner in Asia. Chile's total trade with China reached U.S. $8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia.

The growth of exports in 2006 was due mainly to a strong increase in sales to the United States, the Netherlands, and Japan. These three markets alone accounted for an additional U.S. $5.5 billion worth of Chilean exports. Chilean exports to the United States totaled U.S. $9.3 billion, representing a 37.7% increase compared to 2005 (U.S. $6.7 billion). Exports to the European Union were U.S. $15.4 billion, a 63.7% increase compared to 2005 (U.S. $9.4 billion). Exports to Asia increased from U.S. $15.2 billion in 2005 to U.S. $19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase.

During 2006, Chile imported U.S. $26 billion from the Americas, representing 54% of total imports, followed by Asia at 22%, and Europe at 16%. Mercosur members were the main suppliers of imports to Chile at U.S. $9.1 billion, followed by the United States with U.S. $5.5 billion and the European Union with U.S. $5.2 billion. From Asia, China was the most important exporter to Chile, with goods valued at U.S. $3.6 billion. Year-on-year growth in imports was especially strong from a number of countries—Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%).

Chile's overall trade profile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports. The state-owned firm CODELCO is the world's largest copper-producing company, with recorded copper reserves of 200 years. Chile has made an effort to expand nontraditional exports. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and processed food, fishmeal and seafood, and wine.

Successive Chilean governments have actively pursued trade-liberalizing agreements. During the 1990s, Chile signed FTAs with Canada, Mexico, and Central America. Chile also concluded preferential trade agreements with Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. An association agreement with Mercosur—Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay—went into effect in October 1996. Continuing its export-oriented development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and South Korea. Chile, as a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization, is seeking to boost commercial ties to Asian markets. To that end, it has signed trade agreements in recent years with New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, India, China, and most recently Japan. In 2007, Chile plans to begin negotiations with Thailand, Malaysia, and Australia.

After two years of negotiations, the United States and Chile signed an agreement in June 2003 that will lead to completely duty-free bilateral trade within 12 years. The U.S.-Chile FTA entered into force January 1, 2004 following approval by the U.S. and Chilean congresses. The bilateral FTA has inaugurated greatly expanded U.S.-Chilean trade ties, with total bilateral trade jumping by 154% during the FTA's first three years.

Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board import tariff for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations in 2002, and the government has introduced legislation to modify them. Under the terms of the U.S.-Chile FTA, the price bands will be completely phased out for U.S. imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar within 12 years.

Chile is a strong proponent of pressing ahead on negotiations for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and is active in the WTO's Doha round of negotiations, principally through its membership in the G-20 and Cairns Group.

===Finance===
Chile's financial sector has grown quickly in recent years, with a banking reform law approved in 1997 that broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. The Chilean Government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001, and there is further pending legislation proposing further liberalization. Over the last ten years, Chileans have enjoyed the introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has also been accompanied by an increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $70 billion at the end of 2006, has been an important source of investment capital for the capital market. Chile maintains one of the best credit ratings (S&P A+) in Latin America. There are three main ways for Chilean firms to raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stocks on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised through these means go to finance domestic Chilean investment. The government is required by law to run a fiscal surplus of at least 1% of GDP. In 2006, the Government of Chile ran a surplus of $11.3 billion, equal to almost 8% of GDP. The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006.

==History==
===Discovery and Hispanic period===
[[File:Pedro de Valdivia.jpg|thumbnail|150px|[[Pedro de Valdivia]], founder of several cities and conqueror of Chile.]]
[[File:Ohiggins.jpg|thumbnail|150px|left|[[Bernardo O'Higgins]], one of the founding fathers of Chile.]]
About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indians settled in fertile valleys and along the coast of what is now Chile. The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the area's barrenness prevented extensive settlement. The first European to see Chilean land was [[Ferdinand Magellan]] when he discovered the [[Strait of Magellan]] in 1520, however the first one to arrive in Chile were [[Diego de Almagro]] and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru seeking gold in 1535. The Spanish encountered hundreds of thousands of Indians from various cultures in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by [[Pedro de Valdivia]], one of [[Francisco Pizarro]]'s lieutenants, who founded the city of [[Santiago]] on February 12, 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

===19th Century, Independence, State Consolidation and Wars with neightbours===
[[File:Pedro Subercaseaux Jura de la Independencia Chile.jpg|thumb|300px|Fray Pedro Subercaseaux, Jura de la Independencia de Chile.]]
[[File:Diego Portales-2.jpg|150px|thumbnail|left|[[Diego Portales]] author of the 1833 Constitution which prioritized order over democracy.]]
[[File:Arturo Prat Chacón.jpg|150px|thumbnail|left|[[Arturo Prat|Arturo Prat Chacón]], the maximum naval hero of the Chilean Nation.]]
[[File:Sinking of the Esmeralda during the battle of Iquique.jpg|300px|thumbnail|Sinking of the Esmeralda during the [[battle of Iquique|naval battle of Iquique]].]]
The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph in 1808. A national [[junta]] in the name of Ferdinand—heir to the deposed king—was formed on September 18, 1810. The junta proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish monarchy. A movement for total independence which [[José Miguel Carrera]] started soon won a wide following. After the [[Battle of Rancagua]], a Spanish attempt to reimpose arbitrary rule started, during what was called the "Reconquista" led to a prolonged struggle.

Intermittent warfare continued until 1817, when an army led by [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], Chile's most renowned patriot, and [[José de San Martín]], hero of Argentine independence, crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On February 12, 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic under O'Higgins' leadership.

During the Ramón Freire Presidency in 1826 the last royalist bastion was defeated, the [[Chiloé]] archipelago and the Tantauco Treaty was signed between Chile and Spain.

Between 1823 and 1829 there was a period of Constitutional Attempts, and there were four of them.

The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics, the Roman Catholic Church and the 1833 Constitution made by [[Diego Portales]]. After the [[Civil War]] of 1829–30, a strong presidency emerged, but wealthy landowners remained extremely powerful.

Between 1836 and 1839, Chile fought a [[War against the Peru–Bolivian Confederation]] which Chile won and separated Peru and Bolivia again.

In 1865 and 1866 Chile, Peru and Ecuador fought against Spain in the [[Chincha Islands War]], Chile and it's allies won.

[[Image:Easter_island_statues.jpg|thumb|right|On September 9, 1888 the Council of Rapanui Chiefs asked the Chilean Navy Captain, Policarpo Toro, to accept the sovereignty of [[Easter Island]] without giving up their chieftaincy titles, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions and on equal terms. This known as the "Agreement of Wills".]]
Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by founding the [[Fort Bulnes]] in 1843 (near the current city of [[Punta Arenas]] in the [[Strait of Magellan]]) and incorporating the zone of the south of the [[Biobío river]] in a process called the [[Pacification of the Araucanía]], the government plan was to building roads, schools, and public infrastructure where the [[Mapuche]] Indians live, they were incorporated as citizens, however the rebel Mapuches were crushed.

There was also a process of Colonization in which the Government gave [[German]] [[settlers]] lands in [[Valdivia]] and the [[Llanquihue Lake]] where they founded several towns and cities. To this day the German influence can be noted in cities like Valdivia, [[Puerto Varas]], [[Frutillar]], [[Puerto Octay]], [[Nueva Braunau]], Ensenada, [[Puerto Montt]] and [[Osorno]].

In 1881, Chile signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also loosing its colonial rights over Eastern Patagonia. As a result of the [[War of the Pacific]] with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. After a [[Civil war]] in 1891 in which President [[José Manuel Balmaceda]] committed suicide, a parliamentary democracy was established, but degenerated into a system protecting the interests of the ruling oligarchy.
In 1888 Chile incorporated [[Easter Island]] to the national territory.

===20th Century===
By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose.
Continuing political and economic instability resulted with the rule of the quasidictatorial Gen. [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]] (1924–32).
In June there was a Coup and between that month and September 1932 there was an attempt to establish a [[Socialist]] Republic that failed.
When constitutional rule was restored later that year, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy.
In 1940 Chile started to claim officially the [[Chilean Antarctic Territory]].

In 1962 the "right-wing" President [[Jorge Alessandri]] started the agrarian reform in a small portion, that expropriated part of big land properties. This reform was deepened by the next two governments.

The 1964 presidential election of [[Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty," the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.

He also made the "Chileanization of the copper" which introduced the State into the copper industry.
====Unidad Popular Marxist Regime (1970-1973)====
{{Main article|Salvador Allende}}
[[File:Salvador Allende & Fidel Castro.jpg|200px|thumbnail|Salvador Allende and [[Fidel Castro]] in 1971.]]
In 1970, Senator [[Salvador Allende]], a [[Marxist]] and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the "Popular Unity" (UP) coalition of socialists, communists, radicals, and dissident Christian Democrats (the lasts ones supported him with the condition of respecting the laws and private property), won a plurality of votes in a three-way contest and was named president by the Chilean Congress. His program included the nationalization of private industries and banks, massive land expropriation, and collectivization, implementation of a Marxist education system, repartition of food collectively (with a limit of one stock per family). Allende's program also included the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines.

[[Fidel Castro]] visited Chile in 1971 where he stayed for months.
Allende said in the same year "The major role of a journalist is not to server the truth, but to server the revolution" and in 1972 "I'm the President of the Unidad Popular, but I'm not the president of all Chileans".

Elected with only 36% of the vote and by a plurality of only 36,000 votes, Allende never enjoyed majority support in the Chilean Congress or broad popular support. Domestic production declined; severe shortages of consumer goods, food, and manufactured products were widespread; and inflation reached 1,000% per annum. Mass demonstrations, recurring strikes, violence by both government supporters and opponents, and widespread rural unrest ensued in response to the general deterioration of the economy.

The 22th of August 1973 the Chamber of Deputies called for a military intervention since the Allende's Government was Unconstitutional for not respecting basic laws like [[private property]].<ref>[https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/opinion/2013/08/23/40-anos-del-acuerdo-de-la-camara-que-declaro-la-ilegitimidad-del-gobierno-de-allende/ 40 años del acuerdo de la Cámara que declaró la ilegitimidad del Gobierno de Allende]</ref> By the time the Christian Democrats stopped supporting Allende and started to support an intervention.

[[Carlos Altamirano]], General Secretary of the Socialist Party in July 1973 called to "crush the opposition" and to "not negotiate with the enemies of Chile"<ref>https://www.cepchile.cl/cep/site/artic/20160304/asocfile/20160304093123/rev91_documento.pdf</ref> he also called for a violent Marxist revolution in 1968.

====Military Government (1973-1990)====
{{Main article|Augusto Pinochet regime (Chile, 1973–90)}}
[[File:Presidente Augusto Pinochet Ugarte (1973-1990).jpg|300px|thumbnail|President and General [[Augusto Pinochet|Augusto Pinochet Ugarte]], President of Chile (1973-1990), fighter against [[Marxism]], father of Chile's development, and restorer of the order and the institutions.]]
[[File:Jaime Guzmán2.png|150px|thumbnail|left|[[Jaime Guzmán]] founder of the [[Independent Democrat Union]] party, writer of part of the [[Chilean Constitution of 1980|1980 Constitution]] and its complementary laws, including the binomial system.]]
A military pronouncement overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace, Allende reportedly committed suicide. A military government, led by General Augusto Pinochet, took over control of the country. The first years of the regime in particular were marked by an irregular war against [[Left Wing Terrorism in Chile|leftist terrorists]] who wanted a violent Marxist revolution. A new [[Chilean Constitution of 1980|Constitution]] was approved by a plebiscite on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became President of the Republic for an 8-year term. The Constitution writing had an important participation of [[Jaime Guzmán]] who also founded the [[Independent Democrat Union]].

The Armed Forces had to assume the leadership of the country, aware that this task did not mean a mere restoration of the broken institutionality, since the systematic destruction to which the Homeland had been subjected had deeply undermined coexistence and national development; therefore, it was imperative to go further and create a modern, profound system of the country, with a clear social content and democratic character. From the structuring of the stages and objectives of the Government and the determination of the principles that would govern the project, the Armed Forces marked with height, coherence and consequence the national reality and the itinerary designed.

This great work was not exempt from interferences, demands and sacrifices, since at the beginning it was necessary to overcome the disastrous consequences of the previous administrations and the prevailing polarization. Subsequently, it was necessary to face defamation, the economic crises in the neighborhood, and the wily terrorist and subversive actions. These, together or in isolation, ([[U.S. Senator]] [[Edward Kennedy|Edward "Ted" Kennedy]] made the "[[Kennedy Amendment]]" that blocked any selling of weapons to Chile, and also the U.S. imposed a blockade on fruit exports) in could have led any government to political, economic and social collapse. However, the Government of the Armed Forces and Carabineros, based on efficiency, patriotism and joint effort, with a more than important part of society, managed to overcome the obstacles and deliver a better future for all Chileans.

[[File:Military men victims of Left Wing Terrorism in Chile.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Military men victims of [[Left Wing Terrorism in Chile]].]]

There is an evident reality that shows that important sectors of the political spectrum not only tried gradually and systematically to delegitimize the Military Government, but even, once they determined the impossibility of achieving their goals, they used means and tools contrary to peaceful coexistence, even seeking its destabilization, accepting, encouraging or participating in Chilean and foreign extremist organizations contrary to the idiosyncrasy and national identity.
[[File:President Pinochet 1988 ("Sí" Campaing).jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|Pinochet in a photo for the 'Sí' Campaign in 1988.]]
The successful model and the change of life generated in Chileans by the Government of the Armed Forces and Carabineros, in general, has not been accepted or recognized at the national and international level. Apparently, this is due to the fact that it would be pernicious for national coexistence that a government defined as authoritarian has been so successful and profound. Undoubtedly, this is a biased point of view, since this line of argument tends to homologate our reality with caudillisms or military irruptions that lacked ethical imperatives and national needs and that did occur systematically or cyclically in other nations.

The deed of September 11, 1973 and the foundational work of the Military Government, apart from signifying for the Armed Forces and the Carabineros and, particularly, for the Army, a feeling of honor and pride that must be preserved, is an event that must necessarily be included in national and universal history in all its truth and dimension.
[[File:Pinochet y la Junta Militar de Gobierno.jpg|250|thumbnail|The Government Junta of Chile in 1985.]]
In its later years, the regime gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union activity. In contrast to its authoritarian political rule, the military government pursued decidedly [[laissez-faire]] economic policies.

[[Milton Friedman]] said,
* "... the really extraordinary thing about the Chilean case was that a military government followed the opposite of military policies. The military is distinguished from the ordinary economy by the fact that it's a top-down organization. The general tells the colonel, the colonel tells the captain, and so on down, whereas a market is a bottom-up organization. The customer goes into the store and tells the retailer what he wants; the retailer sends it back up the line to the manufacturer and so on. So the basic organizational principles in the military are almost the opposite of the basic organizational principles of a free market and a free society. And the really remarkable thing about Chile is that the military adopted the free-market arrangements instead of the military arrangements."<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/int_miltonfriedman.html#10 Commanding Heights: Milton Friedman on PBS]</ref>

During its 17 years in power, Chile moved away from economic statism toward a largely free market economy that fostered an increase in domestic and foreign private investment. The complete political liberalization of the country came in 1988, when the Constitution established that Chilean citizens would ratify or not the continuity of the military government through a plebiscite, which finally took place on October 5. On that day, the triumph of the "No" option, which obtained 55.99% of the votes, against 44.01% for the "Yes" option. General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president. Chileans voted for elections to choose a new president in 1989 and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress. The Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution on the same year.

The "No" Campaign and the Concertación were supported by [[George Soros]]<ref>[https://www.emol.com/noticias/Economia/2015/09/27/751793/El-multimillonario-que-apoyo-al-NO.html Soros helped the "No" campaign]</ref> and the organization "[[National Endowment for Democracy]]" originated from the U.S. Congress resolution H.R. 2915, helped the center-left with propaganda on television, newspapers, radio and magazines.

===Democratic governments===
[[File:Izamiento de la Gran Bandera Nacional - Presidentes de Chile.jpg|275px|thumbnail|The five [[President of Chile|Chilean Presidents]] between the years 1990 and 2022 (two of them were elected twice in non-consecutive terms).]]
On December 14, 1989, [[Christian Democrat]] [[Patricio Aylwin]], the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, was elected president. In a ceremony held in the Congress building in Valparaíso, Pinochet handed over the presidency to the new constitutional President.

Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994 and was succeeded by another Christian Democrat, [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]] (son of the previous President), leading the same coalition, for a 6-year term. Ricardo Lagos Escobar of the Socialist Party and the Party for Democracy led the Concertación to a narrower victory in 2000 presidential elections.

During the ''Concertación'' Governments, Military personnel who fought terrorism were jailed unfairly using an old judicial system and without proof, these can be called the [[Military Political Prisioners of Chile|Military Political Prisioners]] that were destined to the [[Punta Peuco Jail]]. Also during these Governments the private pension system was reformed to benefit the companies that manage pension funds by making the users assume the economic losses and increased the retirement age by approximately 20 years, which directly lowered pensions. This changes are the main factor of the problems in the system that can be reversed.

In September 2005, President [[Ricardo Lagos]] signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years.

On January 15, 2006 [[Michelle Bachelet|Michelle Bachelet Jeria]] (center-left) won the elections against businessman [[Sebastián Piñera]] (center-right) and she took office on March 11, 2006, becoming the first woman to become President of Chile.
In 2009 Sebastián Piñera Echenique won the presidency, beign the first center-right candidate to do so after the Pinochet regime. In 2013 Bachelet won the office again and Piñera in 2017. Presidents in Chile can't have consecutive two terms, they need to wait another election.

Chile's congressional elections were governed by a unique binomial system made by [[Jaime Guzmán]] until 2018 that rewarded coalition slates. Each coalition could run two candidates for the two Senate and two Deputy seats apportioned to each electoral district. Historically, the two largest coalitions (Concertación and Alianza) splat most of the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket out-polls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 did the winning coalition gain both seats.

Chile was leaded by President [[Sebastián Piñera]] between 2018 and 2022 with the coalition of parties called [[Chile Vamos]]. The coalition was center-right and took [[progressive]] stands on some moral issues like legalizing [[same sex "marriage"]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://santiagotimes.cl/2018/11/29/chile-enacts-landmark-gender-identity-law/|title=Chile enacts landmark gender identity law|date=November 29, 2018|publisher=Santiago Times}}</ref>

{{main article|2019 Chilean State of Emergency}}
In 2019 Leftist mobs began to burn private and public property (the main public damage were 20 metro stations that were burned and 77 damaged in total),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.metro.cl/noticias/balance-danos-19-de-octubre-2019|title=Balance daños 19 de octubre 2019|language=es|date=October 20, 2019|publisher=Metro de Santiago}}</ref> starting a political crisis that has on its objectives to make the state bigger, raise taxes, and eliminate the individual capitalization system, as well as a change of the Constitution. This groups have been supported by the international left, the [[Sao Paulo Forum]], the [[Puebla Group]] and [[Nicolás Maduro]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/america/venezuela/2019/10/20/nicolas-maduro-respondio-las-acusaciones-de-alentar-las-protestas-en-ecuador-y-chile-foro-de-sao-paulo-estamos-cumpliendo-el-plan-ustedes-me-entienden/|title=Nicolás Maduro habló sobre las acusaciones de alentar las protestas en Ecuador y Chile: "Foro de San Pablo, estamos cumpliendo el plan, ustedes me entienden..."|language=es|date=October 20, 2019|publisher=Infobae}}</ref> The period is called ''Estallido social'' by the left. [[Diosdado Cabello]], a government official from Venezuela at that time said "The [[Bolivarian]] breeze sweeping the region will become a hurricane"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.es/internacional/abci-diosdado-cabello-amenaza-brisa-bolivariana-recorre-region-convertira-huracan-201910201834_noticia.html|title=Diosdado Cabello amenaza: "La brisa bolivariana que recorre la región se convertirá en huracán"|language=es|date=October 20, 2019|publisher=ABC Internacional}}</ref>

On the 15th of November 2019 the Congress approved to make a referendum on the Constitution, ceding to the radical left.

The referendum was made on October 25, 2020, and the option to change the Constitution won. Several rallies were made for the 'Rejection' (''Rechazo'') option by patriots with a high number of people attending and in which [[Sebastián Izquierdo]] played an important role.

There was a previous proposal of a new Constitution that was a draft from the socialist Michelle Bachelet from the last weeks of her administration and both administrations (Piñera and Bachelet) were committed to follow the globalist [[2030 Agenda]] from the United Nations. The [[Constitutional Convention (Chile)|Constitutional Convention]] which redacted the text made a progressive and globalist proposal, the conservative [[Teresa Marinovic]] was elected to the Convention auditing the far-left institution.

In the [[Chile presidential election, 2021|2021 Presidential Election]], the final front-runners were the [[Republican Party (Chile)|Republican]] [[José Antonio Kast]] and the leftist [[Gabriel Boric]]. Kast won the first round with a 27.91% of the votes (1,961,387 votes) and Boric obtained 25.82% (1,814,777 votes). But Kast lost the second round obtaining 44.13% (3,650,088 votes) against 55.87% (4,620,890 votes) from Boric. With this Chile ends an era of free-market oriented policies and the left retakes the government.

On September 4, 2022, the second referendum took place in which the 'Rejection' option won with 61.86% of the votes against 38.14% of the 'Approve' option. The main difference with the first election was that the vote was mandatory in the second one and not the first one, having bigger participation of older generations which tend to vote conservative. After the triumph of the 'Rechazo', Gabriel Boric changed the cabinet of ministers of his government.

In 2023 the corrupt political system started a new process to change the Constitution, this time with more control of the establishment parties, without asking on a referendum if the citizens of Chile wanted a new process (they "assumed" that the 2020 referendum result is permanent, even that that process ended with the 2022 referendum). On May 7 the [[Chile constitutional council election, 2023|election to elect the counselors of the Constitutional Council]] was held and a massive conservative victory was obtained, the [[Republican Party (Chile)|Republican Party]] won the majority as well as a record "Nulo" (Voluntary refusal to choose a candidate by the citizenry in a mandatory election) votes on 3rd place.

On December 17, 2023 a new referendum was held over the new written text, the Republican Party directive supported the change of the Chilean Constitution, many members of the party opposed this stance change of the party. The Globalist "center-right" coalition, [[Chile Vamos]] and centrist parties such as "Democrats" and "Yellows" (which means "being too moderated") supported the "In Favor" option as well. Chilean Patriots supported the "Against" option as well as the most of the left-wing. The "Against" Option obtained 55.76% of the votes while the "In Favor" Option obtained 44.24%. The dissident right was victorious over the establishment "right-wing" parties who supported the new proposed text.

==Sports==
[[Association Football|Football]] is the most popular sport by far, however the national sport is the Rodeo.

Chile won the Copa América 2015 and Copa América Centenario 2016, obtaining its first two Football titles in the national selection.

The Chilean mountains have important ski centers like Valle Nevado.

The [[Arica]] city in the north has the best waves of the country, something ideal for surfing.

The Chilean [[Patagonia]] is a famous place for trekking and out-door sports, The Carretera Austral (Southern Highway) and many National Parks (including the [[National Park Torres del Paine|Torres del Paine]] one) are visited by people all over the world.

==Culture==
[[Gabriela Mistral]], [[Nicanor Parra]] and [[Pablo Neruda]] are famous Chilean poets. Chillán in the Ñuble Region is a notorious cultural city of Chile.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]
*[[Gallery of Latin-American painting]]
*[[Terrorism in the South of Chile and Argentina]]
*[[Gallery of Chilean Heroes]]
*[[La Moneda]]
*[[Easter Island]]
*[[Military Government (Chile)]]
*[[Colchane]], Chilean most conservative town
{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm]}}}.
|}

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Chile]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Argentina

2024-06-02T22:59:52Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República Argentina''
|map =Argentina rel96.jpg
|map2 =Argentina1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Argentina.png
|capital =Buenos Aires
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Javier Milei
|president-raw =
|vice-president =Victoria Villarruel
|vice-president-raw=
|conservative-leader=
|conservative-leader-raw=[[Agustín Laje]] & [[Nicolás Márquez]]
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =1,073,514 sq mi
|pop =45,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$415,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$8,791 (2020)
|currency =Argentinian Peso (ARS) (will have freedom of currency soon)
|idd =+54
|tld =.com.ar
}}
'''Argentina''' (official name: '''Argentine Republic''') is a Spanish colony on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] southern most coast of [[South America]]. It is the second-largest and the third most populous country in [[South America]] (after [[Brazil]]) having 45.5 million people and is a multi-party representative and federal democracy. The capital city is [[Buenos Aires]] which is also the biggest one of the country. Argentina borders [[Chile]], [[Bolivia]], [[Paraguay]], [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]].

==People==
[[File:Tipical dance Mataderos Buenos Aires.jpg|left|250px]]
Argentines are a fusion of diverse national and ethnic groups, with descendants of Italian and Spanish immigrants predominant (97%). Waves of immigrants from many European countries arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Syrian, Lebanese, Hebrew and other Middle Eastern immigrants number about 500,000 to 600,000, mainly in urban areas. Argentina's population is overwhelmingly Catholic, but it also has the largest Jewish population in Latin America, estimated at between 280,000 and 300,000. In recent years, there has been a substantial influx of immigrants from neighboring countries, particularly Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru. The indigenous population, estimated at 700,000, is concentrated in the provinces of the north, northwest, and south. The Argentine population has one of Latin America's lowest growth rates. Eighty percent of the population resides in cities or towns of more than 2,000, and over one-third lives in the greater Buenos Aires area.

Globally, Argentina is well known for its successful national [[soccer|football]] team, which won the [[FIFA World Cup]] in 1978, 1986 and 2022.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Casa Rosada in Buenos Aires.jpg|thumb|left|Casa Rosada in Buenos Aires.]]
Argentina's constitution of 1853, as revised in 1994, mandates a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches at the national and provincial level. Each province also has its own constitution, roughly mirroring the structure of the national constitution. The president and vice president are directly elected to 4-year terms. Both are limited to two consecutive terms; they are allowed to stand for a third term or more after an interval of at least one term. The president appoints cabinet ministers, and the constitution grants him considerable power, including authority to enact laws by presidential decree under conditions of "urgency and necessity" and the line-item veto.

Since 2001, senators have been directly elected, with each province and the Federal Capital represented by three senators. Senators serve 6-year terms. One-third of the Senate stands for reelection every 2 years. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to 4-year terms. Voters elect half the members of the lower house every 2 years. Both houses are elected via a system of proportional representation. Female representation in Congress—at nearly one-third of total seats—ranks among the world's highest, with representation comparable to European Union (EU) countries such as Austria and Germany. Female senators included Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, who was a nationally known member of the Senate for the Province of Santa Cruz before her husband was elected president, and was reelected on October 23, 2005 as a Senator for the Province of Buenos Aires.

The constitution establishes the judiciary as an independent government entity. The president appoints members of the Supreme Court with the consent of the Senate. The president on the recommendation of a magistrates' council appoints other federal judges. The Supreme Court has the power to declare legislative acts unconstitutional.

===Political Parties===
[[File:Obelisco Buenos Aires Argentina.jpg|left|thumb|Obelisco by night, Buenos Aires.]]
The two largest political parties are the Justicialist Party (PJ—also called Peronist), founded in 1945 by [[Juan Domingo Perón]], and the Union Civica Radical (UCR), or Radical Civic Union, founded in 1891. Traditionally, the UCR has had more urban middle-class support and the PJ more labor support, but both parties have become more broadly based. The PJ does not currently have a recognized national committee or leader due to internal differences. President Kirchner, a Peronist by origin, nominally is head of his Frente Para la Victoria (FPV) coalition that includes Peronists and non-Peronists aligned with him. Kirchner announced in July 2007 that he would not run for reelection in presidential elections in October 2007, and publicly supported the candidacy of his wife, Senator Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner. Fernandez de Kirchner formally announced her campaign for the presidency in July.

While the national leadership of the UCR remains in opposition to the Kirchner government, many of its governors, mayors, and other representatives have allied with President Kirchner. In the April 2003 presidential elections, the UCR received only 2% of the national vote, the lowest tally in the party's history. The UCR continues to retain significant strength in many parts of the country, and persons identifying with the party govern roughly one-third of the provinces. The UCR is the only opposition political party with a nationwide structure.

Smaller parties, such as the center-right Propuesta Republicana (PRO) and the left-leaning Afirmacion para una Republica Igalitaria (ARI) represent various positions on the political spectrum, and are strongest in Buenos Aires. PRO's candidate for mayor of Buenos Aires city, businessman Mauricio Macri, won a strong majority in elections in June 2007. He defeated Education Minister Daniel Filmus, who was supported by President Kirchner, in a high-visibility second round vote.

Historically, organized labor—largely tied to the Peronist Party—and the armed forces also have played significant roles in national life. However, the Argentine military's public standing suffered as a result of its perpetration of human rights abuses, economic mismanagement, and defeat by the United Kingdom during the period of military rule (1976–83). The Argentine military today is a downsized, volunteer force fully subordinate to civilian authority.

Liberty Advances is a libertarian coalition that supports President [[Javier Milei]]. It is a third political outsider force which won seats on the Congress in 2021 and the Presidency in 2023.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:President Javier Milei.jpg|thumbnail|President [[Javier Milei]], the first [[libertarian]] [[anarcho-capitalist]] president of the World.]]
[[File:Vice President Victoria Villarruel.jpg|150px|thumbnail|Vice President [[Victoria Villarruel]].]]
*President—[[Javier Milei]]
*Vice President and President of the Senate—[[Victoria Villarruel]]
*Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers—Nicolás Posse
*Provisional President—Bartolomé Abdala
*Foreign Relations Minister—Diana Mondino
*First Majority Leader—Germán Pedro Martínez
*President of the Chamber of Deputies—Martín Menem
*First Vice President—Cecilia Moreau
*Second Vice President—Julio Cobos
*First Minority Leader—Germán Pedro Martínez
*Second Minority Leader—Oscar Zago
*President of the Supreme Court—Horacio Rosatti
*Ambassador to the United States—Gerardo Werthein

===Foreign Relations===
Argentina's foreign policy priorities are focused on increasing regional partnerships, including expanding the MERCOSUR regional trade bloc by integrating Venezuela and Bolivia as new full members. Argentina has played a positive role in promoting human rights and democratic institutions in the hemisphere, particularly in Haiti. Argentina currently has nearly 600 peacekeeping troops in Haiti in support of MINUSTAH, reflecting its traditionally strong support of UN peacekeeping operations. As a member of the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Argentina has been a strong voice in support of nuclear non-proliferation issues.

China has a base on the Argentinian Patagonia.

President Javier Milei is a Pro-Israel libertarian,<ref>[https://www.ynetnews.com/article/h1i11i5004t Pro-Israel libertarian is Argentina's new president]. Juan Melamed/JTA, Associated Press YNet. Nov.20, 2023</ref> and had announced, his first overseas trips ahead of his inauguration will be to the [[United States]], then [[Israel]].{{Cquote|Argentina's President-elect Javier Milei said his first overseas trips ahead of his inauguration will be to the United States, then Israel, in a radio interview on Monday, following his election victory over the weekend. He added he would also look to privatize state-energy firm YPF. (Reuters). YNet
<ref>[https://www.ynetnews.com/article/h1f7gjyvt Argentina's president-elect Javier Milei says first overseas trips to be U.S., Israel], ''YPF''. (''Reuters''). ''YNet''. Nov.20, 2023</ref>}}

==Defense==
The president and a civilian minister of defense control the Argentine armed forces. The Interior Ministry controls the paramilitary Gendarmeria (border police), the Federal Police, the Prefectura Naval (coast guard), and the Airport Security Police. The Argentine armed forces maintain close defense cooperation and military supply relationships with the United States. Other countries also have military relationships with the Argentine forces, principally [[Israel]], [[Germany]], [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], and [[Venezuela]].

A former Minister of Defense has pursued an aggressive restructuring program based on the Argentine 1988 defense law. Priorities include emphasis on joint operations and peacekeeping. There has been minimal recapitalization due to budget constraints experienced over the past 5 years.

==Economy==
[[Image:Patagonia Agentina.jpg|right|300px|Patagonia, Argentina]]
Argentina is currently on an inflation crisis which President Milei was elected to fix.

Argentina's economy had sustained a robust recovery following the severe 2001/2002 economic crisis, with 4 consecutive years of over 8% growth in real gross domestic product (GDP). Argentine GDP reached U.S. $213 billion in 2006, approximately U.S. $5,460 per capita, with real investment up 18.7%. Economic expansion is creating jobs, with unemployment down from 20.4% in the first quarter of 2003 to 9.8% in the first quarter of 2007. Poverty levels have also dropped dramatically; 26.9% of the population in the 28 largest urban areas remained below the poverty line in the last half of 2006, down from over 50% in the immediate aftermath of the economic crisis.

Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. Its post-crisis move to a flexible exchange rate regime and favorable international commodity and interest rate trends were catalytic factors in supporting renewed growth, allowing the government to accumulate a reserve cushion (over $40 billion as of June 2007) to help insulate the economy from external shocks. A higher tax burden and the recovery's strong impact on revenues allowed the government to record a primary fiscal surplus in 2006 equivalent to 3.5% of GDP. Argentina should continue to perform well in 2007 with GDP growth projected in the 7.5%-8% range. A range of economic experts have identified challenges to sustaining high levels of economic growth in the future, including capacity constraints; the need for substantial new investment in primary infrastructure; potential energy shortages in the face of high growth and energy prices below international market levels; and inflation (9.8% in 2006) and the government's heterodox policies to contain it, including pressure on the private sector to limit price increases.

Argentina's exchange rate policy is based on a managed float that appears to be targeting a nominal exchange rate in the 3 Argentine pesos (ARP) per U.S. dollar range. Market analysts consider the peso's real exchange rate broadly undervalued. This, along with historically high global commodity prices, has helped lift export volumes and value to record levels, resulting in a $12 billion trade surplus in 2006. Foreign trade equaled approximately 38% of GDP in 2006 (up from only 11% in 1990) and plays an increasingly important role in Argentina's economic development. Exports totaled approximately 22% of GDP in 2006 (up from 14% in 2002), and key export markets included MERCOSUR (21% of exports), the EU (18%), and NAFTA countries (13%). Total two-way trade with the U.S. in 2006 totaled almost $9 billion. The production of grains, cattle, and other agricultural goods continues to be the backbone of Argentina's export economy. Energy products, high technology goods, and services are emerging as significant export sectors.

Over 450 U.S. companies are currently operating in Argentina and employ over 150,000 Argentine workers. U.S. investment in Argentina is concentrated in the manufacturing, information, and financial sectors. Other major sources of investment include Spain, Chile, Italy, France, Canada, and Japan. Continuing Argentine arrears to international creditors (including over $20 billion in default claims by international bondholders and over $6 billion owed to official creditors, including the U.S. Government) and a large number of arbitration claims filed by foreign companies are legacies of the 2001/2002 economic crisis that remain to be resolved and adversely impact Argentina's investment climate.

===Economic crisis===
[[File:Javier Milei dressed as Captain Ancap.jpg|thumbnail|150px|[[Javier Milei]] dressed as Captain [[Ancap]], in 2023 he was elected President to end with decades of [[inflation]].]]
The 12 Kirchnerist years left Argentina with twin deficits of 17 points of GDP. In turn, of those 17 points of GDP, 15 corresponded to the consolidated deficit between the Treasury and the Central Bank. Therefore, there is no viable solution that avoids attacking the fiscal deficit. At the same time, of those 15 points of the fiscal deficit, 5 correspond to the National Treasury and 10 to the Central Bank. Therefore, the solution implies, on the one hand, a fiscal adjustment in the national public sector of 5 points of GDP, which, unlike in the past, will fall almost entirely on the State and not on the private sector. On the other hand, it is necessary to clean up the Central Bank's interest-bearing liabilities, which are responsible for the 10 points of the Central Bank's deficit.

Issuing 20 points of GDP, as was done by the outgoing government, is not free. We are going to pay for it in inflation. At the same time, the foreign exchange trap, another legacy of this government, not only constitutes a social and productive nightmare, because it implies high interest rates, low activity level, low level of formal employment and miserable real wages that drive the increase of the indigent poor, but also the surplus of money in the economy today is twice as much as it has been in the past. To have an idea of what this implies, let us remember that the Rodrigazo multiplied the inflation rate by 6 times, so a similar event would mean multiplying the inflation rate by 12 times and given that it has been traveling at a rate of 300%, we could go to an annual rate of 3,600. At the same time, given the situation of interest-bearing liabilities of the Central Bank, which is lower than it was before Alfonsín's hyperinflation, in a very short time the amount of money could quadruple and thus bring inflation to levels of 15,000% per year. This is the inheritance they leave us: a planted inflation of 15,000% per year, which we are going to fight tooth and nail to end.

The Alberto Fernández government has left Argentina with hyperinflation and it is our top priority to make every possible effort to avoid such a catastrophe that would lead to poverty above 90% and indigence above 50%. Consequently, there is no alternative solution to adjustment. On the other hand, the inheritance does not end there, since the imbalances in tariffs are comparable to the disaster left by Kirchnerism in 2015. On the exchange rate front, the gap ranges between 150% and 200%, levels also similar to those we had during the Rodrigazo. At the same time, the debt for importers exceeds 30 billion dollars and the profits withheld from foreign companies reach 10 billion dollars. The debt of the Central Bank and YPF amounts to 25 billion dollars and the outstanding Treasury debt amounts to an additional 35 billion dollars. This is the bomb in terms of debt at $100 billion that will have to be added to the nearly $420 billion of already existing debt. Naturally, to these problems must also be added this year's debt maturities, where debt maturities in pesos are equivalent to US$ 90 billion and US$ 25 billion in foreign currencies with multilateral credit organizations. However, with financial markets closed and the IMF agreement collapsed due to the brutal defaults of the outgoing government, the debt rollover is challenging even for the mythical Cyclops. As if all this were not enough, this is taking place in an economy that has not grown since 2011. And in line with the above, formal employment in the private sector remains stagnant at 6 million jobs, reaching the insanity that it has been surpassed by 33% by informal employment. Therefore, it should not surprise anyone that real wages have been destroyed, located around 300 dollars per month, which are not only 6 times lower than those of convertibility, but if the trend of those years had been maintained, or as they used to say, the damned neoliberalism, today they would oscillate between 3,000 and 3,500 dollars per month. They have ruined our lives. They have made the country drop 10 times our salaries. Therefore, we should not be surprised that populism is leaving Argentina 45% poor and 10% indigent. After such a situation, which by all means seems irremovable, it should be clear that there is no possible alternative to adjustment. There is also no room for discussion between shock and gradualism. First, because from the empirical point of view, all gradualist programs ended badly, while all shock programs, except for the 1959 program, were successful. Secondly, because from a theoretical point of view, if a country lacks reputation, as is unfortunately the case of Argentina, businessmen will not invest until they see the fiscal adjustment making it recessionary. Thirdly, and no less important, gradualism requires financing. And unfortunately, I have to tell you again, there is no money.

In social matters, we are receiving a country where half of the population is poor, with a completely broken social fabric. More than 20 million Argentines cannot live a dignified life because they are prisoners of a system that only generates more poverty. As the great Jesús Huerta de Soto says, anti-poverty plans generate more poverty. The only way out of poverty is with more freedom. At the same time, 6 million children will go to bed hungry tonight, walking barefoot in the streets, and others who have fallen into drugs. The same happens in the field of education. To give you an idea of the deterioration we are going through, only 16% of our children are in school on time, only 16%, only 16 out of every 100. That means that 84% of our children do not finish school on time. In turn, 70% of the children who do finish school cannot solve a basic math problem or understand a text. In fact, in the latest PISA evaluations, Argentina is ranked 66th out of 81, and seventh in Latin America. Argentina was the first country in the world to end literacy. If Sarmiento would stand up and see what they did with education. In health care, the system is completely collapsed. Hospitals are destroyed, doctors charge a pittance, and Argentines have no access to basic health care. So much so that during the pandemic, if Argentines had done things like the average country in the world, we would have had 30,000 deaths. But thanks to the state of neglect and inefficiency, 130,000 Argentines lost their lives.

In all spheres, wherever you look, the situation in Argentina is an emergency. If we look at our country's infrastructure, the situation is the same. Only 16% of our roads are paved and only 11% are in good condition. Therefore, it is no coincidence that about 15,000 Argentines die every year in traffic accidents. What I want to illustrate with all this is that the situation in Argentina is critical and emergency.<ref>[https://www.cronista.com/economia-politica/texto-completo-del-discurso-de-javier-milei-en-las-escalinatas-del-congreso/]</ref>

==History==
[[File:José de San Martín.jpg|300px|thumbnail|José de San Martín, one of the founding fathers of Argentina.]]
[[File:Gaucho 1868 Argentina.jpg|thumb|Gaucho, 1868.]]
Europeans arrived in the region with the 1502 voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Spanish navigator Juan Diaz de Solias visited what is now Argentina in 1516. Spain established a permanent colony on the site of Buenos Aires in 1580, although initial settlement was primarily overland from Peru. The Spanish further integrated Argentina into their empire by establishing the Vice Royalty of Rio de la Plata in 1776, and Buenos Aires became a flourishing port. Buenos Aires formally declared independence from Spain on July 9, 1816. Argentines revere Gen. [[José de San Martín]]—who campaigned in Argentina, Chile, and Peru—as the hero of their national independence. Following the defeat of the Spanish, centralist and federalist groups waged a lengthy conflict between themselves to determine the future of the nation. A modern constitution was promulgated in 1853, and a national unity government was established in 1861.

Two forces combined to create the modern Argentine nation in the late 19th century: the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and integration of Argentina into the world economy. Foreign investment and immigration from Europe aided this economic revolution. Investment, primarily from Britain, came in such fields as railroads and ports. As in the United States, the migrants who worked to develop Argentina's resources—especially the western pampas—came from throughout Europe.

From 1880 to 1930, Argentina became one of the world's 10 wealthiest nations based on rapid expansion of agriculture and foreign investment in infrastructure. Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until 1916, when their traditional rivals, the Radicals, won control of the government. The Radicals, with their emphasis on fair elections and democratic institutions, opened their doors to Argentina's rapidly expanding middle class as well as to groups previously excluded from power.
[[File:Juan Domingo Perón.jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|[[Juan Domingo Perón]].]]
[[File:Eva Perón.jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|[[Eva Perón]].]]
The Argentine military forced aged Radical President Hipolito Yrigoyen from power in 1930 and ushered in another decade of Conservative rule. Using fraud and force when necessary, the governments of the 1930s attempted to contain the currents of economic and political change that eventually led to the ascendance of [[Juan Domingo Perón]] (b. 1897). New social and political forces were seeking political power, including a modern military and labor movements that emerged from the growing urban working class.

The military ousted Argentina's constitutional government in 1943. Perón, then an army colonel, was one of the coup's leaders, and he soon became the government's dominant figure as Minister of Labor. Elections carried him to the presidency in 1946. He created the Partido Unico de la Revolucion, which became more commonly known as the Peronist or Justicialista party (PJ). He aggressively pursued policies aimed at empowering the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionized workers. In 1947, Perón announced the first 5-year plan based on the growth of industries he nationalized. He helped establish the powerful General Confederation of Labor (CGT). Perón's dynamic wife, Eva Duarte de Perón, known as Evita (1919–52), played a key role in developing support for her husband. Perón won reelection in 1952, but the military sent him into exile in 1955. In the 1950s and 1960s, military and civilian administrations traded power, trying, with limited success, to deal with diminished economic growth and continued social and labor demands. When military governments failed to revive the economy and suppress escalating terrorism in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the way was open for Perón's return.

On March 11, 1973, Argentina held general elections for the first time in 10 years. Perón was prevented from running, but voters elected his stand-in, Dr. Hector Campora, as president. Perón's followers also commanded strong majorities in both houses of Congress. Campora resigned in July 1973, paving the way for new elections. Perón won a decisive victory and returned as president in October 1973 with his third wife, Maria Estela Isabel Martinez de Perón, as vice president. During this period, extremists on the left and right carried out violent acts with a frequency that threatened public order. The government resorted to a number of emergency decrees, including the implementation of special executive authority to deal with violence. This allowed the government to imprison persons indefinitely without charge. There are 1,094 victims of terrorism in the seventies who were never recognized by the State and their families doesn't have reparations. These guerrillas were later on killed in combat or the militants committed suicide in prison out of loyalty to their movements

[[File:Tte.Gral.Videla.jpg|200px|thumbnail|[[Jorge Rafael Videla]].]]
[[File:Argentine prisoners of war - Port Stanley.jpg|250px|thumbnail|left|Argentine Soldiers prisoners in the [[Falklands War]].]]
Perón died on July 1, 1974. His wife succeeded him in office, but a military coup, led by [[Jorge Rafael Videla]], removed her from office on March 24, 1976, and the armed forces formally exercised power through a [[junta]] composed of the three service commanders until December 10, 1983. The armed forces applied harsh measures against those they considered extremists and many suspected of being their sympathizers. While they were able to gradually restore basic order, the human costs of what became known as "El Proceso," or the "Dirty War" were high. Leftists counts list between 10,000 and 30,000 persons as "disappeared" during the 1976-83 period, however they weren't 30,000, they were 8,753. Serious economic problems, mounting charges of corruption, public revulsion in the face of human rights abuses and, finally, the country's 1982 defeat by the [[United Kingdom]] in an unsuccessful attempt to seize the [[Falkland Islands]] (Islas Malvinas) all combined to discredit the Argentine military regime. The junta lifted bans on political parties and gradually restored basic political liberties.

Democracy returned to Argentina in 1983, with Raul Alfonsín of the country's oldest political party, the Radical Civic Union (UCR), winning the presidency in elections that took place on October 30, 1983. He began a 6-year term of office on December 10, 1983. In 1985 and 1987, large turnouts for mid-term elections demonstrated continued public support for a strong and vigorous democratic system. The UCR-led government took steps to resolve some of the nation's most pressing problems, including accounting for those who disappeared during military rule, establishing civilian control of the armed forces, and consolidating democratic institutions. However, failure to resolve endemic economic problems, and an inability to maintain public confidence undermined the effectiveness of the Alfonsin government, which left office 6 months early after Justicialista Party (PJ) candidate Carlos Saul Menem won the 1989 presidential elections.

President Menem imposed peso-dollar parity (convertibility) in 1992 to break the back of hyperinflation and adopted far-reaching market-based policies. Menem's accomplishments included dismantling a web of protectionist trade and business regulations, and reversing a half-century of statism by implementing an ambitious privatization program. These reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s. Unfortunately, widespread corruption in the administrations of President Menem and his successor President Fernando De la Rua, who won election in 1999 at the head of a UCR-led coalition of center and center-left parties known as the "Alianza", shook confidence and weakened the recovery. Also, while convertibility defeated inflation, its permanence undermined Argentina's export competitiveness and created chronic deficits in the current account of the balance of payments, which were financed by massive borrowing. The contagion effect of the Asian financial crisis of 1998 precipitated an outflow of capital that gradually mushroomed into a 4-year depression that culminated in a financial panic in November 2001. In December 2001, amidst bloody riots, President De la Rua resigned.

A legislative assembly on December 23, 2001, elected Adolfo Rodriguez Saa (PJ) to serve as president and called for general elections to choose a new president within 3 months. Rodriguez Saa announced immediately Argentina's default on $88 billion in debt (the largest sovereign debt default in history), but expressed his commitment to maintain the currency board and the peso's 1-to-1 peg to the dollar. Rodriguez Saa, however, was unable to rally support from within his own party for his temporary administration and this, combined with renewed violence in the Federal Capital, led to his resignation on December 30. Yet another legislative assembly elected Eduardo Duhalde (PJ) President on January 1, 2002 to complete the term of former President De la Rua. Duhalde assumed office in the midst of a widespread public rejection of the "political class" in Argentina. Duhalde—differentiating himself from his three predecessors—quickly abandoned the peso's 10-year-old link with the dollar, a move that was followed by a sharp currency depreciation and rising inflation. In the face of increasing poverty and continued social unrest, Duhalde moved to bolster the government's social programs and to contain inflation. He was able to stabilize the social situation, but advanced presidential elections by 6 months in order to pave the way for a president elected with a popular mandate.

[[File:Mauricio Macri 2016.jpg|200px|left|thumbnail|[[Mauricio Macri]], President of Argentina (2015-2019).]]
[[Image:Cristina Fernández y gobernadores.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]] and governors.]]
In the first round of the presidential election on April 27, 2003, former President Carlos Menem (-PJ) won 24.3% of the vote, Santa Cruz Governor Nestor Kirchner (PJ) won 22%, followed by RECREAR candidate Ricardo Lopez Murphy with 16.4% and Affirmation for an Egalitarian Republic (ARI) candidate Elisa Carrio with 14.2%. Menem withdrew from the May 25 runoff election after polls showed overwhelming support for Kirchner in the second round of elections. President Kirchner assumed the presidency on May 25, 2003. He took office following the immense social and economic upheaval stemming from the financial crisis caused by a failed currency convertibility regime. Despite widespread concern, democracy and democratic institutions survived the crisis, and Nestor Kirchner took firm control as president. After taking office, Kirchner focused on consolidating his political strength and alleviating social problems. He pushed for changes in the Supreme Court and military and undertook popular measures, such as raising government salaries, pensions, and the minimum wage. On October 23, 2005, President Kirchner, bolstered by Argentina's rapid economic growth and recovery from its 2001/2002 crisis, won a major victory in the midterm legislative elections, giving him a strengthened mandate and control of a legislative majority in both the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. President Kirchner is considered by many experts to have been the most powerful Argentine president since democracy was restored in 1983. In 2015 [[Mauricio Macri]] was elected due to the people wanting a change, he promised to be right-wing but shown to be a [[social democrat]]. In 2019 the left won the Presidential election with Alberto Fernández as president and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner as vice president.

=== Javier Milei Presidency ===
{{Main article|President Javier Milei}}
[[File:Bandera del Presidente Javier Milei.jpg|thumb|Flag representing Milei as a lion.]]
On Nov 19, 2023, ecomonist (of Italian decent), Javier "Milei crushes Argentine left, becomes world's first libertarian head of state."
{{Cquote|Trump-like Javier Milei won 56% of the vote, and 20 of 23 Argentine provinces, in decisive win over Economy Minister Sergio Massa.
<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/javier-milei-crushes-argentine-left-becomes-worlds-first-libertarian-head-state Javier Milei crushes Argentine left, becomes world's first libertarian head of state]. By David Unsworth. ''Fox News''. November 19, 2023</ref>}}

In 2023, the anti-establishment [[libertarian]] and [[anarcho-capitalist]], [[Javier Milei]] won the Presidency in a landslide victory having 55.69 % of the votes. His Vice President, [[Victoria Villarruel]] is a [[Traditional Catholic]] that attends the [[Society of Saint Pius X]].

The first day, Javier Milei reduced the ministries of Argentina from 18 to 9 to reduce public spending, only including Infrastructure, Economy, Justice, Human Capital, Security, Defense, Foreign Relations, Interior, Health. Luis Caputo, former minister from the [[Mauricio Macri|Macri]] Administration and Patricia Bullrich were incorporated to the new Libertarian Administration. Bullrich lost to Milei and Massa in the first round of the elections, she gave support to Milei in the second round.

== See also ==
[[Image:Our Lady of Lujan.jpg|right|Our Lady of Luján]]
* [[Gallery of South-American painting]]
* [[Gallery of Latin-American painting]]
* [[Terrorism in the South of Chile and Argentina]]
* [[Our Lady of Lujan|Our Lady of Luján]]

== External links ==
* [https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/ Casa Rosada - Presidencia de Argentina] In Spanish.

 
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-argentina/]

{{Nb countries south america}}
{{Economic preparedness topics}}

[[Category:Argentina|!]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Economic Preparedness]]
[[Category:Inflation]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Argentina

2024-06-02T22:59:34Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República Argentina''
|map =Argentina rel96.jpg
|map2 =Argentina1.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Argentina.png
|capital =Buenos Aires
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Javier Milei
|president-raw =
|vice-president =Victoria Villarruel
|vice-president-raw=
|conservative-leader=
|conservative-leader-raw=[[Agustín Laje]] & [[Nicolás Márquez]]
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =1,073,514 sq mi
|pop =45,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$415,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$8,791 (2020)
|currency =Argentinian Peso (ARS) (will have freedom of currency soon)
|idd =+54
|tld =.com.ar
}}
'''Argentina''' (official name: '''Argentine Republic''') is a [[nation]] on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] southern most coast of [[South America]]. It is the second-largest and the third most populous country in [[South America]] (after [[Brazil]]) having 45.5 million people and is a multi-party representative and federal democracy. The capital city is [[Buenos Aires]] which is also the biggest one of the country. Argentina borders [[Chile]], [[Bolivia]], [[Paraguay]], [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]].

==People==
[[File:Tipical dance Mataderos Buenos Aires.jpg|left|250px]]
Argentines are a fusion of diverse national and ethnic groups, with descendants of Italian and Spanish immigrants predominant (97%). Waves of immigrants from many European countries arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Syrian, Lebanese, Hebrew and other Middle Eastern immigrants number about 500,000 to 600,000, mainly in urban areas. Argentina's population is overwhelmingly Catholic, but it also has the largest Jewish population in Latin America, estimated at between 280,000 and 300,000. In recent years, there has been a substantial influx of immigrants from neighboring countries, particularly Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru. The indigenous population, estimated at 700,000, is concentrated in the provinces of the north, northwest, and south. The Argentine population has one of Latin America's lowest growth rates. Eighty percent of the population resides in cities or towns of more than 2,000, and over one-third lives in the greater Buenos Aires area.

Globally, Argentina is well known for its successful national [[soccer|football]] team, which won the [[FIFA World Cup]] in 1978, 1986 and 2022.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[File:Casa Rosada in Buenos Aires.jpg|thumb|left|Casa Rosada in Buenos Aires.]]
Argentina's constitution of 1853, as revised in 1994, mandates a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches at the national and provincial level. Each province also has its own constitution, roughly mirroring the structure of the national constitution. The president and vice president are directly elected to 4-year terms. Both are limited to two consecutive terms; they are allowed to stand for a third term or more after an interval of at least one term. The president appoints cabinet ministers, and the constitution grants him considerable power, including authority to enact laws by presidential decree under conditions of "urgency and necessity" and the line-item veto.

Since 2001, senators have been directly elected, with each province and the Federal Capital represented by three senators. Senators serve 6-year terms. One-third of the Senate stands for reelection every 2 years. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to 4-year terms. Voters elect half the members of the lower house every 2 years. Both houses are elected via a system of proportional representation. Female representation in Congress—at nearly one-third of total seats—ranks among the world's highest, with representation comparable to European Union (EU) countries such as Austria and Germany. Female senators included Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, who was a nationally known member of the Senate for the Province of Santa Cruz before her husband was elected president, and was reelected on October 23, 2005 as a Senator for the Province of Buenos Aires.

The constitution establishes the judiciary as an independent government entity. The president appoints members of the Supreme Court with the consent of the Senate. The president on the recommendation of a magistrates' council appoints other federal judges. The Supreme Court has the power to declare legislative acts unconstitutional.

===Political Parties===
[[File:Obelisco Buenos Aires Argentina.jpg|left|thumb|Obelisco by night, Buenos Aires.]]
The two largest political parties are the Justicialist Party (PJ—also called Peronist), founded in 1945 by [[Juan Domingo Perón]], and the Union Civica Radical (UCR), or Radical Civic Union, founded in 1891. Traditionally, the UCR has had more urban middle-class support and the PJ more labor support, but both parties have become more broadly based. The PJ does not currently have a recognized national committee or leader due to internal differences. President Kirchner, a Peronist by origin, nominally is head of his Frente Para la Victoria (FPV) coalition that includes Peronists and non-Peronists aligned with him. Kirchner announced in July 2007 that he would not run for reelection in presidential elections in October 2007, and publicly supported the candidacy of his wife, Senator Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner. Fernandez de Kirchner formally announced her campaign for the presidency in July.

While the national leadership of the UCR remains in opposition to the Kirchner government, many of its governors, mayors, and other representatives have allied with President Kirchner. In the April 2003 presidential elections, the UCR received only 2% of the national vote, the lowest tally in the party's history. The UCR continues to retain significant strength in many parts of the country, and persons identifying with the party govern roughly one-third of the provinces. The UCR is the only opposition political party with a nationwide structure.

Smaller parties, such as the center-right Propuesta Republicana (PRO) and the left-leaning Afirmacion para una Republica Igalitaria (ARI) represent various positions on the political spectrum, and are strongest in Buenos Aires. PRO's candidate for mayor of Buenos Aires city, businessman Mauricio Macri, won a strong majority in elections in June 2007. He defeated Education Minister Daniel Filmus, who was supported by President Kirchner, in a high-visibility second round vote.

Historically, organized labor—largely tied to the Peronist Party—and the armed forces also have played significant roles in national life. However, the Argentine military's public standing suffered as a result of its perpetration of human rights abuses, economic mismanagement, and defeat by the United Kingdom during the period of military rule (1976–83). The Argentine military today is a downsized, volunteer force fully subordinate to civilian authority.

Liberty Advances is a libertarian coalition that supports President [[Javier Milei]]. It is a third political outsider force which won seats on the Congress in 2021 and the Presidency in 2023.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:President Javier Milei.jpg|thumbnail|President [[Javier Milei]], the first [[libertarian]] [[anarcho-capitalist]] president of the World.]]
[[File:Vice President Victoria Villarruel.jpg|150px|thumbnail|Vice President [[Victoria Villarruel]].]]
*President—[[Javier Milei]]
*Vice President and President of the Senate—[[Victoria Villarruel]]
*Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers—Nicolás Posse
*Provisional President—Bartolomé Abdala
*Foreign Relations Minister—Diana Mondino
*First Majority Leader—Germán Pedro Martínez
*President of the Chamber of Deputies—Martín Menem
*First Vice President—Cecilia Moreau
*Second Vice President—Julio Cobos
*First Minority Leader—Germán Pedro Martínez
*Second Minority Leader—Oscar Zago
*President of the Supreme Court—Horacio Rosatti
*Ambassador to the United States—Gerardo Werthein

===Foreign Relations===
Argentina's foreign policy priorities are focused on increasing regional partnerships, including expanding the MERCOSUR regional trade bloc by integrating Venezuela and Bolivia as new full members. Argentina has played a positive role in promoting human rights and democratic institutions in the hemisphere, particularly in Haiti. Argentina currently has nearly 600 peacekeeping troops in Haiti in support of MINUSTAH, reflecting its traditionally strong support of UN peacekeeping operations. As a member of the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Argentina has been a strong voice in support of nuclear non-proliferation issues.

China has a base on the Argentinian Patagonia.

President Javier Milei is a Pro-Israel libertarian,<ref>[https://www.ynetnews.com/article/h1i11i5004t Pro-Israel libertarian is Argentina's new president]. Juan Melamed/JTA, Associated Press YNet. Nov.20, 2023</ref> and had announced, his first overseas trips ahead of his inauguration will be to the [[United States]], then [[Israel]].{{Cquote|Argentina's President-elect Javier Milei said his first overseas trips ahead of his inauguration will be to the United States, then Israel, in a radio interview on Monday, following his election victory over the weekend. He added he would also look to privatize state-energy firm YPF. (Reuters). YNet
<ref>[https://www.ynetnews.com/article/h1f7gjyvt Argentina's president-elect Javier Milei says first overseas trips to be U.S., Israel], ''YPF''. (''Reuters''). ''YNet''. Nov.20, 2023</ref>}}

==Defense==
The president and a civilian minister of defense control the Argentine armed forces. The Interior Ministry controls the paramilitary Gendarmeria (border police), the Federal Police, the Prefectura Naval (coast guard), and the Airport Security Police. The Argentine armed forces maintain close defense cooperation and military supply relationships with the United States. Other countries also have military relationships with the Argentine forces, principally [[Israel]], [[Germany]], [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], and [[Venezuela]].

A former Minister of Defense has pursued an aggressive restructuring program based on the Argentine 1988 defense law. Priorities include emphasis on joint operations and peacekeeping. There has been minimal recapitalization due to budget constraints experienced over the past 5 years.

==Economy==
[[Image:Patagonia Agentina.jpg|right|300px|Patagonia, Argentina]]
Argentina is currently on an inflation crisis which President Milei was elected to fix.

Argentina's economy had sustained a robust recovery following the severe 2001/2002 economic crisis, with 4 consecutive years of over 8% growth in real gross domestic product (GDP). Argentine GDP reached U.S. $213 billion in 2006, approximately U.S. $5,460 per capita, with real investment up 18.7%. Economic expansion is creating jobs, with unemployment down from 20.4% in the first quarter of 2003 to 9.8% in the first quarter of 2007. Poverty levels have also dropped dramatically; 26.9% of the population in the 28 largest urban areas remained below the poverty line in the last half of 2006, down from over 50% in the immediate aftermath of the economic crisis.

Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. Its post-crisis move to a flexible exchange rate regime and favorable international commodity and interest rate trends were catalytic factors in supporting renewed growth, allowing the government to accumulate a reserve cushion (over $40 billion as of June 2007) to help insulate the economy from external shocks. A higher tax burden and the recovery's strong impact on revenues allowed the government to record a primary fiscal surplus in 2006 equivalent to 3.5% of GDP. Argentina should continue to perform well in 2007 with GDP growth projected in the 7.5%-8% range. A range of economic experts have identified challenges to sustaining high levels of economic growth in the future, including capacity constraints; the need for substantial new investment in primary infrastructure; potential energy shortages in the face of high growth and energy prices below international market levels; and inflation (9.8% in 2006) and the government's heterodox policies to contain it, including pressure on the private sector to limit price increases.

Argentina's exchange rate policy is based on a managed float that appears to be targeting a nominal exchange rate in the 3 Argentine pesos (ARP) per U.S. dollar range. Market analysts consider the peso's real exchange rate broadly undervalued. This, along with historically high global commodity prices, has helped lift export volumes and value to record levels, resulting in a $12 billion trade surplus in 2006. Foreign trade equaled approximately 38% of GDP in 2006 (up from only 11% in 1990) and plays an increasingly important role in Argentina's economic development. Exports totaled approximately 22% of GDP in 2006 (up from 14% in 2002), and key export markets included MERCOSUR (21% of exports), the EU (18%), and NAFTA countries (13%). Total two-way trade with the U.S. in 2006 totaled almost $9 billion. The production of grains, cattle, and other agricultural goods continues to be the backbone of Argentina's export economy. Energy products, high technology goods, and services are emerging as significant export sectors.

Over 450 U.S. companies are currently operating in Argentina and employ over 150,000 Argentine workers. U.S. investment in Argentina is concentrated in the manufacturing, information, and financial sectors. Other major sources of investment include Spain, Chile, Italy, France, Canada, and Japan. Continuing Argentine arrears to international creditors (including over $20 billion in default claims by international bondholders and over $6 billion owed to official creditors, including the U.S. Government) and a large number of arbitration claims filed by foreign companies are legacies of the 2001/2002 economic crisis that remain to be resolved and adversely impact Argentina's investment climate.

===Economic crisis===
[[File:Javier Milei dressed as Captain Ancap.jpg|thumbnail|150px|[[Javier Milei]] dressed as Captain [[Ancap]], in 2023 he was elected President to end with decades of [[inflation]].]]
The 12 Kirchnerist years left Argentina with twin deficits of 17 points of GDP. In turn, of those 17 points of GDP, 15 corresponded to the consolidated deficit between the Treasury and the Central Bank. Therefore, there is no viable solution that avoids attacking the fiscal deficit. At the same time, of those 15 points of the fiscal deficit, 5 correspond to the National Treasury and 10 to the Central Bank. Therefore, the solution implies, on the one hand, a fiscal adjustment in the national public sector of 5 points of GDP, which, unlike in the past, will fall almost entirely on the State and not on the private sector. On the other hand, it is necessary to clean up the Central Bank's interest-bearing liabilities, which are responsible for the 10 points of the Central Bank's deficit.

Issuing 20 points of GDP, as was done by the outgoing government, is not free. We are going to pay for it in inflation. At the same time, the foreign exchange trap, another legacy of this government, not only constitutes a social and productive nightmare, because it implies high interest rates, low activity level, low level of formal employment and miserable real wages that drive the increase of the indigent poor, but also the surplus of money in the economy today is twice as much as it has been in the past. To have an idea of what this implies, let us remember that the Rodrigazo multiplied the inflation rate by 6 times, so a similar event would mean multiplying the inflation rate by 12 times and given that it has been traveling at a rate of 300%, we could go to an annual rate of 3,600. At the same time, given the situation of interest-bearing liabilities of the Central Bank, which is lower than it was before Alfonsín's hyperinflation, in a very short time the amount of money could quadruple and thus bring inflation to levels of 15,000% per year. This is the inheritance they leave us: a planted inflation of 15,000% per year, which we are going to fight tooth and nail to end.

The Alberto Fernández government has left Argentina with hyperinflation and it is our top priority to make every possible effort to avoid such a catastrophe that would lead to poverty above 90% and indigence above 50%. Consequently, there is no alternative solution to adjustment. On the other hand, the inheritance does not end there, since the imbalances in tariffs are comparable to the disaster left by Kirchnerism in 2015. On the exchange rate front, the gap ranges between 150% and 200%, levels also similar to those we had during the Rodrigazo. At the same time, the debt for importers exceeds 30 billion dollars and the profits withheld from foreign companies reach 10 billion dollars. The debt of the Central Bank and YPF amounts to 25 billion dollars and the outstanding Treasury debt amounts to an additional 35 billion dollars. This is the bomb in terms of debt at $100 billion that will have to be added to the nearly $420 billion of already existing debt. Naturally, to these problems must also be added this year's debt maturities, where debt maturities in pesos are equivalent to US$ 90 billion and US$ 25 billion in foreign currencies with multilateral credit organizations. However, with financial markets closed and the IMF agreement collapsed due to the brutal defaults of the outgoing government, the debt rollover is challenging even for the mythical Cyclops. As if all this were not enough, this is taking place in an economy that has not grown since 2011. And in line with the above, formal employment in the private sector remains stagnant at 6 million jobs, reaching the insanity that it has been surpassed by 33% by informal employment. Therefore, it should not surprise anyone that real wages have been destroyed, located around 300 dollars per month, which are not only 6 times lower than those of convertibility, but if the trend of those years had been maintained, or as they used to say, the damned neoliberalism, today they would oscillate between 3,000 and 3,500 dollars per month. They have ruined our lives. They have made the country drop 10 times our salaries. Therefore, we should not be surprised that populism is leaving Argentina 45% poor and 10% indigent. After such a situation, which by all means seems irremovable, it should be clear that there is no possible alternative to adjustment. There is also no room for discussion between shock and gradualism. First, because from the empirical point of view, all gradualist programs ended badly, while all shock programs, except for the 1959 program, were successful. Secondly, because from a theoretical point of view, if a country lacks reputation, as is unfortunately the case of Argentina, businessmen will not invest until they see the fiscal adjustment making it recessionary. Thirdly, and no less important, gradualism requires financing. And unfortunately, I have to tell you again, there is no money.

In social matters, we are receiving a country where half of the population is poor, with a completely broken social fabric. More than 20 million Argentines cannot live a dignified life because they are prisoners of a system that only generates more poverty. As the great Jesús Huerta de Soto says, anti-poverty plans generate more poverty. The only way out of poverty is with more freedom. At the same time, 6 million children will go to bed hungry tonight, walking barefoot in the streets, and others who have fallen into drugs. The same happens in the field of education. To give you an idea of the deterioration we are going through, only 16% of our children are in school on time, only 16%, only 16 out of every 100. That means that 84% of our children do not finish school on time. In turn, 70% of the children who do finish school cannot solve a basic math problem or understand a text. In fact, in the latest PISA evaluations, Argentina is ranked 66th out of 81, and seventh in Latin America. Argentina was the first country in the world to end literacy. If Sarmiento would stand up and see what they did with education. In health care, the system is completely collapsed. Hospitals are destroyed, doctors charge a pittance, and Argentines have no access to basic health care. So much so that during the pandemic, if Argentines had done things like the average country in the world, we would have had 30,000 deaths. But thanks to the state of neglect and inefficiency, 130,000 Argentines lost their lives.

In all spheres, wherever you look, the situation in Argentina is an emergency. If we look at our country's infrastructure, the situation is the same. Only 16% of our roads are paved and only 11% are in good condition. Therefore, it is no coincidence that about 15,000 Argentines die every year in traffic accidents. What I want to illustrate with all this is that the situation in Argentina is critical and emergency.<ref>[https://www.cronista.com/economia-politica/texto-completo-del-discurso-de-javier-milei-en-las-escalinatas-del-congreso/]</ref>

==History==
[[File:José de San Martín.jpg|300px|thumbnail|José de San Martín, one of the founding fathers of Argentina.]]
[[File:Gaucho 1868 Argentina.jpg|thumb|Gaucho, 1868.]]
Europeans arrived in the region with the 1502 voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Spanish navigator Juan Diaz de Solias visited what is now Argentina in 1516. Spain established a permanent colony on the site of Buenos Aires in 1580, although initial settlement was primarily overland from Peru. The Spanish further integrated Argentina into their empire by establishing the Vice Royalty of Rio de la Plata in 1776, and Buenos Aires became a flourishing port. Buenos Aires formally declared independence from Spain on July 9, 1816. Argentines revere Gen. [[José de San Martín]]—who campaigned in Argentina, Chile, and Peru—as the hero of their national independence. Following the defeat of the Spanish, centralist and federalist groups waged a lengthy conflict between themselves to determine the future of the nation. A modern constitution was promulgated in 1853, and a national unity government was established in 1861.

Two forces combined to create the modern Argentine nation in the late 19th century: the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and integration of Argentina into the world economy. Foreign investment and immigration from Europe aided this economic revolution. Investment, primarily from Britain, came in such fields as railroads and ports. As in the United States, the migrants who worked to develop Argentina's resources—especially the western pampas—came from throughout Europe.

From 1880 to 1930, Argentina became one of the world's 10 wealthiest nations based on rapid expansion of agriculture and foreign investment in infrastructure. Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until 1916, when their traditional rivals, the Radicals, won control of the government. The Radicals, with their emphasis on fair elections and democratic institutions, opened their doors to Argentina's rapidly expanding middle class as well as to groups previously excluded from power.
[[File:Juan Domingo Perón.jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|[[Juan Domingo Perón]].]]
[[File:Eva Perón.jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|[[Eva Perón]].]]
The Argentine military forced aged Radical President Hipolito Yrigoyen from power in 1930 and ushered in another decade of Conservative rule. Using fraud and force when necessary, the governments of the 1930s attempted to contain the currents of economic and political change that eventually led to the ascendance of [[Juan Domingo Perón]] (b. 1897). New social and political forces were seeking political power, including a modern military and labor movements that emerged from the growing urban working class.

The military ousted Argentina's constitutional government in 1943. Perón, then an army colonel, was one of the coup's leaders, and he soon became the government's dominant figure as Minister of Labor. Elections carried him to the presidency in 1946. He created the Partido Unico de la Revolucion, which became more commonly known as the Peronist or Justicialista party (PJ). He aggressively pursued policies aimed at empowering the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionized workers. In 1947, Perón announced the first 5-year plan based on the growth of industries he nationalized. He helped establish the powerful General Confederation of Labor (CGT). Perón's dynamic wife, Eva Duarte de Perón, known as Evita (1919–52), played a key role in developing support for her husband. Perón won reelection in 1952, but the military sent him into exile in 1955. In the 1950s and 1960s, military and civilian administrations traded power, trying, with limited success, to deal with diminished economic growth and continued social and labor demands. When military governments failed to revive the economy and suppress escalating terrorism in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the way was open for Perón's return.

On March 11, 1973, Argentina held general elections for the first time in 10 years. Perón was prevented from running, but voters elected his stand-in, Dr. Hector Campora, as president. Perón's followers also commanded strong majorities in both houses of Congress. Campora resigned in July 1973, paving the way for new elections. Perón won a decisive victory and returned as president in October 1973 with his third wife, Maria Estela Isabel Martinez de Perón, as vice president. During this period, extremists on the left and right carried out violent acts with a frequency that threatened public order. The government resorted to a number of emergency decrees, including the implementation of special executive authority to deal with violence. This allowed the government to imprison persons indefinitely without charge. There are 1,094 victims of terrorism in the seventies who were never recognized by the State and their families doesn't have reparations. These guerrillas were later on killed in combat or the militants committed suicide in prison out of loyalty to their movements

[[File:Tte.Gral.Videla.jpg|200px|thumbnail|[[Jorge Rafael Videla]].]]
[[File:Argentine prisoners of war - Port Stanley.jpg|250px|thumbnail|left|Argentine Soldiers prisoners in the [[Falklands War]].]]
Perón died on July 1, 1974. His wife succeeded him in office, but a military coup, led by [[Jorge Rafael Videla]], removed her from office on March 24, 1976, and the armed forces formally exercised power through a [[junta]] composed of the three service commanders until December 10, 1983. The armed forces applied harsh measures against those they considered extremists and many suspected of being their sympathizers. While they were able to gradually restore basic order, the human costs of what became known as "El Proceso," or the "Dirty War" were high. Leftists counts list between 10,000 and 30,000 persons as "disappeared" during the 1976-83 period, however they weren't 30,000, they were 8,753. Serious economic problems, mounting charges of corruption, public revulsion in the face of human rights abuses and, finally, the country's 1982 defeat by the [[United Kingdom]] in an unsuccessful attempt to seize the [[Falkland Islands]] (Islas Malvinas) all combined to discredit the Argentine military regime. The junta lifted bans on political parties and gradually restored basic political liberties.

Democracy returned to Argentina in 1983, with Raul Alfonsín of the country's oldest political party, the Radical Civic Union (UCR), winning the presidency in elections that took place on October 30, 1983. He began a 6-year term of office on December 10, 1983. In 1985 and 1987, large turnouts for mid-term elections demonstrated continued public support for a strong and vigorous democratic system. The UCR-led government took steps to resolve some of the nation's most pressing problems, including accounting for those who disappeared during military rule, establishing civilian control of the armed forces, and consolidating democratic institutions. However, failure to resolve endemic economic problems, and an inability to maintain public confidence undermined the effectiveness of the Alfonsin government, which left office 6 months early after Justicialista Party (PJ) candidate Carlos Saul Menem won the 1989 presidential elections.

President Menem imposed peso-dollar parity (convertibility) in 1992 to break the back of hyperinflation and adopted far-reaching market-based policies. Menem's accomplishments included dismantling a web of protectionist trade and business regulations, and reversing a half-century of statism by implementing an ambitious privatization program. These reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s. Unfortunately, widespread corruption in the administrations of President Menem and his successor President Fernando De la Rua, who won election in 1999 at the head of a UCR-led coalition of center and center-left parties known as the "Alianza", shook confidence and weakened the recovery. Also, while convertibility defeated inflation, its permanence undermined Argentina's export competitiveness and created chronic deficits in the current account of the balance of payments, which were financed by massive borrowing. The contagion effect of the Asian financial crisis of 1998 precipitated an outflow of capital that gradually mushroomed into a 4-year depression that culminated in a financial panic in November 2001. In December 2001, amidst bloody riots, President De la Rua resigned.

A legislative assembly on December 23, 2001, elected Adolfo Rodriguez Saa (PJ) to serve as president and called for general elections to choose a new president within 3 months. Rodriguez Saa announced immediately Argentina's default on $88 billion in debt (the largest sovereign debt default in history), but expressed his commitment to maintain the currency board and the peso's 1-to-1 peg to the dollar. Rodriguez Saa, however, was unable to rally support from within his own party for his temporary administration and this, combined with renewed violence in the Federal Capital, led to his resignation on December 30. Yet another legislative assembly elected Eduardo Duhalde (PJ) President on January 1, 2002 to complete the term of former President De la Rua. Duhalde assumed office in the midst of a widespread public rejection of the "political class" in Argentina. Duhalde—differentiating himself from his three predecessors—quickly abandoned the peso's 10-year-old link with the dollar, a move that was followed by a sharp currency depreciation and rising inflation. In the face of increasing poverty and continued social unrest, Duhalde moved to bolster the government's social programs and to contain inflation. He was able to stabilize the social situation, but advanced presidential elections by 6 months in order to pave the way for a president elected with a popular mandate.

[[File:Mauricio Macri 2016.jpg|200px|left|thumbnail|[[Mauricio Macri]], President of Argentina (2015-2019).]]
[[Image:Cristina Fernández y gobernadores.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]] and governors.]]
In the first round of the presidential election on April 27, 2003, former President Carlos Menem (-PJ) won 24.3% of the vote, Santa Cruz Governor Nestor Kirchner (PJ) won 22%, followed by RECREAR candidate Ricardo Lopez Murphy with 16.4% and Affirmation for an Egalitarian Republic (ARI) candidate Elisa Carrio with 14.2%. Menem withdrew from the May 25 runoff election after polls showed overwhelming support for Kirchner in the second round of elections. President Kirchner assumed the presidency on May 25, 2003. He took office following the immense social and economic upheaval stemming from the financial crisis caused by a failed currency convertibility regime. Despite widespread concern, democracy and democratic institutions survived the crisis, and Nestor Kirchner took firm control as president. After taking office, Kirchner focused on consolidating his political strength and alleviating social problems. He pushed for changes in the Supreme Court and military and undertook popular measures, such as raising government salaries, pensions, and the minimum wage. On October 23, 2005, President Kirchner, bolstered by Argentina's rapid economic growth and recovery from its 2001/2002 crisis, won a major victory in the midterm legislative elections, giving him a strengthened mandate and control of a legislative majority in both the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. President Kirchner is considered by many experts to have been the most powerful Argentine president since democracy was restored in 1983. In 2015 [[Mauricio Macri]] was elected due to the people wanting a change, he promised to be right-wing but shown to be a [[social democrat]]. In 2019 the left won the Presidential election with Alberto Fernández as president and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner as vice president.

=== Javier Milei Presidency ===
{{Main article|President Javier Milei}}
[[File:Bandera del Presidente Javier Milei.jpg|thumb|Flag representing Milei as a lion.]]
On Nov 19, 2023, ecomonist (of Italian decent), Javier "Milei crushes Argentine left, becomes world's first libertarian head of state."
{{Cquote|Trump-like Javier Milei won 56% of the vote, and 20 of 23 Argentine provinces, in decisive win over Economy Minister Sergio Massa.
<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/javier-milei-crushes-argentine-left-becomes-worlds-first-libertarian-head-state Javier Milei crushes Argentine left, becomes world's first libertarian head of state]. By David Unsworth. ''Fox News''. November 19, 2023</ref>}}

In 2023, the anti-establishment [[libertarian]] and [[anarcho-capitalist]], [[Javier Milei]] won the Presidency in a landslide victory having 55.69 % of the votes. His Vice President, [[Victoria Villarruel]] is a [[Traditional Catholic]] that attends the [[Society of Saint Pius X]].

The first day, Javier Milei reduced the ministries of Argentina from 18 to 9 to reduce public spending, only including Infrastructure, Economy, Justice, Human Capital, Security, Defense, Foreign Relations, Interior, Health. Luis Caputo, former minister from the [[Mauricio Macri|Macri]] Administration and Patricia Bullrich were incorporated to the new Libertarian Administration. Bullrich lost to Milei and Massa in the first round of the elections, she gave support to Milei in the second round.

== See also ==
[[Image:Our Lady of Lujan.jpg|right|Our Lady of Luján]]
* [[Gallery of South-American painting]]
* [[Gallery of Latin-American painting]]
* [[Terrorism in the South of Chile and Argentina]]
* [[Our Lady of Lujan|Our Lady of Luján]]

== External links ==
* [https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/ Casa Rosada - Presidencia de Argentina] In Spanish.

 
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-argentina/]

{{Nb countries south america}}
{{Economic preparedness topics}}

[[Category:Argentina|!]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Economic Preparedness]]
[[Category:Inflation]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Guatemala

2024-06-02T22:58:57Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Guatemala''
|map =Guatemala rel00.jpg
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Guatemala.png
|capital =Guatemala City
|capital-raw =
|government =Presidential republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Jimmy Morales
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =42,042 sq mi
|pop =18,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$77,500,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-pc =$4,306 (2020)
|currency =Quetzal
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Guatemala''' is a Spanish colony in [[Central America]]. The capital of Guatemala is Guatemala City (Ciudad de Guatemala). The current president is Jimmy Morales.

==People==
[[File:Guatemala mayan women.jpg|thumb|left|Mayan women.]]
More than half of Guatemalans are descendants of indigenous [[Maya]]n peoples. Westernized Mayans and mestizos (mixed European and indigenous ancestry) are known as Ladinos. Most of Guatemala's population is rural, though urbanization is accelerating. The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholicism]], into which many indigenous Guatemalans have incorporated traditional forms of worship. Protestantism and traditional Mayan religions are practiced by an estimated 40% and 1% of the population, respectively. Though the official language is Spanish, it is not universally understood among the indigenous population. The peace accords signed in December 1996 provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into several indigenous languages.
*Population (2006 est.): 12.3 million.
*Annual population growth rate (2006 est.): 2.27%.
*Ethnic groups: Mestizo (mixed Spanish-Indian), indigenous.
*Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, traditional Mayan.
*Languages: Spanish, 24 indigenous languages (principally Kiche, Kaqchikel, Q'eqchi, and Mam).
*Education: Years compulsory—6. Attendance—41%. Literacy—70.6%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—36.9/1,000. Life expectancy—65.19 yrs.
*Work force salaried breakdown: Services—40%; industry and commerce—37%; agriculture—15%; construction, mining, utilities—4%. Fifty percent of the population engages in some form of agriculture, often at the subsistence level outside the monetized economy.

==Government==
Guatemala's 1985 constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The 1993 constitutional reforms included an increase in the number of Supreme Court justices from 9 to 13. The reforms reduced the terms of office for president, vice president, and congressional representatives from 5 years to 4 years, and for Supreme Court justices from 6 years to 5 years; they increased the terms of mayors and city councils from 2-1/2 years to 4 years.

The president and vice president are directly elected through universal suffrage and limited to one term. A vice president can run for president after 4 years out of office. Supreme Court justices are elected by the Congress from a list submitted by the bar association, law school deans, a university rector, and appellate judges. The Supreme Court and local courts handle civil and criminal cases. There also is a separate Constitutional Court.

Guatemala has 22 administrative subdivisions (departments) administered by governors appointed by the president. Guatemala City and 331 other municipalities are governed by popularly elected mayors or councils.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Jimmy Morales
*Vice President—Jafeth Cabrera
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Sandra Jovel
*Minister of Government—
*Ambassador to the U.S.--
*Ambassador to the UN—Jorge SKINNER-KLEE
*Ambassador to the OAS—

===Political Conditions===
Common and violent crime, aggravated by a legacy of violence and [[vigilante]] justice, presents a serious challenge. Impunity remained a major problem, primarily because democratic institutions, including those responsible for the administration of justice, have developed only a limited capacity to cope with this legacy. Guatemala's judiciary is independent; however, it suffers from inefficiency, corruption, and intimidation.

In early December 2006, the government and the UN agreed to the creation of the joint International Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG). On August 1, 2007, the Guatemalan Congress approved the agreement. An earlier Guatemala-UN agreement was ruled unconstitutional in 2004 before it was acted upon by the Guatemalan Congress. The UN Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA) ceased its 10-year project of monitoring peace accord implementation and human rights problems in November 2004 with UN Secretary General Kofi Annan declaring Guatemala had made "enormous progress in managing the country's problems through dialogue and institutions".

===Foreign Relations===
Guatemala's major diplomatic interests are regional security and, increasingly, regional development and economic integration. Guatemala participates in several regional groups, particularly those related to trade and the environment.
[[File:Central America.jpg|left|240px]]
The Council of Central American Ministers of Trade meets on a regular basis to work on regional approaches to trade issues. The council signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA) with the U.S. in 1998, and was part of the negotiations that led to the creation of CAFTA. Guatemala joined Honduras and El Salvador in signing a free trade agreement with Mexico in 2000, which went into effect the following year. Guatemala also originated the idea for, and is the seat of, the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN).

The U.S and Central American countries signed the CONCAUSA (Conjunto Centroamerica-USA) agreement at the Summit of the Americas in December 1994. CONCAUSA is a cooperative plan of action to promote clean, efficient energy use; conserve the region's biodiversity; strengthen legal and institutional frameworks and compliance mechanisms; and improve and harmonize environmental protection standards.

Guatemala has a long-standing claim to a large portion of Belize; the territorial dispute caused problems with the United Kingdom and later with Belize following its 1981 independence from the U.K. In December 1989, Guatemala sponsored Belize for permanent observer status in the Organization of American States (OAS). In September 1991, Guatemala recognized Belize's independence and established diplomatic ties, while acknowledging that the boundaries remained in dispute. In anticipation of an effort to bring the border dispute to an end in early 1996, the Guatemalan Congress ratified two long-pending international agreements governing frontier issues and maritime rights. In 2001, Guatemala and Belize agreed to a facilitation process led by the OAS to determine the land and maritime borders separating the two countries. National elections in Guatemala put a temporary halt to progress, but discussions resumed in November 2005. Since being named Foreign Minister in early August 2006, Gert Rosenthal has reinvigorated discussions with Belize.

When [[President Trump]] decided to move the US embassy in [[Israel]] from [[Tel Aviv]] to [[Jerusalem]], the government of Guatemala announced to move its own embassy also to Jerusalem.<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/after-the-u-s-guatemala-paraguayan-embassy-to-move-to-jerusalem-1.6099346 Paraguay Officially Moves Embassy to Jerusalem: 'We Have No Better Friend,' Netanyahu Says]. ''Haaretz''. May 21, 2018. Retrieved August 29, 2018</ref>

==Defense==
Guatemala is a signatory to the Rio Pact and is a member of the Conference of Central American Armed Forces (CFAC). Guatemala has deployed its troops to UN peacekeeping operations in Haiti and the Congo and has observers in several other locations. The president is commander in chief. The defense minister is responsible for policy. Day-to-day operations are the responsibility of the military chief of staff and the national defense staff.

An agreement signed in September 1996, which is one of the substantive peace accords, mandated that the mission of the armed forces change to focus exclusively on external threats. However, President Berger as well as his predecessors Portillo and Arzu used a constitutional clause to order the army to temporarily support the police in response to a nationwide wave of violent crime.

The accord calls for a one-third reduction in the army's authorized strength and budget—achieved under President Berger—and for a constitutional amendment to permit the appointment of a civilian Minister of Defense. A constitutional amendment to this end was defeated as part of a May 1999 plebiscite, but discussions on how to achieve this objective continue between the executive and legislative branches.

The army has gone beyond its accord-mandated target of reducing its strength to 28,000 troops, and numbered 15,500 troops as of June 2004. Not only was this the most profound transformation of any Central American military in the last 50 years, it also illustrates the effective control the civilian government has over the military. President Berger has tasked the Defense Ministry with increasing the professional skills of all soldiers. As part of the army downsizing, the operational structure of 19 military zones and three strategic brigades were recast as several military zones are eliminated and their area of operations absorbed by others. The air force operates three air bases; the navy has two port bases. Additionally, recent steps have been taken to redefine the military's mission—the military doctrine has been rewritten, and there has been an increase in cooperation with civil society to help bring about this reform.

==Economy==
After the signing of the final peace accord in December 1996, Guatemala was well-positioned for rapid economic growth over the next several years, until a financial crisis in 1998 disrupted the course of improvement. The subsequent collapse of coffee prices left what was once the country's leading export sector in depression and had a severe impact on rural incomes. Foreign investment inflows have been weak, with the exception of the privatization of utilities. Potential investors, both foreign and domestic, cite corruption, lack of physical security, a climate of confrontation between the government and private sector, and unreliable mechanisms for contract enforcement as the principal barriers to new business. On a more positive note, Guatemala's macroeconomic management was sound under the Portillo administration, and its foreign debt levels are modest. The country subscribed to a standby agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2002, which it extended in June 2003.

Guatemala's economy is dominated by the private sector, which generates about 85% of GDP. Agriculture contributes 23% of GDP and accounts for 75% of exports. Most manufacturing is light assembly and food processing, geared to the domestic, U.S., and Central American markets. Over the past several years, tourism and exports of textiles, apparel, and nontraditional agricultural products such as winter vegetables, fruit, and cut flowers have boomed, while more traditional exports such as sugar, bananas, and coffee continue to represent a large share of the export market.
*Real GDP (2006): $22.83 billion.
*Real GDP growth (2006): 4.6%.
*Per capita GDP (PPP, 2006): $4,317.
*Natural resources: Oil, timber, nickel.
*Agriculture (23% of GDP): Products—coffee, sugar, bananas, cardamom, vegetables, flowers and plants, timber, rice, rubber.
*Manufacturing (18% of GDP): Types—prepared food, clothing and textiles, construction materials, tires, pharmaceuticals.
*Trade (2005 est.): Exports--$3.94 billion: coffee, bananas, sugar, crude oil, chemical products, clothing and textiles, vegetables. Major markets—U.S. 28.9%, Central American Common Market (CACM) 42.4%, Mexico 4.8%. Imports--$7.75 billion: machinery and equipment, fuels, mineral products, chemical products, vehicles and transport materials, plastic materials and products. Major suppliers—U.S. 39.6%, CACM 12.3%, Mexico 8.3%, Japan 3.8%, Germany 2.4%.

The United States is the country's largest trading partner, providing 39.6% of Guatemala's imports and receiving 28.9% of its exports. The government's involvement is small, with its business activities limited to public utilities—some of which have been privatized—ports and airports, and several development-oriented financial institutions.

Guatemala ratified the U.S.-Central America Free Trade Agreement, commonly known as CAFTA, on March 10, 2005 and the agreement entered into force between Guatemala and the U.S. on July 1, 2006. CAFTA eliminates customs tariffs on as many categories of goods as possible; opens services sectors; and creates clear and readily enforceable rules in areas such as investment, government procurement, intellectual property protection, customs procedures, electronic commerce, the use of sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures to protect public health, and resolution of business disputes.

Other priorities include increasing transparency and accountability in Guatemala's public finances, broadening the tax base, and completing implementation of financial sector reforms. These measures attempt to ensure that Guatemala can comply with the standards of the international Financial Action Task Force for detecting and preventing money laundering.

The United States, along with other donor countries—especially France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and Japan—and the international financial institutions, have increased development project financing since the signing of the peace accords. However, donor support remains contingent upon Guatemalan Government reforms and counterpart financing.

The distribution of income and wealth remains highly skewed. The wealthiest 10% of the population receives almost one-half of all income; the top 20% receives two-thirds of all income. As a result, about 80% of the population lives in poverty, and two-thirds of that number—or 7.6 million people—live in extreme poverty. Guatemala's social development indicators, such as infant mortality and illiteracy, are among the worst in the hemisphere. Chronic malnutrition among the rural poor worsened with the onset of the crisis in coffee prices. The United States has provided disaster assistance and food aid in response to natural disasters including Hurricane Stan, which caused extensive mudslides in Guatemala in October 2005.

==History==
The Mayan civilization flourished throughout much of Guatemala and the surrounding region long before the Spanish arrived, but it was already in decline when the Mayans were defeated by Pedro de Alvarado in 1523–24. The first colonial capital, Ciudad Vieja, was ruined by floods and an earthquake in 1542. Survivors founded Antigua, the second capital, in 1543. Antigua was destroyed by two earthquakes in 1773. The remnants of its Spanish colonial architecture have been preserved as a national monument. The third capital, Guatemala City, was founded in 1776.

Guatemala gained independence from Spain on September 15, 1821; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empire, and then for a period belonged to a federation called the United Provinces of Central America. From the mid-19th century until the mid-1980s, the country passed through a series of dictatorships, insurgencies (particularly beginning in the 1960s), coups, and stretches of military rule with only occasional periods of representative government.

====1944 to 1986====
In 1944, Gen. Jorge Ubico's dictatorship was overthrown by the "October Revolutionaries," a group of dissident military officers, students, and liberal professionals. A civilian President, Juan Jose Arevalo, was elected in 1945 and held the presidency until 1951. Social reforms initiated by Arevalo were continued by his successor, Col. Jacobo Arbenz. Arbenz permitted the communist Guatemalan Labor Party to gain legal status in 1952. The army refused to defend the Arbenz government when a U.S.-backed group led by Col. Carlos Castillo Armas invaded the country from Honduras in 1954 and quickly took over the government. Gen. Miguel Ydigoras Fuentes took power in 1958 following the murder of Colonel Castillo Armas.

In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of Ydigoras Fuentes, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with Cuba. This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years. Four principal left-wing guerrilla groups—the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), the Revolutionary Organization of Armed People (ORPA), the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR), and the Guatemalan Labor Party (PGT)--conducted economic sabotage and targeted government installations and members of government security forces in armed attacks. These organizations combined to form the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) in 1982.

Shortly after President Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro took office in 1966, the army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside. The guerrillas then concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U.S. Ambassador John Gordon Mein in 1968. Between 1966 and 1982, there was a series of military or military-dominated governments.

On March 23, 1982, army troops commanded by junior officers staged a coup to prevent the assumption of power by Gen. Angel Anibal Guevara, the hand-picked candidate of outgoing President and Gen. Romeo Lucas Garcia. They denounced Guevara's electoral victory as fraudulent. The coup leaders asked retired Gen. [[Efrain Rios Montt]] to negotiate the departure of Lucas and Guevara.

Rios Montt was at this time a lay pastor in the evangelical Protestant "Church of the Word." He formed a three-member military [[junta]] that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved Congress, suspended political parties, and canceled the electoral law. After a few months, Rios Montt dismissed his junta colleagues and assumed the de facto title of "President of the Republic."

Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies denounced Rios Montt. Rios Montt sought to defeat the guerrillas with military actions and economic reforms; in his words, "rifles and beans." The government began to form local civilian defense patrols (PACs). Participation was in theory voluntary, but in reality, many Guatemalans, especially in the heavily indigenous northwest, had no choice but to join either the PACs or the guerrillas. Rios Montt's conscript army and PACs recaptured essentially all guerrilla territory—guerrilla activity lessened and was largely limited to hit-and-run operations. However, Rios Montt won this partial victory at an enormous cost in civilian deaths, in what was probably the most violent period of the 36-year internal conflict, resulting in about 200,000 deaths of mostly unarmed indigenous civilians.

On August 8, 1983, Rios Montt was deposed by his own Minister of Defense, Gen. Oscar Humberto Mejia Victores, who succeeded him as de facto President of Guatemala. Rios Montt survived to found a political party (the Guatemalan Republic Front) and to be elected President of Congress in 1995 and 2000. Awareness in the United States of the conflict in Guatemala, and its ethnic dimension, increased with the 1983 publication of the book I, [[Rigoberta Menchu]], An Indian Woman in Guatemala.

General Mejia allowed a managed return to democracy in Guatemala, starting with a July 1, 1984 election for a Constituent Assembly to draft a democratic constitution. On May 30, 1985, after 9 months of debate, the Constituent Assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took effect immediately. Vinicio Cerezo, a civilian politician and the presidential candidate of the Christian Democracy Party, won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70% of the vote, and took office on January 14, 1986.

====1986 to 2003====
Upon its inauguration in January 1986, President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law. Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and amparo (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman. Cerezo survived coup attempts in 1988 and 1989, and the final 2 years of Cerezo's government were also marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption.
[[File:Girls Chichicastenango Guatemala 1996.jpg|right|300px|Young women on the marketplace of Chichicastenango, Guatemala, 1996.]]
Presidential and congressional elections were held on November 11, 1990. After a runoff ballot, Jorge Serrano was inaugurated on January 14, 1991, thus completing the first transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another.

The Serrano administration's record was mixed. It had some success in consolidating civilian control over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG. Serrano took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize. The Serrano government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth.

On May 25, 1993, Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption. The "autogolpe" (or self-initiated coup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover. Serrano fled the country.

On June 5, 1993, the Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, Ramiro De Leon Carpio, to complete Serrano's presidential term. De Leon, not a member of any political party and lacking a political base but with strong popular support, launched an ambitious anticorruption campaign to "purify" Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies.

Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the administration and Congress. This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on January 30, 1994. In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term.

Under De Leon, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life. The government and the URNG signed agreements on human rights (March 1994), resettlement of displaced persons (June 1994), historical clarification (June 1994), and indigenous rights (March 1995). They also made significant progress on a socioeconomic and agrarian agreement. National elections for president, the Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995. With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a January 7, 1996 runoff in which National Advancement Party (PAN) candidate Alvaro Arzu defeated Alfonso Portillo of the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) by just over 2% of the vote. Under the Arzu administration, peace negotiations were concluded, and the government signed peace accords ending the 36-year internal conflict in December 1996. The human rights situation also improved during Arzu's tenure, and steps were taken to reduce the influence of the military in national affairs.

In a December 1999 presidential runoff, Alfonso Portillo (FRG) won 68% of the vote to 32% for Oscar Berger (PAN). Portillo's impressive electoral triumph, with two-thirds of the vote in the second round, gave him a claim to a mandate from the people to carry out his reform program.

Progress in carrying out Portillo's reform agenda was slow at best, with the notable exception of a series of reforms sponsored by the World Bank to modernize bank regulation and criminalize money laundering. The United States determined in April 2003 that Guatemala had failed to demonstrably adhere to its international counternarcotics commitments during the previous year.

A high crime rate and a serious and worsening public corruption problem were cause for concern for the Government of Guatemala. These problems, in addition to issues related to the often violent harassment and intimidation by unknown assailants of human rights activists, judicial workers, journalists, and witnesses in human rights trials, led the government to begin serious attempts in 2001 to open a national dialogue to discuss the considerable challenges facing the country.

National elections were held on November 9, 2003. Oscar Berger Perdomo of the Grand National Alliance (GANA) party won the election, receiving 54.1% of the vote. His opponent, Alvarado Colom Caballeros of the Nation Unity for Hope (UNE) party received 45.9% of the vote. The new government assumed office on January 14, 2004.

====2004 - present====
[[File:Guatamala protest.png|right|300px|thumb|When Kamala Harris made her first visit to Guatemala, she was greeted by Guatemalan protesters with banners reading, "Kamala, Trump Won."<ref>https://nypost.com/2021/06/07/guatemala-protesters-tell-kamala-harris-trump-won/</ref>]]
The people of Guatemala were very angry with the [[Biden junta]] for its empowerment and support of Latin American criminal gangs and drug cartels. Guatemalan President Alejandro Giammattei [[CBS News]], “We asked the United States government to send more of a clear message to prevent more people from leaving,” Giammattei said. When Biden took office, “The message changed too: ‘We’re going to reunite families, we’re going to reunite children,’” he said. “The very next day, the coyotes were here organizing groups of children to take them to the United States.” When Border Czar [[Kamala Harris]] arrived for a visit, the 56-year-old pro-abortion childless woman was not well received in the Catholic country. The Biden junta facilitated the trafficing of [[Central America]]n children by criminal gangs. Protesters greeted her "Kamala Go Home" and made clear her anti-pro-abortion messages and failure to protect [[Hispanic]] child from child trafficers as not well received.<ref>https://nypost.com/2021/06/07/guatemala-protesters-tell-kamala-harris-trump-won/</ref>

==See also==
*[[Guatemala City Guatemala Temple]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

[[Category:Guatemala]]
[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Mayan World]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

El Salvador

2024-06-02T22:58:42Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de El Salvador''
|map =Elsalvador.jpg
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of El Salvador.png
|capital =San Salvador
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|monarch-raw =
|president =Nayib Bukele
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =8,124 sq mi
|pop =6,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$43.748 billion (2008)
|gdp-pc =$7,564 (2005)
|currency =[[U.S. Dollar]] [[BitCoin]] Colón (SVC)
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''El Salvador''' (''República de El Salvador'') is a Spanish colony in [[Central America]], bounded to its west by [[Guatemala]], to its north and east by [[Honduras]] and to its south by the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It has an area of 8,124 sq miles (21,041 km2) and a population (2006) of 6.8 million. The capital is [[San Salvador]] (1998 pop 1.2 million).

President [[Nayib Bukele]] started an historic decrease of murders in the country, bringing security to record levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://diariolahuella.com/el-salvador-continua-con-la-reduccion-historica-de-los-homicidios/|title=El Salvador continúa con la reducción histórica de los homicidios|language=es|publisher=La Huella Digital|date=March 15, 2023}}</ref> The international left accuses him of being too authoritarian by having in a big jail the same criminales that made El Salvador a dangerous place. The Biden Administration even said that Human Rights were not respected enough.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/es/am%C3%A9rica-latina/20230302-bukele-justifica-sus-pol%C3%ADticas-ee-uu-le-recuerda-que-se-deben-respetar-los-dd-hh|title=Bukele justifica sus políticas; EE.UU. le recuerda que se deben respetar los DD. HH.|date=March 2, 2023|publisher=France 24|language=es}}</ref>

==Geography==
El Salvador is largely mountainous, formed of numerous extinct [[volcano]]es.

==People==
El Salvador's population numbers about 5.7 million. Almost 90% is of mixed Indian and Spanish extraction. About 1% is indigenous; very few Indians have retained their customs and traditions. The country's people are largely Roman Catholic and Protestant. Spanish is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. The capital city of San Salvador has about 2.2 million people; an estimated 40.3% of El Salvador's population lives in rural areas.
*Population (2007 est.): 5.7 million.
*Annual growth rate (2005 est.): 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: Mestizo 90%, indigenous 1%, Caucasian 9%.
*Religion: About 52% Roman Catholic, with significant and growing numbers of Protestant groups.
*Language: Spanish.
*Education: Free through ninth grade. Attendance (grades 1-9)-90.4%. Literacy—84.5% nationally; 76.3% in rural areas.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2003)--24.6/1,000. Life expectancy at birth (2006)--71.8 years.
*Work force (about 2.5 million, 2004): Agriculture—19.1%; services—49.8%; industry—16.8%; construction—6.4%; government—7.3%; other—0.6%.

==Government==
[[File:Map el salvador.jpg|left|300px]]
[[File:President Nayib Bukele.jpg|240px|thumbnail|President [[Nayib Bukele]].]]
El Salvador is a democratic republic governed by a president and an 84-member unicameral Legislative Assembly. The president is elected by universal suffrage and serves for a 5-year term by absolute majority vote. A second round runoff is required in the event that no candidate receives more than 50% of the first round vote. Members of the assembly, also elected by universal suffrage, serve for 3-year terms. The country has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court.
===National Civilian Police===
The civilian police force, created to replace the discredited public security forces, deployed its first officers in March 1993, and was present throughout the country by the end of 1994. The National Civilian Police (PNC) has about 16,000 officers. The United States, through the International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP), led international support for the PNC and the National Public Security Academy (ANSP), providing about $32 million in non-lethal equipment and training since 1992.

===Judiciary===
Both the Truth Commission and the Joint Group identified weaknesses in the judiciary and recommended solutions, the most dramatic being the replacement of all the magistrates on the Supreme Court. This recommendation was fulfilled in 1994 when an entirely new court was elected, but weaknesses remain. The process of replacing incompetent judges in the lower courts, and of strengthening the attorney generals' and public defender's offices, has moved more slowly. The government continues to work in all of these areas with the help of international donors, including the United States. Action on peace accord-driven constitutional reforms designed to improve the administration of justice was largely completed in 1996 with legislative approval of several amendments and the revision of the Criminal Procedure Code—with broad political consensus.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—[[Nayib Bukele]]
*Vice President--
*Minister of Foreign Relations—
*Ambassador to the United States—
*Representative to the OAS—
*Representative to the UN—

===Political Landscape===
Hard-line conservatives, including some members of the military, created the Nationalist Republican Alliance party (ARENA) in 1981. ARENA almost won the election in 1984 with solid private sector and rural farmer support. By 1989, ARENA had attracted the support of business groups. Multiple factors contributed to ARENA victories in the 1988 legislative and 1989 presidential elections, including allegations of corruption in the ruling Christian Democratic party, poor relations with the private sector, and historically low prices for the nation's main agricultural exports.

The successes of Alfredo Cristiani's 1989-94 administration in achieving a peace agreement to end the civil war and in improving the nation's economy helped ARENA—led by former San Salvador mayor Armando Calderon Sol—keep both the presidency and a working majority in the Legislative Assembly in the 1994 elections. ARENA's legislative position was weakened in the 1997 elections, but it recovered its strength, helped by divisions in the opposition, in time for another victory in the 1999 presidential race, bringing President Francisco Guillermo Flores Perez to office. Flores concentrated on modernizing the economy and strengthening bilateral relations with the U.S. by becoming a committed partner in anti-terror efforts, sending troops to aid in the reconstruction of Iraq, and by playing a key role in negotiations for the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA).

Taking advantage of both public apprehension of Flores' policies and ARENA infighting, the chief opposition party, the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front|Farabundo Marti Liberation Front]] (FMLN), was able to score a significant victory against ARENA in the March 2003 legislative and municipal elections. ARENA, left with only 29 seats in the 84-seat Legislative Assembly, was forced to court the right-wing National Conciliation Party (PCN) in order to form a majority voting bloc. However, in 2003 the PCN entered into a loose partnership with the FMLN, further limiting ARENA's ability to maneuver in the legislature.

Despite these constraints, ARENA made a strong showing at the March 2004 presidential election, which was marked by an unprecedented 67% voter turnout. ARENA candidate Elias "Tony" Saca handily defeated the FMLN candidate and party head Schafik Handal, garnering 57.71% of the votes cast. Nevertheless, Saca faced a complex political environment.
The defeat of FMLN's presidential candidate rekindled an FMLN internal struggle between party hardliners and more moderate party members who saw the party's 2004 defeat as a call for reform. In addition, the PCN and the two parties that comprise the center/center-left coalition, the United Democratic Center (CDU) and the Christian Democratic Party (PDC), faced dissolution for failing to each capture at least 3% of the votes. Members of all three parties, whose deputies continued to hold seats in the legislature, publicly discussed creating new parties or aligning with existing ones.

In March 12, 2006 Legislative Assembly and municipal elections, the ruling ARENA party garnered 34 Assembly deputies and 147 mayoralties, while the opposition FMLN won 32 legislative seats and 51 city halls (plus 8 additional mayoralties in which they participated as part of a coalition). The PCN, PDC, and CD carried 10, 6, and 2 Legislative Assembly seats, respectively. As with the 2003-2006 Assembly, the combined 44 seats of ARENA and their center-right PCN allies are sufficient for all legislation requiring a 43-vote simple majority, while the FMLN can still block legislation requiring a two-thirds (56 vote) supermajority. El Salvador's political parties have already begun preparation and planning for 2009, when presidential, Legislative Assembly, and municipal elections will be held simultaneously for the first time since 1994.

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Central America.jpg|right|240px]]
El Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Central American Parliament, and the Central American Integration System. It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control. From 2002-03, El Salvador was chair of the OAS anti-terrorism coordinating body, CICTE. El Salvador also is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements. An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative. El Salvador has joined its six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or CONCAUSA to promote sustainable economic development in the region.

El Salvador enjoys normal diplomatic and trade relations with all of its neighboring countries including Honduras, with which it has previously had territorial disputes. While the two nations continue to disagree over the status of their maritime borders in the Gulf of Fonseca, they have agreed to settle their land-border disputes with the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In September 1992, the Court awarded most of the territory in question to Honduras. In January 1998, Honduras and El Salvador signed a border demarcation treaty to implement the terms of the ICJ decree although delays continue due to technical difficulties.

====Relations with the United States====
[[File:Nayib Bukele and Donald Trump.jpg|350px|thumbnail|President Nayib Bukele with [[President Donald Trump]].]]
President Nayib Bukele told [[Fox News]] the ‘new-liberal practice’ [[immigration]] policy was ‘immoral’ and 'not good for the US, not good for El Salvador, causing a brain drain and sending El Salvadore's future workforce to the U.S. in exchange for a tiny remittance.<ref>https://www.foxnews.com/politics/salvadoran-president-tells-tucker-mass-immigration-not-profitable-feeding-on-dependency</ref> Bukele to slam the FBI raid and asked after the [[Biden regime]]'s [[Mar-a-Lago raid]] on [[President Donald Trump]]'s home residence, “What would the US government say, if our police raided the house of one of the main possible contenders of our 2024 presidential election?”<ref>https://www.breitbart.com/latin-america/2022/08/09/el-salvadors-president-nayib-bukele-trump-fbi-raid-what-would-u-s-say-if-i-did-that/</ref>

==Human Rights and Post-War Reforms==
During the 12-year civil war, human rights violations by both the government security forces and left-wing guerillas were rampant. The accords established a Truth Commission under UN auspices to investigate the most serious cases. The commission reported its findings in 1993. It recommended that those identified as human rights violators be removed from all government and military posts. Thereafter, the Legislative Assembly granted amnesty for political crimes committed during the war. Among those freed as a result were the Salvadoran Armed Forces (ESAF) officers convicted in the November 1989 Jesuit murders and the FMLN ex-combatants held for the 1991 murders of two U.S. servicemen. The peace accords also established the Ad Hoc Commission to evaluate the human rights record of the ESAF officer corps.

In accordance with the peace agreements, the constitution was amended to prohibit the military from playing an internal security role except under extraordinary circumstances. Demobilization of Salvadoran military forces generally proceeded on schedule throughout the process. The Treasury Police, National Guard, and National Police were abolished, and military intelligence functions were transferred to civilian control. By 1993–9 months ahead of schedule—the military had cut personnel from a war-time high of 63,000 to the level of 32,000 required by the peace accords. By 1999, ESAF strength stood at less than 15,000, including uniformed and non-uniformed personnel, consisting of personnel in the army, navy, and air force. A purge of military officers accused of human rights abuses and corruption was completed in 1993 in compliance with the Ad Hoc Commission's recommendations. The military's new doctrine, professionalism, and complete withdrawal from political and economic affairs leave it the most respected institution in El Salvador.

More than 35,000 eligible beneficiaries from among the former guerrillas and soldiers who fought the war received land under the peace accord-mandated land transfer program, which ended in January 1997. The majority of them also have received agricultural credits. The international community, the Salvadoran Government, the former rebels, and the various financial institutions involved in the process continue to work closely together to deal with follow-on issues resulting from the program.

==Economy==
The Salvadoran economy continues to benefit from a commitment to free markets and careful fiscal management. The economy has been growing at a steady and moderate pace since the signing of peace accords in 1992, and poverty has been cut from 66% in 1991 to 35.2 percent in 2005. Much of the improvement in El Salvador's economy is a result of free market policy initiatives carried out by ARENA governments, including the privatization of the banking system, telecommunications, public pensions, electrical distribution and some electrical generation; reduction of import duties; elimination of price controls; and improved enforcement of intellectual property rights. Capping those reforms, on January 1, 2001, the U.S. dollar became legal tender in El Salvador, and the economy is now fully dollarized.
*GDP (2006): $18.57 billion, PPP GDP (2006) $38.62 billion (IMF estimate)
*GDP annual real growth rate (2006): 4.2%.
*Per capita income (2006): $2,656.9, PPP per capita income $5,514.97 (IMF estimate)
*Agriculture (9.8% of GDP, 2006): Products—coffee, sugar, livestock, corn, poultry, and sorghum. Arable, cultivated, or pasture land—68% (2005).
*Industry (21.2% of GDP, 2006): Types—textiles and apparel, medicines, food and beverage processing, clothing, chemical products, petroleum products, electronics.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$3.5 billion: textiles and apparel, coffee, sugar, medicines, iron and steel products, tuna, light manufacturing, and paper products. Major markets—U.S. 57.1%, Central American Common Market (CACM) 29.2%. Imports--$7.6 billion: petroleum, iron products, machines and mechanical devices, cars, medicines, consumer goods, foodstuffs, capital goods, and raw industrial materials. Major suppliers—U.S. 40.46%, CACM 15.1%, Mexico 7.7%.

In 2021 Nayib Bukele sent to congress the Bitcoin law which legalized the cryptocurrency in the country.
"All prices may be expressed in Bitcoin" and "All tax contributions may be paid in Bitcoin", states the Law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/latinoamerica/latinoamerica_el-salvador/la-asamblea-de-el-salvador-promulgo-la-ley-bitcoin-que-envio-nayib-bukele-para-hacer-de-curso-legal-a-la-criptomoneda|publisher=La Derecha Diario|date=June 9, 2021|title=La Asamblea de El Salvador promulgó la Ley Bitcoin que envió Nayib Bukele para hacer de curso legal a la criptomoneda|language=es}}</ref>

President Nayib Bukele, confirmed in October 1st, 2021, that El Salvador mined the first Bitcoin with volcanic energy. Through Twitter, the social network he uses so well, he shared an image of the mining in progress, which showed 0.00599179 Bitcoin, with a value of around 288 dollars at the exchange rate at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/latinoamerica/latinoamerica_el-salvador/el-salvador-mino-su-primer-bitcoin-utilizando-energia-volcanica-tuitea-el-presidente-nayib-bukele|title=El Salvador minó su primer Bitcoin utilizando energía volcánica, tuitea el presidente Nayib Bukele|date=October 5, 2021|language=es|publisher=La Derecha Diario}}</ref>

The Salvadoran government has maintained fiscal discipline during post-war reconstruction and reconstruction following earthquakes in 2001 and hurricanes in 1998 and 2005. Taxes levied by the government include a value added tax of 13%, income tax of 20%, excise taxes on alcohol and cigarettes, and import duties. The VAT is the largest source of revenue, accounting for about 55.1% of total tax revenues in 2006. For December 2007, El Salvador projects a fiscal surplus of 0.6% of GDP. El Salvador's public external debt in May 2007 was about $5.8 billion, 29.9 percent of GDP.

Years of civil war, fought largely in the rural areas, had a devastating impact on agricultural production in El Salvador. A fall in world coffee prices, once a major export earner for El Salvador, has also hurt rural employment. Seeking to develop new growth sectors and employment opportunities, El Salvador created new export industries through fiscal incentives for free trade zones. The largest beneficiary has been the textile and apparel (maquila) sector, which directly provides approximately 70,000 jobs. Services, including retail and financial, have also shown strong employment growth, with about 49.8% of the total labor force now employed in the sector. During the last three years foreign companies have set up 96 new subsidiaries providing 18,000 new jobs, mainly in maquilas, tourism, and telephone call centers.

Remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States are an important source of income for many families in El Salvador. In 2006, the Central Bank estimated that remittances totaled $3.3 billion, and UNDP surveys show that an estimated 22.3 percent of families receive them.

Under its export-led growth strategy launched in 1989, El Salvador has pursued economic integration with its Central American neighbors and negotiated trade agreements with the Dominican Republic, Chile, Mexico, Panama, Taiwan and the United States. The trade agreement with Taiwan will enter into force in 2008. Central America will begin negotiating an Association Agreement with the European Union in 2007. Agreements with Colombia and Canada are under negotiation while agreements with CARICOM and Israel are being considered. Exports in 2006 grew 3.7% while imports grew 11.6%. As in previous years, the large trade deficit was offset by family remittances.

The U.S.-Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) implemented between El Salvador and the United States on March 1, 2006, provides El Salvador preferential access to U.S. markets. Textiles and apparel, shoes, and processed foods are among the sectors expected to benefit.

In addition to trade benefits, CAFTA-DR also promises to provide a framework for additional reforms on issues such as intellectual property rights, dispute resolution, and customs that will improve El Salvador's investment climate. For sensitive sectors such as agriculture, the agreement includes generous phase-in periods to allow Salvadoran producers an opportunity to become more competitive.

U.S. support for El Salvador's privatization of the electrical and telecommunications markets markedly expanded opportunities for U.S. investment in the country. More than 300 U.S. companies have established either a permanent commercial presence in El Salvador or work through representative offices in the country. The Department of Commerce maintains a Country Commercial Guide for U.S. businesses seeking detailed information on business opportunities in El Salvador.

==Natural Disasters==
Lying on the Pacific's earthquake-prone Ring of Fire and at latitudes plagued by hurricanes, El Salvador's history is a litany of catastrophe, including the Great Hurricane of 1780 that killed 22,000 in Central America and earthquakes in 1854 and 1917 that devastated El Salvador and destroyed most of the capital city. More recently, an October 1986 earthquake killed 1,400 and seriously damaged the nation's infrastructure; in 1998, Hurricane Mitch killed 10,000 in the region, although El Salvador—lacking a Caribbean coast—suffered less than Honduras and Nicaragua. Major earthquakes in January and February 2001 took another 1,000 lives and left thousands more homeless and jobless. El Salvador's largest volcano, Santa Ana (also known by its indigenous name Ilamatepec), erupted in October 2005, spewing tons of sulfuric gas, ash, and rock on surrounding communities and coffee plantations and killing two people and permanently displaced 5,000. Also in October 2005, Hurricane Stan unleashed heavy rains that caused flooding throughout El Salvador. In all, the flooding caused 67 deaths, and more than 50,000 people were evacuated at some point during the crisis. Damages from the storm were estimated at $355.6 million.

==History==
The Pipil Indians, descendants of the Aztecs, and the Pocomames and Lencas were the original inhabitants of El Salvador,

The first Salvadoran territory visited by Spaniards was on Meanguera Island, located in the Gulf of Fonseca, where Spanish Admiral, Andrés Niño, lead an expedition to Central America and disembarked on May 31, 1522. In June 1524 the Spanish Captain Pedro de Alvarado started a war to conquest Cuzcatlan. His cousin Diego de Alvarado established the village of San Salvador in April 1525. In 1546, Charles I of Spain granted San Salvador the title of city.

During the subsequent years, the country evolved under Spanish rule; however, towards the end of the year 1810 many people began to express discontent. On November 5, 1811, when the Priest José Matias Delgado, clang the bells of La Merced Church in San Salvador, calling for insurrection, the people began to officially band together for freedom.

In 1821, El Salvador and the other Central American provinces declared their independence from Spain. When these provinces were joined with Mexico in early 1822, El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries. In 1823, the United Provinces of Central America was formed of the five Central American states under Gen. Manuel Jose Arce. When this federation was dissolved in 1838, El Salvador became an independent republic. El Salvador's early history as an independent state—as with others in Central America—was marked by frequent revolutions; not until the period 1900-30 was relative stability achieved. Following a deterioration in the country's democratic institutions in the 1970s a period of civil war followed from 1980-1992. More than 75,000 people are estimated to have died in the conflict. In January 1992, after prolonged negotiations, the opposing sides signed peace accords which ended the war, brought the military under civilian control, and allowed the former guerillas to form a legitimate political party and participate in elections.

The politician [[Nayib Bukele]] initially was a left-wing politician, during his administrations as mayor in Nuevo Cuscatlán and San Salvador he became known for his law and order policies.

In 2019, he united both left and right-wing voters in his party "Gran Alianza por la Unidad Nacional", GANA, which promised to move away from Chavism and Latin American socialism and closer to the United States and Europe, but maintaining a strong national sentiment for El Salvador's culture and history.

With this discourse, Bukele obtained almost a million and a half votes in the first round, which consecrated him president with more than 53% of the electoral roll. Thus, he left out of the government both the conservative Carlos Calleja and the communist Hugo Martinez, both of whom are accused of being close to Caribbean drug trafficking.

In addition, he promised to confront crime and organized crime with all the power of the State, a measure that both the FMLN and ARENA have failed miserably in the past. It should be remembered that El Salvador is a country whose national territory is occupied in some parts by the maras mafia, which have parallel governments and promote terrorism and drug trafficking on Salvadoran soil.<ref name=FirstYear>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/latinoamerica/latinoamerica_el-salvador/nayib-bukele-primer-ano-de-gobierno-del-presidente-que-revoluciono-a-el-salvador|title=Nayib Bukele: primer año de gobierno del presidente que revolucionó a El Salvador|date=December 5, 2020|publisher=La Derecha Diario|language=es}}</ref> In 2021 he legalized BitCoin as a legal currency in his country, being one of the few in the world.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Mayan World]]
[[Category:El Salvador|!]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Venezuela

2024-06-02T18:53:06Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name=''República Bolivariana de Venezuela''
|map=Venezuela rel93.jpg
|map2=Venezuela1.png
|flag=Flag of Spain.png
|arms=Venezuela coat of arms.jpg
|capital=Caracas
|government=Socialist
|language=Spanish
|president-raw=[[Nicolás Maduro]] (de facto) [[Juan Guaidó]] (de jure)
|area=916, 445 sq mi
|pop=28,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp=$50,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year=
|gdp-pc=$1,754 (2020)
|currency=Bolívar
|idd=+58
|tld=.ve}}
'''Venezuela''' is located in [[South America]]. The country is located to the east of [[Colombia]], south of the [[Caribbean]], west of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Guyana]], and north of [[Brazil]]. Discovered by [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]], the sight of the marsh huts built by the native people would result in the country being referred to as "little Venice", for [[Venice]], Italy. Venezuela is divided into 23 states, a capital district and 72 federal dependencies. The capital city of Venezuela is [[Caracas]].

The country rose to prominence after 1999, when the [[leftist]] [[dictator]] [[Hugo Chavez]] assumed power and started imposing what he calls "[[socialism]] of the 21st century", aligning himself with terrorist regimes like [[Iran]], and using his petrodollars to influence other countries in the region. After Chavez's death in 2012, his successor [[Nicolas Maduro]] continued those policies also when the mostly liberal opposition alliance [[Democratic Unity Roundtable|MUD]], a coalition of [[liberal]], [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] and centrist parties, got a majority in the Venezuelan parliamentary elections on December 6, 2015.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-election-idUSKBN0TP03Y20151208 Triumphant Venezuela opposition looks to boost economy, free prisoners]</ref>

Once the wealthiest South American countries, [[socialist]] policies created instability and mass starvation by 2019.<ref name="Socialism">Multiple references:
*Byas, Steve (July 11, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/print-magazine/item/32666-the-poison-of-socialism-claims-another-victim The Poison of Socialism Claims Another Victim]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
*Lott, Maxim (January 25, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/how-socialism-turned-venezuela-from-the-wealthiest-country-in-south-america-into-an-economic-basket-case How socialism turned Venezuela from the wealthiest country in South America into an economic basket case]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
*[https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/editorials/in-venezuela-socialism-has-succeeded-the-way-it-always-does In Venezuela, socialism has succeeded the way it always does]. ''Washington Examiner''. January 26, 2019. Retrieved January 26, 2019.</ref> Venezuela is a Spanish colony.

==National symbols==
[[File:Araguaney Venezuela.jpg|thumb|270px|left|The Araguaney tree.]]
The national flag was created by the Venezuelan hero [[Francisco de Miranda]] in 1806. It has three stripes with these colors: red, blue and red. Through the years the flag suffered variations in relation to the position and number of the stars. Actually, there are eight stars on the flag and they are located in its center. The white stars symbolize eight former Venezuelan provinces (Caracas, Valencia, Barinas, Cumaná, Barcelona, Margarita, Mérida and Guayana) which became independent of Spain.

''Gloria al bravo pueblo'' ("glory to the brave people") is the national anthem. It was an old patriotic song from the independence years written by Vicente Salias. Its music was composed by Juan José Landaeta. On May 25, 1881 Gloria al bravo pueblo was decreed as the anthem of Venezuela by the president Antonio Guzmán Blanco.

El Turpial (''Icterus icterus'') is the national bird, the Araguaney (''Tabebuia chrysanta'') the national tree and the Orquídea (''Cattleya mossiae'') the national flower.
 

== Geography ==
[[File:Amazonas Venezuela.jpg|thumb|Orinoco river, Estado Amazonas.]]
*Area: 912,050 km2. (352,143 sq. mi.); slightly more than twice the size of California.
*Cities: Capital—Caracas (metro. area pop. 3.2 million). Other major cities—Maracaibo, Valencia, Barquisimeto, Maracay, Mérida, Ciudad Bolivar.
*Terrain: Andes Mountains and Maracaibo Lowlands in northwest; central plains; Guiana Highlands in southeast.
*Climate: Varies from tropical to temperate, depending on elevation.

==People==
[[File:TOROS COLEADOS Venezuela.jpg|left|260px]]

Venezuela is the sixth-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina and Peru. About 85% of the population lives in urban areas in the northern portion of the country. While almost half of Venezuela's land area lies south of the Orinoco River in the states of Bolivar and Amazonas, this region contains only 5% of the population. The population of Venezuela is comprised of a combination of European, indigenous, and African heritages.
*Population (December 2009 est.): 28,385,627.
*Annual population growth: 1.6%.
*Education: Years compulsory—9. Literacy—95%.
*Ethnic groups: Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arab, German, African, Amerindian.
{{Clear}}

===Religion===
The majority of Venezuelan people are Christians. The Catholic Church has the greater portion of followers. Other Christian churches in Venezuela are Lutherans, Anglicans, Pentecostals, Seventh Day Adventists, Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses. Some Muslims and Jews live in Venezuela. A synagogue and a mosque are situated in Caracas.

===Languages===
[[File:Venezuela Ethnic map.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Ethnic groups according to distribution by linguistic stocks.]]
Spanish and American Indian tongues are the official languages of Venezuela, according to the Venezuelan Constitution. Spanish is the most spoken language in Venezuela. Indian languages are spoken by American Indian tribes.

{{cquote|
A fact of foremost importance in the new Constitution of 1999 is that of recognizing the existence of the indigenous peoples with all their rights to their ecologies, their culture, cosmology, their land, their traditional knowledge, medicine, and their languages.<ref>[http://www.centrelink.org/SanchezEnglish.html A New Reality for Venezuela's Indigenous Peoples.]</ref>
}}
{{Clear}}

==Government==
[[Image:chavez.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Hugo Chavez]]
The president is elected by a plurality vote with direct and universal suffrage. The term of office is six years, and a president may be re-elected to a single consecutive term. The president appoints the vice president. He decides the size and composition of the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the National Assembly. Legislation can be initiated by the executive branch, the legislative branch (either a committee of the National Assembly or three members of the latter), the judicial branch, the citizen branch (ombudsman, public prosecutor, and controller general) or a public petition signed by no fewer than 0.1% of registered voters. The president can ask the National Assembly to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple majority of the Assembly can override these objections.

The National Assembly is unicameral, consisting solely of the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies serve five-year terms, and may be re-elected for a maximum of two additional terms. These legislative agents are elected by a combination of party list and single member constituencies. When the Congress is not in session, a delegated committee acts on matters relating to the executive and in oversight functions. In December 2005 pro-government parties took all 167 seats in the National Assembly after opposition parties boycotted the election over concerns with electoral conditions.

The Constitution designates three additional branches of the federal government—the judicial, citizen, and electoral branches.

The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ), which may meet either in specialized chambers (of which there are six) or in plenary session. The justices are appointed by the National Assembly and serve 12-year terms. Under the 1999 Constitution, the Supreme Tribunal of Justice is composed of 20 justices. The 1999 Constitution was amended in 2004, and the total number of justices was expanded by 12 to a total of 32. In December 2004, the National Assembly selected new judges to fill the expansion. The judicial branch also consists of lower courts, including district courts, municipal courts, and courts of first instance.

The citizens branch consists of three components—the attorney general ("fiscal general"), the "defender of the people" or ombudsman, and the comptroller general. The holders of these offices, in addition to fulfilling their specific functions, also act collectively as the "Republican Moral Council" to challenge before the Supreme Tribunal of Justice actions they believe are illegal, particularly those which violate the Constitution. The holders of the "citizen power" offices are selected for terms of seven years by the National Assembly.

The "Electoral Power," otherwise known as the National Electoral Council (Consejo Nacional Electoral or CNE), is responsible for organizing elections at all levels. Its five members are also elected to seven-year terms by the National Assembly. In the event of a hung vote in the National Assembly, the Supreme Tribunal of Justice can be called on to appoint the members.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:Maduro and Guaidó seated.jpg|300px|thumbnail|[[Nicolás Maduro]] (on the left), [[Juan Guaidó]] (on the right), are fighting for Venezuelan control]]
*President—[[Nicolás Maduro]] (de facto) [[Juan Guaidó]] (de iure)
*Vice President—Jorge Rodriguez Gómez
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—José Elías Jaua Milano
*Minister of Defense-General Gustavo Reyes Rangel Briceño
*Ambassador to the United States—Bernardo Alvarez Herrera
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Jorge Valero Briceño
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Francisco Arias Cardenas

===Political parties===
Chavez's and Maduro's government has been/is supported by political parties such as: Movimiento Quinta República/Fith Republic Movement (MVR), Patria para Todos/Homeland for All (PPT), PODEMOS, Partido Comunista de Venezuela/Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV) and other minor parties.

In 2006 President Chávez has announced the building of the Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela/United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), a new political group which will merge all pro-Chávez parties into a big one. The first members of the PSUV have been enrolled in 2007.

Un Nuevo Tiempo/A New Era (UNT), Primero Justicia/Justice First (PJ), Acción Democratica/Democratic Action (AD), COPEI, Movimiento al Socialismo/Movement for Socialism (MAS) are some of the political parties of opposition.

===Membership of International Organizations===
[[File:Protest outside the office of the Organization of American States Venezuela.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Protest outside the office of the Organization of American States.]]
Venezuela is member of the [[United Nations|UN]], the [[Organization of American States|OAS]] and the OPEC. Recently the country has applied to the “Mercado Común del Sur/Southern Common Market” (MERCOSUR) for the admission to the group. MERCOSUR is a South American organisation which promotes free trade among [[Argentina]], Brazil, [[Uruguay]] and [[Paraguay]] in a similar way to the [[European Union|EU]] and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

Venezuela had belonged to the Andean Community of Nations since 1973. In 2006 the Venezuelan government withdrew the country from the bloc when two of its members (Colombia and [[Peru]]) signed free trade agreements with the United States.

Additionally President Chávez has proposed the creation of the [[Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas]] (ALBA), another international organization which would promote the cooperation between the Latin American and Caribbean republics. This bloc pretends to be the opposite to the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), the organization proposed by the United States. At the moment Venezuela, [[Cuba]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Bolivia]] are trying to apply the principles of the ALBA among themselves through an agreement called "Tratado de Comercio de los Pueblos/Peoples’ Trade Agreement" (TCP). [[Ecuador]] is considering joining the group.

{{Clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
President Chávez has promoted his "Bolivarian Revolution" as a model for other countries to follow. The policy calls for the establishment of a "multi-polar" world devoid of U.S. influence and for greater integration among developing countries. Venezuela is currently advocating regional integration through its PetroCaribe and PetroSur petroleum initiatives, the creation of a South American Community of Nations, and the establishment of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (a social integration project proposed by President Chavez as an alternative to the Free Trade Area of the Americas). In April 2006, President Chávez announced he was withdrawing Venezuela from the Andean Community trade bloc. In July 2006, Venezuela officially joined the Southern Common Market, MERCOSUR. Before it can become a full member of MERCOSUR, Venezuela must conform to the trade bloc's economic regulations. Congressional approval by Brazil and Paraguay is also still outstanding. The Venezuelan Government maintains very close relations with Cuba and advocates an end to Cuba's isolation.
[[File:Chavez ahmad.jpg|thumb|290px|left|Chavez and [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad|Ahmadineyad]].]]
Since 2005, President Chávez has deepened relations with Iran, a state sponsor of terrorism, by signing multiple economic and social accords and publicly supporting Iran's controversial nuclear program. President Chávez has also reached out to the anti-American and anti-West regimes of [[North Korea]], [[Belarus]] and [[Syria]]. The Venezuelans have also embarked on a worldwide effort to increase their presence in embassies overseas in Africa and Asia.

President Chávez has also launched a major renovation of the Venezuelan Armed Forces by purchasing new advanced weaponry. In 2005-06, Venezuela purchased 100,000 AK-103 rifles from Russia and signed an agreement to construct a rifle and ammunition complex . Venezuela has also purchased dozens of Russian attack and transport helicopters, and has begun receiving 24 Russian Sukhoi Su-30MK 2-seat fighters. Venezuela has longstanding border disputes with Colombia-aggravated most recently by the capture of a Colombian insurgent leader inside Venezuela—and Guyana, but seeks in general to resolve them peacefully. Bilateral commissions have been established by Venezuela and Colombia to address a range of pending issues, including resolution of the maritime boundary in the Gulf of Venezuela. Relations with Guyana are complicated by Venezuela's claim to roughly three-quarters of Guyana's territory. Since 1987, the two countries have held exchanges on the boundary under the "good offices" of the United Nations.

===Relations with the United States===
[[File:Hugo Chávez on USS Yorktown 2002.jpg|thumb|Hugo Chávez on USS Yorktown, 2002.]]
U.S.-Venezuelan relations have been tense in recent years. President Hugo Chávez has continuously defined himself in opposition to the United States, using inflammatory rhetoric to insult President Bush and senior administration officials. For example, in his September 2006 speech to the UN General Assembly, President Chávez called President Bush "the Devil" and other offensive names. The United States continues to seek constructive engagement with the Venezuelan Government, focusing on areas of technical cooperation. Major U.S. interests in Venezuela include promotion of U.S. exports and protection of U.S. investment, preservation of Venezuela's constitutional democracy, closer counter-narcotics cooperation, more vigorous efforts on counterterrorism, and continued access to petroleum.

U.S.-Venezuelan commercial ties are deep. The United States is Venezuela's most important trading partner, representing about a third of imports and approximately 60 percent of Venezuelan exports. In turn, Venezuela is the United States' third-largest export market in Latin America, purchasing U.S. machinery, transportation equipment, agricultural commodities, and auto parts. Venezuela's opening of its petroleum sector to foreign investment in 1996 created extensive trade and investment opportunities for U.S. companies. As a result, Venezuela is one of the top four suppliers of foreign oil to the United States. The Department of State is committed to promoting the interests of U.S. companies in overseas markets. For contact information and a list of government publications, please go to the end of this document.

Venezuela is a minor source country for opium poppy and coca but a major transit country for cocaine and heroin. Money laundering and judicial corruption are major concerns. In 2004 and early 2005, counternarcotics cooperation between the U.S. and Venezuela deteriorated significantly. In March 2005, the Venezuelan National Guard removed its highly experienced members from the U.S.-supported Prosecutor's Drug Task Force. In August 2005, the Government of Venezuela accused the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) of espionage and terminated cooperation with the DEA pending negotiation of a new cooperation agreement, which has gone unsigned as of October 2006. President Bush decertified Venezuela on counternarcotics cooperation in 2005, 2006, and 2007.

In June 2006, Venezuela was listed at Tier 3 status in the State Department's Report on Trafficking in Persons. Tier 3 status indicates a perceived lack of effort to combat human trafficking.

In May 2006, the Secretary of State certified that Venezuela was not fully cooperating with U.S. counter-terrorism efforts. As of October 1, 2006, the United States Government has prohibited arms sales and services to Venezuela.

Approximately 23,000 U.S. citizens living in Venezuela have registered with the U.S. embassy, an estimated three-quarters of them residing in the Caracas area. An estimated 12,000 U.S. tourists visit Venezuela annually. About 500 U.S. companies are represented in the country.

===[[Islamic Republic of Iran]]'s hands===

[[Alex Saab|Alex]] “[Saab] was a key figure in the pillaging of the national reserves, profiting off the suffering of the people and increasingly criminalizing and providing those international networks for the Maduro regime.”<ref>[https://www.csis.org/analysis/corruption-venezuela-alex-saab-case Corruption in Venezuela: The Alex Saab Case], CSIS, June 24, 2020</ref>

At the Maduro-Hezbollah Nexus: [[Iran]]-backed Networks Prop up the Venezuelan Regime. The minted oil minister, Tareck El Aissami, and the regime’s special envoy to Iran, Lebanese-Colombian businessman Alex Saab, seemingly worked out a gold-for-gas deal with Tehran.
<ref>Joseph M. Humire, [https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/issue-brief/the-maduro-hezbollah-nexus-how-iran-backed-networks-prop-up-the-venezuelan-regime/ The Maduro-Hezbollah Nexus: How Iran-backed Networks Prop up the Venezuelan Regime], Atlantic Council, October 7, 2020.
<blockquote>
*Too often, Hezbollah in Venezuela is characterized as only a potential terrorist threat. In reality, the Lebanese terrorist group has helped to turn Venezuela into a hub for the convergence of transnational organized crime and international terrorism.
*Hezbollah's crime-terror network in Venezuela has facilitated Iran's cooperation with the Maduro regime.

*The United States, allies, and international institutions must ramp up regional counterterrorism collaboration, crack down on illicit financial networks, and build stronger ties with Lebanese and other Arab communities in Latin America.
</blockquote></ref>

In Feb 2024, US seized cargo plane Iran illegally sold to Venezuela. The Boeing 747 cargo plane, previously owned by an airline linked to Iran’s IRGC, which was grounded in Argentina in June 2022 on suspicion of illegal activities.
<ref>[https://www.iranintl.com/en/202402124637 US Seizes Cargo Plane Iran Illegally Sold To Venezuela], IranIntl, Feb 12, 2024.<blockquote>
The US government has seized a Boeing 747 cargo plane, previously owned by an airline linked to Iran’s IRGC, which was grounded in Argentina in June 2022 on suspicion of illegal activities.
The Justice Department said Monday that the US-built plane had been brought to Florida and would be disposed of.
"The Justice Department is committed to ensuring that the full force of U.S. laws deny hostile state actors the means to engage in malign activities that threaten our national security," Assistant Attorney General Matthew Olsen, the head of the department's national security division, said in a statement.
Argentina grounded the 747 plane after its unannounced arrival from Mexico to an airport in Buenos Aires on June 8, 2022. The plane originally belonged to Iran’s Mahan airline affiliated with Iran’s Revolutionary Guard (IRGC) and sanctioned by the US for transporting arms to Syria and supporting terrorism.
The plane had arrived in Argentina with a crew of 19 people, including five Iranians, some with clear ties to the IRGC. Venezuela’s Conviasa national carier had bought or leased the plane from Mahan airlines in early 2022 and christened it ‘Louisa Caceres Arismendi.’
The United States accused the captain of the plane, Gholamreza Ghasemi of being an Revolutionary Guard office. Ghasemi claimed that he was a instructor, teaching the Venezuelan crew how to operate the 747.
Gerardo Milman, an Argentine lawmaker, told Iran International in June 2022 that Iranians aboard the Venezuelan plane planned “attacks on human targets.” Milman also alleged that Captain Ghasemi was a senior official of Qods (Quds) force.</blockquote></ref>

==Human Rights issues==
'''Situation under Chavez'''
[[Image:Venezuela372.jpg|right|280px|thumb|Venezuelans under Chavez have suffered a loss of basic human rights.]]
Chavez has shown a marked intolerance for fundamental [[human rights]] <ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,276356,00.html Venezuelan Opposition Leader Demands Hugo Chavez Free Jailed Protesters], ''Associated Press'', May 30, 2007.</ref> and is accused of funding insurgent activity outside of Venezuela's borders. Chavez has much control of oil revenues from Venezuela's state owned, state run oil monopoly. While Chavez in public criticizes [[capitalism]], he has sought to manipulate oil prices above $60 per barrel for Venezuela's largest customer, the [[United States]].

The U.S. State Department's Report on Global [[Antisemitism]] also recently cited Venezuela for statements by "senior government officials supporting Iraq's [[Saddam Hussein]] and Islamic [[extremist]] movements" which "raised tensions and intimidated the country's Jewish community. There were several reports of anti-Semitic [[graffiti]] at [[synagogue]]s in Caracas and two reported threatening phone calls made to Jewish community centers. In August, President Chavez cautioned citizens against following the lead of Jewish citizens in the effort to overturn his referendum victory. Anti-Semitic leaflets also were available to the public in an Interior and Justice Ministry office waiting room." <ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258.htm Report on Global Anti-Semitism] U. S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, January 5, 2005.</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Cathedral of Puerto Ayacucho, Amazonas, Venezuela.jpg|thumb|300px|Puerto Ayacucho, Amazonas.]]
Real GDP increased by 10.3% in 2006. The economy recovered strongly in 2004 (17.9%) and 2005 (9.3%) after two consecutive years of deep economic recession (in 2003, Venezuelan GDP contracted 7.7%, after contracting 8.9% in 2002). The economic recovery has been driven by a large increase in government expenditures, based on an oil windfall, which in turn generated higher consumption levels.

The Consumer Price Index increase was approximately 17% at the end of 2006, following increases of 14.4% in 2006 and 19.2% in 2004.

As of January 23, 2003, all foreign exchange requests must be approved by the National Exchange Control Administration (CADIVI) and the Central Bank (BCV) completes all legal purchase and sale of foreign currency. The current exchange control regime rates for U.S. dollar exchange rate are: Bs. 2,144.60=U.S. $1.00 for purchase operations, and Bs. 2,150=U.S. $1.00 for sale operations. The national budget for 2007 assumes that the government will not devalue this year. Nonetheless, some local economists expect devaluation in late 2007 due to the increasing disparity between official and parallel market rates.

Central Bank-held international reserves increased to over U.S. $36 billion at the end of 2006. The reserves would have been higher, but the BCV transferred $6 billion to the National Development Fund (FONDEN) during the last quarter 2005, as directed by the Central Bank Law (July 2005) and an additional $4.3 billion in 2006. The level of international reserves is expected to decrease during 2007 after additional transfers of foreign reserves to FONDEN and because the Central Bank Law established that state-owned oil company PDVSA will only transfer the foreign exchange earnings needed for its domestic expenses, taxes, royalties, and dividends to the BCV, and would transfer the rest to FONDEN.
[[Image:Canaima Venezuela.jpg|thumb|250px|Canaima]]

Venezuelan sovereign debt, both domestic and foreign, has decreased in recent years in both absolute terms and as a percentage of GDP. Venezuela's external debt/GDP ratio of approximately 16% is low by Latin American standards. Venezuela's Emerging Markets Bond Index investment risk rating, at 202 basis points, dropped somewhat over 2005, but remained higher than many in the region.

There is considerable income inequality. The Gini coefficient was 0.45 during 2006. According to government statistics, the percentages of poor and extremely poor among Venezuelan population were 33.9% and 23.2%, respectively, in 2006. These high ratios are due primarily to lower real wages earned by employees, and high rates of un- and underemployment. On the other hand, the government of [[Hugo Chavez]] increased social spending and subsidised food and education. Under Chavez, the poverty rate also decreased from 55.1 percent in 2003 to 30.4 percent in 2006.<ref>[http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/venezuela_2007_07.pdf The Venezuelan Economy in the Chávez Years]</ref>

Starting January 1, 2008 Venezuela will adopt the "Bolívar Fuerte" as its new currency. The new Bolívar eliminates the three zeros of the older currency. For example, 50,000 Bolívars are equal to 50 Bolívar Fuertes.

Although economic growth has been impressive, as a result of the oil windfall, many in the Venezuelan business community remain very concerned about President Chavez' vision for 21st Century Socialism and what it portends for the private sector.

===Petroleum And Other Resources===
Economic prospects remain highly dependent on oil prices and the export of petroleum. In 2005, the oil sector accounted for roughly 15% of GDP, 90% of export earnings, and about half of the central government's ordinary revenues. Venezuela remains the fourth-leading supplier of imported crude and refined petroleum products to the United States. The Venezuelan government has sought more income from the petroleum sector. The first example was a unilateral decision in late 2004 to increase the royalty rate on production from the Orinoco heavy crude "strategic associations" with international oil companies from 1% to 16.67%.
[[File:Plataforma gas venezuela oil.jpg|left]]
In the 1990s, the Government of Venezuela opened up much of the hydrocarbon sector to foreign investment, promoting multibillion-dollar investment in heavy oil production, reactivation of old fields, and investment in several petrochemical joint ventures. By the late 1990s, almost 60 foreign companies representing 14 different countries participated in one or more aspects of Venezuela's oil sector. On November 13, 2001, under an enabling law authorized by the National Assembly, President Chavez enacted a new Hydrocarbons Law, which came into effect in January 2002. This law replaced the Hydrocarbons Law of 1943 and the Nationalization Law of 1975. Among other things, the new law provided that all oil production and distribution activities would be the domain of the Venezuelan state, with the exception of the joint ventures targeting extra-heavy crude oil production. Under the new law, private investors cannot own 50% or more of the capital stock in joint ventures involved in upstream activities. The new law also provided that private investors could own up to 100% of the capital stock in downstream ventures. A Gaseous Hydrocarbons law promulgated earlier by the Chávez government also allowed substantial participation by private investors with respect to gas production ventures.

During the December 2002-February 2003 general strike, petroleum production and refining by PDVSA, the state-owned oil company, almost ceased. Despite the strike, these activities eventually were substantially restarted. Out of a total workforce of 45,000, over 20,000 PDVSA management and workers were subsequently dismissed because the government asserted they had abandoned their jobs during the strike. Current levels of production remain a subject of debate, with considerable difference between the levels cited by the Venezuelan government and those cited by private sector and international observers.

In early 2005, the government informed companies with operating service contracts for mature fields that they must migrate the contracts to joint ventures that conform to the 2001 Hydrocarbons Law. The government threatened to seize fields operating under the services contracts on December 31, 2005 if oil companies did not sign transition agreements to migrate their contracts. All but three companies ultimately signed joint venture agreements with the government. One company was bought out by its partner while the fields operated by two other companies were ultimately taken over by the government. One of these disputes was handled by negotiation while another company decided to take its case to international arbitration. In early 2007, President Chávez announced that the Venezuelan government would take a majority government share in the remaining foreign investments in the oil sector, including the four heavy-oil "strategic associations." Several international oil companies agreed to migrate their interests to joint ventures with majority government ownership. Two U.S. companies decided to pull out of Venezuela — one is still in negotiations over compensation while the other has announced that it will seek international arbitration.

===Trade, Manufacturing and Agriculture===
[[Image:AMAZONAS Venezuela.png|thumb|left|Jungle Region]]
Thanks to petroleum exports, Venezuela usually posts a trade surplus. The United States is Venezuela's leading trade partner. In 2006, the United States exported over $9 billion in goods to Venezuela, making it the 22nd largest market for the U.S. Including petroleum products, Venezuela exported about $36 billion in goods to the U.S., over the same period, making it our 9th largest source of goods.

The government of Venezuela has taken a vocal role against the proposed Free Trade Agreement of the Americas (FTAA). Its stated goal is to expand its Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (ALBA) project and develop a South American bloc (See Foreign Relations).

Manufacturing contributed an estimated 17% of GDP in 2006. The manufacturing sector continued its recovery started in 2004, but remained hindered by a marked lack of private investment. Venezuela manufactures and exports steel, aluminum, textiles, apparel, beverages, and foodstuffs. It produces cement, tires, paper, fertilizer, and assembles cars both for domestic and export markets.

Agriculture accounts for approximately 3% of GDP, 10% of the labor force, and at least one-fourth of Venezuela's land area. Venezuela exports rice, cigarettes, fish, tropical fruits, coffee, cocoa, and manufactured products. The country is not self-sufficient in most areas of agriculture. Venezuela imports about two-thirds of its food needs. Through November 2006, U.S. firms exported $412 million worth of agricultural products, including wheat, corn, soybeans, soybean meal, cotton, animal fats, vegetable oils, and other items to make Venezuela one of the top two U.S. markets in South America. The United States supplies roughly one-quarter of Venezuela's food imports.

===Labor and Infrastructure===
Official unemployment statistics registered 8.9% unemployment in December 2006. Unofficial estimates are significantly higher. The public sector employs about 13% of the work force, while less than 1% work in the capital-intensive oil industry. About 18% of the labor force is unionized, and unions are particularly strong in the petroleum and public sectors. The "informal" sector accounts for some 45% of the work force, or 5.5 million people.

Labor unions allege the government repeatedly violates International Labor Organization (ILO) agreements on freedom of association and the right to organize and bargain collectively. Specifically, the Constitution and laws permit undue influence in the internal elections of unions. The government has told the ILO it will correct the problem; draft legislation remains pending in the National Assembly.

Venezuela has an extensive road system. With the exception of air service, transportation has failed to keep pace with the country's needs. Much of the infrastructure suffers from inadequate maintenance. Caracas has a modern subway but only one functioning rail line serves the rest of the country.

==National holidays==
===Official Holidays===
[[File:Simon Bolivar statue.jpg|thumb|[[Simon Bolivar]] statue.]]
* Rebellion of Caracas, April 19.
* Battle of Carabobo, June 24.
* Declaration of Independence, July 5.
* Simón Bolívar's Birthday, July 24.
* Discovery of the American continent (similar to the Columbus’ Day), October 12.
* Simón Bolívar's Death, December 17.

===Popular and Religious Holidays===
* New Year's Day, January 1.
* Carnivals, between February and March.
* Holy Week (Easter), between March and April.
* Worker's Day (similar to the American [[Labor Day]]), May 1.
* Christmas’ Eve, December 24.
* Christmas’ Day, December 25.
* New Year's Eve, December 31.

==Sports==
Baseball is considered the most popular sport in Venezuela. There are many Venezuelan baseball players who play in the American Big Leagues. Basketball is another sport which has many supporters.

Recently football soccer has attracted great attention from the Venezuelan media because of the good performance of the Venezuelan football Team in international matches. In 2007 the Cup America, the oldest football soccer competition of South America, is held in Venezuela. Other sports like rugby and American football are mainly practiced at universities. In some Venezuelan towns [[bullfighting]] and cockfighting are practiced.

==Media==
[[File:Caracas Venezuela PD.jpg|thumb|left|380px|Caracas.]]
Venezuela has many newspapers, radio stations and TV channels, but the most important ones are located in Caracas.

Some newspapers of Caracas are: ''El Universal'' (founded in 1909, conservative); ''El Nacional'' (founded in 1945, leftist, but not pro-government); ''Últimas Noticias'' (founded in 1943, leftist and pro-government); ''The Daily Journal'' (founded in 1945, an English language newspaper); ''El Mundo'' (founded in 1958); 2001 (founded in 1973); ''Meridiano'' (founded in 1969, a sports newspaper); ''El Nuevo País'' (founded in 1988) and ''Tal Cual''.

RCTV, Venevisión, Televén and Globovisión and Meridiano TV are private TV channels from Caracas. Venezolana de Televisión, VIVE, and TVes are state-run TV stations. Since 2007 under the Chavez regime, the state-run TVes has operated in place of the privately owned RCTV in Venezuela since Chavez forced RCTV off the air and seized its broadcasting infrastructure for TVes by claiming that RCTV was a threat to his regime by supporting the 2002 coup attempt against him. The forced over-the-air closure of RCTV in favor of TVes drew heavy domestic and international criticism against the Chavez regime on the grounds of suppression of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, as well as an attempt by the regime to silence its critics.

Telesur is an international TV channel funded by the governments of Venezuela, Cuba, Brazil and Argentina. Its headquarters is located in Caracas. Its missions are to offer a new vision of Latin America (according to the viewpoint of those governments) to the rest of the world and to counteract the influence of US media in the American continent.

In 2004 the Venezuelan National Assembly passed the Law of Social Responsibility in Radio and Television. This law establishes ambiguous guidelines regulating broadcasting content. It further requires the stations to transmit the government's educational, informative, or public safety broadcasts for up to 60 minutes a week. Finally, the law requires stations to transmit in full Chavez's speeches and other political messages, some of which last up to five hours.<ref>[http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2007/jul/07/guest_commentary_we_must_help_venezuela_because_fr/ Because Freedom Matters], By U.S. Rep. Connie Mack IV and Blanquita Cullm, ''Naples Daily News'', July 7, 2007.</ref>

In today's Venezuela, independent journalists are sometimes arrested and frequently fined and harassed in an effort to intimidate those who speak against the Chavez regime.

The Chavez regime has bullied the remaining independent media into self-censorship, and does not want the press to reveal the inefficiencies of his government. He has gone to great lengths to bar journalists of privately owned, independent media from covering government hearings, and he now requires stations to use government producers for documentaries and programs.

==History==
[[Image:Trujillo Venezuela.jpg|thumb|240px|Trujillo]]
At the time of Spanish discovery, the indigenous in Venezuela were mainly agriculturists and hunters living in groups along the coast, the Andean mountain range, and the Orinoco River. The first permanent Spanish settlement in South America—Nuevo Toledo—was established in Venezuela in 1522. Venezuela was a relatively neglected colony in the 1500s and 1600s as the Spaniards focused on extracting gold and silver from other areas of the Americas.

Toward the end of the 18th century, the Venezuelans began to grow restive under colonial control. In 1821, after several unsuccessful uprisings, the country succeeded in achieving independence from Spain, under the leadership of its most famous son, Simon Bolivar. Venezuela, along with what are now Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador, was part of the Republic of Gran Colombia until 1830, when Venezuela separated and became a separate sovereign country.

Much of Venezuela's 19th century history was characterized by periods of political instability, dictatorial rule, and revolutionary turbulence. The first half of the 20th century was marked by periods of authoritarianism—including dictatorships from 1908–35 and from 1950-58. In addition, the Venezuelan economy shifted after the first World War from a primarily agricultural orientation to an economy centered on petroleum production and export.

Since the overthrow of Gen. Marcos Perez Jimenez in 1958 and the military's withdrawal from direct involvement in national politics, Venezuela has enjoyed an unbroken tradition of civilian democratic rule. This earned Venezuela a reputation as one of the more stable democracies in Latin America. Until the 1998 elections, the Democratic Action (AD) and the Christian Democratic (COPEI) parties dominated the political environment at both the state and federal level.

===The Caracazo And Popular Dissatisfaction===
Venezuela's prevailing political calm came to an end in 1989, when Venezuela experienced riots in which more than 200 people were killed in Caracas. The so-called Caracazo was a response to an economic [[Ascesis|austerity]] program launched by then-President Carlos Andres Perez. Three years later, in February 1992, a group of army lieutenant colonels led by future President Hugo Chavez mounted an unsuccessful coup attempt, claiming that the events of 1989 showed that the political system no longer served the interests of the people. A second, equally unsuccessful coup attempt by other officers followed in November 1992. A year later, Congress impeached Perez on corruption charges.

Deep popular dissatisfaction with the traditional political parties, income disparities, and economic difficulties were some of the major frustrations expressed by Venezuelans following Perez's impeachment. In December 1998, Hugo Chavez Frias won the presidency on a campaign for broad reform, constitutional change, and a crackdown on corruption.

===Constitutional Reforms===
Current President Hugo Chavez was elected in 1998 on a platform that called for the creation of a National Constituent Assembly in order to write a new constitution for Venezuela. Chavez's argument that the existing political system had become isolated from the people won broad acceptance, particularly among Venezuela's poorest classes, who had seen a significant decline in their living standards over the previous decade and a half. The National Constituent Assembly (ANC), consisting of 131 elected individuals, convened in August 1999 to begin rewriting the Constitution. In free elections, voters gave all but six seats to persons associated with the Chavez movement. Venezuelans approved the ANC's draft in a national referendum on December 15, 1999.

===Political Turmoil===
[[File:Logo_LS_Venezuela_Socialism.jpg|left|230px]]
In July 2000, following a long and controversial process, voters re-elected President Hugo Chavez of the Fifth Republic Movement (MVR) in generally free and fair national and local elections. The MVR and pro-Chavez Movimiento a Socialismo (MAS) party won 92 seats in the 165-member legislature. Subsequent party splits reduced the pro-Chavez members to 84 seats. In April 2002, the country experienced a temporary alteration of constitutional order. When an estimated 400,000 to 600,000 persons participated in a march in downtown Caracas to demand President Chavez' resignation, gunfire broke out, resulting in as many as 18 deaths and more than 100 injuries on both sides. Military officers took President Chavez into custody, and business leader Pedro Carmona swore himself in as interim President. On April 14, military troops loyal to Chavez returned him to power. A national reconciliation process, with participation by the Organization of American States, the UN Development Program, and the Carter Center, was unsuccessful in stopping further conflict. Opposition leaders called a national work stoppage on December 2, 2002. Strikers protested the government and called for the resignation of President Chavez. The oil sector joined other sectors of the economy and effectively shut down all economic activity for a month. The OAS Permanent Council passed Resolution 833 on December 16, 2002, calling for a "constitutional, democratic, peaceful, and electoral solution" to the crisis in Venezuela. The strike formally ended in February 2003 as political opponents of Chavez sought a recall referendum to revoke the mandate of the president.

===The Referendum Process===
In September 2003, after an impasse in the National Assembly, the Supreme Court named a new board of directors for the National Electoral Council (CNE). After months of intense deliberations that included two conflicting signature drives overseen by the CNE, political riots over the government's disqualification of questionable signatures, and the intervention of international electoral observers, the CNE certified the opposition's results and set the date of the recall referendum for August 15, 2004. According to the CNE, President Chavez won 59% of the vote. His opponents immediately contested that the results of the referendum were marked by electoral fraud. However, international electoral observation missions carried out by the Organization of American States and the Carter Center found no indication of systemic fraud.

[[Smartmatic]] affiliations with government politicians raised suspicions, with instances of an interior vice minister, Morris Loyo Arnáez, being hired to lobby for Smartmatic contracts and with the company paying for the National Electoral Council (CNE) president Jorge Rodríguez Jorge Rodríguez and his sister Delcy Rodríguez to stay at the Boca Raton Resort & Club in Boca Raton, Florida.<ref name="ABCsemana">{{cite news|url=http://www.abcdelasemana.com/2013/09/20/una-extrana-muerte-en-smartmatic/|title=UNA EXTRAÑA MUERTE EN SMARTMATIC|last1=Peñaloza|first1=Carlos Julio|date=20 September 2013|work=ABC de la Semana|accessdate=}}</ref> Vice Minister Loyo was paid $1.5 million by Smartmatic as a "sales commission" and his continual payments with the company eventually doubled.

A lawyer who had worked with Rodríguez, Moisés Maiónica, was allegedly employed by Smartmatic in order to provide legal and financial assistance to help with its selection for its 2004 elections.<ref name="JOHNsmart">{{cite book|url=https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/itl/vote/SequoiaSmartmaticReport61208.pdf|title=SEQUOIA VOTING SYSTEMS, INC. USES VOTE-COUNTING SOFTWARE DEVELOPED, OWNED, AND LICENSED BY FOREIGN-OWNED SMARTMATIC, A COMPANY LINKED TO THE VENEZUELAN GOVERNMENT OF HUGO CHÁVEZ|last1=Bonifaz|first1=John|date=12 June 2008|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|pages=1–13|author1-link=John Bonifaz}}</ref><ref name="LNsmart">{{cite news|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/982136-el-abogado-chavista-arrepentido|title=El abogado chavista arrepentido|date=26 January 2008|work=[[La Nación]]|accessdate=}}</ref> Years after the election in December 2008, Maiónica pled guilty in the United States District Court for attempting to cover up the Suitcase scandal (Maletinazo scandal), an incident where Hugo Chávez attempted to finance Cristina Kirchner's 2007 Argentine Presidential Election campaign to influence [[Argentina]]'s presidential election, with Maiónica stating that he was working for Venezuela's spy agency, the National Directorate of Intelligence and Prevention Services.<<ref name="NYTsmart">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/09/world/americas/09suitcase.html?_r=0|title=Venezuelan Given 15 Months in Suitcase of Cash Scandal|last1=Barrionuevo|first1=Alexei|date=8 December 2008|work=The New York Times|accessdate=}}</ref>

After the presidential recall referendum of 2004, a controversy was raised about the use of electronic voting (SAES voting machines). Studies following the 2004 Venezuela recall elections found that Smartmatic's network was "bi-directional" with data being able to be transferred both ways between Smartmatic devices and the telecommunications company CANTV, with alleged irregularities found between the Smartmatic and Venezuela's National Electoral Council election results.<ref name="EUtulio">{{cite news|url=http://www.eluniversal.com/2004/09/11/imp_opi_art_11490D.shtml|title=Fraude y posibilidad de rectificación|last1=Salgueiro|first1=Adolfo P.|date=11 September 2004|work=El Universal (Caracas)|accessdate=}}</ref> Other independent election monitors claimed electoral fraud and submitted appeals, and statistical evaluations including a peer-reviewed article in 2006<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cordero|first1=Maria M. Febres|last2=Márquez|first2=Bernardo|year=2007|title=A Statistical Approach to Assess Referendum Results: The Venezuelan Recall Referendum 2004|journal=International Statistical Review|volume=74|issue=3|pages=379–389|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.441|doi=10.1111/j.1751-5823.2006.tb00301.x}}</ref> and a special section of 6-peer-reviewed article in 2011<ref name="specialsection">[http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=toc&handle=euclid.ss/1330437927 Special Section: Revisiting the 2004 Venezuelan Referendum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728043017/http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=toc&handle=euclid.ss%2F1330437927|date=2012-07-28}}, ''Statistical Science'', 26(4), November 2011</ref> concluded that it was likely that electronic election fraud had been committed.

===From Referendum To Elections===
In the wake of the referendum victory, Pro-Chávez candidates continued to sweep other electoral contests. Chávez supporters won 20 out of the total 22 state governor positions up for election in October 2004 (there are currently two opposition governors). Chavez supporters also won a majority of the seats in the August 2005 municipal council (parroquias) elections. Pro-Chávez parties won all 167 seats in the December 2005 National Assembly elections, after most opposition candidates withdrew one week before the elections over voter secrecy concerns. The final reports of the EU and OAS observer missions to the 2005 legislative elections, which were marked by record-high abstention, noted high levels of distrust in electoral institutions. The reports made specific recommendations to increase transparency and help voters regain the confidence necessary for participation. Most of the recommendations were not implemented. As a signatory of the Inter-American Democratic Charter, Venezuela has an obligation to hold "periodic, free, and fair elections based on secret balloting and universal suffrage."

Prior to the 2005 Venezuela parliamentary election, one technician could work around "the machine's allegedly random storage protocols" and remove voting secrecy. Since the voting systems were [[Windows]] based and only randomized data, the technician was able to download a simple software that could place Windows files in order. Following this revelation, voter turnout dropped substantially with only 25% of registered Venezuelans voting and opposition parties withdrawing from the election. This resulted in Hugo Chávez's party, as well as his allied parties, to control 100% of Venezuela's National Assembly.

===A New Term and New Administration===
[[File:Manuel Rosales Venezuela.jpg|thumb|125px|Manuel Rosales.]]
President Chávez was re-elected by an overwhelming majority (63%) in the December 3, 2006, presidential elections. He defeated Zulia Governor Manuel Rosales, whose Un Nuevo Tiempo (UNT) party formed an alliance with several key opposition parties. Though international observers found no evidence of fraud on election day, they did note concerns over abuse of government resources used to support the Chávez campaign, voter intimidation tactics, and manipulation of the electoral registry.

In January 2007, President Chávez named a new Vice President (the former head of the CNE) and cabinet, drawing largely from deputies of the National Assembly. Chávez announced a renewed effort to implement his vision of "21st Century Socialism" in Venezuela. He asked the National Assembly to grant him special constitutional powers via an "enabling law" to rule by decree over a broad range of society and subsequently received those powers for a term of 18 months. He also took major steps to nationalize the telecommunications and electricity sectors, as well as to finalize a majority government share in many oil projects, all sectors with significant foreign investments.

=== Constitutional referendum 2007 ===
On August 15, President Chávez proposed a package of 33 articles to reform the 1999 Constitution. On 11 September the National Assembly enlarged a number of amendments with other 36 articles, increasing in 69 the number of articles to be voted in the referendum. Finally, the National Assembly passed the reform on 2 November.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7076076.stm Venezuela assembly passes reforms], ''BBC News'', November 2, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>

The proposals were divided into two blocks: block "A" and block "B". Some of the amendments are:

* Indefinite presidential re-election.
* The presidential term will be increased from six to seven years.
* Five types of property are proposed: public, social, collective, mixed, and [[private property]]. The Venezuelan State is to govern four of these new five types of property, as it intends to play a role as owner, partner, and financier.<ref>[http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/10/01/en_eco_art_venezuelan-state-to_01A1086237.shtml Venezuelan state to govern four types of property], ''El Universal'', October 1, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>
* Creation of federal territories ruled by vice presidents. The heads of federal territories will be appointed by the President of Venezuela.
* Autonomy of the central bank will be concluded.
* The international reserves will be managed by the president.
* Reduction of the maximum working week from 44 to 36 hours.
* Reduction of voting age from 18 to 16 years.
* Benefits of social security will be expanded to workers of the informal economy.

The constitutional reform was rejected by the opposition to considered it as an attempt of President Chávez to rule the country indefinitely and to create a socialist economy. Marches against the reform were done in many parts of Venezuela. A major role in the protests was played by university students.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=10136480 Challenging Chávez-for-life, A new kind of opposition], ''The Economist'', November 15, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref> Some supporters of Mr. Chávez such as the allied party ''PODEMOS'', ''Raúl Baduel'' (his ex- Defense Minister) and ''Marisabel Rodríguez'' (his ex-wife) rejected the reform and called the electors to vote against the reform.<ref>[http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/11/05/en_refco_art_former-defense-minis_05A1174277.shtml Former Defense Minister rejects constitutional reform], ''El Universal'', November 5, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2983752.ece Ex-wife damns Hugo Chavez ‘coup’], ''The Sunday Times'', December 2, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>

On 2 December 50% of electors voted against the constitutional reform while 49% of electors voted in favor.<ref>[http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/12/03/en_refco_art_venezuelans-said-no_03A1240957.shtml Venezuelans said “no” to Chávez’s planned reform], ''El Universal'', December 3, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref> The reform was rejected in seven important Venezuelan states, based on the number of voters, namely Zulia, Miranda, Carabobo, Lara, Anzoátegui, and the Capital District (Caracas).<ref>[http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/12/04/en_refco_art_states-of-zulia,-mir_04A1243797.shtml States of Zulia, Miranda and Táchira played a decisive role], ''El Universal'', December 4, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref> It is the first time since Chávez won power in 1998 that the current government lost at the polls.

Abstention, which was more than 44%, is considered an important factor of the government defeat. It is thought many supporters of Chávez refrained from voting because they were not in agreement with the reform.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1690507,00.html?imw=Y Why Venezuelans Turned on Chavez], By Gould, Jens Erik, ''Time'', December 3, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>

President Chávez recognized the results, but he announced to the nation that another referendum to modify the constitution will be proposed again in the future. The previous statement was said by the Venezuelan president again on December 5.<ref>[http://english.eluniversal.com/2007/12/05/en_refco_art_chavez-announces-sec_05A1247117.shtml Chávez launches second offensive to pass reform to the Constitution], ''El Universal'', December 6, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref> The National Assembly decided to join the presidential efforts to keep the proposal alive.<ref>[http://english.eluniversal.com/2007/12/05/en_refco_art_parliament-insists-o_05A1245643.shtml Parliament insists on advancing Chávez’s defeated reform], ''El Universal'', December 5, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>

===Decent into chaos, instability, and a military state===
By 2017, Venezuela was in serious economic and political [[chaos]], having become a virtual military state and becoming a humanitarian disaster.<ref name="Socialism"/><ref>Kew, Ben (December 24, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/12/24/venezuela-2017-socialist-policies-take-humanitarian-toll-as-country-enters-dictatorship/ Venezuela 2017: Socialist Policies Take Humanitarian Toll as Country Enters Dictatorship]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 24, 2017. See also:
*Carafano, James Jay (January 11, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/americas-progressives-are-so-busy-extolling-virtues-of-socialism-that-they-want-you-to-ignore-this America's progressives are so busy extolling virtues of socialism that they want you to ignore THIS]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
*Adelmann, Bob (April 1, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31905-socialist-misery-deepens-in-formerly-prosperous-venezuela Socialist Misery Deepens in Formerly Prosperous Venezuela]. ''The New American''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.</ref> Massive hyperinflation was present in the country.<ref>Adelmann, Bob (April 17, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/28769-starvation-suicides-increasing-under-venezuelas-hyperinflation Starvation, Suicides Increasing Under Venezuela's Hyperinflation]. ''The New American''. Retrieved April 20, 2018.</ref> Many non-Venezuelan [[liberal]]s had praised the nation's slide into this poor state.<ref>Kew, Ben (May 4, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/05/04/ten-influential-public-figures-praised-venezuelas-descent-socialist-hell/ 10 Famous People Who Praised Venezuela’s Descent Into Socialist Hell]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 5, 2017.</ref> However, many of the "opposition" did not want to truly end the socialist policies.<ref>Martel, Frances (May 17, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/05/17/former-un-security-council-head-in-venezuela-even-opposition-uncomfortable-defying-socialism/ Former U.N. Security Council Head: In Venezuela, Even Opposition Uncomfortable Defying ‘Socialism’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 18, 2017.</ref> Venezuela's May 2018 presidential election was derided by many countries as a sham and an illustration of its descent into authoritarianism.<ref>Multiple references:
*Llorente, Elizabeth (May 21, 2018). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2018/05/21/re-election-venezuelan-president-denounced-as-sham-calls-grow-for-more-sanctions.html Re-election of Venezuelan president denounced as sham, calls grow for more sanctions]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
*Ulmer, Alexandra; Rampton, Roberta (May 20, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-election-reaction/re-elected-venezuelas-maduro-faces-global-criticism-u-s-sanctions-idUSKCN1IM0CT Re-elected, Venezuela's Maduro faces global criticism, U.S. sanctions]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
*Casey, Nicholas; Davis, Julia Hirschfeld (May 21, 2018). [https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/21/world/americas/venezuela-nicolas-maduro-sanctions.html As Trump Adds Sanctions on Venezuela, Its Neighbors Reject Election Result]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved May 22, 2018.
*Adelmann, Bob (May 21, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/29103-fraudulent-election-in-venezuela-guarantees-more-suffering Fraudulent Election in Venezuela Guarantees More Suffering]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
See also:
Mass, Warren (May 23, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/29118-after-maduro-s-reelection-in-venezuela-chaos-worsens-and-exodus-increases After Maduro’s Reelection in Venezuela, Chaos Worsens and Exodus Increases]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 23, 2018.</ref> In August 2018, the government announced it would deal with its hyperinflation simply by dropping zeros off its currency.<ref>Vyas, Kyle; Castro, Maolis (August 18, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/venezuela-devalues-currency-and-hikes-wages-stoking-fears-about-instability-1534629512 Venezuela Devalues Currency and Hikes Wages, Stoking Fears About Instability]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved August 18, 2018.</ref><ref>Tennant, Michael (August 17, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/29808-venezuela-s-hyperinflation-solution-drop-zeros-from-the-currency Venezuela’s Hyperinflation Solution? Drop Zeros From the Currency]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 18, 2018.</ref><ref>Xenakis, John J. (August 19, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/08/19/world-view-socialist-venezuela-introduces-fantasy-currency-and-socialist-changes/ World View: Socialist Venezuela Introduces Fantasy Currency and Socialist Changes]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 19, 2018.</ref><ref>Tennant, Michael (August 21, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/29837-venezuela-takes-more-desperate-but-futile-steps-to-save-socialism Venezuela Takes More Desperate but Futile Steps to Save Socialism]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 21, 2018.</ref> In 2018, 40% of all Venezuelan businesses closed after Maduro imposed a massive minimum wage increase.<ref>Mass, Warren (September 17, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/economy/economics/item/30093-thanks-maduro-nearly-40-of-venezuelan-businesses-closed Thanks, Maduro: Nearly 40% of Venezuelan Businesses Closed]. ''The New American''. Retrieved September 17, 2018.</ref> Long lines existed for everything, even to get a passport to leave the country.<ref>Tennant, Michael (October 9, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/30290-in-venezuela-you-even-have-to-wait-in-line-to-leave In Venezuela, You Even Have to Wait in Line to Leave]. ''The New American''. Retrieved October 10, 2018.</ref> The country saw nationwide power outages.<ref>Adelmann, Bob (March 11, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31697-nation-wide-power-outages-sending-venezuela-back-to-the-dark-ages Nationwide Power Outages Sending Venezuela Back to the Dark Ages]. ''The New American''. Retrieved March 11, 2019.</ref> Several Venezuelans warned the United States not to adopt socialism.<ref>Kan, Janita (February 6, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/venezuelans-warn-against-bringing-socialism-to-the-united-states_2792429.html Venezuelans Warn Against Bringing Socialism to the United States]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved February 7, 2019.</ref>

Venezuela's government continued to receive support from [[Russia]] and [[China]].<ref>Adelmann, Bob (October 29, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/30485-china-russia-rushing-to-keep-venezuela-alive-as-crisis-deepens China, Russia Rushing to Keep Venezuela Alive as Crisis Deepens]. ''The New American''. Retrieved October 29, 2018.</ref> Additionally, [[Cuba]]'s Communist regime helped Venezuela adopt left-wing authoritarian policies.<ref>Berwick, Angus (August 22, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/venezuela-cuba-military/ Imported repression: How Cuba taught Venezuela to quash military dissent]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved August 22, 2019.</ref>

Maduro won re-election in 2018, despite banning major opposition parties from participating in the election<ref>Kew, Ben (December 11, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/12/11/venezuelas-maduro-bans-opposition-parties-2018-election/ Venezuela’s Maduro Bans Opposition Parties from 2018 Election]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.</ref> and despite record low turnout and serious voter fraud allegations.<ref>Martel, Frances (May 21, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/05/21/venezuela-maduro-reelected-with-record-low-turnout-rampant-fraud/ Venezuela: Maduro ‘Reelected’ with Record Low Turnout, Rampant Fraud]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.</ref> He started his second term despite the fact that about 60 countries did not recognize the election results.<ref>Multiple references:
*Adelmann, Bob (January 10, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31153-venezuela-s-marxist-president-maduro-inaugurated-for-second-term Venezuela’s Marxist President Maduro Inaugurated for Second Term]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
*Suarez Sang, Lucia I. (January 10, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/venezuelas-maduro-starts-second-term-despite-worsening-economic-crisis-growing-international-isolation Venezuela’s Maduro starts second term despite worsening economic crisis, growing international isolation]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
*Kew, Ben (January 10, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2019/01/10/venezuelas-maduro-inaugurated-second-term-world-war/ Venezuela’s Maduro Inaugurated for Second Term: ‘We Are in a World War’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
See also:
*Adelmann, Bob (January 15, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31193-pressure-building-to-remove-venezuela-s-marxist-dictator Pressure Building to Remove Venezuela’s Marxist Dictator]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 15, 2019.</ref> Venezuela's parliament, now controlled by the opposition, attempted to remove Maduro from office.<ref>Mass, Warren (January 14, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31183-venezuela-legislature-wants-maduro-out-brazil-recognizes-guaido-as-president Venezuela Legislature Wants Maduro Out; Brazil Recognizes Guaido as President]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 14, 2019.</ref> On January 23, 2019, opposition leader Juan Guaidó, a socialist,<ref>Newman, Alex (February 7, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31425-venezuela-replacing-brutal-socialist-with-more-socialism Venezuela: Replacing Brutal Socialist With More Socialism?] ''The New American''. Retrieved February 7, 2019.</ref> declared himself Venezuela's interim president and was recognized by several countries.<ref>Martel, Frances (January 23, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/latin-america/2019/01/23/venezuela-swears-in-opposition-leader-as-president/ Venezuela Swears In Opposition Leader as President]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 26, 2019. See also:
*Martel, Frances (January 26, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/latin-america/2019/01/26/venezuela-new-president-is-a-socialist/ Maduro Regime, American Left Ignore Socialist Pedigree of Venezuela’s New President]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 26, 2019.</ref>

Many experts and technicians fled the country. During electrical blackouts in 2019, which the government was incapable of restoring due to a lack of skilled personnel, [[Social Justice Warrior]]s began looting shops, stores, and malls. Despite Venezuela's guarantee of [[healthcare]] as a right, people contracted [[E. coli]] bacteria from contaminated water with no technicians to treat the water and a lack of medical personnel to treat the victims.

The situation in Venezuela demonstrated the importance of an armed citizenry – its population was disarmed and thus unable to free itself from Maduro's grip.<ref>Hawkins, Awr (April 30, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/04/30/msnbc-venezuela-coverage-shows-why-u-s-founders-wanted-armed-citizenry/ MSNBC Venezuela Coverage Shows Why U.S. Founders Wanted Armed Citizenry]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 1, 2019.</ref><ref>Byas, Steve (May 1, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/item/32167-msnbc-reporter-s-remarks-illustrate-need-for-right-to-keep-and-bear-arms MSNBC Reporter’s Remarks Illustrate Need for Right to Keep and Bear Arms]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 1, 2019.</ref> Maduro used violent means to keep control of Venezuela.<ref>Adelmann, Bob (July 9, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/32799-venezuelas-maduro-employing-death-squads-torture-to-retain-control Venezuela’s Maduro Employing Death Squads, Torture to Retain Control]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 9, 2019.</ref> According to the Venezuelan Prison Observatory in 2019, over 7,000 Venezuelans died in the country's prisons since 1999.<ref>Kew, Ben (July 26, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2019/07/26/ngo-7000-venezuelans-died-prison-under-socialist-regime/ NGO: Over 7,000 Venezuelans Have Died in Prison Under Socialist Regime]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 26, 2019.</ref>

Economists argued that Venezuela's economic collapse surpassed even those of the USSR and Zimbabwe, making it the worst economic collapse not due to warfare.<ref>Mikelionis, Lukas (May 18, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/venezuelas-socialist-regime-failure-is-the-worst-collapse-in-45-years-worse-than-end-of-soviet-union-economists-say Venezuela's socialist collapse is worse economic failure than Soviet Union, Zimbabwe, experts say]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved May 18, 2019.</ref> Even Venezuela's own central bank admitted the country experienced an economic meltdown under the Maduro regime.<ref>Hayward, John (June 3, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2019/06/03/venezuelan-central-bank-admits-economy-crashing/ Venezuelan Central Bank Admits Economy Is Crashing]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved June 4, 2019.</ref> The country faced severe blackouts.<ref>Taylor, Luke (July 24, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/venezuela-struggling-with-new-wave-of-nationwide-blackouts_3015047.html Venezuela Struggling With New Wave of Nationwide Blackouts]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.</ref> People resorted to using cigarettes as currency.<ref>Smith, Scott (October 24, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/a79322863d6643038ef82bff7951e139 Venezuelans buy gas with cigarettes to battle inflation]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 25, 2019.</ref> Maduro was forced to resort to using the currency of his main enemy – the United States – to keep Venezuela's economy from completely dissolving.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-economy/maduro-says-thank-god-for-dollarization-in-venezuela-idUSKBN1XR0RV Maduro says 'thank God' for dollarization in Venezuela]. ''Reuters''. November 17, 2019. Retrieved November 17, 2019.</ref>

Venezuela's government sheltered Colombia's Marxist [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|National Liberation Army]].<ref>Forero, Juan (July 14, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/venezuela-gives-colombian-rebels-free-rein-11563105600 Venezuela Gives Colombian Rebels Free Rein]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved July 14, 2019. See also:
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-politics-usa/amid-colombia-rebel-rearmament-u-s-sees-support-from-maduro-official-idUSKCN1VL0FZ Amid Colombia rebel rearmament, U.S. sees support from Maduro: official]. ''Reuters''. August 31, 2019. Retrieved August 31, 2019.</ref>

==Famous Venezuelans==
* [[Andres Bello|Andrés Bello]] (1781–1865); poet, grammarian, teacher, and vice-chancellor of the University of Chile.
* [[Simon Bolivar|Simón Bolívar]] (1783–1830); military hero and politician. Liberator of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.
* [[Francisco de Miranda]] (1750–1816); military hero, politician, and creator of the Venezuelan flag.
* [[Antonio Jose de Sucre|Antonio José de Sucre]] (1795–1830); military hero and president of Bolivia.
* [[Hugo Chavez]] (1954–2012); leftist socialist dictator

== See also ==
[[File:Botero Los musicos.jpg|thumb|[[Fernando Botero]], Los musicos.]]
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]

[[File:Girasoles - Marcos Castillo.jpg|thumb|left|Girasoles by Marcos Castillo.]]

{{Clear}}

== External links ==
[[File:Handycrafts Venezuela.jpg|right|290px]]

*[http://english.eluniversal.com/ El Universal] English language site of the conservative Venezuelan newspaper.
*[http://www.dj.com.ve/ News-The Daily Journal] Site of the English written newspaper.
*[http://www1.lanic.utexas.edu/la/venezuela/ Venezuela - Useful links] University of Texas at Austin.
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1229345.stm] Information about Venezuela in the BBC Country Profile.
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ve.html] Information about Venezuela in the CIA World Factbook.

==References==
<references/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/p/wha/ci/ve/]

{{Nb countries south america}}
[[Category:Venezuela]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]

Venezuela

2024-06-02T18:50:19Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name=''República Bolivariana de Venezuela''
|map=Venezuela rel93.jpg
|map2=Venezuela1.png
|flag=Flag of Spain.png
|arms=Venezuela coat of arms.jpg
|capital=Caracas
|government=Socialist
|language=Spanish
|president-raw=[[Nicolás Maduro]] (de facto) [[Juan Guaidó]] (de jure)
|area=916, 445 sq mi
|pop=28,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp=$50,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year=
|gdp-pc=$1,754 (2020)
|currency=Bolívar
|idd=+58
|tld=.ve}}
'''Venezuela''' is located in [[South America]]. The country is located to the east of [[Colombia]], south of the [[Caribbean]], west of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Guyana]], and north of [[Brazil]]. Discovered by [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]], the sight of the marsh huts built by the native people would result in the country being referred to as "little Venice", for [[Venice]], Italy. Venezuela is divided into 23 states, a capital district and 72 federal dependencies. The capital city of Venezuela is [[Caracas]].

The country rose to prominence after 1999, when the [[leftist]] [[dictator]] [[Hugo Chavez]] assumed power and started imposing what he calls "[[socialism]] of the 21st century", aligning himself with terrorist regimes like [[Iran]], and using his petrodollars to influence other countries in the region. After Chavez's death in 2012, his successor [[Nicolas Maduro]] continued those policies also when the mostly liberal opposition alliance [[Democratic Unity Roundtable|MUD]], a coalition of [[liberal]], [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] and centrist parties, got a majority in the Venezuelan parliamentary elections on December 6, 2015.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-election-idUSKBN0TP03Y20151208 Triumphant Venezuela opposition looks to boost economy, free prisoners]</ref>

Once the wealthiest South American countries, [[socialist]] policies created instability and mass starvation by 2019.<ref name="Socialism">Multiple references:
*Byas, Steve (July 11, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/print-magazine/item/32666-the-poison-of-socialism-claims-another-victim The Poison of Socialism Claims Another Victim]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
*Lott, Maxim (January 25, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/how-socialism-turned-venezuela-from-the-wealthiest-country-in-south-america-into-an-economic-basket-case How socialism turned Venezuela from the wealthiest country in South America into an economic basket case]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
*[https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/editorials/in-venezuela-socialism-has-succeeded-the-way-it-always-does In Venezuela, socialism has succeeded the way it always does]. ''Washington Examiner''. January 26, 2019. Retrieved January 26, 2019.</ref>

==National symbols==
[[File:Araguaney Venezuela.jpg|thumb|270px|left|The Araguaney tree.]]
The national flag was created by the Venezuelan hero [[Francisco de Miranda]] in 1806. It has three stripes with these colors: red, blue and red. Through the years the flag suffered variations in relation to the position and number of the stars. Actually, there are eight stars on the flag and they are located in its center. The white stars symbolize eight former Venezuelan provinces (Caracas, Valencia, Barinas, Cumaná, Barcelona, Margarita, Mérida and Guayana) which became independent of Spain.

''Gloria al bravo pueblo'' ("glory to the brave people") is the national anthem. It was an old patriotic song from the independence years written by Vicente Salias. Its music was composed by Juan José Landaeta. On May 25, 1881 Gloria al bravo pueblo was decreed as the anthem of Venezuela by the president Antonio Guzmán Blanco.

El Turpial (''Icterus icterus'') is the national bird, the Araguaney (''Tabebuia chrysanta'') the national tree and the Orquídea (''Cattleya mossiae'') the national flower.
 

== Geography ==
[[File:Amazonas Venezuela.jpg|thumb|Orinoco river, Estado Amazonas.]]
*Area: 912,050 km2. (352,143 sq. mi.); slightly more than twice the size of California.
*Cities: Capital—Caracas (metro. area pop. 3.2 million). Other major cities—Maracaibo, Valencia, Barquisimeto, Maracay, Mérida, Ciudad Bolivar.
*Terrain: Andes Mountains and Maracaibo Lowlands in northwest; central plains; Guiana Highlands in southeast.
*Climate: Varies from tropical to temperate, depending on elevation.

==People==
[[File:TOROS COLEADOS Venezuela.jpg|left|260px]]

Venezuela is the sixth-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina and Peru. About 85% of the population lives in urban areas in the northern portion of the country. While almost half of Venezuela's land area lies south of the Orinoco River in the states of Bolivar and Amazonas, this region contains only 5% of the population. The population of Venezuela is comprised of a combination of European, indigenous, and African heritages.
*Population (December 2009 est.): 28,385,627.
*Annual population growth: 1.6%.
*Education: Years compulsory—9. Literacy—95%.
*Ethnic groups: Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arab, German, African, Amerindian.
{{Clear}}

===Religion===
The majority of Venezuelan people are Christians. The Catholic Church has the greater portion of followers. Other Christian churches in Venezuela are Lutherans, Anglicans, Pentecostals, Seventh Day Adventists, Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses. Some Muslims and Jews live in Venezuela. A synagogue and a mosque are situated in Caracas.

===Languages===
[[File:Venezuela Ethnic map.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Ethnic groups according to distribution by linguistic stocks.]]
Spanish and American Indian tongues are the official languages of Venezuela, according to the Venezuelan Constitution. Spanish is the most spoken language in Venezuela. Indian languages are spoken by American Indian tribes.

{{cquote|
A fact of foremost importance in the new Constitution of 1999 is that of recognizing the existence of the indigenous peoples with all their rights to their ecologies, their culture, cosmology, their land, their traditional knowledge, medicine, and their languages.<ref>[http://www.centrelink.org/SanchezEnglish.html A New Reality for Venezuela's Indigenous Peoples.]</ref>
}}
{{Clear}}

==Government==
[[Image:chavez.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Hugo Chavez]]
The president is elected by a plurality vote with direct and universal suffrage. The term of office is six years, and a president may be re-elected to a single consecutive term. The president appoints the vice president. He decides the size and composition of the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the National Assembly. Legislation can be initiated by the executive branch, the legislative branch (either a committee of the National Assembly or three members of the latter), the judicial branch, the citizen branch (ombudsman, public prosecutor, and controller general) or a public petition signed by no fewer than 0.1% of registered voters. The president can ask the National Assembly to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple majority of the Assembly can override these objections.

The National Assembly is unicameral, consisting solely of the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies serve five-year terms, and may be re-elected for a maximum of two additional terms. These legislative agents are elected by a combination of party list and single member constituencies. When the Congress is not in session, a delegated committee acts on matters relating to the executive and in oversight functions. In December 2005 pro-government parties took all 167 seats in the National Assembly after opposition parties boycotted the election over concerns with electoral conditions.

The Constitution designates three additional branches of the federal government—the judicial, citizen, and electoral branches.

The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ), which may meet either in specialized chambers (of which there are six) or in plenary session. The justices are appointed by the National Assembly and serve 12-year terms. Under the 1999 Constitution, the Supreme Tribunal of Justice is composed of 20 justices. The 1999 Constitution was amended in 2004, and the total number of justices was expanded by 12 to a total of 32. In December 2004, the National Assembly selected new judges to fill the expansion. The judicial branch also consists of lower courts, including district courts, municipal courts, and courts of first instance.

The citizens branch consists of three components—the attorney general ("fiscal general"), the "defender of the people" or ombudsman, and the comptroller general. The holders of these offices, in addition to fulfilling their specific functions, also act collectively as the "Republican Moral Council" to challenge before the Supreme Tribunal of Justice actions they believe are illegal, particularly those which violate the Constitution. The holders of the "citizen power" offices are selected for terms of seven years by the National Assembly.

The "Electoral Power," otherwise known as the National Electoral Council (Consejo Nacional Electoral or CNE), is responsible for organizing elections at all levels. Its five members are also elected to seven-year terms by the National Assembly. In the event of a hung vote in the National Assembly, the Supreme Tribunal of Justice can be called on to appoint the members.

===Principal Government Officials===
[[File:Maduro and Guaidó seated.jpg|300px|thumbnail|[[Nicolás Maduro]] (on the left), [[Juan Guaidó]] (on the right), are fighting for Venezuelan control]]
*President—[[Nicolás Maduro]] (de facto) [[Juan Guaidó]] (de iure)
*Vice President—Jorge Rodriguez Gómez
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—José Elías Jaua Milano
*Minister of Defense-General Gustavo Reyes Rangel Briceño
*Ambassador to the United States—Bernardo Alvarez Herrera
*Ambassador to the Organization of American States—Jorge Valero Briceño
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Francisco Arias Cardenas

===Political parties===
Chavez's and Maduro's government has been/is supported by political parties such as: Movimiento Quinta República/Fith Republic Movement (MVR), Patria para Todos/Homeland for All (PPT), PODEMOS, Partido Comunista de Venezuela/Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV) and other minor parties.

In 2006 President Chávez has announced the building of the Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela/United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), a new political group which will merge all pro-Chávez parties into a big one. The first members of the PSUV have been enrolled in 2007.

Un Nuevo Tiempo/A New Era (UNT), Primero Justicia/Justice First (PJ), Acción Democratica/Democratic Action (AD), COPEI, Movimiento al Socialismo/Movement for Socialism (MAS) are some of the political parties of opposition.

===Membership of International Organizations===
[[File:Protest outside the office of the Organization of American States Venezuela.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Protest outside the office of the Organization of American States.]]
Venezuela is member of the [[United Nations|UN]], the [[Organization of American States|OAS]] and the OPEC. Recently the country has applied to the “Mercado Común del Sur/Southern Common Market” (MERCOSUR) for the admission to the group. MERCOSUR is a South American organisation which promotes free trade among [[Argentina]], Brazil, [[Uruguay]] and [[Paraguay]] in a similar way to the [[European Union|EU]] and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

Venezuela had belonged to the Andean Community of Nations since 1973. In 2006 the Venezuelan government withdrew the country from the bloc when two of its members (Colombia and [[Peru]]) signed free trade agreements with the United States.

Additionally President Chávez has proposed the creation of the [[Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas]] (ALBA), another international organization which would promote the cooperation between the Latin American and Caribbean republics. This bloc pretends to be the opposite to the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), the organization proposed by the United States. At the moment Venezuela, [[Cuba]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Bolivia]] are trying to apply the principles of the ALBA among themselves through an agreement called "Tratado de Comercio de los Pueblos/Peoples’ Trade Agreement" (TCP). [[Ecuador]] is considering joining the group.

{{Clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
President Chávez has promoted his "Bolivarian Revolution" as a model for other countries to follow. The policy calls for the establishment of a "multi-polar" world devoid of U.S. influence and for greater integration among developing countries. Venezuela is currently advocating regional integration through its PetroCaribe and PetroSur petroleum initiatives, the creation of a South American Community of Nations, and the establishment of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (a social integration project proposed by President Chavez as an alternative to the Free Trade Area of the Americas). In April 2006, President Chávez announced he was withdrawing Venezuela from the Andean Community trade bloc. In July 2006, Venezuela officially joined the Southern Common Market, MERCOSUR. Before it can become a full member of MERCOSUR, Venezuela must conform to the trade bloc's economic regulations. Congressional approval by Brazil and Paraguay is also still outstanding. The Venezuelan Government maintains very close relations with Cuba and advocates an end to Cuba's isolation.
[[File:Chavez ahmad.jpg|thumb|290px|left|Chavez and [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad|Ahmadineyad]].]]
Since 2005, President Chávez has deepened relations with Iran, a state sponsor of terrorism, by signing multiple economic and social accords and publicly supporting Iran's controversial nuclear program. President Chávez has also reached out to the anti-American and anti-West regimes of [[North Korea]], [[Belarus]] and [[Syria]]. The Venezuelans have also embarked on a worldwide effort to increase their presence in embassies overseas in Africa and Asia.

President Chávez has also launched a major renovation of the Venezuelan Armed Forces by purchasing new advanced weaponry. In 2005-06, Venezuela purchased 100,000 AK-103 rifles from Russia and signed an agreement to construct a rifle and ammunition complex . Venezuela has also purchased dozens of Russian attack and transport helicopters, and has begun receiving 24 Russian Sukhoi Su-30MK 2-seat fighters. Venezuela has longstanding border disputes with Colombia-aggravated most recently by the capture of a Colombian insurgent leader inside Venezuela—and Guyana, but seeks in general to resolve them peacefully. Bilateral commissions have been established by Venezuela and Colombia to address a range of pending issues, including resolution of the maritime boundary in the Gulf of Venezuela. Relations with Guyana are complicated by Venezuela's claim to roughly three-quarters of Guyana's territory. Since 1987, the two countries have held exchanges on the boundary under the "good offices" of the United Nations.

===Relations with the United States===
[[File:Hugo Chávez on USS Yorktown 2002.jpg|thumb|Hugo Chávez on USS Yorktown, 2002.]]
U.S.-Venezuelan relations have been tense in recent years. President Hugo Chávez has continuously defined himself in opposition to the United States, using inflammatory rhetoric to insult President Bush and senior administration officials. For example, in his September 2006 speech to the UN General Assembly, President Chávez called President Bush "the Devil" and other offensive names. The United States continues to seek constructive engagement with the Venezuelan Government, focusing on areas of technical cooperation. Major U.S. interests in Venezuela include promotion of U.S. exports and protection of U.S. investment, preservation of Venezuela's constitutional democracy, closer counter-narcotics cooperation, more vigorous efforts on counterterrorism, and continued access to petroleum.

U.S.-Venezuelan commercial ties are deep. The United States is Venezuela's most important trading partner, representing about a third of imports and approximately 60 percent of Venezuelan exports. In turn, Venezuela is the United States' third-largest export market in Latin America, purchasing U.S. machinery, transportation equipment, agricultural commodities, and auto parts. Venezuela's opening of its petroleum sector to foreign investment in 1996 created extensive trade and investment opportunities for U.S. companies. As a result, Venezuela is one of the top four suppliers of foreign oil to the United States. The Department of State is committed to promoting the interests of U.S. companies in overseas markets. For contact information and a list of government publications, please go to the end of this document.

Venezuela is a minor source country for opium poppy and coca but a major transit country for cocaine and heroin. Money laundering and judicial corruption are major concerns. In 2004 and early 2005, counternarcotics cooperation between the U.S. and Venezuela deteriorated significantly. In March 2005, the Venezuelan National Guard removed its highly experienced members from the U.S.-supported Prosecutor's Drug Task Force. In August 2005, the Government of Venezuela accused the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) of espionage and terminated cooperation with the DEA pending negotiation of a new cooperation agreement, which has gone unsigned as of October 2006. President Bush decertified Venezuela on counternarcotics cooperation in 2005, 2006, and 2007.

In June 2006, Venezuela was listed at Tier 3 status in the State Department's Report on Trafficking in Persons. Tier 3 status indicates a perceived lack of effort to combat human trafficking.

In May 2006, the Secretary of State certified that Venezuela was not fully cooperating with U.S. counter-terrorism efforts. As of October 1, 2006, the United States Government has prohibited arms sales and services to Venezuela.

Approximately 23,000 U.S. citizens living in Venezuela have registered with the U.S. embassy, an estimated three-quarters of them residing in the Caracas area. An estimated 12,000 U.S. tourists visit Venezuela annually. About 500 U.S. companies are represented in the country.

===[[Islamic Republic of Iran]]'s hands===

[[Alex Saab|Alex]] “[Saab] was a key figure in the pillaging of the national reserves, profiting off the suffering of the people and increasingly criminalizing and providing those international networks for the Maduro regime.”<ref>[https://www.csis.org/analysis/corruption-venezuela-alex-saab-case Corruption in Venezuela: The Alex Saab Case], CSIS, June 24, 2020</ref>

At the Maduro-Hezbollah Nexus: [[Iran]]-backed Networks Prop up the Venezuelan Regime. The minted oil minister, Tareck El Aissami, and the regime’s special envoy to Iran, Lebanese-Colombian businessman Alex Saab, seemingly worked out a gold-for-gas deal with Tehran.
<ref>Joseph M. Humire, [https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/issue-brief/the-maduro-hezbollah-nexus-how-iran-backed-networks-prop-up-the-venezuelan-regime/ The Maduro-Hezbollah Nexus: How Iran-backed Networks Prop up the Venezuelan Regime], Atlantic Council, October 7, 2020.
<blockquote>
*Too often, Hezbollah in Venezuela is characterized as only a potential terrorist threat. In reality, the Lebanese terrorist group has helped to turn Venezuela into a hub for the convergence of transnational organized crime and international terrorism.
*Hezbollah's crime-terror network in Venezuela has facilitated Iran's cooperation with the Maduro regime.

*The United States, allies, and international institutions must ramp up regional counterterrorism collaboration, crack down on illicit financial networks, and build stronger ties with Lebanese and other Arab communities in Latin America.
</blockquote></ref>

In Feb 2024, US seized cargo plane Iran illegally sold to Venezuela. The Boeing 747 cargo plane, previously owned by an airline linked to Iran’s IRGC, which was grounded in Argentina in June 2022 on suspicion of illegal activities.
<ref>[https://www.iranintl.com/en/202402124637 US Seizes Cargo Plane Iran Illegally Sold To Venezuela], IranIntl, Feb 12, 2024.<blockquote>
The US government has seized a Boeing 747 cargo plane, previously owned by an airline linked to Iran’s IRGC, which was grounded in Argentina in June 2022 on suspicion of illegal activities.
The Justice Department said Monday that the US-built plane had been brought to Florida and would be disposed of.
"The Justice Department is committed to ensuring that the full force of U.S. laws deny hostile state actors the means to engage in malign activities that threaten our national security," Assistant Attorney General Matthew Olsen, the head of the department's national security division, said in a statement.
Argentina grounded the 747 plane after its unannounced arrival from Mexico to an airport in Buenos Aires on June 8, 2022. The plane originally belonged to Iran’s Mahan airline affiliated with Iran’s Revolutionary Guard (IRGC) and sanctioned by the US for transporting arms to Syria and supporting terrorism.
The plane had arrived in Argentina with a crew of 19 people, including five Iranians, some with clear ties to the IRGC. Venezuela’s Conviasa national carier had bought or leased the plane from Mahan airlines in early 2022 and christened it ‘Louisa Caceres Arismendi.’
The United States accused the captain of the plane, Gholamreza Ghasemi of being an Revolutionary Guard office. Ghasemi claimed that he was a instructor, teaching the Venezuelan crew how to operate the 747.
Gerardo Milman, an Argentine lawmaker, told Iran International in June 2022 that Iranians aboard the Venezuelan plane planned “attacks on human targets.” Milman also alleged that Captain Ghasemi was a senior official of Qods (Quds) force.</blockquote></ref>

==Human Rights issues==
'''Situation under Chavez'''
[[Image:Venezuela372.jpg|right|280px|thumb|Venezuelans under Chavez have suffered a loss of basic human rights.]]
Chavez has shown a marked intolerance for fundamental [[human rights]] <ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,276356,00.html Venezuelan Opposition Leader Demands Hugo Chavez Free Jailed Protesters], ''Associated Press'', May 30, 2007.</ref> and is accused of funding insurgent activity outside of Venezuela's borders. Chavez has much control of oil revenues from Venezuela's state owned, state run oil monopoly. While Chavez in public criticizes [[capitalism]], he has sought to manipulate oil prices above $60 per barrel for Venezuela's largest customer, the [[United States]].

The U.S. State Department's Report on Global [[Antisemitism]] also recently cited Venezuela for statements by "senior government officials supporting Iraq's [[Saddam Hussein]] and Islamic [[extremist]] movements" which "raised tensions and intimidated the country's Jewish community. There were several reports of anti-Semitic [[graffiti]] at [[synagogue]]s in Caracas and two reported threatening phone calls made to Jewish community centers. In August, President Chavez cautioned citizens against following the lead of Jewish citizens in the effort to overturn his referendum victory. Anti-Semitic leaflets also were available to the public in an Interior and Justice Ministry office waiting room." <ref>[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258.htm Report on Global Anti-Semitism] U. S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, January 5, 2005.</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Cathedral of Puerto Ayacucho, Amazonas, Venezuela.jpg|thumb|300px|Puerto Ayacucho, Amazonas.]]
Real GDP increased by 10.3% in 2006. The economy recovered strongly in 2004 (17.9%) and 2005 (9.3%) after two consecutive years of deep economic recession (in 2003, Venezuelan GDP contracted 7.7%, after contracting 8.9% in 2002). The economic recovery has been driven by a large increase in government expenditures, based on an oil windfall, which in turn generated higher consumption levels.

The Consumer Price Index increase was approximately 17% at the end of 2006, following increases of 14.4% in 2006 and 19.2% in 2004.

As of January 23, 2003, all foreign exchange requests must be approved by the National Exchange Control Administration (CADIVI) and the Central Bank (BCV) completes all legal purchase and sale of foreign currency. The current exchange control regime rates for U.S. dollar exchange rate are: Bs. 2,144.60=U.S. $1.00 for purchase operations, and Bs. 2,150=U.S. $1.00 for sale operations. The national budget for 2007 assumes that the government will not devalue this year. Nonetheless, some local economists expect devaluation in late 2007 due to the increasing disparity between official and parallel market rates.

Central Bank-held international reserves increased to over U.S. $36 billion at the end of 2006. The reserves would have been higher, but the BCV transferred $6 billion to the National Development Fund (FONDEN) during the last quarter 2005, as directed by the Central Bank Law (July 2005) and an additional $4.3 billion in 2006. The level of international reserves is expected to decrease during 2007 after additional transfers of foreign reserves to FONDEN and because the Central Bank Law established that state-owned oil company PDVSA will only transfer the foreign exchange earnings needed for its domestic expenses, taxes, royalties, and dividends to the BCV, and would transfer the rest to FONDEN.
[[Image:Canaima Venezuela.jpg|thumb|250px|Canaima]]

Venezuelan sovereign debt, both domestic and foreign, has decreased in recent years in both absolute terms and as a percentage of GDP. Venezuela's external debt/GDP ratio of approximately 16% is low by Latin American standards. Venezuela's Emerging Markets Bond Index investment risk rating, at 202 basis points, dropped somewhat over 2005, but remained higher than many in the region.

There is considerable income inequality. The Gini coefficient was 0.45 during 2006. According to government statistics, the percentages of poor and extremely poor among Venezuelan population were 33.9% and 23.2%, respectively, in 2006. These high ratios are due primarily to lower real wages earned by employees, and high rates of un- and underemployment. On the other hand, the government of [[Hugo Chavez]] increased social spending and subsidised food and education. Under Chavez, the poverty rate also decreased from 55.1 percent in 2003 to 30.4 percent in 2006.<ref>[http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/venezuela_2007_07.pdf The Venezuelan Economy in the Chávez Years]</ref>

Starting January 1, 2008 Venezuela will adopt the "Bolívar Fuerte" as its new currency. The new Bolívar eliminates the three zeros of the older currency. For example, 50,000 Bolívars are equal to 50 Bolívar Fuertes.

Although economic growth has been impressive, as a result of the oil windfall, many in the Venezuelan business community remain very concerned about President Chavez' vision for 21st Century Socialism and what it portends for the private sector.

===Petroleum And Other Resources===
Economic prospects remain highly dependent on oil prices and the export of petroleum. In 2005, the oil sector accounted for roughly 15% of GDP, 90% of export earnings, and about half of the central government's ordinary revenues. Venezuela remains the fourth-leading supplier of imported crude and refined petroleum products to the United States. The Venezuelan government has sought more income from the petroleum sector. The first example was a unilateral decision in late 2004 to increase the royalty rate on production from the Orinoco heavy crude "strategic associations" with international oil companies from 1% to 16.67%.
[[File:Plataforma gas venezuela oil.jpg|left]]
In the 1990s, the Government of Venezuela opened up much of the hydrocarbon sector to foreign investment, promoting multibillion-dollar investment in heavy oil production, reactivation of old fields, and investment in several petrochemical joint ventures. By the late 1990s, almost 60 foreign companies representing 14 different countries participated in one or more aspects of Venezuela's oil sector. On November 13, 2001, under an enabling law authorized by the National Assembly, President Chavez enacted a new Hydrocarbons Law, which came into effect in January 2002. This law replaced the Hydrocarbons Law of 1943 and the Nationalization Law of 1975. Among other things, the new law provided that all oil production and distribution activities would be the domain of the Venezuelan state, with the exception of the joint ventures targeting extra-heavy crude oil production. Under the new law, private investors cannot own 50% or more of the capital stock in joint ventures involved in upstream activities. The new law also provided that private investors could own up to 100% of the capital stock in downstream ventures. A Gaseous Hydrocarbons law promulgated earlier by the Chávez government also allowed substantial participation by private investors with respect to gas production ventures.

During the December 2002-February 2003 general strike, petroleum production and refining by PDVSA, the state-owned oil company, almost ceased. Despite the strike, these activities eventually were substantially restarted. Out of a total workforce of 45,000, over 20,000 PDVSA management and workers were subsequently dismissed because the government asserted they had abandoned their jobs during the strike. Current levels of production remain a subject of debate, with considerable difference between the levels cited by the Venezuelan government and those cited by private sector and international observers.

In early 2005, the government informed companies with operating service contracts for mature fields that they must migrate the contracts to joint ventures that conform to the 2001 Hydrocarbons Law. The government threatened to seize fields operating under the services contracts on December 31, 2005 if oil companies did not sign transition agreements to migrate their contracts. All but three companies ultimately signed joint venture agreements with the government. One company was bought out by its partner while the fields operated by two other companies were ultimately taken over by the government. One of these disputes was handled by negotiation while another company decided to take its case to international arbitration. In early 2007, President Chávez announced that the Venezuelan government would take a majority government share in the remaining foreign investments in the oil sector, including the four heavy-oil "strategic associations." Several international oil companies agreed to migrate their interests to joint ventures with majority government ownership. Two U.S. companies decided to pull out of Venezuela — one is still in negotiations over compensation while the other has announced that it will seek international arbitration.

===Trade, Manufacturing and Agriculture===
[[Image:AMAZONAS Venezuela.png|thumb|left|Jungle Region]]
Thanks to petroleum exports, Venezuela usually posts a trade surplus. The United States is Venezuela's leading trade partner. In 2006, the United States exported over $9 billion in goods to Venezuela, making it the 22nd largest market for the U.S. Including petroleum products, Venezuela exported about $36 billion in goods to the U.S., over the same period, making it our 9th largest source of goods.

The government of Venezuela has taken a vocal role against the proposed Free Trade Agreement of the Americas (FTAA). Its stated goal is to expand its Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (ALBA) project and develop a South American bloc (See Foreign Relations).

Manufacturing contributed an estimated 17% of GDP in 2006. The manufacturing sector continued its recovery started in 2004, but remained hindered by a marked lack of private investment. Venezuela manufactures and exports steel, aluminum, textiles, apparel, beverages, and foodstuffs. It produces cement, tires, paper, fertilizer, and assembles cars both for domestic and export markets.

Agriculture accounts for approximately 3% of GDP, 10% of the labor force, and at least one-fourth of Venezuela's land area. Venezuela exports rice, cigarettes, fish, tropical fruits, coffee, cocoa, and manufactured products. The country is not self-sufficient in most areas of agriculture. Venezuela imports about two-thirds of its food needs. Through November 2006, U.S. firms exported $412 million worth of agricultural products, including wheat, corn, soybeans, soybean meal, cotton, animal fats, vegetable oils, and other items to make Venezuela one of the top two U.S. markets in South America. The United States supplies roughly one-quarter of Venezuela's food imports.

===Labor and Infrastructure===
Official unemployment statistics registered 8.9% unemployment in December 2006. Unofficial estimates are significantly higher. The public sector employs about 13% of the work force, while less than 1% work in the capital-intensive oil industry. About 18% of the labor force is unionized, and unions are particularly strong in the petroleum and public sectors. The "informal" sector accounts for some 45% of the work force, or 5.5 million people.

Labor unions allege the government repeatedly violates International Labor Organization (ILO) agreements on freedom of association and the right to organize and bargain collectively. Specifically, the Constitution and laws permit undue influence in the internal elections of unions. The government has told the ILO it will correct the problem; draft legislation remains pending in the National Assembly.

Venezuela has an extensive road system. With the exception of air service, transportation has failed to keep pace with the country's needs. Much of the infrastructure suffers from inadequate maintenance. Caracas has a modern subway but only one functioning rail line serves the rest of the country.

==National holidays==
===Official Holidays===
[[File:Simon Bolivar statue.jpg|thumb|[[Simon Bolivar]] statue.]]
* Rebellion of Caracas, April 19.
* Battle of Carabobo, June 24.
* Declaration of Independence, July 5.
* Simón Bolívar's Birthday, July 24.
* Discovery of the American continent (similar to the Columbus’ Day), October 12.
* Simón Bolívar's Death, December 17.

===Popular and Religious Holidays===
* New Year's Day, January 1.
* Carnivals, between February and March.
* Holy Week (Easter), between March and April.
* Worker's Day (similar to the American [[Labor Day]]), May 1.
* Christmas’ Eve, December 24.
* Christmas’ Day, December 25.
* New Year's Eve, December 31.

==Sports==
Baseball is considered the most popular sport in Venezuela. There are many Venezuelan baseball players who play in the American Big Leagues. Basketball is another sport which has many supporters.

Recently football soccer has attracted great attention from the Venezuelan media because of the good performance of the Venezuelan football Team in international matches. In 2007 the Cup America, the oldest football soccer competition of South America, is held in Venezuela. Other sports like rugby and American football are mainly practiced at universities. In some Venezuelan towns [[bullfighting]] and cockfighting are practiced.

==Media==
[[File:Caracas Venezuela PD.jpg|thumb|left|380px|Caracas.]]
Venezuela has many newspapers, radio stations and TV channels, but the most important ones are located in Caracas.

Some newspapers of Caracas are: ''El Universal'' (founded in 1909, conservative); ''El Nacional'' (founded in 1945, leftist, but not pro-government); ''Últimas Noticias'' (founded in 1943, leftist and pro-government); ''The Daily Journal'' (founded in 1945, an English language newspaper); ''El Mundo'' (founded in 1958); 2001 (founded in 1973); ''Meridiano'' (founded in 1969, a sports newspaper); ''El Nuevo País'' (founded in 1988) and ''Tal Cual''.

RCTV, Venevisión, Televén and Globovisión and Meridiano TV are private TV channels from Caracas. Venezolana de Televisión, VIVE, and TVes are state-run TV stations. Since 2007 under the Chavez regime, the state-run TVes has operated in place of the privately owned RCTV in Venezuela since Chavez forced RCTV off the air and seized its broadcasting infrastructure for TVes by claiming that RCTV was a threat to his regime by supporting the 2002 coup attempt against him. The forced over-the-air closure of RCTV in favor of TVes drew heavy domestic and international criticism against the Chavez regime on the grounds of suppression of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, as well as an attempt by the regime to silence its critics.

Telesur is an international TV channel funded by the governments of Venezuela, Cuba, Brazil and Argentina. Its headquarters is located in Caracas. Its missions are to offer a new vision of Latin America (according to the viewpoint of those governments) to the rest of the world and to counteract the influence of US media in the American continent.

In 2004 the Venezuelan National Assembly passed the Law of Social Responsibility in Radio and Television. This law establishes ambiguous guidelines regulating broadcasting content. It further requires the stations to transmit the government's educational, informative, or public safety broadcasts for up to 60 minutes a week. Finally, the law requires stations to transmit in full Chavez's speeches and other political messages, some of which last up to five hours.<ref>[http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2007/jul/07/guest_commentary_we_must_help_venezuela_because_fr/ Because Freedom Matters], By U.S. Rep. Connie Mack IV and Blanquita Cullm, ''Naples Daily News'', July 7, 2007.</ref>

In today's Venezuela, independent journalists are sometimes arrested and frequently fined and harassed in an effort to intimidate those who speak against the Chavez regime.

The Chavez regime has bullied the remaining independent media into self-censorship, and does not want the press to reveal the inefficiencies of his government. He has gone to great lengths to bar journalists of privately owned, independent media from covering government hearings, and he now requires stations to use government producers for documentaries and programs.

==History==
[[Image:Trujillo Venezuela.jpg|thumb|240px|Trujillo]]
At the time of Spanish discovery, the indigenous in Venezuela were mainly agriculturists and hunters living in groups along the coast, the Andean mountain range, and the Orinoco River. The first permanent Spanish settlement in South America—Nuevo Toledo—was established in Venezuela in 1522. Venezuela was a relatively neglected colony in the 1500s and 1600s as the Spaniards focused on extracting gold and silver from other areas of the Americas.

Toward the end of the 18th century, the Venezuelans began to grow restive under colonial control. In 1821, after several unsuccessful uprisings, the country succeeded in achieving independence from Spain, under the leadership of its most famous son, Simon Bolivar. Venezuela, along with what are now Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador, was part of the Republic of Gran Colombia until 1830, when Venezuela separated and became a separate sovereign country.

Much of Venezuela's 19th century history was characterized by periods of political instability, dictatorial rule, and revolutionary turbulence. The first half of the 20th century was marked by periods of authoritarianism—including dictatorships from 1908–35 and from 1950-58. In addition, the Venezuelan economy shifted after the first World War from a primarily agricultural orientation to an economy centered on petroleum production and export.

Since the overthrow of Gen. Marcos Perez Jimenez in 1958 and the military's withdrawal from direct involvement in national politics, Venezuela has enjoyed an unbroken tradition of civilian democratic rule. This earned Venezuela a reputation as one of the more stable democracies in Latin America. Until the 1998 elections, the Democratic Action (AD) and the Christian Democratic (COPEI) parties dominated the political environment at both the state and federal level.

===The Caracazo And Popular Dissatisfaction===
Venezuela's prevailing political calm came to an end in 1989, when Venezuela experienced riots in which more than 200 people were killed in Caracas. The so-called Caracazo was a response to an economic [[Ascesis|austerity]] program launched by then-President Carlos Andres Perez. Three years later, in February 1992, a group of army lieutenant colonels led by future President Hugo Chavez mounted an unsuccessful coup attempt, claiming that the events of 1989 showed that the political system no longer served the interests of the people. A second, equally unsuccessful coup attempt by other officers followed in November 1992. A year later, Congress impeached Perez on corruption charges.

Deep popular dissatisfaction with the traditional political parties, income disparities, and economic difficulties were some of the major frustrations expressed by Venezuelans following Perez's impeachment. In December 1998, Hugo Chavez Frias won the presidency on a campaign for broad reform, constitutional change, and a crackdown on corruption.

===Constitutional Reforms===
Current President Hugo Chavez was elected in 1998 on a platform that called for the creation of a National Constituent Assembly in order to write a new constitution for Venezuela. Chavez's argument that the existing political system had become isolated from the people won broad acceptance, particularly among Venezuela's poorest classes, who had seen a significant decline in their living standards over the previous decade and a half. The National Constituent Assembly (ANC), consisting of 131 elected individuals, convened in August 1999 to begin rewriting the Constitution. In free elections, voters gave all but six seats to persons associated with the Chavez movement. Venezuelans approved the ANC's draft in a national referendum on December 15, 1999.

===Political Turmoil===
[[File:Logo_LS_Venezuela_Socialism.jpg|left|230px]]
In July 2000, following a long and controversial process, voters re-elected President Hugo Chavez of the Fifth Republic Movement (MVR) in generally free and fair national and local elections. The MVR and pro-Chavez Movimiento a Socialismo (MAS) party won 92 seats in the 165-member legislature. Subsequent party splits reduced the pro-Chavez members to 84 seats. In April 2002, the country experienced a temporary alteration of constitutional order. When an estimated 400,000 to 600,000 persons participated in a march in downtown Caracas to demand President Chavez' resignation, gunfire broke out, resulting in as many as 18 deaths and more than 100 injuries on both sides. Military officers took President Chavez into custody, and business leader Pedro Carmona swore himself in as interim President. On April 14, military troops loyal to Chavez returned him to power. A national reconciliation process, with participation by the Organization of American States, the UN Development Program, and the Carter Center, was unsuccessful in stopping further conflict. Opposition leaders called a national work stoppage on December 2, 2002. Strikers protested the government and called for the resignation of President Chavez. The oil sector joined other sectors of the economy and effectively shut down all economic activity for a month. The OAS Permanent Council passed Resolution 833 on December 16, 2002, calling for a "constitutional, democratic, peaceful, and electoral solution" to the crisis in Venezuela. The strike formally ended in February 2003 as political opponents of Chavez sought a recall referendum to revoke the mandate of the president.

===The Referendum Process===
In September 2003, after an impasse in the National Assembly, the Supreme Court named a new board of directors for the National Electoral Council (CNE). After months of intense deliberations that included two conflicting signature drives overseen by the CNE, political riots over the government's disqualification of questionable signatures, and the intervention of international electoral observers, the CNE certified the opposition's results and set the date of the recall referendum for August 15, 2004. According to the CNE, President Chavez won 59% of the vote. His opponents immediately contested that the results of the referendum were marked by electoral fraud. However, international electoral observation missions carried out by the Organization of American States and the Carter Center found no indication of systemic fraud.

[[Smartmatic]] affiliations with government politicians raised suspicions, with instances of an interior vice minister, Morris Loyo Arnáez, being hired to lobby for Smartmatic contracts and with the company paying for the National Electoral Council (CNE) president Jorge Rodríguez Jorge Rodríguez and his sister Delcy Rodríguez to stay at the Boca Raton Resort & Club in Boca Raton, Florida.<ref name="ABCsemana">{{cite news|url=http://www.abcdelasemana.com/2013/09/20/una-extrana-muerte-en-smartmatic/|title=UNA EXTRAÑA MUERTE EN SMARTMATIC|last1=Peñaloza|first1=Carlos Julio|date=20 September 2013|work=ABC de la Semana|accessdate=}}</ref> Vice Minister Loyo was paid $1.5 million by Smartmatic as a "sales commission" and his continual payments with the company eventually doubled.

A lawyer who had worked with Rodríguez, Moisés Maiónica, was allegedly employed by Smartmatic in order to provide legal and financial assistance to help with its selection for its 2004 elections.<ref name="JOHNsmart">{{cite book|url=https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/itl/vote/SequoiaSmartmaticReport61208.pdf|title=SEQUOIA VOTING SYSTEMS, INC. USES VOTE-COUNTING SOFTWARE DEVELOPED, OWNED, AND LICENSED BY FOREIGN-OWNED SMARTMATIC, A COMPANY LINKED TO THE VENEZUELAN GOVERNMENT OF HUGO CHÁVEZ|last1=Bonifaz|first1=John|date=12 June 2008|publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]|pages=1–13|author1-link=John Bonifaz}}</ref><ref name="LNsmart">{{cite news|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/982136-el-abogado-chavista-arrepentido|title=El abogado chavista arrepentido|date=26 January 2008|work=[[La Nación]]|accessdate=}}</ref> Years after the election in December 2008, Maiónica pled guilty in the United States District Court for attempting to cover up the Suitcase scandal (Maletinazo scandal), an incident where Hugo Chávez attempted to finance Cristina Kirchner's 2007 Argentine Presidential Election campaign to influence [[Argentina]]'s presidential election, with Maiónica stating that he was working for Venezuela's spy agency, the National Directorate of Intelligence and Prevention Services.<<ref name="NYTsmart">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/09/world/americas/09suitcase.html?_r=0|title=Venezuelan Given 15 Months in Suitcase of Cash Scandal|last1=Barrionuevo|first1=Alexei|date=8 December 2008|work=The New York Times|accessdate=}}</ref>

After the presidential recall referendum of 2004, a controversy was raised about the use of electronic voting (SAES voting machines). Studies following the 2004 Venezuela recall elections found that Smartmatic's network was "bi-directional" with data being able to be transferred both ways between Smartmatic devices and the telecommunications company CANTV, with alleged irregularities found between the Smartmatic and Venezuela's National Electoral Council election results.<ref name="EUtulio">{{cite news|url=http://www.eluniversal.com/2004/09/11/imp_opi_art_11490D.shtml|title=Fraude y posibilidad de rectificación|last1=Salgueiro|first1=Adolfo P.|date=11 September 2004|work=El Universal (Caracas)|accessdate=}}</ref> Other independent election monitors claimed electoral fraud and submitted appeals, and statistical evaluations including a peer-reviewed article in 2006<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cordero|first1=Maria M. Febres|last2=Márquez|first2=Bernardo|year=2007|title=A Statistical Approach to Assess Referendum Results: The Venezuelan Recall Referendum 2004|journal=International Statistical Review|volume=74|issue=3|pages=379–389|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.441|doi=10.1111/j.1751-5823.2006.tb00301.x}}</ref> and a special section of 6-peer-reviewed article in 2011<ref name="specialsection">[http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=toc&handle=euclid.ss/1330437927 Special Section: Revisiting the 2004 Venezuelan Referendum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728043017/http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=toc&handle=euclid.ss%2F1330437927|date=2012-07-28}}, ''Statistical Science'', 26(4), November 2011</ref> concluded that it was likely that electronic election fraud had been committed.

===From Referendum To Elections===
In the wake of the referendum victory, Pro-Chávez candidates continued to sweep other electoral contests. Chávez supporters won 20 out of the total 22 state governor positions up for election in October 2004 (there are currently two opposition governors). Chavez supporters also won a majority of the seats in the August 2005 municipal council (parroquias) elections. Pro-Chávez parties won all 167 seats in the December 2005 National Assembly elections, after most opposition candidates withdrew one week before the elections over voter secrecy concerns. The final reports of the EU and OAS observer missions to the 2005 legislative elections, which were marked by record-high abstention, noted high levels of distrust in electoral institutions. The reports made specific recommendations to increase transparency and help voters regain the confidence necessary for participation. Most of the recommendations were not implemented. As a signatory of the Inter-American Democratic Charter, Venezuela has an obligation to hold "periodic, free, and fair elections based on secret balloting and universal suffrage."

Prior to the 2005 Venezuela parliamentary election, one technician could work around "the machine's allegedly random storage protocols" and remove voting secrecy. Since the voting systems were [[Windows]] based and only randomized data, the technician was able to download a simple software that could place Windows files in order. Following this revelation, voter turnout dropped substantially with only 25% of registered Venezuelans voting and opposition parties withdrawing from the election. This resulted in Hugo Chávez's party, as well as his allied parties, to control 100% of Venezuela's National Assembly.

===A New Term and New Administration===
[[File:Manuel Rosales Venezuela.jpg|thumb|125px|Manuel Rosales.]]
President Chávez was re-elected by an overwhelming majority (63%) in the December 3, 2006, presidential elections. He defeated Zulia Governor Manuel Rosales, whose Un Nuevo Tiempo (UNT) party formed an alliance with several key opposition parties. Though international observers found no evidence of fraud on election day, they did note concerns over abuse of government resources used to support the Chávez campaign, voter intimidation tactics, and manipulation of the electoral registry.

In January 2007, President Chávez named a new Vice President (the former head of the CNE) and cabinet, drawing largely from deputies of the National Assembly. Chávez announced a renewed effort to implement his vision of "21st Century Socialism" in Venezuela. He asked the National Assembly to grant him special constitutional powers via an "enabling law" to rule by decree over a broad range of society and subsequently received those powers for a term of 18 months. He also took major steps to nationalize the telecommunications and electricity sectors, as well as to finalize a majority government share in many oil projects, all sectors with significant foreign investments.

=== Constitutional referendum 2007 ===
On August 15, President Chávez proposed a package of 33 articles to reform the 1999 Constitution. On 11 September the National Assembly enlarged a number of amendments with other 36 articles, increasing in 69 the number of articles to be voted in the referendum. Finally, the National Assembly passed the reform on 2 November.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7076076.stm Venezuela assembly passes reforms], ''BBC News'', November 2, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>

The proposals were divided into two blocks: block "A" and block "B". Some of the amendments are:

* Indefinite presidential re-election.
* The presidential term will be increased from six to seven years.
* Five types of property are proposed: public, social, collective, mixed, and [[private property]]. The Venezuelan State is to govern four of these new five types of property, as it intends to play a role as owner, partner, and financier.<ref>[http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/10/01/en_eco_art_venezuelan-state-to_01A1086237.shtml Venezuelan state to govern four types of property], ''El Universal'', October 1, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>
* Creation of federal territories ruled by vice presidents. The heads of federal territories will be appointed by the President of Venezuela.
* Autonomy of the central bank will be concluded.
* The international reserves will be managed by the president.
* Reduction of the maximum working week from 44 to 36 hours.
* Reduction of voting age from 18 to 16 years.
* Benefits of social security will be expanded to workers of the informal economy.

The constitutional reform was rejected by the opposition to considered it as an attempt of President Chávez to rule the country indefinitely and to create a socialist economy. Marches against the reform were done in many parts of Venezuela. A major role in the protests was played by university students.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=10136480 Challenging Chávez-for-life, A new kind of opposition], ''The Economist'', November 15, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref> Some supporters of Mr. Chávez such as the allied party ''PODEMOS'', ''Raúl Baduel'' (his ex- Defense Minister) and ''Marisabel Rodríguez'' (his ex-wife) rejected the reform and called the electors to vote against the reform.<ref>[http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/11/05/en_refco_art_former-defense-minis_05A1174277.shtml Former Defense Minister rejects constitutional reform], ''El Universal'', November 5, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2983752.ece Ex-wife damns Hugo Chavez ‘coup’], ''The Sunday Times'', December 2, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>

On 2 December 50% of electors voted against the constitutional reform while 49% of electors voted in favor.<ref>[http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/12/03/en_refco_art_venezuelans-said-no_03A1240957.shtml Venezuelans said “no” to Chávez’s planned reform], ''El Universal'', December 3, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref> The reform was rejected in seven important Venezuelan states, based on the number of voters, namely Zulia, Miranda, Carabobo, Lara, Anzoátegui, and the Capital District (Caracas).<ref>[http://buscador.eluniversal.com/2007/12/04/en_refco_art_states-of-zulia,-mir_04A1243797.shtml States of Zulia, Miranda and Táchira played a decisive role], ''El Universal'', December 4, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref> It is the first time since Chávez won power in 1998 that the current government lost at the polls.

Abstention, which was more than 44%, is considered an important factor of the government defeat. It is thought many supporters of Chávez refrained from voting because they were not in agreement with the reform.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1690507,00.html?imw=Y Why Venezuelans Turned on Chavez], By Gould, Jens Erik, ''Time'', December 3, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>

President Chávez recognized the results, but he announced to the nation that another referendum to modify the constitution will be proposed again in the future. The previous statement was said by the Venezuelan president again on December 5.<ref>[http://english.eluniversal.com/2007/12/05/en_refco_art_chavez-announces-sec_05A1247117.shtml Chávez launches second offensive to pass reform to the Constitution], ''El Universal'', December 6, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref> The National Assembly decided to join the presidential efforts to keep the proposal alive.<ref>[http://english.eluniversal.com/2007/12/05/en_refco_art_parliament-insists-o_05A1245643.shtml Parliament insists on advancing Chávez’s defeated reform], ''El Universal'', December 5, 2007. Retrieved on December 13, 2007.</ref>

===Decent into chaos, instability, and a military state===
By 2017, Venezuela was in serious economic and political [[chaos]], having become a virtual military state and becoming a humanitarian disaster.<ref name="Socialism"/><ref>Kew, Ben (December 24, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/12/24/venezuela-2017-socialist-policies-take-humanitarian-toll-as-country-enters-dictatorship/ Venezuela 2017: Socialist Policies Take Humanitarian Toll as Country Enters Dictatorship]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 24, 2017. See also:
*Carafano, James Jay (January 11, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/americas-progressives-are-so-busy-extolling-virtues-of-socialism-that-they-want-you-to-ignore-this America's progressives are so busy extolling virtues of socialism that they want you to ignore THIS]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
*Adelmann, Bob (April 1, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31905-socialist-misery-deepens-in-formerly-prosperous-venezuela Socialist Misery Deepens in Formerly Prosperous Venezuela]. ''The New American''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.</ref> Massive hyperinflation was present in the country.<ref>Adelmann, Bob (April 17, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/28769-starvation-suicides-increasing-under-venezuelas-hyperinflation Starvation, Suicides Increasing Under Venezuela's Hyperinflation]. ''The New American''. Retrieved April 20, 2018.</ref> Many non-Venezuelan [[liberal]]s had praised the nation's slide into this poor state.<ref>Kew, Ben (May 4, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/05/04/ten-influential-public-figures-praised-venezuelas-descent-socialist-hell/ 10 Famous People Who Praised Venezuela’s Descent Into Socialist Hell]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 5, 2017.</ref> However, many of the "opposition" did not want to truly end the socialist policies.<ref>Martel, Frances (May 17, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/05/17/former-un-security-council-head-in-venezuela-even-opposition-uncomfortable-defying-socialism/ Former U.N. Security Council Head: In Venezuela, Even Opposition Uncomfortable Defying ‘Socialism’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 18, 2017.</ref> Venezuela's May 2018 presidential election was derided by many countries as a sham and an illustration of its descent into authoritarianism.<ref>Multiple references:
*Llorente, Elizabeth (May 21, 2018). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/2018/05/21/re-election-venezuelan-president-denounced-as-sham-calls-grow-for-more-sanctions.html Re-election of Venezuelan president denounced as sham, calls grow for more sanctions]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
*Ulmer, Alexandra; Rampton, Roberta (May 20, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-election-reaction/re-elected-venezuelas-maduro-faces-global-criticism-u-s-sanctions-idUSKCN1IM0CT Re-elected, Venezuela's Maduro faces global criticism, U.S. sanctions]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
*Casey, Nicholas; Davis, Julia Hirschfeld (May 21, 2018). [https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/21/world/americas/venezuela-nicolas-maduro-sanctions.html As Trump Adds Sanctions on Venezuela, Its Neighbors Reject Election Result]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved May 22, 2018.
*Adelmann, Bob (May 21, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/29103-fraudulent-election-in-venezuela-guarantees-more-suffering Fraudulent Election in Venezuela Guarantees More Suffering]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
See also:
Mass, Warren (May 23, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/29118-after-maduro-s-reelection-in-venezuela-chaos-worsens-and-exodus-increases After Maduro’s Reelection in Venezuela, Chaos Worsens and Exodus Increases]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 23, 2018.</ref> In August 2018, the government announced it would deal with its hyperinflation simply by dropping zeros off its currency.<ref>Vyas, Kyle; Castro, Maolis (August 18, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/venezuela-devalues-currency-and-hikes-wages-stoking-fears-about-instability-1534629512 Venezuela Devalues Currency and Hikes Wages, Stoking Fears About Instability]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved August 18, 2018.</ref><ref>Tennant, Michael (August 17, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/29808-venezuela-s-hyperinflation-solution-drop-zeros-from-the-currency Venezuela’s Hyperinflation Solution? Drop Zeros From the Currency]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 18, 2018.</ref><ref>Xenakis, John J. (August 19, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/08/19/world-view-socialist-venezuela-introduces-fantasy-currency-and-socialist-changes/ World View: Socialist Venezuela Introduces Fantasy Currency and Socialist Changes]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 19, 2018.</ref><ref>Tennant, Michael (August 21, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/29837-venezuela-takes-more-desperate-but-futile-steps-to-save-socialism Venezuela Takes More Desperate but Futile Steps to Save Socialism]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 21, 2018.</ref> In 2018, 40% of all Venezuelan businesses closed after Maduro imposed a massive minimum wage increase.<ref>Mass, Warren (September 17, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/economy/economics/item/30093-thanks-maduro-nearly-40-of-venezuelan-businesses-closed Thanks, Maduro: Nearly 40% of Venezuelan Businesses Closed]. ''The New American''. Retrieved September 17, 2018.</ref> Long lines existed for everything, even to get a passport to leave the country.<ref>Tennant, Michael (October 9, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/30290-in-venezuela-you-even-have-to-wait-in-line-to-leave In Venezuela, You Even Have to Wait in Line to Leave]. ''The New American''. Retrieved October 10, 2018.</ref> The country saw nationwide power outages.<ref>Adelmann, Bob (March 11, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31697-nation-wide-power-outages-sending-venezuela-back-to-the-dark-ages Nationwide Power Outages Sending Venezuela Back to the Dark Ages]. ''The New American''. Retrieved March 11, 2019.</ref> Several Venezuelans warned the United States not to adopt socialism.<ref>Kan, Janita (February 6, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/venezuelans-warn-against-bringing-socialism-to-the-united-states_2792429.html Venezuelans Warn Against Bringing Socialism to the United States]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved February 7, 2019.</ref>

Venezuela's government continued to receive support from [[Russia]] and [[China]].<ref>Adelmann, Bob (October 29, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/30485-china-russia-rushing-to-keep-venezuela-alive-as-crisis-deepens China, Russia Rushing to Keep Venezuela Alive as Crisis Deepens]. ''The New American''. Retrieved October 29, 2018.</ref> Additionally, [[Cuba]]'s Communist regime helped Venezuela adopt left-wing authoritarian policies.<ref>Berwick, Angus (August 22, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/venezuela-cuba-military/ Imported repression: How Cuba taught Venezuela to quash military dissent]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved August 22, 2019.</ref>

Maduro won re-election in 2018, despite banning major opposition parties from participating in the election<ref>Kew, Ben (December 11, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/12/11/venezuelas-maduro-bans-opposition-parties-2018-election/ Venezuela’s Maduro Bans Opposition Parties from 2018 Election]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.</ref> and despite record low turnout and serious voter fraud allegations.<ref>Martel, Frances (May 21, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/05/21/venezuela-maduro-reelected-with-record-low-turnout-rampant-fraud/ Venezuela: Maduro ‘Reelected’ with Record Low Turnout, Rampant Fraud]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.</ref> He started his second term despite the fact that about 60 countries did not recognize the election results.<ref>Multiple references:
*Adelmann, Bob (January 10, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31153-venezuela-s-marxist-president-maduro-inaugurated-for-second-term Venezuela’s Marxist President Maduro Inaugurated for Second Term]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
*Suarez Sang, Lucia I. (January 10, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/venezuelas-maduro-starts-second-term-despite-worsening-economic-crisis-growing-international-isolation Venezuela’s Maduro starts second term despite worsening economic crisis, growing international isolation]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
*Kew, Ben (January 10, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2019/01/10/venezuelas-maduro-inaugurated-second-term-world-war/ Venezuela’s Maduro Inaugurated for Second Term: ‘We Are in a World War’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
See also:
*Adelmann, Bob (January 15, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31193-pressure-building-to-remove-venezuela-s-marxist-dictator Pressure Building to Remove Venezuela’s Marxist Dictator]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 15, 2019.</ref> Venezuela's parliament, now controlled by the opposition, attempted to remove Maduro from office.<ref>Mass, Warren (January 14, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31183-venezuela-legislature-wants-maduro-out-brazil-recognizes-guaido-as-president Venezuela Legislature Wants Maduro Out; Brazil Recognizes Guaido as President]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 14, 2019.</ref> On January 23, 2019, opposition leader Juan Guaidó, a socialist,<ref>Newman, Alex (February 7, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/31425-venezuela-replacing-brutal-socialist-with-more-socialism Venezuela: Replacing Brutal Socialist With More Socialism?] ''The New American''. Retrieved February 7, 2019.</ref> declared himself Venezuela's interim president and was recognized by several countries.<ref>Martel, Frances (January 23, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/latin-america/2019/01/23/venezuela-swears-in-opposition-leader-as-president/ Venezuela Swears In Opposition Leader as President]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 26, 2019. See also:
*Martel, Frances (January 26, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/latin-america/2019/01/26/venezuela-new-president-is-a-socialist/ Maduro Regime, American Left Ignore Socialist Pedigree of Venezuela’s New President]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 26, 2019.</ref>

Many experts and technicians fled the country. During electrical blackouts in 2019, which the government was incapable of restoring due to a lack of skilled personnel, [[Social Justice Warrior]]s began looting shops, stores, and malls. Despite Venezuela's guarantee of [[healthcare]] as a right, people contracted [[E. coli]] bacteria from contaminated water with no technicians to treat the water and a lack of medical personnel to treat the victims.

The situation in Venezuela demonstrated the importance of an armed citizenry – its population was disarmed and thus unable to free itself from Maduro's grip.<ref>Hawkins, Awr (April 30, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/04/30/msnbc-venezuela-coverage-shows-why-u-s-founders-wanted-armed-citizenry/ MSNBC Venezuela Coverage Shows Why U.S. Founders Wanted Armed Citizenry]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 1, 2019.</ref><ref>Byas, Steve (May 1, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/item/32167-msnbc-reporter-s-remarks-illustrate-need-for-right-to-keep-and-bear-arms MSNBC Reporter’s Remarks Illustrate Need for Right to Keep and Bear Arms]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 1, 2019.</ref> Maduro used violent means to keep control of Venezuela.<ref>Adelmann, Bob (July 9, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/south-america/item/32799-venezuelas-maduro-employing-death-squads-torture-to-retain-control Venezuela’s Maduro Employing Death Squads, Torture to Retain Control]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 9, 2019.</ref> According to the Venezuelan Prison Observatory in 2019, over 7,000 Venezuelans died in the country's prisons since 1999.<ref>Kew, Ben (July 26, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2019/07/26/ngo-7000-venezuelans-died-prison-under-socialist-regime/ NGO: Over 7,000 Venezuelans Have Died in Prison Under Socialist Regime]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 26, 2019.</ref>

Economists argued that Venezuela's economic collapse surpassed even those of the USSR and Zimbabwe, making it the worst economic collapse not due to warfare.<ref>Mikelionis, Lukas (May 18, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/venezuelas-socialist-regime-failure-is-the-worst-collapse-in-45-years-worse-than-end-of-soviet-union-economists-say Venezuela's socialist collapse is worse economic failure than Soviet Union, Zimbabwe, experts say]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved May 18, 2019.</ref> Even Venezuela's own central bank admitted the country experienced an economic meltdown under the Maduro regime.<ref>Hayward, John (June 3, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2019/06/03/venezuelan-central-bank-admits-economy-crashing/ Venezuelan Central Bank Admits Economy Is Crashing]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved June 4, 2019.</ref> The country faced severe blackouts.<ref>Taylor, Luke (July 24, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/venezuela-struggling-with-new-wave-of-nationwide-blackouts_3015047.html Venezuela Struggling With New Wave of Nationwide Blackouts]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved July 24, 2019.</ref> People resorted to using cigarettes as currency.<ref>Smith, Scott (October 24, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/a79322863d6643038ef82bff7951e139 Venezuelans buy gas with cigarettes to battle inflation]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved October 25, 2019.</ref> Maduro was forced to resort to using the currency of his main enemy – the United States – to keep Venezuela's economy from completely dissolving.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-economy/maduro-says-thank-god-for-dollarization-in-venezuela-idUSKBN1XR0RV Maduro says 'thank God' for dollarization in Venezuela]. ''Reuters''. November 17, 2019. Retrieved November 17, 2019.</ref>

Venezuela's government sheltered Colombia's Marxist [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|National Liberation Army]].<ref>Forero, Juan (July 14, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/venezuela-gives-colombian-rebels-free-rein-11563105600 Venezuela Gives Colombian Rebels Free Rein]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved July 14, 2019. See also:
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-politics-usa/amid-colombia-rebel-rearmament-u-s-sees-support-from-maduro-official-idUSKCN1VL0FZ Amid Colombia rebel rearmament, U.S. sees support from Maduro: official]. ''Reuters''. August 31, 2019. Retrieved August 31, 2019.</ref>

==Famous Venezuelans==
* [[Andres Bello|Andrés Bello]] (1781–1865); poet, grammarian, teacher, and vice-chancellor of the University of Chile.
* [[Simon Bolivar|Simón Bolívar]] (1783–1830); military hero and politician. Liberator of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.
* [[Francisco de Miranda]] (1750–1816); military hero, politician, and creator of the Venezuelan flag.
* [[Antonio Jose de Sucre|Antonio José de Sucre]] (1795–1830); military hero and president of Bolivia.
* [[Hugo Chavez]] (1954–2012); leftist socialist dictator

== See also ==
[[File:Botero Los musicos.jpg|thumb|[[Fernando Botero]], Los musicos.]]
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]

[[File:Girasoles - Marcos Castillo.jpg|thumb|left|Girasoles by Marcos Castillo.]]

{{Clear}}

== External links ==
[[File:Handycrafts Venezuela.jpg|right|290px]]

*[http://english.eluniversal.com/ El Universal] English language site of the conservative Venezuelan newspaper.
*[http://www.dj.com.ve/ News-The Daily Journal] Site of the English written newspaper.
*[http://www1.lanic.utexas.edu/la/venezuela/ Venezuela - Useful links] University of Texas at Austin.
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1229345.stm] Information about Venezuela in the BBC Country Profile.
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ve.html] Information about Venezuela in the CIA World Factbook.

==References==
<references/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/p/wha/ci/ve/]

{{Nb countries south america}}
[[Category:Venezuela]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Left-wing Nationalism]]

El Salvador

2024-06-02T18:41:51Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de El Salvador''
|map =Elsalvador.jpg
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|arms =Arms of El Salvador.png
|capital =San Salvador
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|government =Republic
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|language =Spanish
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|president =Nayib Bukele
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
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|area =8,124 sq mi
|pop =6,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
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|gdp-year =$43.748 billion (2008)
|gdp-pc =$7,564 (2005)
|currency =[[U.S. Dollar]] [[BitCoin]] Colón (SVC)
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'''El Salvador''' (''República de El Salvador'') is a [[republic]] in [[Central America]], bounded to its west by [[Guatemala]], to its north and east by [[Honduras]] and to its south by the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It has an area of 8,124 sq miles (21,041 km2) and a population (2006) of 6.8 million. The capital is [[San Salvador]] (1998 pop 1.2 million).

President [[Nayib Bukele]] started an historic decrease of murders in the country, bringing security to record levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://diariolahuella.com/el-salvador-continua-con-la-reduccion-historica-de-los-homicidios/|title=El Salvador continúa con la reducción histórica de los homicidios|language=es|publisher=La Huella Digital|date=March 15, 2023}}</ref> The international left accuses him of being too authoritarian by having in a big jail the same criminales that made El Salvador a dangerous place. The Biden Administration even said that Human Rights were not respected enough.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/es/am%C3%A9rica-latina/20230302-bukele-justifica-sus-pol%C3%ADticas-ee-uu-le-recuerda-que-se-deben-respetar-los-dd-hh|title=Bukele justifica sus políticas; EE.UU. le recuerda que se deben respetar los DD. HH.|date=March 2, 2023|publisher=France 24|language=es}}</ref>

==Geography==
El Salvador is largely mountainous, formed of numerous extinct [[volcano]]es.

==People==
El Salvador's population numbers about 5.7 million. Almost 90% is of mixed Indian and Spanish extraction. About 1% is indigenous; very few Indians have retained their customs and traditions. The country's people are largely Roman Catholic and Protestant. Spanish is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. The capital city of San Salvador has about 2.2 million people; an estimated 40.3% of El Salvador's population lives in rural areas.
*Population (2007 est.): 5.7 million.
*Annual growth rate (2005 est.): 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: Mestizo 90%, indigenous 1%, Caucasian 9%.
*Religion: About 52% Roman Catholic, with significant and growing numbers of Protestant groups.
*Language: Spanish.
*Education: Free through ninth grade. Attendance (grades 1-9)-90.4%. Literacy—84.5% nationally; 76.3% in rural areas.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2003)--24.6/1,000. Life expectancy at birth (2006)--71.8 years.
*Work force (about 2.5 million, 2004): Agriculture—19.1%; services—49.8%; industry—16.8%; construction—6.4%; government—7.3%; other—0.6%.

==Government==
[[File:Map el salvador.jpg|left|300px]]
[[File:President Nayib Bukele.jpg|240px|thumbnail|President [[Nayib Bukele]].]]
El Salvador is a democratic republic governed by a president and an 84-member unicameral Legislative Assembly. The president is elected by universal suffrage and serves for a 5-year term by absolute majority vote. A second round runoff is required in the event that no candidate receives more than 50% of the first round vote. Members of the assembly, also elected by universal suffrage, serve for 3-year terms. The country has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court.
===National Civilian Police===
The civilian police force, created to replace the discredited public security forces, deployed its first officers in March 1993, and was present throughout the country by the end of 1994. The National Civilian Police (PNC) has about 16,000 officers. The United States, through the International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP), led international support for the PNC and the National Public Security Academy (ANSP), providing about $32 million in non-lethal equipment and training since 1992.

===Judiciary===
Both the Truth Commission and the Joint Group identified weaknesses in the judiciary and recommended solutions, the most dramatic being the replacement of all the magistrates on the Supreme Court. This recommendation was fulfilled in 1994 when an entirely new court was elected, but weaknesses remain. The process of replacing incompetent judges in the lower courts, and of strengthening the attorney generals' and public defender's offices, has moved more slowly. The government continues to work in all of these areas with the help of international donors, including the United States. Action on peace accord-driven constitutional reforms designed to improve the administration of justice was largely completed in 1996 with legislative approval of several amendments and the revision of the Criminal Procedure Code—with broad political consensus.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—[[Nayib Bukele]]
*Vice President--
*Minister of Foreign Relations—
*Ambassador to the United States—
*Representative to the OAS—
*Representative to the UN—

===Political Landscape===
Hard-line conservatives, including some members of the military, created the Nationalist Republican Alliance party (ARENA) in 1981. ARENA almost won the election in 1984 with solid private sector and rural farmer support. By 1989, ARENA had attracted the support of business groups. Multiple factors contributed to ARENA victories in the 1988 legislative and 1989 presidential elections, including allegations of corruption in the ruling Christian Democratic party, poor relations with the private sector, and historically low prices for the nation's main agricultural exports.

The successes of Alfredo Cristiani's 1989-94 administration in achieving a peace agreement to end the civil war and in improving the nation's economy helped ARENA—led by former San Salvador mayor Armando Calderon Sol—keep both the presidency and a working majority in the Legislative Assembly in the 1994 elections. ARENA's legislative position was weakened in the 1997 elections, but it recovered its strength, helped by divisions in the opposition, in time for another victory in the 1999 presidential race, bringing President Francisco Guillermo Flores Perez to office. Flores concentrated on modernizing the economy and strengthening bilateral relations with the U.S. by becoming a committed partner in anti-terror efforts, sending troops to aid in the reconstruction of Iraq, and by playing a key role in negotiations for the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA).

Taking advantage of both public apprehension of Flores' policies and ARENA infighting, the chief opposition party, the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front|Farabundo Marti Liberation Front]] (FMLN), was able to score a significant victory against ARENA in the March 2003 legislative and municipal elections. ARENA, left with only 29 seats in the 84-seat Legislative Assembly, was forced to court the right-wing National Conciliation Party (PCN) in order to form a majority voting bloc. However, in 2003 the PCN entered into a loose partnership with the FMLN, further limiting ARENA's ability to maneuver in the legislature.

Despite these constraints, ARENA made a strong showing at the March 2004 presidential election, which was marked by an unprecedented 67% voter turnout. ARENA candidate Elias "Tony" Saca handily defeated the FMLN candidate and party head Schafik Handal, garnering 57.71% of the votes cast. Nevertheless, Saca faced a complex political environment.
The defeat of FMLN's presidential candidate rekindled an FMLN internal struggle between party hardliners and more moderate party members who saw the party's 2004 defeat as a call for reform. In addition, the PCN and the two parties that comprise the center/center-left coalition, the United Democratic Center (CDU) and the Christian Democratic Party (PDC), faced dissolution for failing to each capture at least 3% of the votes. Members of all three parties, whose deputies continued to hold seats in the legislature, publicly discussed creating new parties or aligning with existing ones.

In March 12, 2006 Legislative Assembly and municipal elections, the ruling ARENA party garnered 34 Assembly deputies and 147 mayoralties, while the opposition FMLN won 32 legislative seats and 51 city halls (plus 8 additional mayoralties in which they participated as part of a coalition). The PCN, PDC, and CD carried 10, 6, and 2 Legislative Assembly seats, respectively. As with the 2003-2006 Assembly, the combined 44 seats of ARENA and their center-right PCN allies are sufficient for all legislation requiring a 43-vote simple majority, while the FMLN can still block legislation requiring a two-thirds (56 vote) supermajority. El Salvador's political parties have already begun preparation and planning for 2009, when presidential, Legislative Assembly, and municipal elections will be held simultaneously for the first time since 1994.

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Central America.jpg|right|240px]]
El Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Central American Parliament, and the Central American Integration System. It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control. From 2002-03, El Salvador was chair of the OAS anti-terrorism coordinating body, CICTE. El Salvador also is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements. An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative. El Salvador has joined its six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or CONCAUSA to promote sustainable economic development in the region.

El Salvador enjoys normal diplomatic and trade relations with all of its neighboring countries including Honduras, with which it has previously had territorial disputes. While the two nations continue to disagree over the status of their maritime borders in the Gulf of Fonseca, they have agreed to settle their land-border disputes with the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In September 1992, the Court awarded most of the territory in question to Honduras. In January 1998, Honduras and El Salvador signed a border demarcation treaty to implement the terms of the ICJ decree although delays continue due to technical difficulties.

====Relations with the United States====
[[File:Nayib Bukele and Donald Trump.jpg|350px|thumbnail|President Nayib Bukele with [[President Donald Trump]].]]
President Nayib Bukele told [[Fox News]] the ‘new-liberal practice’ [[immigration]] policy was ‘immoral’ and 'not good for the US, not good for El Salvador, causing a brain drain and sending El Salvadore's future workforce to the U.S. in exchange for a tiny remittance.<ref>https://www.foxnews.com/politics/salvadoran-president-tells-tucker-mass-immigration-not-profitable-feeding-on-dependency</ref> Bukele to slam the FBI raid and asked after the [[Biden regime]]'s [[Mar-a-Lago raid]] on [[President Donald Trump]]'s home residence, “What would the US government say, if our police raided the house of one of the main possible contenders of our 2024 presidential election?”<ref>https://www.breitbart.com/latin-america/2022/08/09/el-salvadors-president-nayib-bukele-trump-fbi-raid-what-would-u-s-say-if-i-did-that/</ref>

==Human Rights and Post-War Reforms==
During the 12-year civil war, human rights violations by both the government security forces and left-wing guerillas were rampant. The accords established a Truth Commission under UN auspices to investigate the most serious cases. The commission reported its findings in 1993. It recommended that those identified as human rights violators be removed from all government and military posts. Thereafter, the Legislative Assembly granted amnesty for political crimes committed during the war. Among those freed as a result were the Salvadoran Armed Forces (ESAF) officers convicted in the November 1989 Jesuit murders and the FMLN ex-combatants held for the 1991 murders of two U.S. servicemen. The peace accords also established the Ad Hoc Commission to evaluate the human rights record of the ESAF officer corps.

In accordance with the peace agreements, the constitution was amended to prohibit the military from playing an internal security role except under extraordinary circumstances. Demobilization of Salvadoran military forces generally proceeded on schedule throughout the process. The Treasury Police, National Guard, and National Police were abolished, and military intelligence functions were transferred to civilian control. By 1993–9 months ahead of schedule—the military had cut personnel from a war-time high of 63,000 to the level of 32,000 required by the peace accords. By 1999, ESAF strength stood at less than 15,000, including uniformed and non-uniformed personnel, consisting of personnel in the army, navy, and air force. A purge of military officers accused of human rights abuses and corruption was completed in 1993 in compliance with the Ad Hoc Commission's recommendations. The military's new doctrine, professionalism, and complete withdrawal from political and economic affairs leave it the most respected institution in El Salvador.

More than 35,000 eligible beneficiaries from among the former guerrillas and soldiers who fought the war received land under the peace accord-mandated land transfer program, which ended in January 1997. The majority of them also have received agricultural credits. The international community, the Salvadoran Government, the former rebels, and the various financial institutions involved in the process continue to work closely together to deal with follow-on issues resulting from the program.

==Economy==
The Salvadoran economy continues to benefit from a commitment to free markets and careful fiscal management. The economy has been growing at a steady and moderate pace since the signing of peace accords in 1992, and poverty has been cut from 66% in 1991 to 35.2 percent in 2005. Much of the improvement in El Salvador's economy is a result of free market policy initiatives carried out by ARENA governments, including the privatization of the banking system, telecommunications, public pensions, electrical distribution and some electrical generation; reduction of import duties; elimination of price controls; and improved enforcement of intellectual property rights. Capping those reforms, on January 1, 2001, the U.S. dollar became legal tender in El Salvador, and the economy is now fully dollarized.
*GDP (2006): $18.57 billion, PPP GDP (2006) $38.62 billion (IMF estimate)
*GDP annual real growth rate (2006): 4.2%.
*Per capita income (2006): $2,656.9, PPP per capita income $5,514.97 (IMF estimate)
*Agriculture (9.8% of GDP, 2006): Products—coffee, sugar, livestock, corn, poultry, and sorghum. Arable, cultivated, or pasture land—68% (2005).
*Industry (21.2% of GDP, 2006): Types—textiles and apparel, medicines, food and beverage processing, clothing, chemical products, petroleum products, electronics.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$3.5 billion: textiles and apparel, coffee, sugar, medicines, iron and steel products, tuna, light manufacturing, and paper products. Major markets—U.S. 57.1%, Central American Common Market (CACM) 29.2%. Imports--$7.6 billion: petroleum, iron products, machines and mechanical devices, cars, medicines, consumer goods, foodstuffs, capital goods, and raw industrial materials. Major suppliers—U.S. 40.46%, CACM 15.1%, Mexico 7.7%.

In 2021 Nayib Bukele sent to congress the Bitcoin law which legalized the cryptocurrency in the country.
"All prices may be expressed in Bitcoin" and "All tax contributions may be paid in Bitcoin", states the Law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/latinoamerica/latinoamerica_el-salvador/la-asamblea-de-el-salvador-promulgo-la-ley-bitcoin-que-envio-nayib-bukele-para-hacer-de-curso-legal-a-la-criptomoneda|publisher=La Derecha Diario|date=June 9, 2021|title=La Asamblea de El Salvador promulgó la Ley Bitcoin que envió Nayib Bukele para hacer de curso legal a la criptomoneda|language=es}}</ref>

President Nayib Bukele, confirmed in October 1st, 2021, that El Salvador mined the first Bitcoin with volcanic energy. Through Twitter, the social network he uses so well, he shared an image of the mining in progress, which showed 0.00599179 Bitcoin, with a value of around 288 dollars at the exchange rate at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/latinoamerica/latinoamerica_el-salvador/el-salvador-mino-su-primer-bitcoin-utilizando-energia-volcanica-tuitea-el-presidente-nayib-bukele|title=El Salvador minó su primer Bitcoin utilizando energía volcánica, tuitea el presidente Nayib Bukele|date=October 5, 2021|language=es|publisher=La Derecha Diario}}</ref>

The Salvadoran government has maintained fiscal discipline during post-war reconstruction and reconstruction following earthquakes in 2001 and hurricanes in 1998 and 2005. Taxes levied by the government include a value added tax of 13%, income tax of 20%, excise taxes on alcohol and cigarettes, and import duties. The VAT is the largest source of revenue, accounting for about 55.1% of total tax revenues in 2006. For December 2007, El Salvador projects a fiscal surplus of 0.6% of GDP. El Salvador's public external debt in May 2007 was about $5.8 billion, 29.9 percent of GDP.

Years of civil war, fought largely in the rural areas, had a devastating impact on agricultural production in El Salvador. A fall in world coffee prices, once a major export earner for El Salvador, has also hurt rural employment. Seeking to develop new growth sectors and employment opportunities, El Salvador created new export industries through fiscal incentives for free trade zones. The largest beneficiary has been the textile and apparel (maquila) sector, which directly provides approximately 70,000 jobs. Services, including retail and financial, have also shown strong employment growth, with about 49.8% of the total labor force now employed in the sector. During the last three years foreign companies have set up 96 new subsidiaries providing 18,000 new jobs, mainly in maquilas, tourism, and telephone call centers.

Remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States are an important source of income for many families in El Salvador. In 2006, the Central Bank estimated that remittances totaled $3.3 billion, and UNDP surveys show that an estimated 22.3 percent of families receive them.

Under its export-led growth strategy launched in 1989, El Salvador has pursued economic integration with its Central American neighbors and negotiated trade agreements with the Dominican Republic, Chile, Mexico, Panama, Taiwan and the United States. The trade agreement with Taiwan will enter into force in 2008. Central America will begin negotiating an Association Agreement with the European Union in 2007. Agreements with Colombia and Canada are under negotiation while agreements with CARICOM and Israel are being considered. Exports in 2006 grew 3.7% while imports grew 11.6%. As in previous years, the large trade deficit was offset by family remittances.

The U.S.-Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) implemented between El Salvador and the United States on March 1, 2006, provides El Salvador preferential access to U.S. markets. Textiles and apparel, shoes, and processed foods are among the sectors expected to benefit.

In addition to trade benefits, CAFTA-DR also promises to provide a framework for additional reforms on issues such as intellectual property rights, dispute resolution, and customs that will improve El Salvador's investment climate. For sensitive sectors such as agriculture, the agreement includes generous phase-in periods to allow Salvadoran producers an opportunity to become more competitive.

U.S. support for El Salvador's privatization of the electrical and telecommunications markets markedly expanded opportunities for U.S. investment in the country. More than 300 U.S. companies have established either a permanent commercial presence in El Salvador or work through representative offices in the country. The Department of Commerce maintains a Country Commercial Guide for U.S. businesses seeking detailed information on business opportunities in El Salvador.

==Natural Disasters==
Lying on the Pacific's earthquake-prone Ring of Fire and at latitudes plagued by hurricanes, El Salvador's history is a litany of catastrophe, including the Great Hurricane of 1780 that killed 22,000 in Central America and earthquakes in 1854 and 1917 that devastated El Salvador and destroyed most of the capital city. More recently, an October 1986 earthquake killed 1,400 and seriously damaged the nation's infrastructure; in 1998, Hurricane Mitch killed 10,000 in the region, although El Salvador—lacking a Caribbean coast—suffered less than Honduras and Nicaragua. Major earthquakes in January and February 2001 took another 1,000 lives and left thousands more homeless and jobless. El Salvador's largest volcano, Santa Ana (also known by its indigenous name Ilamatepec), erupted in October 2005, spewing tons of sulfuric gas, ash, and rock on surrounding communities and coffee plantations and killing two people and permanently displaced 5,000. Also in October 2005, Hurricane Stan unleashed heavy rains that caused flooding throughout El Salvador. In all, the flooding caused 67 deaths, and more than 50,000 people were evacuated at some point during the crisis. Damages from the storm were estimated at $355.6 million.

==History==
The Pipil Indians, descendants of the Aztecs, and the Pocomames and Lencas were the original inhabitants of El Salvador,

The first Salvadoran territory visited by Spaniards was on Meanguera Island, located in the Gulf of Fonseca, where Spanish Admiral, Andrés Niño, lead an expedition to Central America and disembarked on May 31, 1522. In June 1524 the Spanish Captain Pedro de Alvarado started a war to conquest Cuzcatlan. His cousin Diego de Alvarado established the village of San Salvador in April 1525. In 1546, Charles I of Spain granted San Salvador the title of city.

During the subsequent years, the country evolved under Spanish rule; however, towards the end of the year 1810 many people began to express discontent. On November 5, 1811, when the Priest José Matias Delgado, clang the bells of La Merced Church in San Salvador, calling for insurrection, the people began to officially band together for freedom.

In 1821, El Salvador and the other Central American provinces declared their independence from Spain. When these provinces were joined with Mexico in early 1822, El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries. In 1823, the United Provinces of Central America was formed of the five Central American states under Gen. Manuel Jose Arce. When this federation was dissolved in 1838, El Salvador became an independent republic. El Salvador's early history as an independent state—as with others in Central America—was marked by frequent revolutions; not until the period 1900-30 was relative stability achieved. Following a deterioration in the country's democratic institutions in the 1970s a period of civil war followed from 1980-1992. More than 75,000 people are estimated to have died in the conflict. In January 1992, after prolonged negotiations, the opposing sides signed peace accords which ended the war, brought the military under civilian control, and allowed the former guerillas to form a legitimate political party and participate in elections.

The politician [[Nayib Bukele]] initially was a left-wing politician, during his administrations as mayor in Nuevo Cuscatlán and San Salvador he became known for his law and order policies.

In 2019, he united both left and right-wing voters in his party "Gran Alianza por la Unidad Nacional", GANA, which promised to move away from Chavism and Latin American socialism and closer to the United States and Europe, but maintaining a strong national sentiment for El Salvador's culture and history.

With this discourse, Bukele obtained almost a million and a half votes in the first round, which consecrated him president with more than 53% of the electoral roll. Thus, he left out of the government both the conservative Carlos Calleja and the communist Hugo Martinez, both of whom are accused of being close to Caribbean drug trafficking.

In addition, he promised to confront crime and organized crime with all the power of the State, a measure that both the FMLN and ARENA have failed miserably in the past. It should be remembered that El Salvador is a country whose national territory is occupied in some parts by the maras mafia, which have parallel governments and promote terrorism and drug trafficking on Salvadoran soil.<ref name=FirstYear>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/latinoamerica/latinoamerica_el-salvador/nayib-bukele-primer-ano-de-gobierno-del-presidente-que-revoluciono-a-el-salvador|title=Nayib Bukele: primer año de gobierno del presidente que revolucionó a El Salvador|date=December 5, 2020|publisher=La Derecha Diario|language=es}}</ref> In 2021 he legalized BitCoin as a legal currency in his country, being one of the few in the world.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Mayan World]]
[[Category:El Salvador|!]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Guatemala

2024-06-02T18:38:50Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Guatemala''
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|flag =Flag of Spain.png
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|president =Jimmy Morales
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|area =42,042 sq mi
|pop =18,000,000 (2020)
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|gdp-pc =$4,306 (2020)
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'''Guatemala''' is a [[country]] in [[Central America]]. The capital of Guatemala is Guatemala City (Ciudad de Guatemala). The current president is Jimmy Morales.

==People==
[[File:Guatemala mayan women.jpg|thumb|left|Mayan women.]]
More than half of Guatemalans are descendants of indigenous [[Maya]]n peoples. Westernized Mayans and mestizos (mixed European and indigenous ancestry) are known as Ladinos. Most of Guatemala's population is rural, though urbanization is accelerating. The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholicism]], into which many indigenous Guatemalans have incorporated traditional forms of worship. Protestantism and traditional Mayan religions are practiced by an estimated 40% and 1% of the population, respectively. Though the official language is Spanish, it is not universally understood among the indigenous population. The peace accords signed in December 1996 provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into several indigenous languages.
*Population (2006 est.): 12.3 million.
*Annual population growth rate (2006 est.): 2.27%.
*Ethnic groups: Mestizo (mixed Spanish-Indian), indigenous.
*Religions: Roman Catholic, Protestant, traditional Mayan.
*Languages: Spanish, 24 indigenous languages (principally Kiche, Kaqchikel, Q'eqchi, and Mam).
*Education: Years compulsory—6. Attendance—41%. Literacy—70.6%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—36.9/1,000. Life expectancy—65.19 yrs.
*Work force salaried breakdown: Services—40%; industry and commerce—37%; agriculture—15%; construction, mining, utilities—4%. Fifty percent of the population engages in some form of agriculture, often at the subsistence level outside the monetized economy.

==Government==
Guatemala's 1985 constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The 1993 constitutional reforms included an increase in the number of Supreme Court justices from 9 to 13. The reforms reduced the terms of office for president, vice president, and congressional representatives from 5 years to 4 years, and for Supreme Court justices from 6 years to 5 years; they increased the terms of mayors and city councils from 2-1/2 years to 4 years.

The president and vice president are directly elected through universal suffrage and limited to one term. A vice president can run for president after 4 years out of office. Supreme Court justices are elected by the Congress from a list submitted by the bar association, law school deans, a university rector, and appellate judges. The Supreme Court and local courts handle civil and criminal cases. There also is a separate Constitutional Court.

Guatemala has 22 administrative subdivisions (departments) administered by governors appointed by the president. Guatemala City and 331 other municipalities are governed by popularly elected mayors or councils.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Jimmy Morales
*Vice President—Jafeth Cabrera
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Sandra Jovel
*Minister of Government—
*Ambassador to the U.S.--
*Ambassador to the UN—Jorge SKINNER-KLEE
*Ambassador to the OAS—

===Political Conditions===
Common and violent crime, aggravated by a legacy of violence and [[vigilante]] justice, presents a serious challenge. Impunity remained a major problem, primarily because democratic institutions, including those responsible for the administration of justice, have developed only a limited capacity to cope with this legacy. Guatemala's judiciary is independent; however, it suffers from inefficiency, corruption, and intimidation.

In early December 2006, the government and the UN agreed to the creation of the joint International Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG). On August 1, 2007, the Guatemalan Congress approved the agreement. An earlier Guatemala-UN agreement was ruled unconstitutional in 2004 before it was acted upon by the Guatemalan Congress. The UN Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA) ceased its 10-year project of monitoring peace accord implementation and human rights problems in November 2004 with UN Secretary General Kofi Annan declaring Guatemala had made "enormous progress in managing the country's problems through dialogue and institutions".

===Foreign Relations===
Guatemala's major diplomatic interests are regional security and, increasingly, regional development and economic integration. Guatemala participates in several regional groups, particularly those related to trade and the environment.
[[File:Central America.jpg|left|240px]]
The Council of Central American Ministers of Trade meets on a regular basis to work on regional approaches to trade issues. The council signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA) with the U.S. in 1998, and was part of the negotiations that led to the creation of CAFTA. Guatemala joined Honduras and El Salvador in signing a free trade agreement with Mexico in 2000, which went into effect the following year. Guatemala also originated the idea for, and is the seat of, the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN).

The U.S and Central American countries signed the CONCAUSA (Conjunto Centroamerica-USA) agreement at the Summit of the Americas in December 1994. CONCAUSA is a cooperative plan of action to promote clean, efficient energy use; conserve the region's biodiversity; strengthen legal and institutional frameworks and compliance mechanisms; and improve and harmonize environmental protection standards.

Guatemala has a long-standing claim to a large portion of Belize; the territorial dispute caused problems with the United Kingdom and later with Belize following its 1981 independence from the U.K. In December 1989, Guatemala sponsored Belize for permanent observer status in the Organization of American States (OAS). In September 1991, Guatemala recognized Belize's independence and established diplomatic ties, while acknowledging that the boundaries remained in dispute. In anticipation of an effort to bring the border dispute to an end in early 1996, the Guatemalan Congress ratified two long-pending international agreements governing frontier issues and maritime rights. In 2001, Guatemala and Belize agreed to a facilitation process led by the OAS to determine the land and maritime borders separating the two countries. National elections in Guatemala put a temporary halt to progress, but discussions resumed in November 2005. Since being named Foreign Minister in early August 2006, Gert Rosenthal has reinvigorated discussions with Belize.

When [[President Trump]] decided to move the US embassy in [[Israel]] from [[Tel Aviv]] to [[Jerusalem]], the government of Guatemala announced to move its own embassy also to Jerusalem.<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/after-the-u-s-guatemala-paraguayan-embassy-to-move-to-jerusalem-1.6099346 Paraguay Officially Moves Embassy to Jerusalem: 'We Have No Better Friend,' Netanyahu Says]. ''Haaretz''. May 21, 2018. Retrieved August 29, 2018</ref>

==Defense==
Guatemala is a signatory to the Rio Pact and is a member of the Conference of Central American Armed Forces (CFAC). Guatemala has deployed its troops to UN peacekeeping operations in Haiti and the Congo and has observers in several other locations. The president is commander in chief. The defense minister is responsible for policy. Day-to-day operations are the responsibility of the military chief of staff and the national defense staff.

An agreement signed in September 1996, which is one of the substantive peace accords, mandated that the mission of the armed forces change to focus exclusively on external threats. However, President Berger as well as his predecessors Portillo and Arzu used a constitutional clause to order the army to temporarily support the police in response to a nationwide wave of violent crime.

The accord calls for a one-third reduction in the army's authorized strength and budget—achieved under President Berger—and for a constitutional amendment to permit the appointment of a civilian Minister of Defense. A constitutional amendment to this end was defeated as part of a May 1999 plebiscite, but discussions on how to achieve this objective continue between the executive and legislative branches.

The army has gone beyond its accord-mandated target of reducing its strength to 28,000 troops, and numbered 15,500 troops as of June 2004. Not only was this the most profound transformation of any Central American military in the last 50 years, it also illustrates the effective control the civilian government has over the military. President Berger has tasked the Defense Ministry with increasing the professional skills of all soldiers. As part of the army downsizing, the operational structure of 19 military zones and three strategic brigades were recast as several military zones are eliminated and their area of operations absorbed by others. The air force operates three air bases; the navy has two port bases. Additionally, recent steps have been taken to redefine the military's mission—the military doctrine has been rewritten, and there has been an increase in cooperation with civil society to help bring about this reform.

==Economy==
After the signing of the final peace accord in December 1996, Guatemala was well-positioned for rapid economic growth over the next several years, until a financial crisis in 1998 disrupted the course of improvement. The subsequent collapse of coffee prices left what was once the country's leading export sector in depression and had a severe impact on rural incomes. Foreign investment inflows have been weak, with the exception of the privatization of utilities. Potential investors, both foreign and domestic, cite corruption, lack of physical security, a climate of confrontation between the government and private sector, and unreliable mechanisms for contract enforcement as the principal barriers to new business. On a more positive note, Guatemala's macroeconomic management was sound under the Portillo administration, and its foreign debt levels are modest. The country subscribed to a standby agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2002, which it extended in June 2003.

Guatemala's economy is dominated by the private sector, which generates about 85% of GDP. Agriculture contributes 23% of GDP and accounts for 75% of exports. Most manufacturing is light assembly and food processing, geared to the domestic, U.S., and Central American markets. Over the past several years, tourism and exports of textiles, apparel, and nontraditional agricultural products such as winter vegetables, fruit, and cut flowers have boomed, while more traditional exports such as sugar, bananas, and coffee continue to represent a large share of the export market.
*Real GDP (2006): $22.83 billion.
*Real GDP growth (2006): 4.6%.
*Per capita GDP (PPP, 2006): $4,317.
*Natural resources: Oil, timber, nickel.
*Agriculture (23% of GDP): Products—coffee, sugar, bananas, cardamom, vegetables, flowers and plants, timber, rice, rubber.
*Manufacturing (18% of GDP): Types—prepared food, clothing and textiles, construction materials, tires, pharmaceuticals.
*Trade (2005 est.): Exports--$3.94 billion: coffee, bananas, sugar, crude oil, chemical products, clothing and textiles, vegetables. Major markets—U.S. 28.9%, Central American Common Market (CACM) 42.4%, Mexico 4.8%. Imports--$7.75 billion: machinery and equipment, fuels, mineral products, chemical products, vehicles and transport materials, plastic materials and products. Major suppliers—U.S. 39.6%, CACM 12.3%, Mexico 8.3%, Japan 3.8%, Germany 2.4%.

The United States is the country's largest trading partner, providing 39.6% of Guatemala's imports and receiving 28.9% of its exports. The government's involvement is small, with its business activities limited to public utilities—some of which have been privatized—ports and airports, and several development-oriented financial institutions.

Guatemala ratified the U.S.-Central America Free Trade Agreement, commonly known as CAFTA, on March 10, 2005 and the agreement entered into force between Guatemala and the U.S. on July 1, 2006. CAFTA eliminates customs tariffs on as many categories of goods as possible; opens services sectors; and creates clear and readily enforceable rules in areas such as investment, government procurement, intellectual property protection, customs procedures, electronic commerce, the use of sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures to protect public health, and resolution of business disputes.

Other priorities include increasing transparency and accountability in Guatemala's public finances, broadening the tax base, and completing implementation of financial sector reforms. These measures attempt to ensure that Guatemala can comply with the standards of the international Financial Action Task Force for detecting and preventing money laundering.

The United States, along with other donor countries—especially France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and Japan—and the international financial institutions, have increased development project financing since the signing of the peace accords. However, donor support remains contingent upon Guatemalan Government reforms and counterpart financing.

The distribution of income and wealth remains highly skewed. The wealthiest 10% of the population receives almost one-half of all income; the top 20% receives two-thirds of all income. As a result, about 80% of the population lives in poverty, and two-thirds of that number—or 7.6 million people—live in extreme poverty. Guatemala's social development indicators, such as infant mortality and illiteracy, are among the worst in the hemisphere. Chronic malnutrition among the rural poor worsened with the onset of the crisis in coffee prices. The United States has provided disaster assistance and food aid in response to natural disasters including Hurricane Stan, which caused extensive mudslides in Guatemala in October 2005.

==History==
The Mayan civilization flourished throughout much of Guatemala and the surrounding region long before the Spanish arrived, but it was already in decline when the Mayans were defeated by Pedro de Alvarado in 1523–24. The first colonial capital, Ciudad Vieja, was ruined by floods and an earthquake in 1542. Survivors founded Antigua, the second capital, in 1543. Antigua was destroyed by two earthquakes in 1773. The remnants of its Spanish colonial architecture have been preserved as a national monument. The third capital, Guatemala City, was founded in 1776.

Guatemala gained independence from Spain on September 15, 1821; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empire, and then for a period belonged to a federation called the United Provinces of Central America. From the mid-19th century until the mid-1980s, the country passed through a series of dictatorships, insurgencies (particularly beginning in the 1960s), coups, and stretches of military rule with only occasional periods of representative government.

====1944 to 1986====
In 1944, Gen. Jorge Ubico's dictatorship was overthrown by the "October Revolutionaries," a group of dissident military officers, students, and liberal professionals. A civilian President, Juan Jose Arevalo, was elected in 1945 and held the presidency until 1951. Social reforms initiated by Arevalo were continued by his successor, Col. Jacobo Arbenz. Arbenz permitted the communist Guatemalan Labor Party to gain legal status in 1952. The army refused to defend the Arbenz government when a U.S.-backed group led by Col. Carlos Castillo Armas invaded the country from Honduras in 1954 and quickly took over the government. Gen. Miguel Ydigoras Fuentes took power in 1958 following the murder of Colonel Castillo Armas.

In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of Ydigoras Fuentes, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with Cuba. This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years. Four principal left-wing guerrilla groups—the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), the Revolutionary Organization of Armed People (ORPA), the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR), and the Guatemalan Labor Party (PGT)--conducted economic sabotage and targeted government installations and members of government security forces in armed attacks. These organizations combined to form the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) in 1982.

Shortly after President Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro took office in 1966, the army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside. The guerrillas then concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U.S. Ambassador John Gordon Mein in 1968. Between 1966 and 1982, there was a series of military or military-dominated governments.

On March 23, 1982, army troops commanded by junior officers staged a coup to prevent the assumption of power by Gen. Angel Anibal Guevara, the hand-picked candidate of outgoing President and Gen. Romeo Lucas Garcia. They denounced Guevara's electoral victory as fraudulent. The coup leaders asked retired Gen. [[Efrain Rios Montt]] to negotiate the departure of Lucas and Guevara.

Rios Montt was at this time a lay pastor in the evangelical Protestant "Church of the Word." He formed a three-member military [[junta]] that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved Congress, suspended political parties, and canceled the electoral law. After a few months, Rios Montt dismissed his junta colleagues and assumed the de facto title of "President of the Republic."

Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies denounced Rios Montt. Rios Montt sought to defeat the guerrillas with military actions and economic reforms; in his words, "rifles and beans." The government began to form local civilian defense patrols (PACs). Participation was in theory voluntary, but in reality, many Guatemalans, especially in the heavily indigenous northwest, had no choice but to join either the PACs or the guerrillas. Rios Montt's conscript army and PACs recaptured essentially all guerrilla territory—guerrilla activity lessened and was largely limited to hit-and-run operations. However, Rios Montt won this partial victory at an enormous cost in civilian deaths, in what was probably the most violent period of the 36-year internal conflict, resulting in about 200,000 deaths of mostly unarmed indigenous civilians.

On August 8, 1983, Rios Montt was deposed by his own Minister of Defense, Gen. Oscar Humberto Mejia Victores, who succeeded him as de facto President of Guatemala. Rios Montt survived to found a political party (the Guatemalan Republic Front) and to be elected President of Congress in 1995 and 2000. Awareness in the United States of the conflict in Guatemala, and its ethnic dimension, increased with the 1983 publication of the book I, [[Rigoberta Menchu]], An Indian Woman in Guatemala.

General Mejia allowed a managed return to democracy in Guatemala, starting with a July 1, 1984 election for a Constituent Assembly to draft a democratic constitution. On May 30, 1985, after 9 months of debate, the Constituent Assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took effect immediately. Vinicio Cerezo, a civilian politician and the presidential candidate of the Christian Democracy Party, won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70% of the vote, and took office on January 14, 1986.

====1986 to 2003====
Upon its inauguration in January 1986, President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law. Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and amparo (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman. Cerezo survived coup attempts in 1988 and 1989, and the final 2 years of Cerezo's government were also marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption.
[[File:Girls Chichicastenango Guatemala 1996.jpg|right|300px|Young women on the marketplace of Chichicastenango, Guatemala, 1996.]]
Presidential and congressional elections were held on November 11, 1990. After a runoff ballot, Jorge Serrano was inaugurated on January 14, 1991, thus completing the first transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another.

The Serrano administration's record was mixed. It had some success in consolidating civilian control over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG. Serrano took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize. The Serrano government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth.

On May 25, 1993, Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption. The "autogolpe" (or self-initiated coup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover. Serrano fled the country.

On June 5, 1993, the Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, Ramiro De Leon Carpio, to complete Serrano's presidential term. De Leon, not a member of any political party and lacking a political base but with strong popular support, launched an ambitious anticorruption campaign to "purify" Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies.

Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the administration and Congress. This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on January 30, 1994. In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term.

Under De Leon, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life. The government and the URNG signed agreements on human rights (March 1994), resettlement of displaced persons (June 1994), historical clarification (June 1994), and indigenous rights (March 1995). They also made significant progress on a socioeconomic and agrarian agreement. National elections for president, the Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995. With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a January 7, 1996 runoff in which National Advancement Party (PAN) candidate Alvaro Arzu defeated Alfonso Portillo of the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) by just over 2% of the vote. Under the Arzu administration, peace negotiations were concluded, and the government signed peace accords ending the 36-year internal conflict in December 1996. The human rights situation also improved during Arzu's tenure, and steps were taken to reduce the influence of the military in national affairs.

In a December 1999 presidential runoff, Alfonso Portillo (FRG) won 68% of the vote to 32% for Oscar Berger (PAN). Portillo's impressive electoral triumph, with two-thirds of the vote in the second round, gave him a claim to a mandate from the people to carry out his reform program.

Progress in carrying out Portillo's reform agenda was slow at best, with the notable exception of a series of reforms sponsored by the World Bank to modernize bank regulation and criminalize money laundering. The United States determined in April 2003 that Guatemala had failed to demonstrably adhere to its international counternarcotics commitments during the previous year.

A high crime rate and a serious and worsening public corruption problem were cause for concern for the Government of Guatemala. These problems, in addition to issues related to the often violent harassment and intimidation by unknown assailants of human rights activists, judicial workers, journalists, and witnesses in human rights trials, led the government to begin serious attempts in 2001 to open a national dialogue to discuss the considerable challenges facing the country.

National elections were held on November 9, 2003. Oscar Berger Perdomo of the Grand National Alliance (GANA) party won the election, receiving 54.1% of the vote. His opponent, Alvarado Colom Caballeros of the Nation Unity for Hope (UNE) party received 45.9% of the vote. The new government assumed office on January 14, 2004.

====2004 - present====
[[File:Guatamala protest.png|right|300px|thumb|When Kamala Harris made her first visit to Guatemala, she was greeted by Guatemalan protesters with banners reading, "Kamala, Trump Won."<ref>https://nypost.com/2021/06/07/guatemala-protesters-tell-kamala-harris-trump-won/</ref>]]
The people of Guatemala were very angry with the [[Biden junta]] for its empowerment and support of Latin American criminal gangs and drug cartels. Guatemalan President Alejandro Giammattei [[CBS News]], “We asked the United States government to send more of a clear message to prevent more people from leaving,” Giammattei said. When Biden took office, “The message changed too: ‘We’re going to reunite families, we’re going to reunite children,’” he said. “The very next day, the coyotes were here organizing groups of children to take them to the United States.” When Border Czar [[Kamala Harris]] arrived for a visit, the 56-year-old pro-abortion childless woman was not well received in the Catholic country. The Biden junta facilitated the trafficing of [[Central America]]n children by criminal gangs. Protesters greeted her "Kamala Go Home" and made clear her anti-pro-abortion messages and failure to protect [[Hispanic]] child from child trafficers as not well received.<ref>https://nypost.com/2021/06/07/guatemala-protesters-tell-kamala-harris-trump-won/</ref>

==See also==
*[[Guatemala City Guatemala Temple]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

[[Category:Guatemala]]
[[Category:Central American Countries]]
[[Category:Mayan World]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Colombia

2024-06-02T18:19:49Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Colombia''
|map =Colombia rel 2001.jpg
|map2 =
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Colombia.png
|capital =Bogota
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Gustavo Petro
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|conservative-leader = María Fernanda Cabal
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =440,831 sq. mi.
|pop =51,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$325,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$6,311 (2020)
|currency =Peso
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Republic of Colombia''' is a [[country]] just south of [[Panama]], in the continent of [[South America]]. The primary language in Colombia is [[Spanish]]. The leftist, [[Gustavo Petro]] is the current President of Colombia. Colombia is a Spanish colony.

==People==
[[File:Bucaramanga Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Giron, Bucaramanga.]]
Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. Thirty cities have a population of 100,000 or more. The nine eastern lowlands departments, constituting about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 3% of the population and a density of less than one person per square kilometer (two persons per sq. mi.). Ethnic diversity in Colombia is a result of the intermingling of indigenous peoples, Europeans and Africans. Today, only about 1% of the people can be identified as fully indigenous on the basis of language and customs.
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==Government==

Under 1886 Constitution, executive, legislative, and judicial branches established with separation of powers and with checks and balances; nonetheless, executive retained strong policy-making authority. Chief executive is president of the republic, elected by direct popular vote for a four-year term and constitutionally probibited from seeking consecutive terms. Legislative authority vested in bicameral Congress consisting of 114-member Senate and 199-member House of Representatives. Congress popularly elected for four-year term. Judiciary consists of twenty-four-member Supreme Court; various district superior, circuit, municipal, and lower courts; and Council of State. In addition to national government, Colombia divided into twenty-three departments, four intendancies, and five commisaryships.
[[File:Bogota Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|770px|Bogota, the capital.]]
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===Foreign Relations===
In 1969, Colombia, along with Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru, formed what is now the Andean Community. (Venezuela joined in 1973 and announced its departure in 2005; Chile left in 1976 and returned in 2006.) In the 1980s, Colombia broadened its bilateral and multilateral relations, joining the Contadora Group, the Group of Eight (now the Rio Group) and the Non-Aligned Movement, which it chaired from 1994 until September 1998. In addition, it has signed free trade agreements with Chile, Mexico and Venezuela. The U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement was signed by President Bush in November 2006, and is awaiting congressional approval as of September 2007.

Colombia has traditionally played an active role in the United Nations and the Organization of American States and in their subsidiary agencies. Former President Gaviria became Secretary General of the Organization of American States (OAS) in September 1994 and was re-elected in 1999. Colombia has participated in all five Summits of the Americas, most recently in November 2005, and followed up on initiatives developed at the first two summits by hosting two post-summit, ministerial-level meetings on trade and science and technology. In March 2006, Bogota hosted the Sixth Regular Session of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism.

U.S. policy toward Colombia supports the Colombian Government's efforts to strengthen its democratic institutions, promote respect for human rights and the rule of law, intensify counter-narcotics efforts, foster socioeconomic development, address immediate humanitarian needs, and end the threats to democracy posed by narcotics trafficking and terrorism. Promoting security, stability, and prosperity in Colombia will continue as long-term American interests in the region.

==Defense==
Colombia's Ministry of Defense is charged with the country's internal and external defense and security, and exercises jurisdiction over an army, navy—including marines and coast guard—air force, and national police under the leadership of a civilian Minister of Defense. Real spending on defense has increased every year since 2000, but especially so under President Uribe. Colombian spending on defense grew over 30% after inflation from 2001 to 2005, from $2.6 billion to more than 3.9 billion. Projected defense spending for 2006 was $4.48 billion. The security forces number about 350,000 uniformed personnel: 190,000 military and 160,000 police. President Uribe instituted a wealth tax in 2002, which raised over $800 million, with 70% used to increase 2002-2003 defense spending. A similar tax to be imposed from 2007 to 2011 is expected to raise up to $3.6 billion.

Many Colombian military personnel receive training in the United States or from U.S. instructors in Colombia. The United States provides equipment to the Colombian military and police through the military assistance program, foreign military sales and the international narcotics control program.

===Narcotics and Terrorism===
The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration estimates that more than 80% of the worldwide powdered cocaine supply and as much as 90% of the powdered cocaine smuggled into the United States is produced in Colombia.

The Colombian Government is committed to the eradication of all illicit crops, interdiction of illegal drug shipments and financial controls to prevent money laundering. Between 2004 and 2006, Colombian security forces interdicted 562 metric tons of cocaine, coca base, and heroin. Coca cultivation decreased by 15% from 2001 to 2005, while opium poppy cultivation decreased by 68% from 2001 to 2004.

Terrorist groups in Colombia are actively engaged in narcotics production and trafficking. The [[FARC]] was believed responsible for more than half of the cocaine entering the United States.

[[File:Cartagena Colombia.jpg|thumb|800px|center|Cartagena de Indias.]]

==Economy==
[[File:Coffee picking in Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Coffee picking.]]
Colombia is a free market economy with major commercial and investment ties to the United States. Transition from a highly regulated economy has been underway for more than 15 years. In 1990, the administration of President Cesar Gaviria (1990–94) initiated economic liberalization or "apertura," with tariff reductions, financial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises and adoption of a more liberal foreign exchange rate. These policies eased import restrictions and opened most sectors to foreign investment, although agricultural products remained protected.

Unlike many of its neighboring countries, Colombia has not suffered any dramatic economic collapses. The Uribe administration seeks to maintain prudent fiscal policies and has pursued tough economic reforms including tax, pension and budget reforms. A U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) study shows that Colombian tax rates (both personal and corporate) are among the highest in Latin America. The unemployment rate in December 2006 was 11.4%, down from 15.1% in December 2002.

The sustained growth of the Colombian economy can be attributed to an increase in domestic security, the policies of keeping inflation low and maintaining a stable currency (the Colombian peso), petroleum price increases and an increase in exports to neighboring countries and the United States as a result of trade liberalization. The Andean Trade Preference and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA), which has been extended through February 2008, also plays a pivotal role in Colombia's economic growth. Signing a free trade agreement in November 2006 portends further opportunity for growth once it is approved by the legislatures of both countries and implemented.

===Industry and Agriculture===
[[Image:Miss Colombia.jpg|300px|right]]
The most industrially diverse member of the five-nation Andean Community, Colombia has five major industrial centers—Bogota, Medellin, Cali, Bucaramanga and Barranquilla—each located in a distinct geographical region. Colombia's industries include textiles and clothing, leather products, processed foods and beverages, paper and paper products, chemicals and petrochemicals, cement, construction, iron and steel products and metalworking.

Colombia's diverse climate and topography permit the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. In addition, all regions yield forest products, ranging from tropical hardwoods in the lowlands, to pine and eucalyptus in the colder areas. Cacao, sugarcane, coconuts, bananas, plantains, rice, cotton, tobacco, cassava and most of the nation's beef cattle are produced in the hot regions from sea level to 1,000 meters elevation. The temperate regions—between 1,000 and 2,000 meters—are better suited for coffee, flowers, corn and other vegetables, pears, pineapples, and tomatoes. The cooler elevations—between 2,000 and 3,000 meters—produce wheat, barley, potatoes, cold-climate vegetables, flowers, dairy cattle and poultry.

===Trade===
[[File:Barranquilla Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|270px|City of Barranquilla.]]
In 2006, Colombia was the United States' fifth-largest export market in the Western Hemisphere behind Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and Venezuela and the largest agricultural export market in the hemisphere after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) countries. U.S. exports to Colombia in 2006 were $6.9 billion, up 13.2% from the previous year. U.S. imports from Colombia were $9.6 billion, up 4%. Colombia's major exports are petroleum, coffee, coal, nickel, and nontraditional exports (e.g., cut flowers, gold, bananas, semiprecious stones, sugar, and tropical fruits). The United States is Colombia's largest trading partner, representing about 40% of Colombia's exports and 26.6% of its imports.

Colombia has improved protection of intellectual property rights through the adoption of three Andean Pact decisions in 1993 and 1994 as well as an internal decree on data protection. The United States remains concerned over deficiencies in licensing and copyright protection.
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===Mining and Energy===
Colombia has considerable mineral and energy resources, especially coal and natural gas reserves. New security measures and increased drilling activity have slowed the drop in petroleum production, allowing Colombia to continue to export through 2010 or 2011, given current production estimates. In 2006, gas reserves totaled 7,349 billion cubic feet. Gas production totaled 680 million cubic feet per day. The country's current refining capacity is 299,200 barrels per day. Mining and energy related investments have grown because of higher oil prices, increased demand and improved output. Colombia has significantly liberalized its petroleum sector, leading to an increase in exploration and production contracts from both large and small hydrocarbon industries.

Colombia is presently the 16th-greatest coal producing country, accounting for about 1% of the world's total annual coal production, and the largest producer in Latin America (65.8 million tons in 2006). Colombia has proven recoverable coal reserves of about 7.4 billion short tons, the majority of which are located in the north of the country. Ferronickel production decreased from 116 million pounds in 2005 to 112.7 million pounds in 2006. Colombia historically has been the world's leading producer of emeralds, although production has fallen in recent years. Emerald production fell from 116.3 million carats in 2005 to 112.7 million carats in 2006. Colombia is also a significant producer of gold, silver, and platinum.

===Foreign Investment===
The United States is the largest source of new foreign direct investment (FDI) in Colombia, particularly in the areas of coal and petroleum. In 2006, new FDI totaled $6.3 billion, an increase of 294% from 2002. The bulk of the new investment is in the manufacturing, mining, and petroleum sectors. The only activities closed to foreign direct investment are defense and national security, and disposal of hazardous wastes. Capital controls have been implemented to reduce currency speculation and to keep foreign investment in-country for at least a year. In order to encourage investment in Colombia, Congress approved a law in 2005 to protect FDI.

==History==
[[Image:Catedral Basílica de la Inmaculada Concepción de María Medellin.jpg|thumb|280px|Cathedral and Basílica at Medellin.]]
During the pre-Columbian period, the area now known as Colombia was inhabited by indigenous societies situated at different stages of socio-economic development, ranging from hunters and nomadic farmers to the highly structured Chibchas, who are considered to be one of the most developed indigenous groups in South America.

Santa Marta was the first permanent Spanish settlement founded in 1525. Santa Fe de Bogota was founded in 1538 and, in 1717, became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, which included what are now Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Bogota was one of three principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World.

On July 20, 1810, the citizens of Bogota created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority. Full independence was proclaimed in 1813, and in 1819 the Republic of Greater Colombia was formed to include all the territory of the former Viceroyalty (Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama). Simon Bolivar was elected its first president with Francisco de Paula Santander as vice president. Conflicts between followers of Bolivar and Santander led to the formation of two political parties that have since dominated Colombian politics. Bolivar's supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, sought strong centralized government, alliance with the Roman Catholic Church and a limited franchise. Santander's followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state control over education and other civil matters, and a broader suffrage.

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time. Colombia maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free, elections. Notwithstanding the country's commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia's history also has been characterized by widespread, violent conflict. Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties: The War of a Thousand Days (1899-1903) claimed an estimated 100,000 lives and La Violencia (the Violence) (1946-1957) claimed about 300,000 lives.

===''La Violencia'' and the National Front===
The assassination of Liberal leader Jorge Eliecer Gaitan in 1948 sparked the bloody conflict known as La Violencia. Conservative Party leader Laureano Gomez came to power in 1950, but was ousted by a military coup led by General [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]] in 1953. When Rojas failed to restore democratic rule and became implicated in corrupt schemes, he was overthrown by the military with the support of the Liberal and Conservative Parties.

In July 1957, an alliance between former Conservative President Laureano Gomez (1950–53) and former Liberal President Alberto Lleras Camargo (1945–46) led to the creation of the National Front. It established a power-sharing agreement between the two parties and brought an end to "La Violencia." The presidency would be determined by regular elections every 4 years and the two parties would have parity in all other elective and appointive offices. This system was phased out by 1978.

===Post-National Front Years===
During the post-National Front years, the Colombian Government made efforts to negotiate a peace with the persistent guerrilla organizations that flourished in Colombia's remote and undeveloped rural areas. In 1984, President Belisario Betancur, a Conservative, negotiated a cease-fire with the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia]] (FARC) and the Democratic Alliance/M-19 (M-19) that included the release of many imprisoned guerrillas. The [[National Liberation Army]] (ELN) rejected the government's cease fire proposal at that time. The M-19 pulled out of the cease-fire when it resumed fighting in 1985. The army suppressed an M-19 attack on the Palace of Justice in Bogota in November 1985, during which 115 people were killed, including 11 Supreme Court justices. The government and the M-19 renewed their truce in March 1989, which led to a peace agreement and the M-19's reintegration into society and political life. The M-19 was one of the parties that participated in the process to enact a new constitution (see below), which took effect in 1991. The FARC ended the truce in 1990 after some 2,000-3,000 of its members who had demobilized had been murdered.

A new constitution in 1991 brought about major reforms to Colombia's political institutions. While the new constitution preserved a presidential, three-branch system of government, it created new institutions such as the Inspector General, a Human Rights Ombudsman, a Constitutional Court and a Superior Judicial Council. The new constitution also reestablished the position of Vice President. Other significant constitutional reforms provide for civil divorce, dual nationality and the establishment of a legal mechanism ("tutela") that allows individuals to appeal government decisions affecting their constitutional rights. The constitution also authorized the introduction of an accusatory system of criminal justice that is gradually being instituted throughout the country, replacing the previous written inquisitorial system. A constitutional amendment approved in 2005 allows the president to hold office for two consecutive 4-year terms.

Colombian governments have had to contend with the combined terrorist activities of left-wing guerrillas, the rise of paramilitary forces in the 1990s and the drug cartels. Narco-terrorists assassinated three presidential candidates during the election campaign of 1990. After Colombian security forces killed Medellin cartel leader Pablo Escobar in December 1993, indiscriminate acts of violence associated with his organization abated as the "cartels" were broken into multiple and smaller trafficking organizations that competed against each other in the drug trade. Guerrillas and paramilitary groups also entered into drug trafficking as a way to finance their military operations.

===Pastrana Administration===
The administration of Andres Pastrana (1998-2002), a Conservative, faced increased countrywide attacks by the FARC and ELN, widespread drug production and the expansion of paramilitary groups. The Pastrana administration unveiled its "Plan Colombia" in 1999 as a strategy to deal with these longstanding problems, and sought support from the international community. Plan Colombia is a comprehensive program to combat narco-terrorism; spur economic recovery; strengthen democratic institutions and respect for human rights; and provide humanitarian assistance to internally displaced persons.

In November 1998, Pastrana ceded a sparsely populated area the size of Switzerland in south-central Colombia to the FARC's control to serve as a neutral zone where peace negotiations could take place. The FARC negotiated with the government only fitfully while continuing to mount attacks and expand coca production, seriously undermining the government's efforts to reach an agreement. Negotiations with the rebels in 2000 and 2001 were marred by rebel attacks, kidnappings and fighting between rebels and paramilitaries for control of coca-growing areas in Colombia. In February 2002, after the FARC hijacked a commercial aircraft and kidnapped a senator, Pastrana ordered the military to attack rebel positions and reassert control over the neutral zone. FARC withdrew into the jungle and increased attacks against Colombia's infrastructure, while avoiding large-scale direct conflicts with the military.

===Uribe Administration===
[[Image:Auv Uribe Official.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|Álvaro Uribe Vélez.]]
Álvaro Uribe, an independent, was elected president in May 2002 on a platform to restore security to the country. Among his promises was to continue to pursue the broad goals of Plan Colombia within the framework of a long-term security strategy. In the fall of 2002, Uribe released a national security strategy that employed political, economic and military means to weaken all illegal narco-terrorist groups. The Uribe government offered to negotiate a peace agreement with these groups with the condition that they agree to a unilateral cease-fire and to end drug trafficking and kidnapping.

In December 2003, the Colombian Self-Defense Forces ([[AUC]]) paramilitary group entered into a peace agreement with the government that has led to the collective demobilization of over 31,000 AUC members. In addition, over 10,000 members of the AUC and other illegal armed groups have individually surrendered their arms. In July 2005, President Uribe signed the Justice and Peace Law, which provides reduced punishments for the demobilized if they renounce violence and return illegal assets, which are to provide reparations to victims.
[[File:Las Lajas Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Las Lajas, Cathedral.]]
The ELN and the government began a round of talks with the Colombian Government mediated by the Mexican Government in mid-2004. The ELN withdrew from the talks after the Mexican Government voted to condemn Cuba's human rights record at the United Nations in April 2005. In December 2005, the ELN began a new round of talks with the Colombian Government in Cuba that led to two more meetings, the latest one being held in July 2007. The dialogue is expected to continue.

As a result of the government's military and police operations, the strength of the FARC has been reduced in major areas. Since 2000, the FARC has not carried out large scale multi-front attacks, although it has mounted some operations that indicate it has not yet been broken. The FARC has rejected several government proposals aimed at bringing about an exchange of some 45 hostages. Three American citizens, who were working on counternarcotics programs, were captured by the FARC in February 2003. Their safe return is a priority goal of the United States and Colombia.

Colombia maintains an excellent extradition relationship with the United States. The Uribe administration has extradited more than 500 fugitives to the United States. Among those extradited in 2005 were Cali Cartel leaders Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela and his brother Miguel, and FARC leaders Juvenal Ovidio Palmera Pineda (aka "Simon Trinidad") and Omaira Rojas Cabrera (aka "Sonia").

In 2004, the Uribe government established, for the first time in recent Colombian history, a government presence in all of the country's 1,099 municipalities (county seats). Attacks conducted by illegally armed groups against rural towns decreased by 91% from 2002 to 2005. Between 2002 and 2006, Colombia saw a decrease in homicides by 37%, kidnappings by 78%, terrorist attacks by 63%, and attacks on the country's infrastructure by 60%.

Although much attention has been focused on the security aspects of Colombia's situation, the Uribe government also is making significant efforts on issues such as expanding international trade, supporting alternate means of development, and reforming Colombia's judicial system.

President Uribe was reelected with 62% of the vote in May 2006. In congressional elections in March 2006, the three leading pro-Uribe parties (National Unity, [[Colombian Conservative Party|Conservative Party]], and Radical Change) won clear majorities in both houses of Congress. In late 2006, the Supreme Court began investigations and ordered the arrest of some members of Congress for actions on behalf of paramilitary groups.

In January 2007, Colombian leaders presented a new strategy to consolidate and build on progress under Plan Colombia, called the "Strategy to Strengthen Democracy and Social Development." The new strategy continues successful Plan Colombia programs while increasing state presence by improving access to social services, and supporting economic development through sustainable growth and trade.

===Peace agreement with the FARC and Duque administration===
[[File:Iván Duque.jpg|150px|thumbnail|President Iván Duque Márquez, opponent of the Peace agreement with FARC before his presidency.]]
The Colombian government from [[Juan Manuel Santos]] approved a peace accord with the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia]] (FARC) in 2016.<ref>Karl, Robert (October 1, 2016). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/10/01/heres-the-century-long-history-behind-colombias-peace-agreement-with-the-farc/ Here’s the century-long history behind Colombia’s peace agreement with the FARC]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved October 1, 2016.</ref> However, voters narrowly rejected the peace deal in a referendum, as there were worries that the deal was far too lenient towards the FARC.<ref>Murphy, Helen & Cobb, Julia Symmes (October 3, 2016). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-peace-idUSKCN1230BH Colombia's peace deal in limbo after shock referendum]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 4, 2016.</ref> In November 2016, the Colombian government approved a revised treaty with FARC, changed to address some, but not all, of the concerns of conservatives.<ref name="Skipping">Casey, Nicholas (November 24, 2016). [https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/24/world/americas/colombia-juan-manuel-santos-peace-deal-farc.html?_r=0 Colombia and FARC Sign New Peace Deal, This Time Skipping Voters]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved November 26, 2016.</ref> This time, the treaty was not brought before the voters, but rather the Colombian Congress.<ref name="Skipping"/> It was reported in April 2017 that FARC continued to possess weapons despite the deal that was made.<ref>Arostegui, Martin (April 20, 2017). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/04/20/colombias-farc-concealing-weapons-despite-deal-intelligence-analysts-say.html Colombia's FARC concealing weapons despite deal, intelligence analysts say]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved April 20, 2017.</ref> It was reported in mid-May that FARC members continued to engage in violence and kidnappings.<ref>Martel, Frances (May 15, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/05/15/colombia-farc-terrorists-continue-abductions-violence-as-peace-deal-kicks-in/ Colombia: FARC Terrorists Abduct Ranchers, UN Employee as Peace Deal Kicks In]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 16, 2017.</ref> FARC continued to exist, but at a political party.<ref>Bocanegra, Nelson; Cobb, Julia Symmes (August 27, 2017). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-peace-politics/after-decades-of-war-colombias-farc-rebels-debut-political-party-idUSKCN1B705U After decades of war, Colombia's FARC rebels debut political party]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 25, 2017.</ref> By April 2018, the peace agreement was failing, and violence and cocaine production had sharply risen.<ref>Arostegui, Martin (May 3, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/may/3/farc-violence-cocaine-production-spike-colombia-th/ Cracks in the FARC peace deal: Violence, cocaine production surge in Colombia]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved May 4, 2018.</ref>

On September 4, 2017, Colombia signed a ceasefire deal with its last remaining guerrilla organization, the [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|National Liberation Army]].<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/09/04/colombia-signs-cease-fire-deal-with-last-guerrilla-group.html Colombia signs cease-fire deal with last guerrilla group]. ''Fox News'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved September 4, 2017.</ref>

In the 2018 presidential election, conservative [[Iván Duque]], a critic of the FARC agreement, was elected Colombia's president, defeating a leftist former guerrilla terrorist.<ref>Multiple references:
*Martel, Frances (June 18, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/06/18/martel-colombias-conservative-heartland-saves-another-election-day/ Martel: Colombia’s Conservative Heartland Saves Another Election Day]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
*Boylan, Dave (June 17, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/jun/17/ivan-duque-wins-colombias-presidential-race/ Ivan Duque wins Colombia's presidential race]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
See also:
*Arostegui, Martin (May 31, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/may/31/ivan-duque-colombia-runoff-leader-may-be-trump-all/ Hard-line conservative candidate in Colombia taps fear of Venezuelan-style collapse to win votes]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved September 24, 2018.</ref> Duque was sworn in on August 7, 2018.<ref>Murphy, Helen; Cobb, Julia Symmes (August 7, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-politics/duque-becomes-colombias-president-promising-to-unite-divided-nation-idUSKBN1KS2IT Duque becomes Colombia's president, promising to unite divided nation]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 7, 2018.</ref>

By August 2019, the peace agreement had broken down.<ref>Taylor, Luke (August 11, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/colombias-warring-gangs-target-migrants-at-venezuelan-border-peace-process-stutters_3037729.html Colombia’s Warring Gangs Target Migrants at Venezuelan Border; Peace Process Stutters]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved August 11, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/08/colombia-border-venezuela-war-farc-report Thousands forced to flee as rights group warns of 'war' in Colombia border area]. ''The Guardian'' (from the ''Associated Press''). August 8, 2019. Retrieved August 11, 2019.</ref>

In 2021 a marxist insurrection took place during Duque's government.

In the 2022 Presidencial Election the engineer [[Rodolfo Hernández]] lost to the leftist [[Gustavo Petro]] in the second round. Since 2015 Presidents can't be reelected.

Gustavo Pedro's son, Nicolas, who supports his father lefty agenda,<ref>[https://www.eltiempo.com/amp/elecciones-colombia-2019/barranquilla/nicolas-petro-hijo-de-gustavo-petro-que-va-por-la-gobernacion-de-atlantico-391542 Who is the son of Petro who is going for the Governorate of the Atlantic?], El Tiempo, July 26, 2019.<blockquote>
The eldest son of the head of Colombia Humana made his candidacy official this Monday.

This 31-year-old has stated on multiple occasions that he agrees with the political model that his father dreams of for Colombia.

Nicolás is the son of Gustavo Petro and the Monteriana Katia Burgos.</blockquote></ref> was arrested in July 2023, over "money laundering and illicit enrichment."<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/son-colombia-president-petro-arrested-money-laundering-probe-2023-07-29/ Colombian President Petro's son arrested in money laundering probe], ''Reuters'', July 29, 2023.<blockquote>BOGOTA, July 29 (Reuters) - Nicolas Petro, son of Colombian President Gustavo Petro, has been arrested as part of an investigation into money laundering and illicit enrichment, the attorney general's office said early on Saturday</blockquote></ref>

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]

Main source:
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

==Further reading==
===Guidebooks===
* ''Colombia'' by Jens Porup (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Colombia-Country-Guide-Jens-Porup/dp/1741048273/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244057054&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Colombia Handbook'' Tread Your Own Path Travel Guides, by Charlie Devereux (3rd ed. 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Colombia-Handbook-3rd-Footprint-Travel/dp/1906098220/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244057054&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* ''Colombia'' (Bradt Travel Guide) by Sarah Woods (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Colombia-Bradt-Travel-Guide-Sarah/dp/1841622427/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244057054&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* ''VIVA Travel Guides Colombia'' by Lorraine Caputo, Paula Newton, and Richard McColl (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Travel-Guides-Colombia-Lorraine-Caputo/dp/0979126444/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244057054&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Nb countries south america}}
[[Category:South American Countries]]
[[Category:Colombia]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Colombia

2024-06-02T18:19:22Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Colombia''
|map =Colombia rel 2001.jpg
|map2 =
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Arms of Colombia.png
|capital =Bogota
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Gustavo Petro
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|conservative-leader = María Fernanda Cabal
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =440,831 sq. mi.
|pop =51,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$325,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$6,311 (2020)
|currency =Peso
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Republic of Colombia''' is a [[country]] just south of [[Panama]], in the continent of [[South America]]. The primary language in Colombia is [[Spanish]]. The leftist, [[Gustavo Petro]] is the current President of Colombia.

==People==
[[File:Bucaramanga Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Giron, Bucaramanga.]]
Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. Thirty cities have a population of 100,000 or more. The nine eastern lowlands departments, constituting about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 3% of the population and a density of less than one person per square kilometer (two persons per sq. mi.). Ethnic diversity in Colombia is a result of the intermingling of indigenous peoples, Europeans and Africans. Today, only about 1% of the people can be identified as fully indigenous on the basis of language and customs.
{{Clear}}

==Government==

Under 1886 Constitution, executive, legislative, and judicial branches established with separation of powers and with checks and balances; nonetheless, executive retained strong policy-making authority. Chief executive is president of the republic, elected by direct popular vote for a four-year term and constitutionally probibited from seeking consecutive terms. Legislative authority vested in bicameral Congress consisting of 114-member Senate and 199-member House of Representatives. Congress popularly elected for four-year term. Judiciary consists of twenty-four-member Supreme Court; various district superior, circuit, municipal, and lower courts; and Council of State. In addition to national government, Colombia divided into twenty-three departments, four intendancies, and five commisaryships.
[[File:Bogota Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|770px|Bogota, the capital.]]
{{Clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
In 1969, Colombia, along with Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru, formed what is now the Andean Community. (Venezuela joined in 1973 and announced its departure in 2005; Chile left in 1976 and returned in 2006.) In the 1980s, Colombia broadened its bilateral and multilateral relations, joining the Contadora Group, the Group of Eight (now the Rio Group) and the Non-Aligned Movement, which it chaired from 1994 until September 1998. In addition, it has signed free trade agreements with Chile, Mexico and Venezuela. The U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement was signed by President Bush in November 2006, and is awaiting congressional approval as of September 2007.

Colombia has traditionally played an active role in the United Nations and the Organization of American States and in their subsidiary agencies. Former President Gaviria became Secretary General of the Organization of American States (OAS) in September 1994 and was re-elected in 1999. Colombia has participated in all five Summits of the Americas, most recently in November 2005, and followed up on initiatives developed at the first two summits by hosting two post-summit, ministerial-level meetings on trade and science and technology. In March 2006, Bogota hosted the Sixth Regular Session of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism.

U.S. policy toward Colombia supports the Colombian Government's efforts to strengthen its democratic institutions, promote respect for human rights and the rule of law, intensify counter-narcotics efforts, foster socioeconomic development, address immediate humanitarian needs, and end the threats to democracy posed by narcotics trafficking and terrorism. Promoting security, stability, and prosperity in Colombia will continue as long-term American interests in the region.

==Defense==
Colombia's Ministry of Defense is charged with the country's internal and external defense and security, and exercises jurisdiction over an army, navy—including marines and coast guard—air force, and national police under the leadership of a civilian Minister of Defense. Real spending on defense has increased every year since 2000, but especially so under President Uribe. Colombian spending on defense grew over 30% after inflation from 2001 to 2005, from $2.6 billion to more than 3.9 billion. Projected defense spending for 2006 was $4.48 billion. The security forces number about 350,000 uniformed personnel: 190,000 military and 160,000 police. President Uribe instituted a wealth tax in 2002, which raised over $800 million, with 70% used to increase 2002-2003 defense spending. A similar tax to be imposed from 2007 to 2011 is expected to raise up to $3.6 billion.

Many Colombian military personnel receive training in the United States or from U.S. instructors in Colombia. The United States provides equipment to the Colombian military and police through the military assistance program, foreign military sales and the international narcotics control program.

===Narcotics and Terrorism===
The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration estimates that more than 80% of the worldwide powdered cocaine supply and as much as 90% of the powdered cocaine smuggled into the United States is produced in Colombia.

The Colombian Government is committed to the eradication of all illicit crops, interdiction of illegal drug shipments and financial controls to prevent money laundering. Between 2004 and 2006, Colombian security forces interdicted 562 metric tons of cocaine, coca base, and heroin. Coca cultivation decreased by 15% from 2001 to 2005, while opium poppy cultivation decreased by 68% from 2001 to 2004.

Terrorist groups in Colombia are actively engaged in narcotics production and trafficking. The [[FARC]] was believed responsible for more than half of the cocaine entering the United States.

[[File:Cartagena Colombia.jpg|thumb|800px|center|Cartagena de Indias.]]

==Economy==
[[File:Coffee picking in Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Coffee picking.]]
Colombia is a free market economy with major commercial and investment ties to the United States. Transition from a highly regulated economy has been underway for more than 15 years. In 1990, the administration of President Cesar Gaviria (1990–94) initiated economic liberalization or "apertura," with tariff reductions, financial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises and adoption of a more liberal foreign exchange rate. These policies eased import restrictions and opened most sectors to foreign investment, although agricultural products remained protected.

Unlike many of its neighboring countries, Colombia has not suffered any dramatic economic collapses. The Uribe administration seeks to maintain prudent fiscal policies and has pursued tough economic reforms including tax, pension and budget reforms. A U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) study shows that Colombian tax rates (both personal and corporate) are among the highest in Latin America. The unemployment rate in December 2006 was 11.4%, down from 15.1% in December 2002.

The sustained growth of the Colombian economy can be attributed to an increase in domestic security, the policies of keeping inflation low and maintaining a stable currency (the Colombian peso), petroleum price increases and an increase in exports to neighboring countries and the United States as a result of trade liberalization. The Andean Trade Preference and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA), which has been extended through February 2008, also plays a pivotal role in Colombia's economic growth. Signing a free trade agreement in November 2006 portends further opportunity for growth once it is approved by the legislatures of both countries and implemented.

===Industry and Agriculture===
[[Image:Miss Colombia.jpg|300px|right]]
The most industrially diverse member of the five-nation Andean Community, Colombia has five major industrial centers—Bogota, Medellin, Cali, Bucaramanga and Barranquilla—each located in a distinct geographical region. Colombia's industries include textiles and clothing, leather products, processed foods and beverages, paper and paper products, chemicals and petrochemicals, cement, construction, iron and steel products and metalworking.

Colombia's diverse climate and topography permit the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. In addition, all regions yield forest products, ranging from tropical hardwoods in the lowlands, to pine and eucalyptus in the colder areas. Cacao, sugarcane, coconuts, bananas, plantains, rice, cotton, tobacco, cassava and most of the nation's beef cattle are produced in the hot regions from sea level to 1,000 meters elevation. The temperate regions—between 1,000 and 2,000 meters—are better suited for coffee, flowers, corn and other vegetables, pears, pineapples, and tomatoes. The cooler elevations—between 2,000 and 3,000 meters—produce wheat, barley, potatoes, cold-climate vegetables, flowers, dairy cattle and poultry.

===Trade===
[[File:Barranquilla Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|270px|City of Barranquilla.]]
In 2006, Colombia was the United States' fifth-largest export market in the Western Hemisphere behind Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and Venezuela and the largest agricultural export market in the hemisphere after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) countries. U.S. exports to Colombia in 2006 were $6.9 billion, up 13.2% from the previous year. U.S. imports from Colombia were $9.6 billion, up 4%. Colombia's major exports are petroleum, coffee, coal, nickel, and nontraditional exports (e.g., cut flowers, gold, bananas, semiprecious stones, sugar, and tropical fruits). The United States is Colombia's largest trading partner, representing about 40% of Colombia's exports and 26.6% of its imports.

Colombia has improved protection of intellectual property rights through the adoption of three Andean Pact decisions in 1993 and 1994 as well as an internal decree on data protection. The United States remains concerned over deficiencies in licensing and copyright protection.
{{Clear}}

===Mining and Energy===
Colombia has considerable mineral and energy resources, especially coal and natural gas reserves. New security measures and increased drilling activity have slowed the drop in petroleum production, allowing Colombia to continue to export through 2010 or 2011, given current production estimates. In 2006, gas reserves totaled 7,349 billion cubic feet. Gas production totaled 680 million cubic feet per day. The country's current refining capacity is 299,200 barrels per day. Mining and energy related investments have grown because of higher oil prices, increased demand and improved output. Colombia has significantly liberalized its petroleum sector, leading to an increase in exploration and production contracts from both large and small hydrocarbon industries.

Colombia is presently the 16th-greatest coal producing country, accounting for about 1% of the world's total annual coal production, and the largest producer in Latin America (65.8 million tons in 2006). Colombia has proven recoverable coal reserves of about 7.4 billion short tons, the majority of which are located in the north of the country. Ferronickel production decreased from 116 million pounds in 2005 to 112.7 million pounds in 2006. Colombia historically has been the world's leading producer of emeralds, although production has fallen in recent years. Emerald production fell from 116.3 million carats in 2005 to 112.7 million carats in 2006. Colombia is also a significant producer of gold, silver, and platinum.

===Foreign Investment===
The United States is the largest source of new foreign direct investment (FDI) in Colombia, particularly in the areas of coal and petroleum. In 2006, new FDI totaled $6.3 billion, an increase of 294% from 2002. The bulk of the new investment is in the manufacturing, mining, and petroleum sectors. The only activities closed to foreign direct investment are defense and national security, and disposal of hazardous wastes. Capital controls have been implemented to reduce currency speculation and to keep foreign investment in-country for at least a year. In order to encourage investment in Colombia, Congress approved a law in 2005 to protect FDI.

==History==
[[Image:Catedral Basílica de la Inmaculada Concepción de María Medellin.jpg|thumb|280px|Cathedral and Basílica at Medellin.]]
During the pre-Columbian period, the area now known as Colombia was inhabited by indigenous societies situated at different stages of socio-economic development, ranging from hunters and nomadic farmers to the highly structured Chibchas, who are considered to be one of the most developed indigenous groups in South America.

Santa Marta was the first permanent Spanish settlement founded in 1525. Santa Fe de Bogota was founded in 1538 and, in 1717, became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, which included what are now Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Bogota was one of three principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World.

On July 20, 1810, the citizens of Bogota created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority. Full independence was proclaimed in 1813, and in 1819 the Republic of Greater Colombia was formed to include all the territory of the former Viceroyalty (Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama). Simon Bolivar was elected its first president with Francisco de Paula Santander as vice president. Conflicts between followers of Bolivar and Santander led to the formation of two political parties that have since dominated Colombian politics. Bolivar's supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, sought strong centralized government, alliance with the Roman Catholic Church and a limited franchise. Santander's followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state control over education and other civil matters, and a broader suffrage.

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time. Colombia maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free, elections. Notwithstanding the country's commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia's history also has been characterized by widespread, violent conflict. Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties: The War of a Thousand Days (1899-1903) claimed an estimated 100,000 lives and La Violencia (the Violence) (1946-1957) claimed about 300,000 lives.

===''La Violencia'' and the National Front===
The assassination of Liberal leader Jorge Eliecer Gaitan in 1948 sparked the bloody conflict known as La Violencia. Conservative Party leader Laureano Gomez came to power in 1950, but was ousted by a military coup led by General [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]] in 1953. When Rojas failed to restore democratic rule and became implicated in corrupt schemes, he was overthrown by the military with the support of the Liberal and Conservative Parties.

In July 1957, an alliance between former Conservative President Laureano Gomez (1950–53) and former Liberal President Alberto Lleras Camargo (1945–46) led to the creation of the National Front. It established a power-sharing agreement between the two parties and brought an end to "La Violencia." The presidency would be determined by regular elections every 4 years and the two parties would have parity in all other elective and appointive offices. This system was phased out by 1978.

===Post-National Front Years===
During the post-National Front years, the Colombian Government made efforts to negotiate a peace with the persistent guerrilla organizations that flourished in Colombia's remote and undeveloped rural areas. In 1984, President Belisario Betancur, a Conservative, negotiated a cease-fire with the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia]] (FARC) and the Democratic Alliance/M-19 (M-19) that included the release of many imprisoned guerrillas. The [[National Liberation Army]] (ELN) rejected the government's cease fire proposal at that time. The M-19 pulled out of the cease-fire when it resumed fighting in 1985. The army suppressed an M-19 attack on the Palace of Justice in Bogota in November 1985, during which 115 people were killed, including 11 Supreme Court justices. The government and the M-19 renewed their truce in March 1989, which led to a peace agreement and the M-19's reintegration into society and political life. The M-19 was one of the parties that participated in the process to enact a new constitution (see below), which took effect in 1991. The FARC ended the truce in 1990 after some 2,000-3,000 of its members who had demobilized had been murdered.

A new constitution in 1991 brought about major reforms to Colombia's political institutions. While the new constitution preserved a presidential, three-branch system of government, it created new institutions such as the Inspector General, a Human Rights Ombudsman, a Constitutional Court and a Superior Judicial Council. The new constitution also reestablished the position of Vice President. Other significant constitutional reforms provide for civil divorce, dual nationality and the establishment of a legal mechanism ("tutela") that allows individuals to appeal government decisions affecting their constitutional rights. The constitution also authorized the introduction of an accusatory system of criminal justice that is gradually being instituted throughout the country, replacing the previous written inquisitorial system. A constitutional amendment approved in 2005 allows the president to hold office for two consecutive 4-year terms.

Colombian governments have had to contend with the combined terrorist activities of left-wing guerrillas, the rise of paramilitary forces in the 1990s and the drug cartels. Narco-terrorists assassinated three presidential candidates during the election campaign of 1990. After Colombian security forces killed Medellin cartel leader Pablo Escobar in December 1993, indiscriminate acts of violence associated with his organization abated as the "cartels" were broken into multiple and smaller trafficking organizations that competed against each other in the drug trade. Guerrillas and paramilitary groups also entered into drug trafficking as a way to finance their military operations.

===Pastrana Administration===
The administration of Andres Pastrana (1998-2002), a Conservative, faced increased countrywide attacks by the FARC and ELN, widespread drug production and the expansion of paramilitary groups. The Pastrana administration unveiled its "Plan Colombia" in 1999 as a strategy to deal with these longstanding problems, and sought support from the international community. Plan Colombia is a comprehensive program to combat narco-terrorism; spur economic recovery; strengthen democratic institutions and respect for human rights; and provide humanitarian assistance to internally displaced persons.

In November 1998, Pastrana ceded a sparsely populated area the size of Switzerland in south-central Colombia to the FARC's control to serve as a neutral zone where peace negotiations could take place. The FARC negotiated with the government only fitfully while continuing to mount attacks and expand coca production, seriously undermining the government's efforts to reach an agreement. Negotiations with the rebels in 2000 and 2001 were marred by rebel attacks, kidnappings and fighting between rebels and paramilitaries for control of coca-growing areas in Colombia. In February 2002, after the FARC hijacked a commercial aircraft and kidnapped a senator, Pastrana ordered the military to attack rebel positions and reassert control over the neutral zone. FARC withdrew into the jungle and increased attacks against Colombia's infrastructure, while avoiding large-scale direct conflicts with the military.

===Uribe Administration===
[[Image:Auv Uribe Official.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|Álvaro Uribe Vélez.]]
Álvaro Uribe, an independent, was elected president in May 2002 on a platform to restore security to the country. Among his promises was to continue to pursue the broad goals of Plan Colombia within the framework of a long-term security strategy. In the fall of 2002, Uribe released a national security strategy that employed political, economic and military means to weaken all illegal narco-terrorist groups. The Uribe government offered to negotiate a peace agreement with these groups with the condition that they agree to a unilateral cease-fire and to end drug trafficking and kidnapping.

In December 2003, the Colombian Self-Defense Forces ([[AUC]]) paramilitary group entered into a peace agreement with the government that has led to the collective demobilization of over 31,000 AUC members. In addition, over 10,000 members of the AUC and other illegal armed groups have individually surrendered their arms. In July 2005, President Uribe signed the Justice and Peace Law, which provides reduced punishments for the demobilized if they renounce violence and return illegal assets, which are to provide reparations to victims.
[[File:Las Lajas Colombia.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Las Lajas, Cathedral.]]
The ELN and the government began a round of talks with the Colombian Government mediated by the Mexican Government in mid-2004. The ELN withdrew from the talks after the Mexican Government voted to condemn Cuba's human rights record at the United Nations in April 2005. In December 2005, the ELN began a new round of talks with the Colombian Government in Cuba that led to two more meetings, the latest one being held in July 2007. The dialogue is expected to continue.

As a result of the government's military and police operations, the strength of the FARC has been reduced in major areas. Since 2000, the FARC has not carried out large scale multi-front attacks, although it has mounted some operations that indicate it has not yet been broken. The FARC has rejected several government proposals aimed at bringing about an exchange of some 45 hostages. Three American citizens, who were working on counternarcotics programs, were captured by the FARC in February 2003. Their safe return is a priority goal of the United States and Colombia.

Colombia maintains an excellent extradition relationship with the United States. The Uribe administration has extradited more than 500 fugitives to the United States. Among those extradited in 2005 were Cali Cartel leaders Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela and his brother Miguel, and FARC leaders Juvenal Ovidio Palmera Pineda (aka "Simon Trinidad") and Omaira Rojas Cabrera (aka "Sonia").

In 2004, the Uribe government established, for the first time in recent Colombian history, a government presence in all of the country's 1,099 municipalities (county seats). Attacks conducted by illegally armed groups against rural towns decreased by 91% from 2002 to 2005. Between 2002 and 2006, Colombia saw a decrease in homicides by 37%, kidnappings by 78%, terrorist attacks by 63%, and attacks on the country's infrastructure by 60%.

Although much attention has been focused on the security aspects of Colombia's situation, the Uribe government also is making significant efforts on issues such as expanding international trade, supporting alternate means of development, and reforming Colombia's judicial system.

President Uribe was reelected with 62% of the vote in May 2006. In congressional elections in March 2006, the three leading pro-Uribe parties (National Unity, [[Colombian Conservative Party|Conservative Party]], and Radical Change) won clear majorities in both houses of Congress. In late 2006, the Supreme Court began investigations and ordered the arrest of some members of Congress for actions on behalf of paramilitary groups.

In January 2007, Colombian leaders presented a new strategy to consolidate and build on progress under Plan Colombia, called the "Strategy to Strengthen Democracy and Social Development." The new strategy continues successful Plan Colombia programs while increasing state presence by improving access to social services, and supporting economic development through sustainable growth and trade.

===Peace agreement with the FARC and Duque administration===
[[File:Iván Duque.jpg|150px|thumbnail|President Iván Duque Márquez, opponent of the Peace agreement with FARC before his presidency.]]
The Colombian government from [[Juan Manuel Santos]] approved a peace accord with the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia]] (FARC) in 2016.<ref>Karl, Robert (October 1, 2016). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/10/01/heres-the-century-long-history-behind-colombias-peace-agreement-with-the-farc/ Here’s the century-long history behind Colombia’s peace agreement with the FARC]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved October 1, 2016.</ref> However, voters narrowly rejected the peace deal in a referendum, as there were worries that the deal was far too lenient towards the FARC.<ref>Murphy, Helen & Cobb, Julia Symmes (October 3, 2016). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-peace-idUSKCN1230BH Colombia's peace deal in limbo after shock referendum]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 4, 2016.</ref> In November 2016, the Colombian government approved a revised treaty with FARC, changed to address some, but not all, of the concerns of conservatives.<ref name="Skipping">Casey, Nicholas (November 24, 2016). [https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/24/world/americas/colombia-juan-manuel-santos-peace-deal-farc.html?_r=0 Colombia and FARC Sign New Peace Deal, This Time Skipping Voters]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved November 26, 2016.</ref> This time, the treaty was not brought before the voters, but rather the Colombian Congress.<ref name="Skipping"/> It was reported in April 2017 that FARC continued to possess weapons despite the deal that was made.<ref>Arostegui, Martin (April 20, 2017). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/04/20/colombias-farc-concealing-weapons-despite-deal-intelligence-analysts-say.html Colombia's FARC concealing weapons despite deal, intelligence analysts say]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved April 20, 2017.</ref> It was reported in mid-May that FARC members continued to engage in violence and kidnappings.<ref>Martel, Frances (May 15, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2017/05/15/colombia-farc-terrorists-continue-abductions-violence-as-peace-deal-kicks-in/ Colombia: FARC Terrorists Abduct Ranchers, UN Employee as Peace Deal Kicks In]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 16, 2017.</ref> FARC continued to exist, but at a political party.<ref>Bocanegra, Nelson; Cobb, Julia Symmes (August 27, 2017). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-peace-politics/after-decades-of-war-colombias-farc-rebels-debut-political-party-idUSKCN1B705U After decades of war, Colombia's FARC rebels debut political party]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved December 25, 2017.</ref> By April 2018, the peace agreement was failing, and violence and cocaine production had sharply risen.<ref>Arostegui, Martin (May 3, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/may/3/farc-violence-cocaine-production-spike-colombia-th/ Cracks in the FARC peace deal: Violence, cocaine production surge in Colombia]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved May 4, 2018.</ref>

On September 4, 2017, Colombia signed a ceasefire deal with its last remaining guerrilla organization, the [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|National Liberation Army]].<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/09/04/colombia-signs-cease-fire-deal-with-last-guerrilla-group.html Colombia signs cease-fire deal with last guerrilla group]. ''Fox News'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved September 4, 2017.</ref>

In the 2018 presidential election, conservative [[Iván Duque]], a critic of the FARC agreement, was elected Colombia's president, defeating a leftist former guerrilla terrorist.<ref>Multiple references:
*Martel, Frances (June 18, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/06/18/martel-colombias-conservative-heartland-saves-another-election-day/ Martel: Colombia’s Conservative Heartland Saves Another Election Day]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
*Boylan, Dave (June 17, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/jun/17/ivan-duque-wins-colombias-presidential-race/ Ivan Duque wins Colombia's presidential race]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved June 18, 2018.
See also:
*Arostegui, Martin (May 31, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/may/31/ivan-duque-colombia-runoff-leader-may-be-trump-all/ Hard-line conservative candidate in Colombia taps fear of Venezuelan-style collapse to win votes]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved September 24, 2018.</ref> Duque was sworn in on August 7, 2018.<ref>Murphy, Helen; Cobb, Julia Symmes (August 7, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-colombia-politics/duque-becomes-colombias-president-promising-to-unite-divided-nation-idUSKBN1KS2IT Duque becomes Colombia's president, promising to unite divided nation]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 7, 2018.</ref>

By August 2019, the peace agreement had broken down.<ref>Taylor, Luke (August 11, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/colombias-warring-gangs-target-migrants-at-venezuelan-border-peace-process-stutters_3037729.html Colombia’s Warring Gangs Target Migrants at Venezuelan Border; Peace Process Stutters]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved August 11, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/08/colombia-border-venezuela-war-farc-report Thousands forced to flee as rights group warns of 'war' in Colombia border area]. ''The Guardian'' (from the ''Associated Press''). August 8, 2019. Retrieved August 11, 2019.</ref>

In 2021 a marxist insurrection took place during Duque's government.

In the 2022 Presidencial Election the engineer [[Rodolfo Hernández]] lost to the leftist [[Gustavo Petro]] in the second round. Since 2015 Presidents can't be reelected.

Gustavo Pedro's son, Nicolas, who supports his father lefty agenda,<ref>[https://www.eltiempo.com/amp/elecciones-colombia-2019/barranquilla/nicolas-petro-hijo-de-gustavo-petro-que-va-por-la-gobernacion-de-atlantico-391542 Who is the son of Petro who is going for the Governorate of the Atlantic?], El Tiempo, July 26, 2019.<blockquote>
The eldest son of the head of Colombia Humana made his candidacy official this Monday.

This 31-year-old has stated on multiple occasions that he agrees with the political model that his father dreams of for Colombia.

Nicolás is the son of Gustavo Petro and the Monteriana Katia Burgos.</blockquote></ref> was arrested in July 2023, over "money laundering and illicit enrichment."<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/son-colombia-president-petro-arrested-money-laundering-probe-2023-07-29/ Colombian President Petro's son arrested in money laundering probe], ''Reuters'', July 29, 2023.<blockquote>BOGOTA, July 29 (Reuters) - Nicolas Petro, son of Colombian President Gustavo Petro, has been arrested as part of an investigation into money laundering and illicit enrichment, the attorney general's office said early on Saturday</blockquote></ref>

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of South-American painting]]

Main source:
{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

==Further reading==
===Guidebooks===
* ''Colombia'' by Jens Porup (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Colombia-Country-Guide-Jens-Porup/dp/1741048273/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244057054&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Colombia Handbook'' Tread Your Own Path Travel Guides, by Charlie Devereux (3rd ed. 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Colombia-Handbook-3rd-Footprint-Travel/dp/1906098220/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244057054&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* ''Colombia'' (Bradt Travel Guide) by Sarah Woods (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Colombia-Bradt-Travel-Guide-Sarah/dp/1841622427/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244057054&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* ''VIVA Travel Guides Colombia'' by Lorraine Caputo, Paula Newton, and Richard McColl (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Travel-Guides-Colombia-Lorraine-Caputo/dp/0979126444/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1244057054&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Nb countries south america}}
[[Category:South American Countries]]
[[Category:Colombia]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Mexico

2024-06-02T17:52:52Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''Estados Unidos Mexicanos''
|map =Mexico rel97.jpg
|map2 =Loc of Mexico.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Mexican arms.jpg
|capital =Mexico City
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal republic (presidential)
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Andrés Manuel López Obrador
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =758,249 sq mi
|pop =130,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,200,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$9,800 (2020)
|currency =Peso
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Mexico''' is a Spanish colony in [[North America]] directly south of the [[United States]]. It borders the North Pacific Ocean to the west, [[Guatemala]] and [[Belize]] to the south, and the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to the east. Mexico is a federal republic with 31 states and 1 federal district. Its capital is [[Mexico City]]. At present Mexico's territory covers almost 2 million square kilometers with a population of about 130 million. Major cities include: [[Mexico City]] (capital), [[Guadalajara]], [[Monterrey]], [[Puebla]], [[Tijuana]].

==People==
[[Image:Elisa Najera.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Elisa Nájera, Miss Mexico 2007.]]
Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and the second most-populous country in Latin America after Portuguese-speaking [[Brazil]]. About 70% of the people live in urban areas. Many Mexicans emigrate from rural areas that lack job opportunities—such as the underdeveloped southern states and the crowded central plateau—to the industrialized urban centers and the developing areas along the U.S.-Mexico border. The Mexico City region has 18 million people and is the largest concentration of population in the Western Hemisphere. Cities bordering on the United States—such as Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez—and cities in the interior—such as [[Guadalajara]], Monterrey, and [[Puebla]]—have undergone sharp rises in population and income in recent years.

In 2008, according to the Pew Research Center 12.7 millions of immigrants in the US were of Mexican origin (32% of all immigrants living in that country).<ref>[http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1191/mexican-immigrants-in-america-largest-group Mexican Immigrants in the United States, 2008]</ref> Mexicans often join and serve together in the US military. There are high concentrations of Mexicans and Mexican-Americans in California marine units, Texas [[National Guard]] units, and, for some unexplained statistical quirk, there are many Mexican Patriot missile operators.<ref>[http://209.85.173.104/search?q=cache:XMdSoqPdhR4J:www.justthinkfirst.org/updates/MilitaryService/MexicansDyingInIraq.pdf+MEXICANS+DIED+IRAQ&hl=es&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=mx Mexico Fiercely Opposes the Iraq War, But Mexicans Are Dying There Every Week.]</ref>

The United States [[NRA]] asserts:
* For honest Mexican citizens, guns are outlawed. So [[drug lords]] are free and safe to rule the land, government officials are either on the take or in the morgue, and honest citizens are imprisoned in their own homes ... unarmed and terrified of what may be outside. [http://home.nra.org/#/home]

===Education===
[[File:Museo Universitario de Arte Contemporaneo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Museo Universitario de Arte Contemporaneo.]]
[[Image:Cu11.jpg|thumb|right|The University of Mexico]]
Education is among the Mexican government's highest priorities, and the education budget has continued to grow in recent years. Funding for education increased from 6.9% of GDP in 2002 to 7.3% of GDP in 2005. While efforts to decentralize responsibility for education from the federal to the state level in order to improve accountability are ongoing, the central government still retains significant authority. Although educational performance in Mexico has improved substantially in recent decades, the country still faces several major problems, including providing education to rural and indigenous populations.

Education is currently mandatory for ages 5 through 15. An education reform law enacted in 2002 will make preschool mandatory for all children ages 3 and up by 2008. This reform is being implemented in stages. In 2005, 77.4% of the population between the ages of 3 and 15 were enrolled in school. Primary, including preschool, enrollment totaled 18.8 million in 2005. Enrollment at the secondary public school level rose from 5.4 million in 2000 to 5.9 million in 2005. After a significant increase in higher education enrollment during previous decades, Mexico has seen a slower rise in university enrollment more recently. Numbers rose from 2 million enrolled in 2000 to 2.4 million in 2005.

===Statistics===
[[Image:Rafa Marquez.jpg|thumb|Rafa Marquez.]]
*Population (2011 estimate): 113.4 million.
*Annual growth rate (2011 estimate): 1.102%.
*Ethnic groups: Indian-Spanish ([[mestizo]]) 60%, Indian 30%, Caucasian 10%.
*Religions: [[Roman Catholic]] 76.5%, Protestant 6.3% (Pentecostal 1.4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.1%, other 3.8%), unspecified 13.8%, other 0.3%, none 3.1% (2000 census)
*Language: [[Spanish]] only 92.7%, Spanish and indigenous languages 5.7%, indigenous only 0.8%.
*Education: Years compulsory—11 (note: preschool education was made mandatory in Dec. 2001). Literacy—86.1%.
*Health (2004 est.): Infant mortality rate—21.69/1000. Life expectancy—male 72.18 years; female 77.83 years.
*Work force (2000, 39.81 million): [[Agriculture]], forestry, hunting, fishing—21.0%; services—32.2%; commerce—16.9%; manufacturing—18.7%; construction—5.6%; transportation and communication—4.5%; mining and quarrying—1.0%.
*Natural resources: petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber.
[[File:Mexico Popocatepetl.jpg|thumb|240px|The volcano Popocatepetl.]]
*Land Area: 1,958,200 km2.
*Latitude/Longitude: 19.2ºN, 99.1ºW
*Highest Point: Volcan Pico de Orizaba 5,700 Mts.
*Border countries: Belize 250 km, Guatemala 962 km, US 3,141 km.
*Coastline: 9,330 km.
*Climate: varies from tropical to desert.
*Terrain: high, rugged mountains; low coastal plains; high plateaus; desert.
*Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm.
People who live in Mexico are referred to in English as Mexicans (adjective: Mexican). The net migration rate is: 3.24 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2011 est.) (Mainly to the US.)

[[Image:Priscila Perales 2.jpg|frame|left|240px|Priscila Perales, Miss Mexico 2005, Miss International 2007.]]
*Official Currency: Mexican Peso (MXN)

*Time Zone: GMT/UTC
*Electricity: 127V 60HzHz
*Country Dialing Code: 52
*Major Industries: Food and beverages, tobacco, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, original motor vehicles, consumer durables, tourism.
*Tequila is originally produced in Mexico.
*Mexican commodities which have gained worldwide popularity include chocolate, vanilla, tomatoes and the poinsettia plant.

More facts:<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html CIA - Facts]</ref>
{{Clear}}

==History==
[[File:Uxmal Mexico Maya.jpg|thumb|[[Uxmal]], Mayan ruins.]]
Highly developed cultures, including those of the [[Olmecs]], [[Mayas]], [[Toltecs]], and [[Aztecs]], existed long before the Spanish conquest. Hernando Cortes conquered Mexico during the period 1519-21 and founded a Spanish colony that lasted nearly 300 years.
[[Image:Guanajuato 4.jpg|thumb|left|Guanajuato City]]
Independence from Spain was proclaimed by Father Miguel Hidalgo on September 16, 1810. Father Hidalgo's declaration of national independence, known in Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores", launched a decade long struggle for independence from Spain. Prominent figures in Mexico's war for independence were Father Jose Maria Morelos; Gen. Augustin de Iturbide, who defeated the Spaniards and ruled as Mexican emperor from 1822–23; and Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana, who went on to dominate Mexican politics from 1833 to 1855. An 1821 treaty recognized Mexican independence from Spain and called for a constitutional monarchy. The planned monarchy failed; a republic was proclaimed in December 1822 and established in 1824.
[[File:Velasco El Valle de Mexico desde Santa Isabel.jpg|thumb|[[Jose Maria Velasco]], El Valle de Mexico desde Santa Isabel, 1892.]]
Throughout the rest of the 19th century, Mexico's government and economy were shaped by contentious debates among liberals and conservatives, republicans and monarchists, federalists and those who favored centralized government. During the two presidential terms of Benito Juarez (1858–71), Mexico experimented with modern democratic and economic reforms. President Juarez’ terms of office, and Mexico's early experience with democracy, were interrupted by the Hapsburg monarchy's rule of Mexico (1864–67), and was followed by the authoritarian government of Gen. Porfirio Díaz, who was president during most of the period between 1877 and 1911.

The states of [[New Mexico]], [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], and parts of [[Wyoming]], and [[Colorado]], were part of Mexico until the [[Mexican American War]]. [[Texas]] was a part of Mexico for only 15 years, until Texans won their independence in the Texas Revolution in 1836, but Spanish Texas (Tejas) lasted between 1690 and 1821. Therefore, some U.S. citizens in this region speak Spanish as their native language.

Mexico's severe social and economic problems erupted in a revolution that lasted from 1910–20 and gave rise to the 1917 constitution. Prominent leaders in this period—some of whom were rivals for power—were Francisco Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, Alvaro Obregón, Victoriano Huerta, and Emiliano Zapata. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), formed in 1929 under a different name, emerged from the chaos of revolution as a vehicle for keeping political competition among a coalition of interests in peaceful channels. For 71 years, Mexico's national government was controlled by the PRI, which won every presidential race and most gubernatorial races until the July 2000 presidential election of Vicente Fox Quesada of the National Action Party (PAN). He was succeeded in 2006 by another PAN candidate Felipe Calderón. In January 2009, Mexico assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2009–10 term.

[[Image:Maria Espinoza.jpg|thumb|200px|left|María Espinoza. (Photo: Reuters)]]
Famous Mexicans of history include: [[Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz]], [[Benito Juarez]], [[Porfirio Diaz]], [[Justo Sierra Mendez]], [[Francisco Madero]], [[Francisco Gabilondo Soler]], [[Jose Maria Velasco]], [[Joaquin Clausell]], [[Lazaro Cardenas]], [[Frida Kahlo]], [[Diego Rivera]], [[Carlos Chavez]] and [[Octavio Paz]].

Famous Mexicans of today: [[Felipe Calderon]], [[Carlos Slim]], [[Salma Hayek]], Priscila Perales, [[Lorena Ochoa]], [[Ana Gabriela Guevara]], [[Carlos Fuentes]], Guillermo del Toro, Alejandro González Iñárritu, [[Alfonso Cuarón]], [[Mario Molina]], [[Rodolfo Neri Vela]], Salvador Palma Vargas, Carlos Franco, Ángel Aliseda, Emanuel Johansen, Adriana Alcántara Ruiz, Dalia Graciela Díaz Gómez, Carlos Hernández Mejía, Belem Guerrero, [[Raúl Gío Argáez]], [[Fernando Valenzuela]], [[Hugo Sanchez]], [[Cuauhtemoc Blanco]], [[Rafa Marquez]], [[Javier Aguirre]], [[Giovanni dos Santos]], Guillermo Pérez Sandoval (gold medal Beijing 08) and María Espinoza (also gold medal Beijing 08).

In 2017, it was reported that Mexico had become the second deadliest conflict zone in the world, after [[Syria]] (through the [[Syrian Civil War]]).<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/05/09/mexico-now-considered-second-deadliest-conflict-zone-after-syria-study-says.html Mexico now considered second deadliest conflict zone after Syria, study says]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved May 9, 2017.</ref>
{{Clear}}

===Religion===
[[Image:Guadalupe ch.jpg|right|Virgin of Guadalupe.]]
According to the 2000 census, approximately 88% of respondents identify themselves as at least nominally Catholic. There are an estimated 11,000 Catholic churches and 14,000 Catholic priests and nuns.

An additional estimated 90,000 laypersons worked in the Catholic Church. Groups that constitute less than 5% of the population include evangelicals (Pentecostals, neo-Pentecostals, and Pentecostal Roots), "historical" Protestants (defined by the Government as Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, Nazarene, Mennonite, and others), Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and Jews.<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108532.htm U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

The General Director for Religious Associations of the Federal Secretariat of Government (GDAR) registered a total of 3,554 evangelical and 80 traditional Protestant associations. The exact number of evangelical and Protestant churches and pastors is unknown, and statistics on membership remain scant. Official figures sometimes differ from membership claims of religious groups. For example, the Seventh-day Adventist Church claims a nationwide membership of 600,000 to 700,000 persons; however, according to the 2000 census, only 488,945 persons identify themselves as such. Also according to the 2000 census, 205,229 persons identify themselves as Mormons, whereas the Mormons claim membership of approximately 1.2 million.
[[File:Guadalupe original image Mexico.jpg|thumb|Our Lady of Guadalupe, original image at the Basilica.]]
[[File:Altar Reyes Catedral Metropolitana.JPG|thumb|left|290px|Altar Reyes, Metropolitan Cathedral.]]
Non-Catholic Christians are concentrated primarily in the south. In the State of Chiapas, 21.9% of respondents in the 2000 census identify themselves as Protestant; however, some Protestant evangelical groups claim a much higher pecentage.

The Jewish community claims approximately 50,000 members, most of whom live in Mexico City; there are also congregations in Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana, and Cancún. There is a small Muslim population in the city of Torreón, Coahuila, and there are an estimated 300 Muslims in the San Cristobal de las Casas area in Chiapas. Some indigenous people in the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Yucatán practice a syncretic religion that mixes Catholic and pre-Hispanic Mayan religious beliefs.

In some communities, particularly in the south, there is a correlation between politics and religious affiliation. A small number of local leaders reportedly manipulate religious tensions in their communities for their own political or economic benefit, particularly in Chiapas.

===preamble of mexicos constitution 1857===
In the name of God and by the authority of the Mexican people. The representatives of the different States, of the District and of the Territories which compose the Republic of Mexico, called upon by the provisions of the Plan proclaimed in Ayutla the first of March, eighteen hundred and fifty-four, amended in Acapulco the eleventh day of the same month and year, and by the call issued the seventeenth of October, eighteen hundred and fifty-five, to convene for the purpose of framing a constitution for the nation and making it a popular representative, democratic republic, exercising the powers with which they are vested, do hereby comply with the requirements of their high office, by decreeing the following political Constitution of the Mexican Republic, on the indestructible basis of its legitimate independence, proclaimed the sixteenth of September, eighteen hundred and ten, and consummated the twenty-seventh of September, eighteen hundred and twenty-one.

==Government==

The 1917 constitution provides for a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Historically, the executive has been the dominant branch, with power vested in the president, who promulgates and executes the laws of the Congress. The Congress has played an increasingly important role since 1997, when opposition parties first made major gains. The president also legislates by executive decree in certain economic and financial fields, using powers delegated from the Congress. The president is elected by universal adult suffrage for a 6-year term and may not hold office a second time. There is no vice president; in the event of the removal or death of the president, a provisional president is elected by the Congress.

The Congress is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Consecutive re-election is prohibited. Senators are elected to 6-year terms, and deputies serve 3-year terms. The Senate's 128 seats are filled by a mixture of direct-election and proportional representation. In the [[lower house]], 300 deputies are directly elected to represent single-member districts, and 200 are selected by a modified form of proportional representation from five electoral regions. The 200 proportional representation seats were created to help smaller parties gain access to the Chamber.

The judiciary is divided into federal and state court systems, with federal courts having jurisdiction over most civil cases and those involving major felonies. Under the constitution, trial and sentencing must be completed within 12 months of arrest for crimes that would carry at least a 2-year sentence. In practice, the judicial system often does not meet this requirement. Trial is by judge, not jury, in most criminal cases. Defendants have a right to counsel, and public defenders are available. Other rights include defense against self-incrimination, the right to confront one's accusers, and the right to a public trial. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and approved by the Senate.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--[[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]]
*Foreign Secretary—Marcelo Ebrard
*Ambassador to the U.S.—Martha Bárcena

===Political Conditions===
[[File:Estela de luz May 2012.jpg|thumb|Estela de Luz in Mexico City.]]
Vicente Fox Quesada of the National Action Party (PAN) was elected president in July 2000 in what were widely considered the freest and fairest elections in Mexico's history. Fox began his six-year term on December 1, 2000. His victory ended the Institutional Revolutionary Party's (PRI) 71-year hold on the presidency. President Fox completed his term on December 1, 2006, when Felipe Calderon assumed the presidency.

Numerous electoral reforms implemented since 1989 have progressively opened the Mexican political system, and opposition parties have made historic gains in elections at all levels. At the same time, this opening has left Mexico's political institutions divided. Fox is credited with ending one-party rule and consolidating the opening of Mexico's political system. Under Fox, Mexico's highest office became a true constitutional presidency, considerably weakened in comparison to the PRI years by the PAN's lack of control over the Congress.

In 2018, Mexico received its first leftist president in 32 years, after being controlled by technocrats during that period.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/mexico-gets-1st-leftist-leader-after-32-years-of-technocrats Mexico gets first leftist leader after 32 years of technocrats]. ''Fox News''. December 1, 2018. Retrieved December 1, 2018.</ref>

====2006 Elections====
The 2006 elections resulted in an extremely tight race, with a margin of less than one percent separating the vote totals of the two leading candidates for president, Felipe Calderon of the PAN and Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (AMLO) of the left-of-center Democratic Revolution Party (PRD). The PRI candidate, Roberto Madrazo, came in a distant third.
[[Image:Siqueiros Mural en Ciudad Universitaria.jpg|thumb|320px|left|[[David Alfaro Siqueiros]], The People for the University. The University for the People. 1952–56.]]
Lopez Obrador contested the results of the July 2 presidential election, alleging that it was marred by widespread fraud. He challenged in court the result of the Federal Electoral Institute's tabulation showing that Calderon had won the election and launched a mass street protest demanding a nationwide vote-by-vote recount. Mexico's Federal Electoral Tribunal, while acknowledging the presence of randomly-distributed irregularities, rejected Lopez Obrador's accusation of widespread fraud and upheld Calderon's victory on September 5, 2006.

On September 16, 2006, the PRD sponsored a "National Democratic Convention," convened on Mexico City's historic central square, that rejected Calderon's presidency, approved a resolution naming Lopez Obrador Mexico's "legitimate" president, and called for the creation of a parallel executive cabinet. Convention participants also approved a long-term civil resistance action plan. Lopez Obrador's support is largely drawn from Mexico's poorer classes, some of whom feel disenfranchised from Mexico's political system.

In the 2006 elections, the PAN emerged as the largest party in both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, with just over 40 percent of the seats in each house of Congress. It does not enjoy a legislative majority. Although the PRI no longer controls the Presidency and has fewer congressional seats than either the PAN or PRD, it remains a significant force in Mexican politics, holding 17 governorships.

====Other Reforms====
[[File:Mexican teenagers.jpg|thumb|250px|Mexican youth]]
One of President Fox's most important reforms was the passage and implementation of Freedom of Information (FOIA) laws that, by the end of 2005, were in effect for the federal government, Mexico City, and 26 states (only two states had such laws in 2001). These laws are a cornerstone in Mexico's fight against corruption, and Mexico's FOIA laws and enforcement mechanisms have been hailed as international models.

President Fox also highlighted the need for modernization of Mexico's criminal justice system, including the introduction of oral trials. Although judicial reforms stalled at the federal level during the Fox years, 10 states have now either completed or are in the process of enacting such reforms. Furthermore, all presidential candidates in the 2006 elections committed to further federal judicial reforms.

Under President Fox, the executive branch became more accountable, transparent, and citizen-centered. In 2003, Mexico passed its first-ever Civil Service Law, which introduced an on-line application system and competence-based hiring. The Fox administration's good government agenda also included the initiation of government services via Internet, the development of citizen charters that set standards for service delivery, and the reduction in the percentage of public servants working in administrative jobs from one out of two to one out of four.

[[File:Embassy Mexico Berlin.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Embassy of Mexico in Berlin.]]

===Foreign Relations===
Traditionally, Mexico has sought to maintain its interests abroad and project its influence largely through moral persuasion and has championed the principles of nonintervention and self-determination. In its efforts to revitalize its economy and open up to international competition, Mexico has sought closer relations with the U.S., Western Europe, and the Pacific Basin. President Fox more actively promoted international human rights and democracy and sought to increase Mexico's participation in international affairs.

Mexico actively participates in several international organizations; it was elected to a seat on the UN Security Council for the period 2002–03. It is a strong supporter of the United Nations and Organization of American States systems and also pursues its interests through a number of ad hoc international bodies. Mexico has been selective in its membership in other international organizations. It declined, for example, to become a member of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Nevertheless, Mexico does seek to diversify its diplomatic and economic relations, as demonstrated by its accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986; its joining the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1993; its becoming, in April 1994, the first Latin American member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and its entering the World Trade Organization as a founding member in 1996. Mexico attended the 1994 Summit of the Americas, held in Miami; managed coordination of the agenda item on education for the 1998 Summit of the Americas in Santiago, Chile; and hosted a Special Summit of the Americas in early 2004. Mexico hosted the September 2003 WTO Ministerial in Cancun and a Hemispheric Security Conference in October of the same year. It was elected to the International Atomic Energy Agency Board of Governors in 2003. In 2002 it hosted the APEC Leaders’ Meeting in Cabo San Lucas.

===Relations with the United States===
During the 19th century Mexico and the U.S. had a tense, difficult relationship (including a war) that continued well into the 20th century. In World War II, Mexico sided with the Allies and this marked the beginning of a more friendly and modern relationship between the two countries.
[[File:Map Mexicans in US 2000.jpg|right|Mexicans in US, 2000.]]
U.S. relations with Mexico are as important and complex as with any country in the world. A stable, democratic, and economically prosperous Mexico is fundamental to U.S. interests. U.S. relations with Mexico have a direct impact on the lives and livelihoods of millions of Americans—whether the issue is trade and economic reform, homeland security, drug control, migration, or the promotion of democracy. The U.S. and Mexico are partners in NAFTA, and enjoy a rapidly developing trade relationship. In March 2005, the U.S., Mexico, and Canada formed the Security and Prosperity Partnership (SPP), which contemplates trilateral and bilateral initiatives to develop new avenues of cooperation that will enhance North America's security, competitiveness, and economic resilience.

:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Mexican drug-related gun murders skyrocket during Obama's [[Fast and Furious]] campaign<ref>https://archive.is/RyT8w</ref>
|-
| 2006 || 62
|-
| 2007 || 2,837
|-
| 2008 || 6,844
|-
| 2009 || 11,753
|-
| 2010 || 19,546
|-
| 2011 || 24,068
|-
| 2012 || 18,061 (by October 31, 2012)
|-
| 2013 || 23,640 killed in 2013 (through to March 2014)
|}
The scope of U.S.-Mexican relations goes far beyond diplomatic and official contacts; it entails extensive commercial, cultural, and educational ties, as demonstrated by the annual figure of nearly a million legal border crossings a day. In addition, more than a half-million American citizens live in Mexico. More than 2,600 U.S. companies have operations there, and the U.S. accounts for 55% of all foreign direct investment in Mexico. Along the 2,000-mile shared border, state and local governments interact closely.

There has been frequent contact at the highest levels. Presidents’ meetings have included the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Leaders’ Meeting in Bangkok in October 2003; President Bush's visits to Monterrey in January 2004 (Summit of the Americas) and March 2002; his April 2001 visit to Guanajuato; President Fox's state visit to the U.S. in September 2001, and his meeting with the President at Crawford, Texas in March 2004. The two Presidents also met in Crawford in March 2005 where, along with then Canadian Prime Minister Martin, they launched the Security and Prosperity Partnership. They held a follow-on SPP meeting with Canadian Prime Minister Harper in Cancun in March 2006.

Since 1981, the management of the broad array of U.S.-Mexico issues has been formalized in the U.S.-Mexico Binational Commission, composed of numerous U.S. cabinet members and their Mexican counterparts. The commission holds annual plenary meetings, and many subgroups meet during the course of the year to discuss border security and counter terrorism, trade and investment opportunities, financial cooperation, consular issues and migration, legal affairs and anti-narcotics cooperation, education, energy, border affairs, environment and natural [[resources]], labor, agriculture, health, housing and urban development, transportation, and science and technology.

A strong partnership with Mexico is critical to combating terrorism and controlling the flow of illicit drugs into the United States. In recent years, cooperation on counter-narcotics and Mexico's own initiatives in fighting drug trafficking have been unprecedented. The U.S. will continue working with Mexico as it seeks to strengthen its cooperation and anti-drug efforts. The U.S. and Mexico continue to cooperate on narcotics interdiction, demand reduction, and eradication.

====Border and Environmental Affairs====

Cooperation between the United States and Mexico along the 2,000-mile common border includes state and local problem-solving mechanisms; transportation planning; and institutions to address resource, environment, and health issues. In 1993, the Border Liaison Mechanism (BLM) was established. Chaired by U.S. and Mexican consuls, the BLMs operate in "sister city" pairs and have proven to be effective means of dealing with a variety of local issues ranging from accidental violation of sovereignty by law enforcement officials and charges of mistreatment of foreign nationals to coordination of port security and cooperation in public health matters such as tuberculosis.

As the number of people and the volume of cargo crossing the U.S.-Mexico border grow, so, too, does the need for coordinated infrastructure development. The multi-agency U.S.-Mexico Bi-national Group on Bridges and Border Crossings meets twice yearly to improve the efficiency of existing crossings and coordinate planning for new ones. The 10 U.S. and Mexican border states have become active participants in these meetings.

The United States and Mexico have a history of cooperation on environmental and natural resource issues, particularly in the border area, where there are serious environmental problems caused by rapid population growth, urbanization, and industrialization. Cooperative activities between the U.S. and Mexico take place under a number of agreements such as:

*A 1889 convention establishing the International Boundary Commission, reconstituted by the Water Treaty of 1944 as the International Boundary and Water Commission, United States and Mexico (IBWC). The IBWC has settled many difficult U.S.-Mexico boundary and water problems, including the regularization of the Rio Grande near El Paso through the 1967 Chamizal settlement. The IBWC divides the use of international waters, builds and operates water conservation and flood control projects, and constructs and maintains boundary markers on the land boundary and on international bridges. In recent years, the IBWC has worked to resolve longstanding border sanitation problems, to monitor the quantity and quality of border waters, and to address water delivery and sedimentation problems of the Colorado River.

*A series of agreements on border health (since 1942), wildlife and migratory birds (since 1936), national parks, forests, marine and atmospheric resources. In July 2000, the U.S. and Mexico signed an agreement to establish a binational Border Health Commission. The Border Health Commission held its inaugural meeting in November 2000 and is made up of the federal secretaries of health, the ten border states' chief health officers, and prominent community health professionals from both countries. A representative from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services manages the U.S. Section in El Paso, Texas.

*The 1983 La Paz Agreement to protect and improve the border environment and Border 2012, a 10-year, binational, results-oriented environmental program for the U.S.-Mexico border region. The Border 2012 Program is the latest multi-year, binational planning effort to be implemented under the La Paz Agreement and succeeds Border XXI, a five-year program that ended in 2000.

*The 1993 North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), creating the North American Commission on Environmental Cooperation under NAFTA by the U.S., Mexico, and Canada, to improve enforcement of environmental laws and to address common environmental concerns.

*A November 1993 agreement between the U.S. and Mexico, also related to NAFTA, establishing the Border Environment Cooperation Commission (BECC), which works with local communities to develop and certify environmental infrastructure projects such as waste-water treatment plants, drinking water systems, and solid waste disposal facilities. The sister organization, the North American Development Bank (NADBank), uses capital and grant funds contributed by partner governments to help finance border environmental infrastructure projects certified by the BECC. Prior to 2005, both institutions had separate Boards of Directors. In an effort to improve efficiency, the separate Boards were merged into a single entity and the combined Board held its first meeting in June 2006.

*In 2021 President [[Lopez Obrador]] expressed concern over the [[Biden junta]]'s [[open borders]] policy which incentivized human trafficing and organized crime.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico-exclusive-idUSKBN2B21D8</ref>

====Crime====
[[File:Fast and Furious violence.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Well over 100,000 people were killed in Mexican Drug Cartel Wars since the [[Obama administration]] launched [[Operation Fast and Furious]].<ref>https://archive.is/RyT8w</ref>]]
In 2009, Mexico experienced its most violent and dangerous year of the past decade with a homicide count of at least 7,724, a toll largely attributable to the government's offensive against drug traffickers and the turf wars being waged between the rival cartels themselves. In 2008, 8481 people were murdered. Over the past five years, approximately 20,000 people have died at the hands of organized crime, primarily in the states of Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Baja California, Durango, Michoacán and Guerrero. At least 3,250 homicides took place in the state of Chihuahua alone in 2009, the majority of which took place in Ciudad Juárez, on the border with El Paso, Texas. Many innocent bystanders get shot. Mexico's federal government has deployed nearly 50,000 soldiers to support local police in the war against drug trafficking.

<blockquote>
Tijuana is among the cities hardest hit by violence as Mexico's drug cartels battle for lucrative smuggling routes past the border to supply illegal drug users in the United States.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/photos/photos_galleries/mexicodrugviolence/ Mexico's violent year of drugs.]</ref>
</blockquote>

Drug cartels have done what effectively amounted to defeating the Mexican armed forces in battle.<ref>https://twitter.com/TheAbridgedZach/status/1185421587903700993</ref>

====Obama era====

In May 2010, Obama promised Mexican President Felipe Calderon that his administration would assist Mexico in curbing drug cartel violence, which has led to 30,000 deaths in Mexico. "President Calderon and I . . . stand together against the drug cartels that have unleashed horrific violence in so many communities," Obama said on May 19. "Mexico can count on the United States as a full partner in this effort.

The ''[[Washington Post]]'' has reported however that White House officials stopped a requirement for gun dealers to report bulk sales of high-powered semiautomatic rifles commonly used by illegal drug cartels. [[U.S. Justice Department]] officials had asked for White House approval to require thousands of gun dealers along the border to report the purchases to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms and Explosives. ATF investigators expected to get leads on suspected arms traffickers. Senior law enforcement sources said the proposal from the ATF was held up by White House chief of staff [[Rahm Emanuel]].<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/12/17/AR2010121706598.html White House delayed rule meant to stop gun flow to Mexico] [[Washington Post]]</ref> Gun dealers have been required for decades to report the sales of multiple handguns to the ATF.

====Trump era====
The [[Trump administration]] implemented a policy of returning asylum seekers at the San Ysidro port of entry back to Mexico as their asylum claims underwent review, something done to help end the policy of "catch-and-release."<ref>Multiple references:
*Munro, Neil (January 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/immigration/2019/01/24/u-s-will-start-returning-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-on-friday/ U.S. Will Start Returning Asylum Seekers to Mexico on Friday]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Suarez Sang, Lucia I. (January 25, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/us/asylum-seekers-at-southern-border-to-be-sent-back-to-mexico-us-officials-say Asylum seekers at southern border to be sent back to Mexico, US officials say]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Caldwell, Alicia A. (January 24, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-to-start-sending-some-asylum-seekers-back-to-mexico-11548362672 U.S. to Start Returning Some Asylum Seekers to Mexico]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Kirkwood, R. Cort (January 25, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/immigration/item/31301-call-it-operation-big-boot-trump-admin-announces-migrant-deportation Call It Operation Big Boot: Trump Admin Announces “Migrant” Deportation]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Spagat, Elliot (January 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/jan/24/trump-administration-force-asylum-seekers-wait-mex/ Trump administration to force asylum seekers to wait in Mexico as soon as Friday, U.S. official says]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Daniel, Frank Jack; Rosenberg, Mica (January 24, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico-exclusive/exclusive-u-s-to-begin-returning-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-on-friday-official-idUSKCN1PI2VV U.S. to start returning asylum seekers to Mexico on Friday]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/official-asylum-seekers-to-wait-in-mexico-starting-friday-/4758326.html Asylum Seekers to Wait in Mexico Starting Friday]. ''Voice of America'' (from the ''Associated Press''). January 25, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Ainsley, Julia (January 24, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/dhs-plans-begin-turning-asylum-seekers-back-mexico-await-court-n962401 DHS plans to begin turning asylum-seekers back to Mexico to await court dates]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (January 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/border-officers-in-san-diego-to-begin-forcing-asylum-applicants-to-wait-in-mexico Border officers in San Diego to begin forcing asylum applicants to wait in Mexico]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
Despite this, Mexico publicly opposed this policy and stated it would not accept returning every asylum seeker:
*Montes, Juan (January 25, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/mexico-to-receive-some-migrants-from-the-u-s-11548458143 Mexico to Receive Some Migrants From the U.S.]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/mexico-will-not-accept-return-of-at-risk-us-asylum-seekers/4756630.html Mexico Will Not Accept Return of At-risk US Asylum Seekers]. ''Voice of America'' (from ''Reuters''). January 23, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Averbuch, Maya (January 25, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/mexico-rebukes--but-accepts--unilateral-us-move-to-return-asylum-seekers-pending-hearing/2019/01/25/52062470-202b-11e9-a759-2b8541bbbe20_story.html Mexico rebukes — but accepts — ‘unilateral’ U.S. move to return asylum seekers pending hearing]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*[https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/mexico-won-t-accept-minors-awaiting-u-s-asylum-claims-n963976 Mexico won't accept minors awaiting U.S. asylum claims]. ''NBC News'' (from the ''Associated Press''). January 30, 2019. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
The first migrants were returned to Mexico on January 29, 2019:
*Stapleton, Shannon; Diaz, Lizbeth (January 29, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/us-sends-first-central-american-asylum-seeker-to-mexico-under-new-policy-idUSKCN1PN2HZ U.S. sends first Central American asylum seeker to Mexico under new policy]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved January 29, 2019.
*Spagat, Elliot (January 29, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/03d22afe62c6412da80827f0eb763f37 US launches plan for asylum seekers to wait in Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*[https://www.newsmax.com/newsfront/migrant-asylum-reuturned-mexico/2019/01/30/id/900444/ US Sends 1st Asylum Seeker Back Across Border to Wait in Mexico]. ''Newsmax''. January 30, 2019. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Silva, Daniella (January 29, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/trump-administration-begins-returning-asylum-seekers-mexico-n964256 Trump administration begins returning asylum seekers to Mexico]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Morefield, Scott (January 29, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/01/29/us-asylum-seekers-wait-mexico/ US Quietly Plans to Make Asylum Seekers Wait in Mexico — Mexico Not So Sure]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Villegas, Paulina; Semple, Kirk (January 29, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/29/world/americas/asylum-seekers.html Trump Administration’s Asylum-Seeker Policy Takes Effect]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Averbuch, Mark; Sieff, Kevin (January 29, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/asylum-seekers-are-being-sent-back-to-mexico-as-trump-administration-rolls-out-new-policy/2019/01/29/a0a89e9c-233b-11e9-b5b4-1d18dfb7b084_story.html Asylum seeker is sent back to Mexico as Trump administration rolls out new policy]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Shoichet, Catherine E.; Gallón, Natalie (January 29, 2019). [https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/29/americas/remain-in-mexico-policy-begins/index.html A major US policy change began with one migrant's arrival in Mexico]. ''CNN''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Miroff, Nick (February 1, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/trump-administration-to-expand-wait-in-mexico-measures-for-asylum-seekers/2019/02/01/1e782d16-2656-11e9-81fd-b7b05d5bed90_story.html Trump administration to expand wait-in-Mexico measures for asylum seekers]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved February 9, 2019.
*McKitterick, Molly; Macchi, Victoria (February 1, 2019). [https://www.voanews.com/a/turnaround-policy-begins-for-asylum-seekers-at-mexico-border/4769282.html Turnaround Policy Begins for Asylum Seekers at US Border]. ''Voice of America''. Retrieved April 27, 2019.
See also:
*Munro, Neil (January 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/01/24/pro-migration-groups-slam-trump-for-ending-catch-and-release/ Pro-Migration Groups Slam Trump for Ending Catch-and-Release]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Spagat, Elliot; Verza, Maria (January 25, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/9187f518ba3740758bb23681a6c22b63 Asylum seekers worry new US policy will mean more waiting]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (January 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/no-work-permits-for-migrants-in-mexico-promise-missing-in-new-trump-administration-document No work permits for migrants in Mexico? Promise missing in new Trump administration document]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Love, Julia; Schrank, Delphine (January 25, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/u-s-set-to-send-first-group-of-asylum-seekers-back-to-mexico-idUSKCN1PJ2EB U.S. set to send first group of asylum seekers back to Mexico]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
*Groening, Chad (January 29, 2019). [https://onenewsnow.com/national-security/2019/01/29/cis-applauds-asylum-policy-at-san-diego-crossing CIS applauds asylum policy at San Diego crossing]. ''OneNewsNow''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
The policy's impact through March 2019:
*Verza, Maria (February 25, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/feb/25/remain-mexico-program-expels-migrants-including-mi/ U.S. expels migrants, including minors, through new 'remain in Mexico' program]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved February 25, 2019.
*Dinan, Stephen (March 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/mar/12/dhss-return-mexico-policy-gets-slow-start/ DHS's return-to-Mexico policy gets slow start]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved March 12, 2019.
*Ainsley, Julia (March 12, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/trump-admin-has-turned-back-240-asylum-seekers-border-under-n982246 Trump admin has turned back 240 asylum-seekers at border under 'Remain in Mexico' policy]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Smith, Kate (March 13, 2019). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/240-asylum-seekers-have-been-sent-to-wait-in-tijuana-under-a-new-contested-trump-administration-policy/ 240 asylum seekers have been sent to wait in Tijuana under a contested Trump administration policy]. ''CBS News''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Miroff, Nick (March 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/immigration/us-has-sent-240-migrants-back-to-mexico-under-experimental-policy-which-will-expand-along-california-border/2019/03/12/d7742bfc-44ed-11e9-90f0-0ccfeec87a61_story.html U.S. has sent 240 migrants back to Mexico under experimental policy, which has expanded along California border]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.</ref> On February 13, 2019, the administration began returning migrant family units to Mexico.<ref>Multiple references:
*Bernal, Rafael (February 14, 2019). [https://thehill.com/latino/430038-trump-administration-sends-back-first-migrant-families-to-mexico Trump administration sends back first migrant families to Mexico]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved February 18, 2019.
*Diaz, Lizbeth; Rosenberg, Mica (February 14, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration/us-sends-first-families-to-mexico-to-await-asylum-rights-groups-sue-idUSKCN1Q32VY U.S. sends first families to Mexico to await asylum, rights groups sue]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved February 18, 2019.
*Carranza, Rafael (February 14, 2019). [https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/immigration/2019/02/14/u-s-begins-sending-back-asylum-seeking-families-back-remain-in-mexico/2873022002/ U.S. begins sending back asylum-seeking families to Mexico as policy gets legal challenge]. ''The Arizona Republic''. Retrieved February 18, 2019.
*Flores, Adolfo (February 14, 2019). [https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/adolfoflores/the-trump-administration-has-sent-the-first-asylum-seeking The Trump Administration Has Sent The First Asylum-Seeking Families Back To Mexico]. ''BuzzFeed News''. Retrieved February 18, 2019.</ref> On March 12, 2019, the DHS expanded the policy to the Calexico port of entry and the Border Patrol's San Diego sector,<ref>Multiple references:
*Radnofsky, Louise; Caldwell, Alicia A. (March 12, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-sending-more-central-americans-back-to-mexico-to-await-asylum-claims-11552418159 U.S. Sending More Central Americans Back to Mexico to Await Asylum Claims]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Torbati, Yeganeh (March 12, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/u-s-expands-return-of-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-to-new-ports-of-entry-idUSKBN1QT2EG U.S. expands return of asylum seekers to Mexico to new ports of entry]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Long, Colleen (March 12, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/2d1bfcd45e6143e5b9c9f467272812b0 US expands program making asylum seekers wait in Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Long, Colleen (March 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/mar/12/us-expands-program-making-asylum-seekers-wait-in-m/ US expands program making asylum seekers wait in Mexico]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/us-expands-return-of-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-to-new-ports-of-entry/4826213.html US Expands Return of Asylum-Seekers to Mexico to New Ports of Entry]. ''Voice of America'' (from ''Reuters''). March 12, 2019. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Rose, Joel (March 12, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/03/12/702597006/-remain-in-mexico-immigration-policy-expands-but-slowly 'Remain In Mexico' Immigration Policy Expands, But Slowly]. ''NPR''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Jativa, Daniel (March 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/us-expands-program-returning-asylum-seekers-to-mexico US expands program returning asylum seekers to Mexico]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
See also:
*Long, Colleen (March 30, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/6f2f8eb3a504483aaa717b76eb04d342 Number of asylum seekers sent back over border to grow]. ''Associated Press''. March 30, 2019. Retrieved March 30, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/number-of-asylum-seekers-sent-back-over-us-border-to-grow/4855480.html Number of Asylum Seekers Sent Back Over US Border to Grow]. ''Voice of America'' (from the ''Associated Press''). March 30, 2019. Retrieved March 31, 2019.</ref> and it was expanded to El Paso later that month.<ref>Multiple references:
*Aguilar, Julián (March 21, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/03/21/trump-administration-brings-new-policy-asylum-seekers-el-paso/ The Trump administration's policy of returning asylum seekers to Mexico has come to El Paso]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Gamboa, Suzanne; Ainsley, Julia (March 20, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/trump-administration-starts-remain-mexico-policy-el-paso-texas-n985641 Trump administration starts 'remain in Mexico' policy in El Paso, Texas]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Montes, Aaron (March 16, 2019). [https://www.elpasotimes.com/story/news/immigration/2019/03/16/trump-immigration-metering-policy-migrant-protection-protocols-implemented-el-paso-juarez/3177682002/ El Paso begins Trump policy that sends migrant asylum seekers back to Mexico]. ''El Paso Times''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*[http://news.trust.org/item/20190321022906-xr00m/ El Paso joins border cities sending asylum seekers back to Mexico]. ''Thomson Reuters Foundation'' (from ''Reuters''). March 21, 2019. Retrieved April 2, 2019.</ref> On April 1, 2019, the DHS announced it would again expand the "Remain in Mexico" policy.<ref>Multiple references:
*Munro, Neil (April 1, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/04/01/dhs-secretary-kirstjen-nielsen-return-more-migrants-mexico/ DHS Secretary Kirstjen Nielsen Will Return More Migrants to Mexico]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Caldwell, Alicia A. (April 1, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-administration-to-expand-remain-in-mexico-plan-11554137883 Trump Administration to Expand ‘Remain in Mexico’ Plan]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Torbati, Yeganeh; Espina, Jose Gallego (April 1, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration/trump-administration-steps-up-effort-to-return-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-idUSKCN1RD2N0 Trump administration steps up effort to return asylum seekers to Mexico]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (April 1, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/dhs-sending-hundreds-more-migrants-back-to-mexico-daily-due-to-worsening-border-situation DHS sending hundreds more migrants back to Mexico daily due to 'worsening' border situation]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Ainsley, Julia (April 1, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/secretary-nielsen-orders-cbp-surge-more-personnel-mexican-border-n989551 Nielsen said she will increase number of asylum seekers made to wait in Mexico]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Hopkins, Jason (April 2, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/04/02/asylum-seekers-to-be-sent-back-to-mexico/ The Trump Administration is Expanding a Program that Boots Asylum Seekers Back to Mexico]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Hesson, Ted (April 1, 2019). [https://www.politico.com/story/2019/04/01/kirstjen-nielsen-asylum-seekers-mexico-1309229 Nielsen to require more asylum seekers to remain in Mexico]. ''Politico''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/us-heightens-effort-to-return-asylum-seekers-to-mexico/4857434.html US Heightens Effort to Return Asylum Seekers to Mexico]. ''Voice of America'' (from ''Reuters''). April 1, 2019. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
This expansion was announced along with a redeployment of agents to deal with the border crisis:
*Dinan, Stephen (April 1, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/1/dhs-redeploy-2000-officers-border-crisis/ DHS to redeploy up to 2,000 officers to border crisis]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Budryk, Zach (April 1, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/national-security/department-of-homeland-security/436712-nielsen-orders-border-patrol-agent Nielsen orders Border Patrol agent 'surge' amid migrant influx]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Aguilar, Julián (April 1, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/04/01/border-patrol-redeployment-accelerating-more-migrants-sent-mexico/ Federal government to accelerate Customs and Border Protection redeployment amid migrant surge]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Goodenough, Patrick (April 2, 2019). [https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/patrick-goodenough/nielsen-orders-emergency-surge-operations-southwest-border Nielsen Orders ‘Emergency Surge Operations’ on Southwest Border]. ''CNS News''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Sacchetti, Maria (April 1, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/immigration/dhs-secretary-orders-law-enforcement-surge-to-the-border-hopes-for-faster-return-of-migrants-to-mexico/2019/04/01/9ad6e1e4-5492-11e9-8ef3-fbd41a2ce4d5_story.html DHS secretary orders law enforcement ‘surge’ to the border, hopes for faster return of migrants to Mexico]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Lehman, Charles Fain (April 1, 2019). [https://freebeacon.com/national-security/as-trump-threatens-to-close-border-cbp-surges-agents/ As Trump Threatens to Close Border, CBP Surges Agents]. ''The Washington Free Beacon''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Sink, Justin (April 1, 2019). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-01/dhs-chief-says-u-s-is-fortifying-border-against-migrant-surge DHS Chief Says U.S. Is Fortifying Border Against Migrant ‘Surge’]. ''Bloomberg''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
See also:
*Forgey, Quint (April 6, 2019). [https://www.politico.com/story/2019/04/06/trump-mexico-border-immigration-1260171 Trump warns of 'traffic' and 'commercial' delays at U.S.-Mexico border]. ''Politico''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> By April 26, 2019, the DHS had sent over 1,600 migrants back to Mexico under the policy,<ref>Multiple references:
*Frazin, Rachel (April 26, 2019). [https://thehill.com/latino/440865-dhs-says-1600-migrants-sent-to-mexico-to-await-asylum-processing DHS says over 1,600 migrants sent to Mexico to await asylum processing]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved April 27, 2019.
*Alvarez, Priscilla (April 26, 2019). [https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/26/politics/remain-in-mexico-migrants-returned/index.html DHS: More than 1,600 migrants have been returned to Mexico]. ''CNN''. Retrieved April 27, 2019.</ref> and the program continued expanding.<ref>Multiple references:
*[https://fingfx.thomsonreuters.com/gfx/editorcharts/USA-IMMIGRATION-ASYLUM/0H001PBW36BD/index.html Trump ramps up returns of asylum seekers to Mexico]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
*Hopkins, Jason (May 14, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/05/14/asylum-seekers-mexico-remain-in-mexico/ Thousands Booted Out of US Under Trump's 'Remain In Mexico' Policy]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
*Montoya-Galvez, Camilo; Canales, Angel (May 13, 2019). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/remain-in-mexico-more-than-5000-asylum-seekers-have-been-returned-under-trump-policy/ More than 5,000 asylum seekers have been returned under "Remain in Mexico" policy]. ''CBS News''. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
*Valencia, Jorge (May 14, 2019). [https://www.azpm.org/p/home-articles-news/2019/5/14/151587-over-5000-asylum-seekers-returned-to-mexico-under-controversial-plan/ Over 5,000 Asylum Seekers Returned To Mexico Under Controversial Plan]. ''Arizona Public Media''. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
*Daniel, Frank Jack; Chavez, Julio-Cesar (June 14, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-mexico/u-s-ramps-up-mexico-asylum-returns-trump-confirms-safe-third-country-plan-idUSKCN1TF1TO U.S. ramps up Mexico asylum returns, Trump confirms 'safe third country' plan]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 14, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-mexico-returns/u-s-sending-more-asylum-seekers-back-to-mexico-via-texas-border-crossing-official-idUSKCN1TF2IT U.S. sending more asylum seekers back to Mexico via Texas border crossing: official]. ''Reuters''. June 14, 2019. Retrieved June 14, 2019.
*Chavez, Julio-Cesar; Hay, Andrew (June 21, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-cubans/u-s-ramps-up-returns-of-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-adding-cubans-idUSKCN1TM2K9 U.S. ramps up returns of asylum seekers to Mexico, adding Cubans]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 21, 2019.
*Diaz, Lizbeth (June 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/two-more-border-cities-added-to-u-s-mexico-asylum-program-sources-idUSKCN1TO0Y5 Two more border cities added to U.S.-Mexico asylum program: sources]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 23, 2019.
*Montoya-Galvez, Camilo (July 9, 2019). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/remain-in-mexico-us-begins-returning-asylum-seekers-at-laredo-texas-crossing-expanding-controversial-policy/ U.S. begins returning asylum seekers at Laredo crossing, expanding "Remain in Mexico"]. ''CBS News''. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
*Roldan, Riane (July 9, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/07/09/remain-mexico-program-expands-laredo-texas/ Asylum seekers will appear before judges via teleconferencing in tents as "Remain in Mexico" program expands to Laredo]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
*Calderon, Juan Antonio; Sherman, Mark (July 9, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/d541cba0dd3144658ad6782c7a074941 US returns first asylum seekers to violent Nuevo Laredo]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
*Calderon, Juan Antonio; Sherman, Mark (July 9, 2019). [https://www.elpasotimes.com/story/news/immigration/2019/07/09/us-returns-first-group-asylum-seekers-nuevo-laredo-under-remain-mexico-migrant-protection-protocols/1689383001/ US returns first group of asylum seekers to Nuevo Laredo under Remain in Mexico policy]. ''El Paso Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved July 14, 2019.
*Diaz, Lizbeth (July 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/violent-mexican-border-city-opens-its-doors-to-u-s-asylum-seekers-idUSKCN1U5091 Violent Mexican border city opens its doors to U.S. asylum seekers]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 10, 2019.
*Merchant, Nomaan (July 19, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/8607c5ef6360498f8875a3c7d5281401 US to send asylum seekers back to dangerous part of Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Ferman, Mitchell (July 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration/new-border-city-added-to-program-returning-migrants-to-wait-for-u-s-hearings-in-mexico-idUSKCN1UE1YG Democratic lawmakers slam Trump's latest border initiatives]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Montoya-Galvez, Camilo (July 20, 2019). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/remain-in-mexico-u-s-will-now-return-asylum-seekers-in-rio-grande-valley-back-to-mexico/ U.S. will now return asylum seekers to one of Mexico's most dangerous areas]. ''CBS News''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Root, Jay (July 20, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/07/18/migrants-could-soon-be-returned-mexico-busiest-patch-border-officials-/ Trump administration will soon expand "remain in Mexico" policy for migrants to busiest part of the border]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Tapscott, Mark (August 27, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/one-in-four-new-immigrants-being-returned-to-mexico-to-await-deportation-hearings_3058087.html One in Four New Immigrants Being Returned to Mexico to Await Deportation Hearings]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved August 27, 2019.
*Verza, María; Merchant, Nomaan (August 28, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/c847182e79e240048ffb037589a62124 US, Mexico widen asylum crackdown to push back all migrants]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Del Valle, Gaby (August 27, 2019). [https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/qvgbk5/the-number-of-migrants-forced-to-wait-out-their-cases-in-mexico-exploded-in-july The Number of Migrants Forced to Wait Out Their Cases in Mexico Exploded in July]. ''VICE''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Kao, Jason; Lu, Denise (August 18, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/18/us/mexico-immigration-asylum.html How Trump’s Policies Are Leaving Thousands of Asylum Seekers Waiting in Mexico]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
See also:
*Bensman, Todd (July 22, 2019). [https://cis.org/Bensman/Trumps-Remain-Mexico-Policy-Appears-Be-Working Trump's "Remain in Mexico" Policy Appears to Be Working]. ''Center for Immigration Studies''. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
*Munro, Neil (May 20, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/05/20/los-angeles-times-border-agencies-return-pregnant-migrants-to-mexico/ Los Angeles Times: Border Agencies Return Pregnant Migrants to Mexico]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
*Hennessy-Fiske, Molly (May 19, 2019). [https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-migrant-remain-in-mexico-20190519-story.html Pregnant women, other vulnerable asylum seekers are returned to Mexico to await hearings]. ''Los Angeles Times''. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
*Levinson, Reade; Rosenberg, Mica; Cooke, Kristina (June 12, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-returns-exclusive/exclusive-asylum-seekers-returned-to-mexico-rarely-win-bids-to-wait-in-u-s-idUSKCN1TD13Z Exclusive: Asylum seekers returned to Mexico rarely win bids to wait in U.S.] ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
*Frazin, Rachel (June 12, 2019). [https://thehill.com/latino/448097-asylum-seekers-sent-to-wait-mexico-rarely-allowed-to-wait-in-us-for-cases-to-be Trump admin program sends asylum-seekers to await claims in Mexico, despite fears of violence: report]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (July 16, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/lgbt-asylum-seekers-exempt-from-remain-in-mexico-policy-and-can-stay-in-us LGBT asylum-seekers exempt from 'Remain in Mexico' policy and can stay in US]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved July 16, 2019.
*Rose, Joel; Smitherman, Laura (July 1, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/07/01/736908483/fear-confusion-and-separation-as-trump-administration-sends-migrants-back-to-mex Fear, Confusion And Separation As Trump Administration Sends Migrants Back To Mexico]. ''NPR''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Moore, Robert (July 10, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/07/10/740159720/under-trump-policy-migrants-seeking-asylum-must-wait-in-mexico In Juárez, 'Remain In Mexico' Policy Casts Asylum-Seekers Back Into Uncertainty]. ''NPR''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Jordan, Miriam; Semple, Kirk (July 10, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/10/us/border-migrants-remain-mexico.html A Sharp Drop in Migrant Arrivals on the Border: What’s Happening?] ''The New York Times''. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
*Verza, María (July 25, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/997436eb7cac4c5bab62c0b838941e3d Migrants sent back by US dumped in Mexico’s Monterrey]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
*Verza, María (August 2, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/e5a8d0db97094c4a9721f46c16455d45 900 asylum seekers returned to wait in Mexican border city]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved August 2, 2019.
*Binder, John (August 6, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/08/06/zero-of-1-2k-migrants-eligible-for-u-s-asylum-since-remain-in-mexico-policy/ Zero of 1.2K Migrants Eligible for U.S. Asylum Since ‘Remain in Mexico’ Policy]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
*Spagat, Elliot (August 8, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/3370c011e7304496a788bb4085bfffaf In Mexico, thousands more names added to border wait lists]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved August 8, 2019.
*Bensman, Todd (August 16, 2019). [https://cis.org/Bensman/Update-President-Trumps-Remain-Mexico-Policy Update on President Trump's 'Remain in Mexico' Policy]. ''Center for Immigration Studies''. Retrieved August 16, 2019.
*Aleaziz, Hamed (August 22, 2019). [https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/hamedaleaziz/trump-mexico-returned-asylum-seekers-35000-policy Trump Has Returned 35,000 Asylum-Seekers To Mexico. Now The Country Is Pushing Back.] ''BuzzFeed News''. Retrieved August 25, 2019.
*Caldwell, Alicia A. (September 5, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/trumps-return-to-mexico-policy-overwhelms-immigration-courts-11567684800 Trump’s Return-to-Mexico Policy Overwhelms Immigration Courts]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 5, 2019.
*Munro, Neil (September 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/09/17/progressives-attack-remain-in-mexico-program-for-migrants/ Progressives Attack ‘Remain in Mexico’ Program for Migrants]. ''BrietbartNews''. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
*Davidson, John Daniel (September 17, 2019). [https://thefederalist.com/2019/09/17/waiting-juarez-trumps-remain-mexico-program-ruin-smugglers-trade/ Waiting In Juarez: How Trump’s ‘Remain in Mexico’ Program Could Ruin The Smugglers’ Trade]. ''The Federalist''. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
*Cooke, Kristina; Rosenberg, Mica; Levinson, Reade (October 11, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-babies-exclusive/exclusive-u-s-migrant-policy-sends-thousands-of-children-including-babies-back-to-mexico-idUSKBN1WQ1H1 Exclusive: U.S. migrant policy sends thousands of children, including babies, back to Mexico]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
*Bernal, Rafael (October 11, 2019). [https://thehill.com/latino/465414-us-has-sent-13k-migrant-children-back-to-mexico-this-year-report US has sent 13K migrant children back to Mexico this year: report]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
*Schrank, Delphine (October 16, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico-matamoros-feat/asylum-seekers-cling-to-hope-safety-in-camp-at-u-s-mexico-border-idUSKBN1WV1DY Asylum seekers cling to hope, safety in camp at U.S.-Mexico border]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 16, 2019.
*Caldwell, Alicia A. (November 11, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/migrants-find-different-fates-at-texas-arizona-borders-11573480818 Migrants Find Different Fates at Texas, Arizona Borders]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
*Arthur, Andrew R. (November 12, 2019). [https://cis.org/Arthur/Arizona-Hole-Remain-Mexico-Net Arizona Is the Hole in the 'Remain in Mexico' Net]. ''Center for Immigration Studies''. Retrieved November 12, 2019.
*Miles, Frank (November 18, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/homeland-security-mexico-migrants-border-county DHS defends policy keeping asylum-seeking migrants at Mexico border]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 19, 2019.
*Peña, Jason (November 19, 2019). [https://cis.org/Pena/Survey-Finds-Nearly-Half-Migrants-Juarez-Consider-Staying-Mexico Survey Finds Nearly Half of Migrants in Juarez Consider Staying in Mexico]. ''Center for Immigration Studies''. Retrieved November 19, 2019.
*Hackman, Michelle (November 23, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/at-migrant-camp-in-mexico-crowds-and-complaints-swell-11574510400 At Migrant Camp in Mexico, Crowds and Complaints Swell]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 23, 2019.</ref> On September 23, 2019, the DHS announced it would significantly expand the "Remain in Mexico" policy in an effort to end "catch-and-release" on the Mexican border,<ref>Multiple references:
*Hackman, Michelle (September 23, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-seeks-to-send-more-migrant-families-to-mexico-to-await-asylum-hearings-11569290834 U.S. Seeks to Send More Migrant Families to Mexico to Await Asylum Hearings]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Samuels, Brett (September 23, 2019). [https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/462699-homeland-security-touts-end-of-catch-and-release-next-week Homeland Security touts end of 'catch and release' next week]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Nguyen Ly, Mimi (September 23, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/department-of-homeland-security-announces-end-to-catch-and-release_3092861.html Department of Homeland Security Announces End to ‘Catch and Release’]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Dinan, Stephen (September 23, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/sep/23/catch-and-release-end-next-week-homeland-security-/ DHS vows end to 'catch-and-release' next week]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Carranza, Rafael (September 23, 2019). [https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/border-issues/2019/09/23/trump-administration-announces-end-catch-and-release-kevin-mcaleenan/2425158001/ Trump administration announces the end of 'catch and release']. ''The Arizona Republic''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Gonzales, Richard (September 24, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/09/24/763645635/trump-administration-to-end-catch-and-release-immigration-policy-says-dhs-chief Trump Administration To End 'Catch And Release' Immigration Policy, Says DHS Chief]. ''NPR''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*Sakelaris, Nicholas (September 24, 2019). [https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2019/09/24/US-ends-catch-and-release-policy-will-deport-migrant-families/3231569322112/ U.S. ends 'catch and release' policy, will deport migrant families]. ''UPI''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*McArdle, Mairead (September 24, 2019). [https://www.nationalreview.com/news/department-of-homeland-security-effectively-ending-catch-and-release-of-illegal-migrants/ Department of Homeland Security Effectively Ending ‘Catch and Release’ of Illegal Migrants]. ''National Review''. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
See also:
*Chmielenski, Chris (September 28, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/sep/28/ending-the-practice-of-catch-and-release/ Ending the practice of 'catch and release']. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved September 28, 2019.
*Steiber, Zachary (September 19, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/trump-administration-planning-to-end-catch-and-release-at-the-southwest-border_3087998.html Trump Administration Planning to ‘End Catch and Release at the Southwest Border’]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved December 12, 2019.</ref> and on October 28, 2019, the DHS expanded "Remain in Mexico" to Eagle Pass, Texas.<ref name="AbandonAsylum">Multiple references:
*Dinan, Stephen (October 29, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/oct/29/dhss-remain-mexico-plan-causes-tens-thousands-aban/ Trump admin's 'Remain in Mexico' plan causes tens of thousands to abandon asylum]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
*Shaw, Adam (November 1, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/migrants-returned-to-mexico-have-given-up-their-asylum-claims Thousands of migrants sent back to Mexico under Trump policy have given up their asylum claims: DHS]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 1, 2019.
*Kan, Janita (November 2, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/thousands-of-migrants-are-voluntarily-going-home-after-being-sent-back-to-mexico-under-trump-policy-dhs_3135430.html Thousands of Migrants Are Voluntarily Going Home After Being Sent Back to Mexico Under Trump Policy: DHS]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved November 2, 2019.</ref><ref>Multiple references:
*Aguilar, Julián (October 28, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/10/28/trump-remain-mexico-immigration-policy-expands-texas-mexico-border/ Trump's controversial "remain in Mexico" immigration policy expands along Texas' southern border]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Hopkins, Jason (October 29, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/10/29/trump-administration-remain-mexico/ ‘Key Component To The Success’: Administration Expands ‘Remain In Mexico’ Program Along Border]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (October 30, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/trump-administration-expands-program-to-make-asylum-seekers-wait-in-mexico Trump administration expands program to make asylum seekers wait in Mexico]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Aguilar, Julián (October 29, 2019). [https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2019/10/29/Remain-in-Mexico-immigration-policy-expands-along-Texas-border/6241572349644/ 'Remain in Mexico' immigration policy expands along Texas border]. ''UPI'' (from ''The Texas Tribune''). Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Clark, Douglas (October 30, 2019). [https://homelandprepnews.com/stories/38900-dhs-expands-migrant-protection-protocols-sites/ DHS expands Migrant Protection Protocols sites]. ''Homeland Preparedness News''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Da Silva, Chantal (October 29, 2019). [https://www.newsweek.com/trump-administration-expands-remain-mexico-policy-u-s-border-1468361 Trump Administration Expands 'Remain In Mexico' Program Despite Reports Of Asylum Seekers Facing Violence Across Border]. ''Newsweek''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</ref> On November 22, 2019, the CBP announced it had begun implementing the Remain in Mexico program in Arizona, meaning it had been implemented along the entire southern border.<ref>Multiple references:
*Miguel, Luis (November 25, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/immigration/item/34125-trump-admin-bolsters-remain-in-mexico-policy-in-key-border-hot-spots Trump Admin Bolsters “Remain in Mexico” Policy in Key Border Hot Spots]. ''The New American''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Hackman, Michelle (November 22, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-transporting-asylum-seeking-migrants-in-arizona-to-texas-under-remain-in-mexico-program-11574450531 U.S. Transporting Asylum-Seeking Migrants in Arizona to Texas Under ‘Remain in Mexico’ Program]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Shaw, Adam (November 26, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-administration-to-strengthen-remain-in-mexico-in-key-areas-as-migrant-flows-adapt Trump administration to expand ‘Remain-in-Mexico’ program at key border crossings]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Pan, Gq (November 22, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/trump-administration-to-implement-remain-in-mexico-policy-at-arizona-border-patrol-sector_3154677.html Trump Administration to Implement ‘Remain-in-Mexico’ Policy at Arizona Border Patrol Sector]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Galvan, Astrid; Spagat, Elliot (November 22, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/nov/22/asylum-seekers-in-arizona-to-be-bused-to-texas-the/ Asylum-seekers in Arizona are forced to wait in Mexico]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Galvan, Astrid; Spagat, Elliot (November 22, 2019). [https://apnews.com/fe62e7197b3e46e0956b10f58a5ec6e9 Asylum-seekers in Arizona are forced to wait in Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Hernández, Arelis R.; Miroff, Nick; Sacchetti, Maria (November 22, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/immigration/remain-in-mexico-to-shuttle-migrants-from-tucson-to-el-paso/2019/11/22/2f56a484-0cb3-11ea-8397-a955cd542d00_story.html Trump administration’s ‘Remain in Mexico’ program to shuttle migrants from Tucson to El Paso]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Hernández, Arelis R.; Miroff, Nick; Sacchetti, Maria (November 22, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/11/22/government-send-migrants-tucson-el-paso-under-remain-mexico/ Trump administration to shuttle migrants from Tucson to El Paso under "Remain in Mexico" policy]. ''The Texas Tribune'' (from ''The Washington Post''). Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Moran, Rick (November 23, 2019). [https://pjmedia.com/trending/dhs-expands-illegal-alien-return-to-mexico-policy/ DHS Expands Illegal Alien 'Return to Mexico' Policy]. ''PJ Media''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Gómez, Laura (November 22, 2019). [https://www.azmirror.com/blog/trump-admins-remain-in-mexico-program-now-in-tucson-sector-report/ Trump admin’s ‘Remain in Mexico’ program now in Tucson sector: report]. ''AZ Mirror''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Sands, Geneva (November 22, 2019). [https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/politics/dhs-migrant-returns-to-mexico/index.html Homeland Security expands migrant returns to Mexico by driving migrants hundreds of miles]. ''CNN''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
See also:
*Hopkins, Jason (November 24, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/11/24/cuccinelli-migrants-remain-mexico/ DHS Deputy Says ‘About 60,000’ Migrants Have Been Sent Back Under Remain In Mexico Program]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Galvan, Astrid (December 6, 2019). [https://apnews.com/2c5a6e1571c3a9224d551459abe50d03 Asylum-seekers who crossed in Arizona returned to Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved December 6, 2019.
*Galvan, Astrid (December 6, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/dec/6/asylum-seekers-who-crossed-in-arizona-returned-to-/ Asylum-seekers who crossed in Arizona returned to Mexico]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved December 6, 2019.
*Kraychik, Robert (December 16, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/12/16/report-remain-in-mexico-policy-has-less-than-one-percent-asylum-grant-rate/ Report: ‘Remain in Mexico’ Policy Has Less than One Percent Asylum Grant Rate]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 16, 2019.
*Hopkins, Jason (December 16, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/12/16/11-migrants-qualified-for-asylum-under-mpp/ 11 Migrants Have Qualified For Asylum Under Remain In Mexico Program: Report]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved December 17, 2019.
*Rose, Joel (December 19, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/12/19/789780155/few-asylum-seekers-winning-cases-under-remain-in-mexico-program Few Asylum-Seekers Winning Cases Under 'Remain In Mexico' Program]. ''NPR''. Retrieved December 20, 2019.
*Solis, Gustavo (December 15, 2019). [https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/border-baja-california/story/2019-12-15/remain-in-mexico-has-a-0-01-percent-asylum-grant-rate Remain in Mexico has a 0.1 percent asylum grant rate]. ''The San Diego Union-Tribune''. Retrieved December 22, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Cartel execution.jpeg|right|300px|thumb|Members of the Los Tlacos cartel executing members of the rival La Bandera cartel, Sept. 29, 2021.<ref>https://www.bizpacreview.com/2021/10/02/horrifying-footage-of-mexican-cartel-lining-up-rivals-for-execution-1143185/</ref>]]
====Biden regime====
{{See also|Biden border crisis|Russia-Ukraine war}}
The U.S. [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] deputy chief of operations Matthew Donahue told [[NPR]] the Biden junta has unraveled efforts to target drug cartels operating inside Mexico. The collapse of joint drug interdiction efforts has occurred at a time when drug cartels are manufacturing huge quantities of [[fentanyl]] and [[methamphetamine]]s in illegal labs inside Mexico. Under Biden, those illicit drugs are being smuggled into communities across the United States, driving an explosion in overdose deaths. "It's a national health threat, it's a national safety threat," Donahue said, adding that drug gangs and criminal organizations now operate inside Mexico with impunity. "They do not fear any kind of [[law enforcement]] ... or military inside of Mexico right now."<ref>https://freebeacon.com/national-security/dea-official-mexican-cartels-smuggling-fentanyl-across-border-with-impunity/</ref>

Mexican President Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador expressed concern over the [[Biden junta]]'s [[open borders]] policy which incentivized human traffiking and organized crime.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico-exclusive-idUSKBN2B21D8</ref> President Lopez Obrador accused the Biden junta of funding a group seeking to undermine the Mexican government. "It's interference, it's interventionism, it's promoting [[coup]] plotters," said Lopez Obrador, describing funding that includes money from the [[U.S. Agency for International Development]], commonly known as USAID, as an affront to Mexico's [[sovereignty]]. "A foreign government can't provide money to political groups."<ref>https://sg.news.yahoo.com/mexico-president-says-u-finances-155240937.html</ref>

President Obrador said of Biden's [[Ukraine]] policy, "we see it as the old policy of interventionism, lack of respect for nations, and their people.”<ref>https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20220606-mexico-s-lopez-obrador-to-skip-biden-s-summit-of-the-americas-over-exclusion-of-some-countries</ref> President Obrador said of [[NATO]] policy towards Ukraine is like saying “I’ll supply the weapons, and you supply the dead. It is immoral.”<ref>https://kstp.com/associated-press/ap-us-international/mexican-president-slams-nato-policy-in-ukraine/</ref>

==Economy==

Mexico is highly dependent on exports to the U.S., which account for almost a quarter of the country's GDP. The result is that the Mexican economy is strongly linked to the U.S. business cycle. Real GDP grew by 3.0% in 2005 and was projected to grow by 4.5% for 2006.

Mexico's trade regime is among the most open in the world, with free trade agreements with the U.S., Canada, the EU, and many other countries. Since the 1994 devaluation of the peso, successive Mexican governments have improved the country's macroeconomic fundamentals. [[Inflation]] and public sector deficits are under control, while the current account balance and public debt profile have improved. As of September 2006, Moody's, Standard & Poor's, and Fitch Ratings had all issued investment-grade ratings for Mexico's [[Sovereign debt]].
*Nominal GDP: $1.2 trillion (2010 est.)
*GDP per capita: $9,231 (2020)
*Avg. annual real GDP growth (2000-2005): 3.2%.
*Inflation rate: (2006 est.) 3.4%, (2005) 3.3%; (2004) 5.2%; (2003) 4.0%; (2002) 5.7%; (2001) 4.4%; (2000) 9.0%.
*Natural resources: Petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber.
*Agriculture (4% of GDP): Products—corn, beans, oilseeds, feed grains, fruit, cotton, coffee, sugarcane, winter vegetables.
*Industry (26% of GDP): Types—manufacturing, energy, construction, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, tourism.
*Oil - production: 3.001 million bbl/day (2009 est.)
*Services (70% of GDP): Types—commerce and tourism (21%), financial services (13%), and transportation and communications (11%).
*Trade (Goods): Exports (2005)--$214 billion. Imports (2005)--$222 billion. Exports to U.S. (2005)--$183 billion (86% of total).
*Labor force: 46.99 million (2010 est.)
Imports from U.S. (2005)--$118 billion (53% of total). Major markets—U.S., EU, Canada, Colombia, Japan.

====Trade====
[[File:World Trade Center Mexico City.jpg|thumb|right|300px|World Trade Center, [[Mexico City]].]]
Mexico is among the world's most open economies, but it is dependent on trade with the U.S., which bought 86% of its exports in 2005. Top U.S. exports to Mexico include electronic equipment, motor vehicle parts, and chemicals. Top Mexican exports to the U.S. include petroleum, cars, and electronic equipment. There is considerable intra-company trade.

Mexico is an active and constructive member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It hosted the September 2003 WTO Ministerial Meeting in Cancun. The Mexican Government and many businesses support a Free Trade Area of the Americas.

Trade disputes between the U.S. and Mexico are generally settled through direct negotiations between the two countries or via WTO or North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) panels. The most significant areas of friction involve agricultural products such as sugar, high fructose corn syrup, apples, and rice.

Starting in 1994, [[NAFTA]] greatly boosted Mexico's exports to the U.S. and made the country more attractive for foreign investment. It also helped it to weather the 1994-1995 peso crisis by ensuring access to U.S. and Canadian markets. There has been a growth in the orther states of Mexico of large multinational companies whose maquiladora assembly operations have gained an increasingly larger proportion of Mexico's export production. Meanwhile, the proportion of production by smaller manufacturing firms and other producers has steadily shrunk. Mexico continues to be an importer of technology and innovative processes, and likewise remains heavily dependent on the performance of the U.S. economy. Manufacturing remains concentrated in the Federal District, Jalisco and Nuevo León. Mexico's inadequate road system, particularly in the central and southern states, is a serious impediment to attracting foreign investment in those regions, as well for exploiting the full potential of NAFTA.<ref>Edward J. Chambers, and Peter H. Smith, eds. ''NAFTA in the New Millennium.'' (2002) 520 pp. scholarly studies on trade, labor, migration, transport, and the environment.
</ref>

In 2018 NAFTA was renegotiated and replaced with the United States-Mexico-Canada ([[USMCA]]) trade agreement. [[Ford]] Motor Company previously agreed with its workers, the [[United Auto Workers]] (UAW), to spend $900 million on a new electric vehicle product line for its Avon Lake, [[Ohio]] plant. The UAW had endorsed Joe Biden in the 2020 election. By March of 2021, Ford announced it was shifting production to Mexico claiming "conditions had changed since 2019" when the agreement was made, according to ''[[Reuters]]''.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-ford-ohio-idUSKBN2B82V9</ref> The Biden junta refused to enforce provisions of the USMCA, which replaced the NAFTA trade deal.

====Agriculture====
[[Image:Velasco El Valle de Mexico.jpg|right|Velasco The Valley of Mexico]]
Mexico's agrarian reform program began in 1917, when the government began distribution of land to farmers. Extended further in the 1930s, delivery of land to peasants continued into the 1960s and 1970s at varying rates. This cooperative agrarian reform, which guaranteed small farmers a means of subsistence livelihood, also caused land fragmentation and lack of capital investment, since commonly held land could not be used as collateral. Additionally, only 12% of Mexico's land area is arable, of which less than 3% is irrigated. This, coupled with a general lack of economic opportunity in rural areas, has made it difficult to raise the productivity and living standards of Mexico's subsistence farmers.
[[File:Poinsettia Mexico.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Poinsettia.]]

Agriculture accounted for 4% of GDP in 2005, yet agricultural employment accounted for over 16% of total employment because wages are low. However, the number of Mexican farmers is steadily decreasing as they seek greater economic opportunities from off-farm employment.

Poor availability of credit continues to plague agriculture. Agricultural loans were hard hit by the 1994 peso crisis and many private banks view agricultural lending, particularly to smaller producers, as too risky. Several government entities provide public credit to the rural sector, including Financiera Rural, a development bank dedicated to supporting agriculture.
In an effort to raise rural productivity and living standards, Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution was amended in 1992 to allow for the transfer of communal land to the farmers cultivating it. They then could rent or sell the land, opening the way for larger farms and economies of scale. There have been few actual sales of communal land, and most have been limited primarily to suburban areas where land values are high. One inhibiting factor may be community opposition based on vested interests in maintaining the communal land system.

Mexico subsidizes agricultural production through various support programs, the most notable being the PROCAMPO initiative. Since the early 1990s, the availability of program payments has shifted from primarily grains and legumes to all commodities, provided a farmer was producing during a certain base period. Total support program funding for 2004 was approximately $2.4 billion, with PROCAMPO payments of $88 per hectare for producers with more than five hectares and $100 per hectare for producers with 1-5 hectares.

====Manufacturing and Foreign Investment====
The manufacturing sector, which accounts for about 18% of GDP, grew by 1.2% in 2005. Construction grew by 4% in real terms in 2005, fueled by a boom in housing finance.

According to Mexico's Ministry of Economy, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Mexico for 2005 was $18.8 billion, down slightly from the year before. The U.S. was once again the largest foreign investor in Mexico, accounting for 66% of reported FDI. The most recent numbers released by Mexico show FDI for January through June 2006 at $8.7 billion.

====Oil and Gas====
[[File:Offshore platforms Mexico.jpg|thumb|370px|Offshore platforms.]]
In 2005 Mexico was the world's sixth-largest oil producer, its eighth-largest oil exporter, and the third-largest supplier of oil to the U.S. Oil and gas revenues provide more than one-third of all Mexican Government revenues.

Mexico's state-owned oil company, Pemex, holds a constitutionally established monopoly for the exploration, production, transportation, and marketing of the nation's oil. While private investment in natural gas transportation, distribution, and storage has been permitted, Pemex remains in sole control of natural gas exploration and production. Despite substantial reserves, Mexico is a net natural gas importer.

====Transportation and Communications====
Mexico's land transportation network is one of the most extensive in Latin America with 117,000 kilometers (km.) of paved roads, including more than 10,000 kilometers of four-lane paved roads. The 26,622 kilometers (16,268 mi.) of government-owned railroads in Mexico have been privatized through the sale of 50-year operating concessions.

Mexico's ports have experienced a boom in investment and traffic following a 1993 law that privatized the port system. Mexico's ports moved nearly 1.7 million containers in 2003. A number of international airlines serve Mexico, with direct or connecting flights from most major cities in the United States, Canada, Europe, Japan, and Latin America. Most Mexican regional capitals and resorts have direct air services to Mexico City or the United States. In 2005, the Government of Mexico agreed to sell Mexicana, one of the two main national airlines, to a private investor. Airports are semi-privatized with the government still the majority shareholder, but with each regional airport group maintaining operational autonomy.
[[File:Cancun Mexico.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Cancun.]]
The telecommunications sector is dominated by Telmex, the former state-owned monopoly. Several international companies compete in the sector with limited success. The teledensity rate in Mexico (around 16%) is among the lowest in Latin America. Cellular penetration is much higher with over 33 million cellular customers in 2004. However, 31 million of these customers use prepaid cards, and many use their phones to receive calls only. Mexico's satellite service sector was opened to competition, including limited foreign direct investment, in 2001.

====Tourism====
[[Image:Mar campechano.jpg|thumb|Mexico's sea]]
Tourism—mostly from the U.S. and Canada—is the third largest industry, with revenues of $13 billion in 2008. 80 Million Americans visited in 2008, and despite the [[Recession of 2008]] the numbers are up for 2009 because Mexico is a much cheaper destination than Europe.

The most visited destinations are Mexico City, [[Cancun]], [[Acapulco]] and the border cities.
Mexico City is the world's third-largest metropolis (following [[Tokyo]] and NYC). New tourist areas are Huatulco, Zihuatanejo, Ixtapa, and Puerto Escondido on the Pacific coast

[http://www.sectur.gob.mx/wb2/secturing/sect_1052_tourism_information The Ministry of Tourism], through INFOTUR, provides free information to Mexican and foreign tourists, including co-nationals, about tourist destinations, attractions and services.
{{Clear}}

====National Holidays====
[[Image:Camp01.jpg|right|Handicrafts]]
*Mexican Independence Day, September 16: the day that Miguel Hidalgo delivered [[The Grito de Dolores|El Grito de Dolores]], and announced the Mexican revolt against Spanish rule.
*Flag Day, February 24: honoring the Mexican Flag
*Primero de Mayo: May 1: equivalent to the U.S. Labor Day
*[[Cinco de Mayo]]: May 5: honoring the Mexican victory over the French army at [[Puebla]] in 1862. This holiday is also celebrated unofficially in parts of the U.S.

[[File:Hacienda Quintana Roo Mexico.jpg|left|280px]]

{{Clear}}

== See also ==
[[Image:Paola Espinosa.jpg|thumb|Paola Espinosa, together with Tatiana Ortiz, won bronze medals in Beijing 2008.]]
*[[Mexican History]]
*[[Mexican Painters]]
*[[Our Lady of Guadalupe]]
*[[Edzna]]
*[[Jaina]]
*[[Maya]]
*[[Aztecs]]
*[[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]
*[[The Fine Arts Palace]]
*[[Aguascalientes]]
*[[Cristero War]]

== External links ==

*[http://mexico.pinnacle-travel.org/culture.htm Official and Religious Holidays] Pinnacle Travel
*[http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/mexico/index.html Mexico - 2007] Facts and more
*[http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=Mexico Mexico at "Everything2"]
*[http://www.mexicotourismauthority.com/travel.asp Travel destinations]
*[http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Articles/mexico_religion.htm Mexico religion] From Library of Congress, Country Studies.
*[http://www.explorandomexico.com/about-mexico/5/5/ Mexican Painters] Explorando Mexico.
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/mexico.htm Mexico] One World - Nations Online.
 

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:Mexico]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Immigration]]

Mexico

2024-06-02T17:52:37Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''Estados Unidos Mexicanos''
|map =Mexico rel97.jpg
|map2 =Loc of Mexico.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Mexican arms.jpg
|capital =Mexico City
|capital-raw =
|government =Federal republic (presidential)
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Andrés Manuel López Obrador
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =758,249 sq mi
|pop =130,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,200,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$9,800 (2020)
|currency =Peso
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Mexico''' is a country in [[North America]] directly south of the [[United States]]. It borders the North Pacific Ocean to the west, [[Guatemala]] and [[Belize]] to the south, and the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to the east. Mexico is a federal republic with 31 states and 1 federal district. Its capital is [[Mexico City]]. At present Mexico's territory covers almost 2 million square kilometers with a population of about 130 million. Major cities include: [[Mexico City]] (capital), [[Guadalajara]], [[Monterrey]], [[Puebla]], [[Tijuana]].

==People==
[[Image:Elisa Najera.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Elisa Nájera, Miss Mexico 2007.]]
Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and the second most-populous country in Latin America after Portuguese-speaking [[Brazil]]. About 70% of the people live in urban areas. Many Mexicans emigrate from rural areas that lack job opportunities—such as the underdeveloped southern states and the crowded central plateau—to the industrialized urban centers and the developing areas along the U.S.-Mexico border. The Mexico City region has 18 million people and is the largest concentration of population in the Western Hemisphere. Cities bordering on the United States—such as Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez—and cities in the interior—such as [[Guadalajara]], Monterrey, and [[Puebla]]—have undergone sharp rises in population and income in recent years.

In 2008, according to the Pew Research Center 12.7 millions of immigrants in the US were of Mexican origin (32% of all immigrants living in that country).<ref>[http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1191/mexican-immigrants-in-america-largest-group Mexican Immigrants in the United States, 2008]</ref> Mexicans often join and serve together in the US military. There are high concentrations of Mexicans and Mexican-Americans in California marine units, Texas [[National Guard]] units, and, for some unexplained statistical quirk, there are many Mexican Patriot missile operators.<ref>[http://209.85.173.104/search?q=cache:XMdSoqPdhR4J:www.justthinkfirst.org/updates/MilitaryService/MexicansDyingInIraq.pdf+MEXICANS+DIED+IRAQ&hl=es&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=mx Mexico Fiercely Opposes the Iraq War, But Mexicans Are Dying There Every Week.]</ref>

The United States [[NRA]] asserts:
* For honest Mexican citizens, guns are outlawed. So [[drug lords]] are free and safe to rule the land, government officials are either on the take or in the morgue, and honest citizens are imprisoned in their own homes ... unarmed and terrified of what may be outside. [http://home.nra.org/#/home]

===Education===
[[File:Museo Universitario de Arte Contemporaneo.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Museo Universitario de Arte Contemporaneo.]]
[[Image:Cu11.jpg|thumb|right|The University of Mexico]]
Education is among the Mexican government's highest priorities, and the education budget has continued to grow in recent years. Funding for education increased from 6.9% of GDP in 2002 to 7.3% of GDP in 2005. While efforts to decentralize responsibility for education from the federal to the state level in order to improve accountability are ongoing, the central government still retains significant authority. Although educational performance in Mexico has improved substantially in recent decades, the country still faces several major problems, including providing education to rural and indigenous populations.

Education is currently mandatory for ages 5 through 15. An education reform law enacted in 2002 will make preschool mandatory for all children ages 3 and up by 2008. This reform is being implemented in stages. In 2005, 77.4% of the population between the ages of 3 and 15 were enrolled in school. Primary, including preschool, enrollment totaled 18.8 million in 2005. Enrollment at the secondary public school level rose from 5.4 million in 2000 to 5.9 million in 2005. After a significant increase in higher education enrollment during previous decades, Mexico has seen a slower rise in university enrollment more recently. Numbers rose from 2 million enrolled in 2000 to 2.4 million in 2005.

===Statistics===
[[Image:Rafa Marquez.jpg|thumb|Rafa Marquez.]]
*Population (2011 estimate): 113.4 million.
*Annual growth rate (2011 estimate): 1.102%.
*Ethnic groups: Indian-Spanish ([[mestizo]]) 60%, Indian 30%, Caucasian 10%.
*Religions: [[Roman Catholic]] 76.5%, Protestant 6.3% (Pentecostal 1.4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.1%, other 3.8%), unspecified 13.8%, other 0.3%, none 3.1% (2000 census)
*Language: [[Spanish]] only 92.7%, Spanish and indigenous languages 5.7%, indigenous only 0.8%.
*Education: Years compulsory—11 (note: preschool education was made mandatory in Dec. 2001). Literacy—86.1%.
*Health (2004 est.): Infant mortality rate—21.69/1000. Life expectancy—male 72.18 years; female 77.83 years.
*Work force (2000, 39.81 million): [[Agriculture]], forestry, hunting, fishing—21.0%; services—32.2%; commerce—16.9%; manufacturing—18.7%; construction—5.6%; transportation and communication—4.5%; mining and quarrying—1.0%.
*Natural resources: petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber.
[[File:Mexico Popocatepetl.jpg|thumb|240px|The volcano Popocatepetl.]]
*Land Area: 1,958,200 km2.
*Latitude/Longitude: 19.2ºN, 99.1ºW
*Highest Point: Volcan Pico de Orizaba 5,700 Mts.
*Border countries: Belize 250 km, Guatemala 962 km, US 3,141 km.
*Coastline: 9,330 km.
*Climate: varies from tropical to desert.
*Terrain: high, rugged mountains; low coastal plains; high plateaus; desert.
*Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm.
People who live in Mexico are referred to in English as Mexicans (adjective: Mexican). The net migration rate is: 3.24 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2011 est.) (Mainly to the US.)

[[Image:Priscila Perales 2.jpg|frame|left|240px|Priscila Perales, Miss Mexico 2005, Miss International 2007.]]
*Official Currency: Mexican Peso (MXN)

*Time Zone: GMT/UTC
*Electricity: 127V 60HzHz
*Country Dialing Code: 52
*Major Industries: Food and beverages, tobacco, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, original motor vehicles, consumer durables, tourism.
*Tequila is originally produced in Mexico.
*Mexican commodities which have gained worldwide popularity include chocolate, vanilla, tomatoes and the poinsettia plant.

More facts:<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html CIA - Facts]</ref>
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==History==
[[File:Uxmal Mexico Maya.jpg|thumb|[[Uxmal]], Mayan ruins.]]
Highly developed cultures, including those of the [[Olmecs]], [[Mayas]], [[Toltecs]], and [[Aztecs]], existed long before the Spanish conquest. Hernando Cortes conquered Mexico during the period 1519-21 and founded a Spanish colony that lasted nearly 300 years.
[[Image:Guanajuato 4.jpg|thumb|left|Guanajuato City]]
Independence from Spain was proclaimed by Father Miguel Hidalgo on September 16, 1810. Father Hidalgo's declaration of national independence, known in Mexico as the "Grito de Dolores", launched a decade long struggle for independence from Spain. Prominent figures in Mexico's war for independence were Father Jose Maria Morelos; Gen. Augustin de Iturbide, who defeated the Spaniards and ruled as Mexican emperor from 1822–23; and Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana, who went on to dominate Mexican politics from 1833 to 1855. An 1821 treaty recognized Mexican independence from Spain and called for a constitutional monarchy. The planned monarchy failed; a republic was proclaimed in December 1822 and established in 1824.
[[File:Velasco El Valle de Mexico desde Santa Isabel.jpg|thumb|[[Jose Maria Velasco]], El Valle de Mexico desde Santa Isabel, 1892.]]
Throughout the rest of the 19th century, Mexico's government and economy were shaped by contentious debates among liberals and conservatives, republicans and monarchists, federalists and those who favored centralized government. During the two presidential terms of Benito Juarez (1858–71), Mexico experimented with modern democratic and economic reforms. President Juarez’ terms of office, and Mexico's early experience with democracy, were interrupted by the Hapsburg monarchy's rule of Mexico (1864–67), and was followed by the authoritarian government of Gen. Porfirio Díaz, who was president during most of the period between 1877 and 1911.

The states of [[New Mexico]], [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], and parts of [[Wyoming]], and [[Colorado]], were part of Mexico until the [[Mexican American War]]. [[Texas]] was a part of Mexico for only 15 years, until Texans won their independence in the Texas Revolution in 1836, but Spanish Texas (Tejas) lasted between 1690 and 1821. Therefore, some U.S. citizens in this region speak Spanish as their native language.

Mexico's severe social and economic problems erupted in a revolution that lasted from 1910–20 and gave rise to the 1917 constitution. Prominent leaders in this period—some of whom were rivals for power—were Francisco Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, Alvaro Obregón, Victoriano Huerta, and Emiliano Zapata. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), formed in 1929 under a different name, emerged from the chaos of revolution as a vehicle for keeping political competition among a coalition of interests in peaceful channels. For 71 years, Mexico's national government was controlled by the PRI, which won every presidential race and most gubernatorial races until the July 2000 presidential election of Vicente Fox Quesada of the National Action Party (PAN). He was succeeded in 2006 by another PAN candidate Felipe Calderón. In January 2009, Mexico assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2009–10 term.

[[Image:Maria Espinoza.jpg|thumb|200px|left|María Espinoza. (Photo: Reuters)]]
Famous Mexicans of history include: [[Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz]], [[Benito Juarez]], [[Porfirio Diaz]], [[Justo Sierra Mendez]], [[Francisco Madero]], [[Francisco Gabilondo Soler]], [[Jose Maria Velasco]], [[Joaquin Clausell]], [[Lazaro Cardenas]], [[Frida Kahlo]], [[Diego Rivera]], [[Carlos Chavez]] and [[Octavio Paz]].

Famous Mexicans of today: [[Felipe Calderon]], [[Carlos Slim]], [[Salma Hayek]], Priscila Perales, [[Lorena Ochoa]], [[Ana Gabriela Guevara]], [[Carlos Fuentes]], Guillermo del Toro, Alejandro González Iñárritu, [[Alfonso Cuarón]], [[Mario Molina]], [[Rodolfo Neri Vela]], Salvador Palma Vargas, Carlos Franco, Ángel Aliseda, Emanuel Johansen, Adriana Alcántara Ruiz, Dalia Graciela Díaz Gómez, Carlos Hernández Mejía, Belem Guerrero, [[Raúl Gío Argáez]], [[Fernando Valenzuela]], [[Hugo Sanchez]], [[Cuauhtemoc Blanco]], [[Rafa Marquez]], [[Javier Aguirre]], [[Giovanni dos Santos]], Guillermo Pérez Sandoval (gold medal Beijing 08) and María Espinoza (also gold medal Beijing 08).

In 2017, it was reported that Mexico had become the second deadliest conflict zone in the world, after [[Syria]] (through the [[Syrian Civil War]]).<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/05/09/mexico-now-considered-second-deadliest-conflict-zone-after-syria-study-says.html Mexico now considered second deadliest conflict zone after Syria, study says]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved May 9, 2017.</ref>
{{Clear}}

===Religion===
[[Image:Guadalupe ch.jpg|right|Virgin of Guadalupe.]]
According to the 2000 census, approximately 88% of respondents identify themselves as at least nominally Catholic. There are an estimated 11,000 Catholic churches and 14,000 Catholic priests and nuns.

An additional estimated 90,000 laypersons worked in the Catholic Church. Groups that constitute less than 5% of the population include evangelicals (Pentecostals, neo-Pentecostals, and Pentecostal Roots), "historical" Protestants (defined by the Government as Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, Nazarene, Mennonite, and others), Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and Jews.<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108532.htm U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

The General Director for Religious Associations of the Federal Secretariat of Government (GDAR) registered a total of 3,554 evangelical and 80 traditional Protestant associations. The exact number of evangelical and Protestant churches and pastors is unknown, and statistics on membership remain scant. Official figures sometimes differ from membership claims of religious groups. For example, the Seventh-day Adventist Church claims a nationwide membership of 600,000 to 700,000 persons; however, according to the 2000 census, only 488,945 persons identify themselves as such. Also according to the 2000 census, 205,229 persons identify themselves as Mormons, whereas the Mormons claim membership of approximately 1.2 million.
[[File:Guadalupe original image Mexico.jpg|thumb|Our Lady of Guadalupe, original image at the Basilica.]]
[[File:Altar Reyes Catedral Metropolitana.JPG|thumb|left|290px|Altar Reyes, Metropolitan Cathedral.]]
Non-Catholic Christians are concentrated primarily in the south. In the State of Chiapas, 21.9% of respondents in the 2000 census identify themselves as Protestant; however, some Protestant evangelical groups claim a much higher pecentage.

The Jewish community claims approximately 50,000 members, most of whom live in Mexico City; there are also congregations in Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana, and Cancún. There is a small Muslim population in the city of Torreón, Coahuila, and there are an estimated 300 Muslims in the San Cristobal de las Casas area in Chiapas. Some indigenous people in the states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Yucatán practice a syncretic religion that mixes Catholic and pre-Hispanic Mayan religious beliefs.

In some communities, particularly in the south, there is a correlation between politics and religious affiliation. A small number of local leaders reportedly manipulate religious tensions in their communities for their own political or economic benefit, particularly in Chiapas.

===preamble of mexicos constitution 1857===
In the name of God and by the authority of the Mexican people. The representatives of the different States, of the District and of the Territories which compose the Republic of Mexico, called upon by the provisions of the Plan proclaimed in Ayutla the first of March, eighteen hundred and fifty-four, amended in Acapulco the eleventh day of the same month and year, and by the call issued the seventeenth of October, eighteen hundred and fifty-five, to convene for the purpose of framing a constitution for the nation and making it a popular representative, democratic republic, exercising the powers with which they are vested, do hereby comply with the requirements of their high office, by decreeing the following political Constitution of the Mexican Republic, on the indestructible basis of its legitimate independence, proclaimed the sixteenth of September, eighteen hundred and ten, and consummated the twenty-seventh of September, eighteen hundred and twenty-one.

==Government==

The 1917 constitution provides for a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Historically, the executive has been the dominant branch, with power vested in the president, who promulgates and executes the laws of the Congress. The Congress has played an increasingly important role since 1997, when opposition parties first made major gains. The president also legislates by executive decree in certain economic and financial fields, using powers delegated from the Congress. The president is elected by universal adult suffrage for a 6-year term and may not hold office a second time. There is no vice president; in the event of the removal or death of the president, a provisional president is elected by the Congress.

The Congress is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Consecutive re-election is prohibited. Senators are elected to 6-year terms, and deputies serve 3-year terms. The Senate's 128 seats are filled by a mixture of direct-election and proportional representation. In the [[lower house]], 300 deputies are directly elected to represent single-member districts, and 200 are selected by a modified form of proportional representation from five electoral regions. The 200 proportional representation seats were created to help smaller parties gain access to the Chamber.

The judiciary is divided into federal and state court systems, with federal courts having jurisdiction over most civil cases and those involving major felonies. Under the constitution, trial and sentencing must be completed within 12 months of arrest for crimes that would carry at least a 2-year sentence. In practice, the judicial system often does not meet this requirement. Trial is by judge, not jury, in most criminal cases. Defendants have a right to counsel, and public defenders are available. Other rights include defense against self-incrimination, the right to confront one's accusers, and the right to a public trial. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and approved by the Senate.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President--[[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]]
*Foreign Secretary—Marcelo Ebrard
*Ambassador to the U.S.—Martha Bárcena

===Political Conditions===
[[File:Estela de luz May 2012.jpg|thumb|Estela de Luz in Mexico City.]]
Vicente Fox Quesada of the National Action Party (PAN) was elected president in July 2000 in what were widely considered the freest and fairest elections in Mexico's history. Fox began his six-year term on December 1, 2000. His victory ended the Institutional Revolutionary Party's (PRI) 71-year hold on the presidency. President Fox completed his term on December 1, 2006, when Felipe Calderon assumed the presidency.

Numerous electoral reforms implemented since 1989 have progressively opened the Mexican political system, and opposition parties have made historic gains in elections at all levels. At the same time, this opening has left Mexico's political institutions divided. Fox is credited with ending one-party rule and consolidating the opening of Mexico's political system. Under Fox, Mexico's highest office became a true constitutional presidency, considerably weakened in comparison to the PRI years by the PAN's lack of control over the Congress.

In 2018, Mexico received its first leftist president in 32 years, after being controlled by technocrats during that period.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/mexico-gets-1st-leftist-leader-after-32-years-of-technocrats Mexico gets first leftist leader after 32 years of technocrats]. ''Fox News''. December 1, 2018. Retrieved December 1, 2018.</ref>

====2006 Elections====
The 2006 elections resulted in an extremely tight race, with a margin of less than one percent separating the vote totals of the two leading candidates for president, Felipe Calderon of the PAN and Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (AMLO) of the left-of-center Democratic Revolution Party (PRD). The PRI candidate, Roberto Madrazo, came in a distant third.
[[Image:Siqueiros Mural en Ciudad Universitaria.jpg|thumb|320px|left|[[David Alfaro Siqueiros]], The People for the University. The University for the People. 1952–56.]]
Lopez Obrador contested the results of the July 2 presidential election, alleging that it was marred by widespread fraud. He challenged in court the result of the Federal Electoral Institute's tabulation showing that Calderon had won the election and launched a mass street protest demanding a nationwide vote-by-vote recount. Mexico's Federal Electoral Tribunal, while acknowledging the presence of randomly-distributed irregularities, rejected Lopez Obrador's accusation of widespread fraud and upheld Calderon's victory on September 5, 2006.

On September 16, 2006, the PRD sponsored a "National Democratic Convention," convened on Mexico City's historic central square, that rejected Calderon's presidency, approved a resolution naming Lopez Obrador Mexico's "legitimate" president, and called for the creation of a parallel executive cabinet. Convention participants also approved a long-term civil resistance action plan. Lopez Obrador's support is largely drawn from Mexico's poorer classes, some of whom feel disenfranchised from Mexico's political system.

In the 2006 elections, the PAN emerged as the largest party in both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, with just over 40 percent of the seats in each house of Congress. It does not enjoy a legislative majority. Although the PRI no longer controls the Presidency and has fewer congressional seats than either the PAN or PRD, it remains a significant force in Mexican politics, holding 17 governorships.

====Other Reforms====
[[File:Mexican teenagers.jpg|thumb|250px|Mexican youth]]
One of President Fox's most important reforms was the passage and implementation of Freedom of Information (FOIA) laws that, by the end of 2005, were in effect for the federal government, Mexico City, and 26 states (only two states had such laws in 2001). These laws are a cornerstone in Mexico's fight against corruption, and Mexico's FOIA laws and enforcement mechanisms have been hailed as international models.

President Fox also highlighted the need for modernization of Mexico's criminal justice system, including the introduction of oral trials. Although judicial reforms stalled at the federal level during the Fox years, 10 states have now either completed or are in the process of enacting such reforms. Furthermore, all presidential candidates in the 2006 elections committed to further federal judicial reforms.

Under President Fox, the executive branch became more accountable, transparent, and citizen-centered. In 2003, Mexico passed its first-ever Civil Service Law, which introduced an on-line application system and competence-based hiring. The Fox administration's good government agenda also included the initiation of government services via Internet, the development of citizen charters that set standards for service delivery, and the reduction in the percentage of public servants working in administrative jobs from one out of two to one out of four.

[[File:Embassy Mexico Berlin.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Embassy of Mexico in Berlin.]]

===Foreign Relations===
Traditionally, Mexico has sought to maintain its interests abroad and project its influence largely through moral persuasion and has championed the principles of nonintervention and self-determination. In its efforts to revitalize its economy and open up to international competition, Mexico has sought closer relations with the U.S., Western Europe, and the Pacific Basin. President Fox more actively promoted international human rights and democracy and sought to increase Mexico's participation in international affairs.

Mexico actively participates in several international organizations; it was elected to a seat on the UN Security Council for the period 2002–03. It is a strong supporter of the United Nations and Organization of American States systems and also pursues its interests through a number of ad hoc international bodies. Mexico has been selective in its membership in other international organizations. It declined, for example, to become a member of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Nevertheless, Mexico does seek to diversify its diplomatic and economic relations, as demonstrated by its accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986; its joining the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1993; its becoming, in April 1994, the first Latin American member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); and its entering the World Trade Organization as a founding member in 1996. Mexico attended the 1994 Summit of the Americas, held in Miami; managed coordination of the agenda item on education for the 1998 Summit of the Americas in Santiago, Chile; and hosted a Special Summit of the Americas in early 2004. Mexico hosted the September 2003 WTO Ministerial in Cancun and a Hemispheric Security Conference in October of the same year. It was elected to the International Atomic Energy Agency Board of Governors in 2003. In 2002 it hosted the APEC Leaders’ Meeting in Cabo San Lucas.

===Relations with the United States===
During the 19th century Mexico and the U.S. had a tense, difficult relationship (including a war) that continued well into the 20th century. In World War II, Mexico sided with the Allies and this marked the beginning of a more friendly and modern relationship between the two countries.
[[File:Map Mexicans in US 2000.jpg|right|Mexicans in US, 2000.]]
U.S. relations with Mexico are as important and complex as with any country in the world. A stable, democratic, and economically prosperous Mexico is fundamental to U.S. interests. U.S. relations with Mexico have a direct impact on the lives and livelihoods of millions of Americans—whether the issue is trade and economic reform, homeland security, drug control, migration, or the promotion of democracy. The U.S. and Mexico are partners in NAFTA, and enjoy a rapidly developing trade relationship. In March 2005, the U.S., Mexico, and Canada formed the Security and Prosperity Partnership (SPP), which contemplates trilateral and bilateral initiatives to develop new avenues of cooperation that will enhance North America's security, competitiveness, and economic resilience.

:{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Mexican drug-related gun murders skyrocket during Obama's [[Fast and Furious]] campaign<ref>https://archive.is/RyT8w</ref>
|-
| 2006 || 62
|-
| 2007 || 2,837
|-
| 2008 || 6,844
|-
| 2009 || 11,753
|-
| 2010 || 19,546
|-
| 2011 || 24,068
|-
| 2012 || 18,061 (by October 31, 2012)
|-
| 2013 || 23,640 killed in 2013 (through to March 2014)
|}
The scope of U.S.-Mexican relations goes far beyond diplomatic and official contacts; it entails extensive commercial, cultural, and educational ties, as demonstrated by the annual figure of nearly a million legal border crossings a day. In addition, more than a half-million American citizens live in Mexico. More than 2,600 U.S. companies have operations there, and the U.S. accounts for 55% of all foreign direct investment in Mexico. Along the 2,000-mile shared border, state and local governments interact closely.

There has been frequent contact at the highest levels. Presidents’ meetings have included the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Leaders’ Meeting in Bangkok in October 2003; President Bush's visits to Monterrey in January 2004 (Summit of the Americas) and March 2002; his April 2001 visit to Guanajuato; President Fox's state visit to the U.S. in September 2001, and his meeting with the President at Crawford, Texas in March 2004. The two Presidents also met in Crawford in March 2005 where, along with then Canadian Prime Minister Martin, they launched the Security and Prosperity Partnership. They held a follow-on SPP meeting with Canadian Prime Minister Harper in Cancun in March 2006.

Since 1981, the management of the broad array of U.S.-Mexico issues has been formalized in the U.S.-Mexico Binational Commission, composed of numerous U.S. cabinet members and their Mexican counterparts. The commission holds annual plenary meetings, and many subgroups meet during the course of the year to discuss border security and counter terrorism, trade and investment opportunities, financial cooperation, consular issues and migration, legal affairs and anti-narcotics cooperation, education, energy, border affairs, environment and natural [[resources]], labor, agriculture, health, housing and urban development, transportation, and science and technology.

A strong partnership with Mexico is critical to combating terrorism and controlling the flow of illicit drugs into the United States. In recent years, cooperation on counter-narcotics and Mexico's own initiatives in fighting drug trafficking have been unprecedented. The U.S. will continue working with Mexico as it seeks to strengthen its cooperation and anti-drug efforts. The U.S. and Mexico continue to cooperate on narcotics interdiction, demand reduction, and eradication.

====Border and Environmental Affairs====

Cooperation between the United States and Mexico along the 2,000-mile common border includes state and local problem-solving mechanisms; transportation planning; and institutions to address resource, environment, and health issues. In 1993, the Border Liaison Mechanism (BLM) was established. Chaired by U.S. and Mexican consuls, the BLMs operate in "sister city" pairs and have proven to be effective means of dealing with a variety of local issues ranging from accidental violation of sovereignty by law enforcement officials and charges of mistreatment of foreign nationals to coordination of port security and cooperation in public health matters such as tuberculosis.

As the number of people and the volume of cargo crossing the U.S.-Mexico border grow, so, too, does the need for coordinated infrastructure development. The multi-agency U.S.-Mexico Bi-national Group on Bridges and Border Crossings meets twice yearly to improve the efficiency of existing crossings and coordinate planning for new ones. The 10 U.S. and Mexican border states have become active participants in these meetings.

The United States and Mexico have a history of cooperation on environmental and natural resource issues, particularly in the border area, where there are serious environmental problems caused by rapid population growth, urbanization, and industrialization. Cooperative activities between the U.S. and Mexico take place under a number of agreements such as:

*A 1889 convention establishing the International Boundary Commission, reconstituted by the Water Treaty of 1944 as the International Boundary and Water Commission, United States and Mexico (IBWC). The IBWC has settled many difficult U.S.-Mexico boundary and water problems, including the regularization of the Rio Grande near El Paso through the 1967 Chamizal settlement. The IBWC divides the use of international waters, builds and operates water conservation and flood control projects, and constructs and maintains boundary markers on the land boundary and on international bridges. In recent years, the IBWC has worked to resolve longstanding border sanitation problems, to monitor the quantity and quality of border waters, and to address water delivery and sedimentation problems of the Colorado River.

*A series of agreements on border health (since 1942), wildlife and migratory birds (since 1936), national parks, forests, marine and atmospheric resources. In July 2000, the U.S. and Mexico signed an agreement to establish a binational Border Health Commission. The Border Health Commission held its inaugural meeting in November 2000 and is made up of the federal secretaries of health, the ten border states' chief health officers, and prominent community health professionals from both countries. A representative from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services manages the U.S. Section in El Paso, Texas.

*The 1983 La Paz Agreement to protect and improve the border environment and Border 2012, a 10-year, binational, results-oriented environmental program for the U.S.-Mexico border region. The Border 2012 Program is the latest multi-year, binational planning effort to be implemented under the La Paz Agreement and succeeds Border XXI, a five-year program that ended in 2000.

*The 1993 North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), creating the North American Commission on Environmental Cooperation under NAFTA by the U.S., Mexico, and Canada, to improve enforcement of environmental laws and to address common environmental concerns.

*A November 1993 agreement between the U.S. and Mexico, also related to NAFTA, establishing the Border Environment Cooperation Commission (BECC), which works with local communities to develop and certify environmental infrastructure projects such as waste-water treatment plants, drinking water systems, and solid waste disposal facilities. The sister organization, the North American Development Bank (NADBank), uses capital and grant funds contributed by partner governments to help finance border environmental infrastructure projects certified by the BECC. Prior to 2005, both institutions had separate Boards of Directors. In an effort to improve efficiency, the separate Boards were merged into a single entity and the combined Board held its first meeting in June 2006.

*In 2021 President [[Lopez Obrador]] expressed concern over the [[Biden junta]]'s [[open borders]] policy which incentivized human trafficing and organized crime.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico-exclusive-idUSKBN2B21D8</ref>

====Crime====
[[File:Fast and Furious violence.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Well over 100,000 people were killed in Mexican Drug Cartel Wars since the [[Obama administration]] launched [[Operation Fast and Furious]].<ref>https://archive.is/RyT8w</ref>]]
In 2009, Mexico experienced its most violent and dangerous year of the past decade with a homicide count of at least 7,724, a toll largely attributable to the government's offensive against drug traffickers and the turf wars being waged between the rival cartels themselves. In 2008, 8481 people were murdered. Over the past five years, approximately 20,000 people have died at the hands of organized crime, primarily in the states of Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Baja California, Durango, Michoacán and Guerrero. At least 3,250 homicides took place in the state of Chihuahua alone in 2009, the majority of which took place in Ciudad Juárez, on the border with El Paso, Texas. Many innocent bystanders get shot. Mexico's federal government has deployed nearly 50,000 soldiers to support local police in the war against drug trafficking.

<blockquote>
Tijuana is among the cities hardest hit by violence as Mexico's drug cartels battle for lucrative smuggling routes past the border to supply illegal drug users in the United States.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/photos/photos_galleries/mexicodrugviolence/ Mexico's violent year of drugs.]</ref>
</blockquote>

Drug cartels have done what effectively amounted to defeating the Mexican armed forces in battle.<ref>https://twitter.com/TheAbridgedZach/status/1185421587903700993</ref>

====Obama era====

In May 2010, Obama promised Mexican President Felipe Calderon that his administration would assist Mexico in curbing drug cartel violence, which has led to 30,000 deaths in Mexico. "President Calderon and I . . . stand together against the drug cartels that have unleashed horrific violence in so many communities," Obama said on May 19. "Mexico can count on the United States as a full partner in this effort.

The ''[[Washington Post]]'' has reported however that White House officials stopped a requirement for gun dealers to report bulk sales of high-powered semiautomatic rifles commonly used by illegal drug cartels. [[U.S. Justice Department]] officials had asked for White House approval to require thousands of gun dealers along the border to report the purchases to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms and Explosives. ATF investigators expected to get leads on suspected arms traffickers. Senior law enforcement sources said the proposal from the ATF was held up by White House chief of staff [[Rahm Emanuel]].<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/12/17/AR2010121706598.html White House delayed rule meant to stop gun flow to Mexico] [[Washington Post]]</ref> Gun dealers have been required for decades to report the sales of multiple handguns to the ATF.

====Trump era====
The [[Trump administration]] implemented a policy of returning asylum seekers at the San Ysidro port of entry back to Mexico as their asylum claims underwent review, something done to help end the policy of "catch-and-release."<ref>Multiple references:
*Munro, Neil (January 25, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/immigration/2019/01/24/u-s-will-start-returning-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-on-friday/ U.S. Will Start Returning Asylum Seekers to Mexico on Friday]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Suarez Sang, Lucia I. (January 25, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/us/asylum-seekers-at-southern-border-to-be-sent-back-to-mexico-us-officials-say Asylum seekers at southern border to be sent back to Mexico, US officials say]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Caldwell, Alicia A. (January 24, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-to-start-sending-some-asylum-seekers-back-to-mexico-11548362672 U.S. to Start Returning Some Asylum Seekers to Mexico]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Kirkwood, R. Cort (January 25, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/immigration/item/31301-call-it-operation-big-boot-trump-admin-announces-migrant-deportation Call It Operation Big Boot: Trump Admin Announces “Migrant” Deportation]. ''The New American''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Spagat, Elliot (January 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/jan/24/trump-administration-force-asylum-seekers-wait-mex/ Trump administration to force asylum seekers to wait in Mexico as soon as Friday, U.S. official says]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Daniel, Frank Jack; Rosenberg, Mica (January 24, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico-exclusive/exclusive-u-s-to-begin-returning-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-on-friday-official-idUSKCN1PI2VV U.S. to start returning asylum seekers to Mexico on Friday]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/official-asylum-seekers-to-wait-in-mexico-starting-friday-/4758326.html Asylum Seekers to Wait in Mexico Starting Friday]. ''Voice of America'' (from the ''Associated Press''). January 25, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Ainsley, Julia (January 24, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/dhs-plans-begin-turning-asylum-seekers-back-mexico-await-court-n962401 DHS plans to begin turning asylum-seekers back to Mexico to await court dates]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (January 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/border-officers-in-san-diego-to-begin-forcing-asylum-applicants-to-wait-in-mexico Border officers in San Diego to begin forcing asylum applicants to wait in Mexico]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
Despite this, Mexico publicly opposed this policy and stated it would not accept returning every asylum seeker:
*Montes, Juan (January 25, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/mexico-to-receive-some-migrants-from-the-u-s-11548458143 Mexico to Receive Some Migrants From the U.S.]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/mexico-will-not-accept-return-of-at-risk-us-asylum-seekers/4756630.html Mexico Will Not Accept Return of At-risk US Asylum Seekers]. ''Voice of America'' (from ''Reuters''). January 23, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Averbuch, Maya (January 25, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/mexico-rebukes--but-accepts--unilateral-us-move-to-return-asylum-seekers-pending-hearing/2019/01/25/52062470-202b-11e9-a759-2b8541bbbe20_story.html Mexico rebukes — but accepts — ‘unilateral’ U.S. move to return asylum seekers pending hearing]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*[https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/mexico-won-t-accept-minors-awaiting-u-s-asylum-claims-n963976 Mexico won't accept minors awaiting U.S. asylum claims]. ''NBC News'' (from the ''Associated Press''). January 30, 2019. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
The first migrants were returned to Mexico on January 29, 2019:
*Stapleton, Shannon; Diaz, Lizbeth (January 29, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/us-sends-first-central-american-asylum-seeker-to-mexico-under-new-policy-idUSKCN1PN2HZ U.S. sends first Central American asylum seeker to Mexico under new policy]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved January 29, 2019.
*Spagat, Elliot (January 29, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/03d22afe62c6412da80827f0eb763f37 US launches plan for asylum seekers to wait in Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*[https://www.newsmax.com/newsfront/migrant-asylum-reuturned-mexico/2019/01/30/id/900444/ US Sends 1st Asylum Seeker Back Across Border to Wait in Mexico]. ''Newsmax''. January 30, 2019. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Silva, Daniella (January 29, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/trump-administration-begins-returning-asylum-seekers-mexico-n964256 Trump administration begins returning asylum seekers to Mexico]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Morefield, Scott (January 29, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/01/29/us-asylum-seekers-wait-mexico/ US Quietly Plans to Make Asylum Seekers Wait in Mexico — Mexico Not So Sure]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Villegas, Paulina; Semple, Kirk (January 29, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/29/world/americas/asylum-seekers.html Trump Administration’s Asylum-Seeker Policy Takes Effect]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Averbuch, Mark; Sieff, Kevin (January 29, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/asylum-seekers-are-being-sent-back-to-mexico-as-trump-administration-rolls-out-new-policy/2019/01/29/a0a89e9c-233b-11e9-b5b4-1d18dfb7b084_story.html Asylum seeker is sent back to Mexico as Trump administration rolls out new policy]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Shoichet, Catherine E.; Gallón, Natalie (January 29, 2019). [https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/29/americas/remain-in-mexico-policy-begins/index.html A major US policy change began with one migrant's arrival in Mexico]. ''CNN''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
*Miroff, Nick (February 1, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/trump-administration-to-expand-wait-in-mexico-measures-for-asylum-seekers/2019/02/01/1e782d16-2656-11e9-81fd-b7b05d5bed90_story.html Trump administration to expand wait-in-Mexico measures for asylum seekers]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved February 9, 2019.
*McKitterick, Molly; Macchi, Victoria (February 1, 2019). [https://www.voanews.com/a/turnaround-policy-begins-for-asylum-seekers-at-mexico-border/4769282.html Turnaround Policy Begins for Asylum Seekers at US Border]. ''Voice of America''. Retrieved April 27, 2019.
See also:
*Munro, Neil (January 24, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/01/24/pro-migration-groups-slam-trump-for-ending-catch-and-release/ Pro-Migration Groups Slam Trump for Ending Catch-and-Release]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Spagat, Elliot; Verza, Maria (January 25, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/9187f518ba3740758bb23681a6c22b63 Asylum seekers worry new US policy will mean more waiting]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (January 24, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/no-work-permits-for-migrants-in-mexico-promise-missing-in-new-trump-administration-document No work permits for migrants in Mexico? Promise missing in new Trump administration document]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
*Love, Julia; Schrank, Delphine (January 25, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/u-s-set-to-send-first-group-of-asylum-seekers-back-to-mexico-idUSKCN1PJ2EB U.S. set to send first group of asylum seekers back to Mexico]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
*Groening, Chad (January 29, 2019). [https://onenewsnow.com/national-security/2019/01/29/cis-applauds-asylum-policy-at-san-diego-crossing CIS applauds asylum policy at San Diego crossing]. ''OneNewsNow''. Retrieved January 30, 2019.
The policy's impact through March 2019:
*Verza, Maria (February 25, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/feb/25/remain-mexico-program-expels-migrants-including-mi/ U.S. expels migrants, including minors, through new 'remain in Mexico' program]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved February 25, 2019.
*Dinan, Stephen (March 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/mar/12/dhss-return-mexico-policy-gets-slow-start/ DHS's return-to-Mexico policy gets slow start]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved March 12, 2019.
*Ainsley, Julia (March 12, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/trump-admin-has-turned-back-240-asylum-seekers-border-under-n982246 Trump admin has turned back 240 asylum-seekers at border under 'Remain in Mexico' policy]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Smith, Kate (March 13, 2019). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/240-asylum-seekers-have-been-sent-to-wait-in-tijuana-under-a-new-contested-trump-administration-policy/ 240 asylum seekers have been sent to wait in Tijuana under a contested Trump administration policy]. ''CBS News''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Miroff, Nick (March 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/immigration/us-has-sent-240-migrants-back-to-mexico-under-experimental-policy-which-will-expand-along-california-border/2019/03/12/d7742bfc-44ed-11e9-90f0-0ccfeec87a61_story.html U.S. has sent 240 migrants back to Mexico under experimental policy, which has expanded along California border]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.</ref> On February 13, 2019, the administration began returning migrant family units to Mexico.<ref>Multiple references:
*Bernal, Rafael (February 14, 2019). [https://thehill.com/latino/430038-trump-administration-sends-back-first-migrant-families-to-mexico Trump administration sends back first migrant families to Mexico]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved February 18, 2019.
*Diaz, Lizbeth; Rosenberg, Mica (February 14, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration/us-sends-first-families-to-mexico-to-await-asylum-rights-groups-sue-idUSKCN1Q32VY U.S. sends first families to Mexico to await asylum, rights groups sue]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved February 18, 2019.
*Carranza, Rafael (February 14, 2019). [https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/immigration/2019/02/14/u-s-begins-sending-back-asylum-seeking-families-back-remain-in-mexico/2873022002/ U.S. begins sending back asylum-seeking families to Mexico as policy gets legal challenge]. ''The Arizona Republic''. Retrieved February 18, 2019.
*Flores, Adolfo (February 14, 2019). [https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/adolfoflores/the-trump-administration-has-sent-the-first-asylum-seeking The Trump Administration Has Sent The First Asylum-Seeking Families Back To Mexico]. ''BuzzFeed News''. Retrieved February 18, 2019.</ref> On March 12, 2019, the DHS expanded the policy to the Calexico port of entry and the Border Patrol's San Diego sector,<ref>Multiple references:
*Radnofsky, Louise; Caldwell, Alicia A. (March 12, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-sending-more-central-americans-back-to-mexico-to-await-asylum-claims-11552418159 U.S. Sending More Central Americans Back to Mexico to Await Asylum Claims]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Torbati, Yeganeh (March 12, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/u-s-expands-return-of-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-to-new-ports-of-entry-idUSKBN1QT2EG U.S. expands return of asylum seekers to Mexico to new ports of entry]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Long, Colleen (March 12, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/2d1bfcd45e6143e5b9c9f467272812b0 US expands program making asylum seekers wait in Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Long, Colleen (March 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/mar/12/us-expands-program-making-asylum-seekers-wait-in-m/ US expands program making asylum seekers wait in Mexico]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/us-expands-return-of-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-to-new-ports-of-entry/4826213.html US Expands Return of Asylum-Seekers to Mexico to New Ports of Entry]. ''Voice of America'' (from ''Reuters''). March 12, 2019. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Rose, Joel (March 12, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/03/12/702597006/-remain-in-mexico-immigration-policy-expands-but-slowly 'Remain In Mexico' Immigration Policy Expands, But Slowly]. ''NPR''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
*Jativa, Daniel (March 12, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/us-expands-program-returning-asylum-seekers-to-mexico US expands program returning asylum seekers to Mexico]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
See also:
*Long, Colleen (March 30, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/6f2f8eb3a504483aaa717b76eb04d342 Number of asylum seekers sent back over border to grow]. ''Associated Press''. March 30, 2019. Retrieved March 30, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/number-of-asylum-seekers-sent-back-over-us-border-to-grow/4855480.html Number of Asylum Seekers Sent Back Over US Border to Grow]. ''Voice of America'' (from the ''Associated Press''). March 30, 2019. Retrieved March 31, 2019.</ref> and it was expanded to El Paso later that month.<ref>Multiple references:
*Aguilar, Julián (March 21, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/03/21/trump-administration-brings-new-policy-asylum-seekers-el-paso/ The Trump administration's policy of returning asylum seekers to Mexico has come to El Paso]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Gamboa, Suzanne; Ainsley, Julia (March 20, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/trump-administration-starts-remain-mexico-policy-el-paso-texas-n985641 Trump administration starts 'remain in Mexico' policy in El Paso, Texas]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Montes, Aaron (March 16, 2019). [https://www.elpasotimes.com/story/news/immigration/2019/03/16/trump-immigration-metering-policy-migrant-protection-protocols-implemented-el-paso-juarez/3177682002/ El Paso begins Trump policy that sends migrant asylum seekers back to Mexico]. ''El Paso Times''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*[http://news.trust.org/item/20190321022906-xr00m/ El Paso joins border cities sending asylum seekers back to Mexico]. ''Thomson Reuters Foundation'' (from ''Reuters''). March 21, 2019. Retrieved April 2, 2019.</ref> On April 1, 2019, the DHS announced it would again expand the "Remain in Mexico" policy.<ref>Multiple references:
*Munro, Neil (April 1, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/04/01/dhs-secretary-kirstjen-nielsen-return-more-migrants-mexico/ DHS Secretary Kirstjen Nielsen Will Return More Migrants to Mexico]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Caldwell, Alicia A. (April 1, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-administration-to-expand-remain-in-mexico-plan-11554137883 Trump Administration to Expand ‘Remain in Mexico’ Plan]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Torbati, Yeganeh; Espina, Jose Gallego (April 1, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration/trump-administration-steps-up-effort-to-return-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-idUSKCN1RD2N0 Trump administration steps up effort to return asylum seekers to Mexico]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (April 1, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/dhs-sending-hundreds-more-migrants-back-to-mexico-daily-due-to-worsening-border-situation DHS sending hundreds more migrants back to Mexico daily due to 'worsening' border situation]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Ainsley, Julia (April 1, 2019). [https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/immigration/secretary-nielsen-orders-cbp-surge-more-personnel-mexican-border-n989551 Nielsen said she will increase number of asylum seekers made to wait in Mexico]. ''NBC News''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Hopkins, Jason (April 2, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/04/02/asylum-seekers-to-be-sent-back-to-mexico/ The Trump Administration is Expanding a Program that Boots Asylum Seekers Back to Mexico]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*Hesson, Ted (April 1, 2019). [https://www.politico.com/story/2019/04/01/kirstjen-nielsen-asylum-seekers-mexico-1309229 Nielsen to require more asylum seekers to remain in Mexico]. ''Politico''. Retrieved April 2, 2019.
*[https://www.voanews.com/a/us-heightens-effort-to-return-asylum-seekers-to-mexico/4857434.html US Heightens Effort to Return Asylum Seekers to Mexico]. ''Voice of America'' (from ''Reuters''). April 1, 2019. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
This expansion was announced along with a redeployment of agents to deal with the border crisis:
*Dinan, Stephen (April 1, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/apr/1/dhs-redeploy-2000-officers-border-crisis/ DHS to redeploy up to 2,000 officers to border crisis]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Budryk, Zach (April 1, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/national-security/department-of-homeland-security/436712-nielsen-orders-border-patrol-agent Nielsen orders Border Patrol agent 'surge' amid migrant influx]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Aguilar, Julián (April 1, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/04/01/border-patrol-redeployment-accelerating-more-migrants-sent-mexico/ Federal government to accelerate Customs and Border Protection redeployment amid migrant surge]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Goodenough, Patrick (April 2, 2019). [https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/patrick-goodenough/nielsen-orders-emergency-surge-operations-southwest-border Nielsen Orders ‘Emergency Surge Operations’ on Southwest Border]. ''CNS News''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Sacchetti, Maria (April 1, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/immigration/dhs-secretary-orders-law-enforcement-surge-to-the-border-hopes-for-faster-return-of-migrants-to-mexico/2019/04/01/9ad6e1e4-5492-11e9-8ef3-fbd41a2ce4d5_story.html DHS secretary orders law enforcement ‘surge’ to the border, hopes for faster return of migrants to Mexico]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Lehman, Charles Fain (April 1, 2019). [https://freebeacon.com/national-security/as-trump-threatens-to-close-border-cbp-surges-agents/ As Trump Threatens to Close Border, CBP Surges Agents]. ''The Washington Free Beacon''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
*Sink, Justin (April 1, 2019). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-01/dhs-chief-says-u-s-is-fortifying-border-against-migrant-surge DHS Chief Says U.S. Is Fortifying Border Against Migrant ‘Surge’]. ''Bloomberg''. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
See also:
*Forgey, Quint (April 6, 2019). [https://www.politico.com/story/2019/04/06/trump-mexico-border-immigration-1260171 Trump warns of 'traffic' and 'commercial' delays at U.S.-Mexico border]. ''Politico''. Retrieved April 6, 2019.</ref> By April 26, 2019, the DHS had sent over 1,600 migrants back to Mexico under the policy,<ref>Multiple references:
*Frazin, Rachel (April 26, 2019). [https://thehill.com/latino/440865-dhs-says-1600-migrants-sent-to-mexico-to-await-asylum-processing DHS says over 1,600 migrants sent to Mexico to await asylum processing]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved April 27, 2019.
*Alvarez, Priscilla (April 26, 2019). [https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/26/politics/remain-in-mexico-migrants-returned/index.html DHS: More than 1,600 migrants have been returned to Mexico]. ''CNN''. Retrieved April 27, 2019.</ref> and the program continued expanding.<ref>Multiple references:
*[https://fingfx.thomsonreuters.com/gfx/editorcharts/USA-IMMIGRATION-ASYLUM/0H001PBW36BD/index.html Trump ramps up returns of asylum seekers to Mexico]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
*Hopkins, Jason (May 14, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/05/14/asylum-seekers-mexico-remain-in-mexico/ Thousands Booted Out of US Under Trump's 'Remain In Mexico' Policy]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
*Montoya-Galvez, Camilo; Canales, Angel (May 13, 2019). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/remain-in-mexico-more-than-5000-asylum-seekers-have-been-returned-under-trump-policy/ More than 5,000 asylum seekers have been returned under "Remain in Mexico" policy]. ''CBS News''. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
*Valencia, Jorge (May 14, 2019). [https://www.azpm.org/p/home-articles-news/2019/5/14/151587-over-5000-asylum-seekers-returned-to-mexico-under-controversial-plan/ Over 5,000 Asylum Seekers Returned To Mexico Under Controversial Plan]. ''Arizona Public Media''. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
*Daniel, Frank Jack; Chavez, Julio-Cesar (June 14, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-mexico/u-s-ramps-up-mexico-asylum-returns-trump-confirms-safe-third-country-plan-idUSKCN1TF1TO U.S. ramps up Mexico asylum returns, Trump confirms 'safe third country' plan]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 14, 2019.
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-mexico-returns/u-s-sending-more-asylum-seekers-back-to-mexico-via-texas-border-crossing-official-idUSKCN1TF2IT U.S. sending more asylum seekers back to Mexico via Texas border crossing: official]. ''Reuters''. June 14, 2019. Retrieved June 14, 2019.
*Chavez, Julio-Cesar; Hay, Andrew (June 21, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-cubans/u-s-ramps-up-returns-of-asylum-seekers-to-mexico-adding-cubans-idUSKCN1TM2K9 U.S. ramps up returns of asylum seekers to Mexico, adding Cubans]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 21, 2019.
*Diaz, Lizbeth (June 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/two-more-border-cities-added-to-u-s-mexico-asylum-program-sources-idUSKCN1TO0Y5 Two more border cities added to U.S.-Mexico asylum program: sources]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 23, 2019.
*Montoya-Galvez, Camilo (July 9, 2019). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/remain-in-mexico-us-begins-returning-asylum-seekers-at-laredo-texas-crossing-expanding-controversial-policy/ U.S. begins returning asylum seekers at Laredo crossing, expanding "Remain in Mexico"]. ''CBS News''. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
*Roldan, Riane (July 9, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/07/09/remain-mexico-program-expands-laredo-texas/ Asylum seekers will appear before judges via teleconferencing in tents as "Remain in Mexico" program expands to Laredo]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
*Calderon, Juan Antonio; Sherman, Mark (July 9, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/d541cba0dd3144658ad6782c7a074941 US returns first asylum seekers to violent Nuevo Laredo]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
*Calderon, Juan Antonio; Sherman, Mark (July 9, 2019). [https://www.elpasotimes.com/story/news/immigration/2019/07/09/us-returns-first-group-asylum-seekers-nuevo-laredo-under-remain-mexico-migrant-protection-protocols/1689383001/ US returns first group of asylum seekers to Nuevo Laredo under Remain in Mexico policy]. ''El Paso Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved July 14, 2019.
*Diaz, Lizbeth (July 10, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico/violent-mexican-border-city-opens-its-doors-to-u-s-asylum-seekers-idUSKCN1U5091 Violent Mexican border city opens its doors to U.S. asylum seekers]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 10, 2019.
*Merchant, Nomaan (July 19, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/8607c5ef6360498f8875a3c7d5281401 US to send asylum seekers back to dangerous part of Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Ferman, Mitchell (July 19, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration/new-border-city-added-to-program-returning-migrants-to-wait-for-u-s-hearings-in-mexico-idUSKCN1UE1YG Democratic lawmakers slam Trump's latest border initiatives]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Montoya-Galvez, Camilo (July 20, 2019). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/remain-in-mexico-u-s-will-now-return-asylum-seekers-in-rio-grande-valley-back-to-mexico/ U.S. will now return asylum seekers to one of Mexico's most dangerous areas]. ''CBS News''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Root, Jay (July 20, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/07/18/migrants-could-soon-be-returned-mexico-busiest-patch-border-officials-/ Trump administration will soon expand "remain in Mexico" policy for migrants to busiest part of the border]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Tapscott, Mark (August 27, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/one-in-four-new-immigrants-being-returned-to-mexico-to-await-deportation-hearings_3058087.html One in Four New Immigrants Being Returned to Mexico to Await Deportation Hearings]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved August 27, 2019.
*Verza, María; Merchant, Nomaan (August 28, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/c847182e79e240048ffb037589a62124 US, Mexico widen asylum crackdown to push back all migrants]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Del Valle, Gaby (August 27, 2019). [https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/qvgbk5/the-number-of-migrants-forced-to-wait-out-their-cases-in-mexico-exploded-in-july The Number of Migrants Forced to Wait Out Their Cases in Mexico Exploded in July]. ''VICE''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
*Kao, Jason; Lu, Denise (August 18, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/18/us/mexico-immigration-asylum.html How Trump’s Policies Are Leaving Thousands of Asylum Seekers Waiting in Mexico]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
See also:
*Bensman, Todd (July 22, 2019). [https://cis.org/Bensman/Trumps-Remain-Mexico-Policy-Appears-Be-Working Trump's "Remain in Mexico" Policy Appears to Be Working]. ''Center for Immigration Studies''. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
*Munro, Neil (May 20, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/05/20/los-angeles-times-border-agencies-return-pregnant-migrants-to-mexico/ Los Angeles Times: Border Agencies Return Pregnant Migrants to Mexico]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
*Hennessy-Fiske, Molly (May 19, 2019). [https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-migrant-remain-in-mexico-20190519-story.html Pregnant women, other vulnerable asylum seekers are returned to Mexico to await hearings]. ''Los Angeles Times''. Retrieved May 21, 2019.
*Levinson, Reade; Rosenberg, Mica; Cooke, Kristina (June 12, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-returns-exclusive/exclusive-asylum-seekers-returned-to-mexico-rarely-win-bids-to-wait-in-u-s-idUSKCN1TD13Z Exclusive: Asylum seekers returned to Mexico rarely win bids to wait in U.S.] ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
*Frazin, Rachel (June 12, 2019). [https://thehill.com/latino/448097-asylum-seekers-sent-to-wait-mexico-rarely-allowed-to-wait-in-us-for-cases-to-be Trump admin program sends asylum-seekers to await claims in Mexico, despite fears of violence: report]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (July 16, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/lgbt-asylum-seekers-exempt-from-remain-in-mexico-policy-and-can-stay-in-us LGBT asylum-seekers exempt from 'Remain in Mexico' policy and can stay in US]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved July 16, 2019.
*Rose, Joel; Smitherman, Laura (July 1, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/07/01/736908483/fear-confusion-and-separation-as-trump-administration-sends-migrants-back-to-mex Fear, Confusion And Separation As Trump Administration Sends Migrants Back To Mexico]. ''NPR''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Moore, Robert (July 10, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/07/10/740159720/under-trump-policy-migrants-seeking-asylum-must-wait-in-mexico In Juárez, 'Remain In Mexico' Policy Casts Asylum-Seekers Back Into Uncertainty]. ''NPR''. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
*Jordan, Miriam; Semple, Kirk (July 10, 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/10/us/border-migrants-remain-mexico.html A Sharp Drop in Migrant Arrivals on the Border: What’s Happening?] ''The New York Times''. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
*Verza, María (July 25, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/997436eb7cac4c5bab62c0b838941e3d Migrants sent back by US dumped in Mexico’s Monterrey]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
*Verza, María (August 2, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/e5a8d0db97094c4a9721f46c16455d45 900 asylum seekers returned to wait in Mexican border city]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved August 2, 2019.
*Binder, John (August 6, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/08/06/zero-of-1-2k-migrants-eligible-for-u-s-asylum-since-remain-in-mexico-policy/ Zero of 1.2K Migrants Eligible for U.S. Asylum Since ‘Remain in Mexico’ Policy]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
*Spagat, Elliot (August 8, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/3370c011e7304496a788bb4085bfffaf In Mexico, thousands more names added to border wait lists]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved August 8, 2019.
*Bensman, Todd (August 16, 2019). [https://cis.org/Bensman/Update-President-Trumps-Remain-Mexico-Policy Update on President Trump's 'Remain in Mexico' Policy]. ''Center for Immigration Studies''. Retrieved August 16, 2019.
*Aleaziz, Hamed (August 22, 2019). [https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/hamedaleaziz/trump-mexico-returned-asylum-seekers-35000-policy Trump Has Returned 35,000 Asylum-Seekers To Mexico. Now The Country Is Pushing Back.] ''BuzzFeed News''. Retrieved August 25, 2019.
*Caldwell, Alicia A. (September 5, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/trumps-return-to-mexico-policy-overwhelms-immigration-courts-11567684800 Trump’s Return-to-Mexico Policy Overwhelms Immigration Courts]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 5, 2019.
*Munro, Neil (September 17, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/09/17/progressives-attack-remain-in-mexico-program-for-migrants/ Progressives Attack ‘Remain in Mexico’ Program for Migrants]. ''BrietbartNews''. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
*Davidson, John Daniel (September 17, 2019). [https://thefederalist.com/2019/09/17/waiting-juarez-trumps-remain-mexico-program-ruin-smugglers-trade/ Waiting In Juarez: How Trump’s ‘Remain in Mexico’ Program Could Ruin The Smugglers’ Trade]. ''The Federalist''. Retrieved September 20, 2019.
*Cooke, Kristina; Rosenberg, Mica; Levinson, Reade (October 11, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-babies-exclusive/exclusive-u-s-migrant-policy-sends-thousands-of-children-including-babies-back-to-mexico-idUSKBN1WQ1H1 Exclusive: U.S. migrant policy sends thousands of children, including babies, back to Mexico]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
*Bernal, Rafael (October 11, 2019). [https://thehill.com/latino/465414-us-has-sent-13k-migrant-children-back-to-mexico-this-year-report US has sent 13K migrant children back to Mexico this year: report]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
*Schrank, Delphine (October 16, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico-matamoros-feat/asylum-seekers-cling-to-hope-safety-in-camp-at-u-s-mexico-border-idUSKBN1WV1DY Asylum seekers cling to hope, safety in camp at U.S.-Mexico border]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved October 16, 2019.
*Caldwell, Alicia A. (November 11, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/migrants-find-different-fates-at-texas-arizona-borders-11573480818 Migrants Find Different Fates at Texas, Arizona Borders]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
*Arthur, Andrew R. (November 12, 2019). [https://cis.org/Arthur/Arizona-Hole-Remain-Mexico-Net Arizona Is the Hole in the 'Remain in Mexico' Net]. ''Center for Immigration Studies''. Retrieved November 12, 2019.
*Miles, Frank (November 18, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/homeland-security-mexico-migrants-border-county DHS defends policy keeping asylum-seeking migrants at Mexico border]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 19, 2019.
*Peña, Jason (November 19, 2019). [https://cis.org/Pena/Survey-Finds-Nearly-Half-Migrants-Juarez-Consider-Staying-Mexico Survey Finds Nearly Half of Migrants in Juarez Consider Staying in Mexico]. ''Center for Immigration Studies''. Retrieved November 19, 2019.
*Hackman, Michelle (November 23, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/at-migrant-camp-in-mexico-crowds-and-complaints-swell-11574510400 At Migrant Camp in Mexico, Crowds and Complaints Swell]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 23, 2019.</ref> On September 23, 2019, the DHS announced it would significantly expand the "Remain in Mexico" policy in an effort to end "catch-and-release" on the Mexican border,<ref>Multiple references:
*Hackman, Michelle (September 23, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-seeks-to-send-more-migrant-families-to-mexico-to-await-asylum-hearings-11569290834 U.S. Seeks to Send More Migrant Families to Mexico to Await Asylum Hearings]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Samuels, Brett (September 23, 2019). [https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/462699-homeland-security-touts-end-of-catch-and-release-next-week Homeland Security touts end of 'catch and release' next week]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Nguyen Ly, Mimi (September 23, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/department-of-homeland-security-announces-end-to-catch-and-release_3092861.html Department of Homeland Security Announces End to ‘Catch and Release’]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Dinan, Stephen (September 23, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/sep/23/catch-and-release-end-next-week-homeland-security-/ DHS vows end to 'catch-and-release' next week]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Carranza, Rafael (September 23, 2019). [https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/border-issues/2019/09/23/trump-administration-announces-end-catch-and-release-kevin-mcaleenan/2425158001/ Trump administration announces the end of 'catch and release']. ''The Arizona Republic''. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
*Gonzales, Richard (September 24, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/09/24/763645635/trump-administration-to-end-catch-and-release-immigration-policy-says-dhs-chief Trump Administration To End 'Catch And Release' Immigration Policy, Says DHS Chief]. ''NPR''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*Sakelaris, Nicholas (September 24, 2019). [https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2019/09/24/US-ends-catch-and-release-policy-will-deport-migrant-families/3231569322112/ U.S. ends 'catch and release' policy, will deport migrant families]. ''UPI''. Retrieved September 24, 2019.
*McArdle, Mairead (September 24, 2019). [https://www.nationalreview.com/news/department-of-homeland-security-effectively-ending-catch-and-release-of-illegal-migrants/ Department of Homeland Security Effectively Ending ‘Catch and Release’ of Illegal Migrants]. ''National Review''. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
See also:
*Chmielenski, Chris (September 28, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/sep/28/ending-the-practice-of-catch-and-release/ Ending the practice of 'catch and release']. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved September 28, 2019.
*Steiber, Zachary (September 19, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/trump-administration-planning-to-end-catch-and-release-at-the-southwest-border_3087998.html Trump Administration Planning to ‘End Catch and Release at the Southwest Border’]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved December 12, 2019.</ref> and on October 28, 2019, the DHS expanded "Remain in Mexico" to Eagle Pass, Texas.<ref name="AbandonAsylum">Multiple references:
*Dinan, Stephen (October 29, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/oct/29/dhss-remain-mexico-plan-causes-tens-thousands-aban/ Trump admin's 'Remain in Mexico' plan causes tens of thousands to abandon asylum]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
*Shaw, Adam (November 1, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/migrants-returned-to-mexico-have-given-up-their-asylum-claims Thousands of migrants sent back to Mexico under Trump policy have given up their asylum claims: DHS]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 1, 2019.
*Kan, Janita (November 2, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/thousands-of-migrants-are-voluntarily-going-home-after-being-sent-back-to-mexico-under-trump-policy-dhs_3135430.html Thousands of Migrants Are Voluntarily Going Home After Being Sent Back to Mexico Under Trump Policy: DHS]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved November 2, 2019.</ref><ref>Multiple references:
*Aguilar, Julián (October 28, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/10/28/trump-remain-mexico-immigration-policy-expands-texas-mexico-border/ Trump's controversial "remain in Mexico" immigration policy expands along Texas' southern border]. ''The Texas Tribune''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Hopkins, Jason (October 29, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/10/29/trump-administration-remain-mexico/ ‘Key Component To The Success’: Administration Expands ‘Remain In Mexico’ Program Along Border]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Giaritelli, Anna (October 30, 2019). [https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/trump-administration-expands-program-to-make-asylum-seekers-wait-in-mexico Trump administration expands program to make asylum seekers wait in Mexico]. ''Washington Examiner''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Aguilar, Julián (October 29, 2019). [https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2019/10/29/Remain-in-Mexico-immigration-policy-expands-along-Texas-border/6241572349644/ 'Remain in Mexico' immigration policy expands along Texas border]. ''UPI'' (from ''The Texas Tribune''). Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Clark, Douglas (October 30, 2019). [https://homelandprepnews.com/stories/38900-dhs-expands-migrant-protection-protocols-sites/ DHS expands Migrant Protection Protocols sites]. ''Homeland Preparedness News''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
*Da Silva, Chantal (October 29, 2019). [https://www.newsweek.com/trump-administration-expands-remain-mexico-policy-u-s-border-1468361 Trump Administration Expands 'Remain In Mexico' Program Despite Reports Of Asylum Seekers Facing Violence Across Border]. ''Newsweek''. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</ref> On November 22, 2019, the CBP announced it had begun implementing the Remain in Mexico program in Arizona, meaning it had been implemented along the entire southern border.<ref>Multiple references:
*Miguel, Luis (November 25, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/immigration/item/34125-trump-admin-bolsters-remain-in-mexico-policy-in-key-border-hot-spots Trump Admin Bolsters “Remain in Mexico” Policy in Key Border Hot Spots]. ''The New American''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Hackman, Michelle (November 22, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-transporting-asylum-seeking-migrants-in-arizona-to-texas-under-remain-in-mexico-program-11574450531 U.S. Transporting Asylum-Seeking Migrants in Arizona to Texas Under ‘Remain in Mexico’ Program]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Shaw, Adam (November 26, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-administration-to-strengthen-remain-in-mexico-in-key-areas-as-migrant-flows-adapt Trump administration to expand ‘Remain-in-Mexico’ program at key border crossings]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Pan, Gq (November 22, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/trump-administration-to-implement-remain-in-mexico-policy-at-arizona-border-patrol-sector_3154677.html Trump Administration to Implement ‘Remain-in-Mexico’ Policy at Arizona Border Patrol Sector]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Galvan, Astrid; Spagat, Elliot (November 22, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/nov/22/asylum-seekers-in-arizona-to-be-bused-to-texas-the/ Asylum-seekers in Arizona are forced to wait in Mexico]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Galvan, Astrid; Spagat, Elliot (November 22, 2019). [https://apnews.com/fe62e7197b3e46e0956b10f58a5ec6e9 Asylum-seekers in Arizona are forced to wait in Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Hernández, Arelis R.; Miroff, Nick; Sacchetti, Maria (November 22, 2019). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/immigration/remain-in-mexico-to-shuttle-migrants-from-tucson-to-el-paso/2019/11/22/2f56a484-0cb3-11ea-8397-a955cd542d00_story.html Trump administration’s ‘Remain in Mexico’ program to shuttle migrants from Tucson to El Paso]. ''The Washington Post''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Hernández, Arelis R.; Miroff, Nick; Sacchetti, Maria (November 22, 2019). [https://www.texastribune.org/2019/11/22/government-send-migrants-tucson-el-paso-under-remain-mexico/ Trump administration to shuttle migrants from Tucson to El Paso under "Remain in Mexico" policy]. ''The Texas Tribune'' (from ''The Washington Post''). Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Moran, Rick (November 23, 2019). [https://pjmedia.com/trending/dhs-expands-illegal-alien-return-to-mexico-policy/ DHS Expands Illegal Alien 'Return to Mexico' Policy]. ''PJ Media''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Gómez, Laura (November 22, 2019). [https://www.azmirror.com/blog/trump-admins-remain-in-mexico-program-now-in-tucson-sector-report/ Trump admin’s ‘Remain in Mexico’ program now in Tucson sector: report]. ''AZ Mirror''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Sands, Geneva (November 22, 2019). [https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/politics/dhs-migrant-returns-to-mexico/index.html Homeland Security expands migrant returns to Mexico by driving migrants hundreds of miles]. ''CNN''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
See also:
*Hopkins, Jason (November 24, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/11/24/cuccinelli-migrants-remain-mexico/ DHS Deputy Says ‘About 60,000’ Migrants Have Been Sent Back Under Remain In Mexico Program]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved November 26, 2019.
*Galvan, Astrid (December 6, 2019). [https://apnews.com/2c5a6e1571c3a9224d551459abe50d03 Asylum-seekers who crossed in Arizona returned to Mexico]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved December 6, 2019.
*Galvan, Astrid (December 6, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/dec/6/asylum-seekers-who-crossed-in-arizona-returned-to-/ Asylum-seekers who crossed in Arizona returned to Mexico]. ''The Washington Times'' (from the ''Associated Press''). Retrieved December 6, 2019.
*Kraychik, Robert (December 16, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/politics/2019/12/16/report-remain-in-mexico-policy-has-less-than-one-percent-asylum-grant-rate/ Report: ‘Remain in Mexico’ Policy Has Less than One Percent Asylum Grant Rate]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 16, 2019.
*Hopkins, Jason (December 16, 2019). [https://dailycaller.com/2019/12/16/11-migrants-qualified-for-asylum-under-mpp/ 11 Migrants Have Qualified For Asylum Under Remain In Mexico Program: Report]. ''The Daily Caller''. Retrieved December 17, 2019.
*Rose, Joel (December 19, 2019). [https://www.npr.org/2019/12/19/789780155/few-asylum-seekers-winning-cases-under-remain-in-mexico-program Few Asylum-Seekers Winning Cases Under 'Remain In Mexico' Program]. ''NPR''. Retrieved December 20, 2019.
*Solis, Gustavo (December 15, 2019). [https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/border-baja-california/story/2019-12-15/remain-in-mexico-has-a-0-01-percent-asylum-grant-rate Remain in Mexico has a 0.1 percent asylum grant rate]. ''The San Diego Union-Tribune''. Retrieved December 22, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Cartel execution.jpeg|right|300px|thumb|Members of the Los Tlacos cartel executing members of the rival La Bandera cartel, Sept. 29, 2021.<ref>https://www.bizpacreview.com/2021/10/02/horrifying-footage-of-mexican-cartel-lining-up-rivals-for-execution-1143185/</ref>]]
====Biden regime====
{{See also|Biden border crisis|Russia-Ukraine war}}
The U.S. [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] deputy chief of operations Matthew Donahue told [[NPR]] the Biden junta has unraveled efforts to target drug cartels operating inside Mexico. The collapse of joint drug interdiction efforts has occurred at a time when drug cartels are manufacturing huge quantities of [[fentanyl]] and [[methamphetamine]]s in illegal labs inside Mexico. Under Biden, those illicit drugs are being smuggled into communities across the United States, driving an explosion in overdose deaths. "It's a national health threat, it's a national safety threat," Donahue said, adding that drug gangs and criminal organizations now operate inside Mexico with impunity. "They do not fear any kind of [[law enforcement]] ... or military inside of Mexico right now."<ref>https://freebeacon.com/national-security/dea-official-mexican-cartels-smuggling-fentanyl-across-border-with-impunity/</ref>

Mexican President Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador expressed concern over the [[Biden junta]]'s [[open borders]] policy which incentivized human traffiking and organized crime.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-mexico-exclusive-idUSKBN2B21D8</ref> President Lopez Obrador accused the Biden junta of funding a group seeking to undermine the Mexican government. "It's interference, it's interventionism, it's promoting [[coup]] plotters," said Lopez Obrador, describing funding that includes money from the [[U.S. Agency for International Development]], commonly known as USAID, as an affront to Mexico's [[sovereignty]]. "A foreign government can't provide money to political groups."<ref>https://sg.news.yahoo.com/mexico-president-says-u-finances-155240937.html</ref>

President Obrador said of Biden's [[Ukraine]] policy, "we see it as the old policy of interventionism, lack of respect for nations, and their people.”<ref>https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20220606-mexico-s-lopez-obrador-to-skip-biden-s-summit-of-the-americas-over-exclusion-of-some-countries</ref> President Obrador said of [[NATO]] policy towards Ukraine is like saying “I’ll supply the weapons, and you supply the dead. It is immoral.”<ref>https://kstp.com/associated-press/ap-us-international/mexican-president-slams-nato-policy-in-ukraine/</ref>

==Economy==

Mexico is highly dependent on exports to the U.S., which account for almost a quarter of the country's GDP. The result is that the Mexican economy is strongly linked to the U.S. business cycle. Real GDP grew by 3.0% in 2005 and was projected to grow by 4.5% for 2006.

Mexico's trade regime is among the most open in the world, with free trade agreements with the U.S., Canada, the EU, and many other countries. Since the 1994 devaluation of the peso, successive Mexican governments have improved the country's macroeconomic fundamentals. [[Inflation]] and public sector deficits are under control, while the current account balance and public debt profile have improved. As of September 2006, Moody's, Standard & Poor's, and Fitch Ratings had all issued investment-grade ratings for Mexico's [[Sovereign debt]].
*Nominal GDP: $1.2 trillion (2010 est.)
*GDP per capita: $9,231 (2020)
*Avg. annual real GDP growth (2000-2005): 3.2%.
*Inflation rate: (2006 est.) 3.4%, (2005) 3.3%; (2004) 5.2%; (2003) 4.0%; (2002) 5.7%; (2001) 4.4%; (2000) 9.0%.
*Natural resources: Petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber.
*Agriculture (4% of GDP): Products—corn, beans, oilseeds, feed grains, fruit, cotton, coffee, sugarcane, winter vegetables.
*Industry (26% of GDP): Types—manufacturing, energy, construction, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, tourism.
*Oil - production: 3.001 million bbl/day (2009 est.)
*Services (70% of GDP): Types—commerce and tourism (21%), financial services (13%), and transportation and communications (11%).
*Trade (Goods): Exports (2005)--$214 billion. Imports (2005)--$222 billion. Exports to U.S. (2005)--$183 billion (86% of total).
*Labor force: 46.99 million (2010 est.)
Imports from U.S. (2005)--$118 billion (53% of total). Major markets—U.S., EU, Canada, Colombia, Japan.

====Trade====
[[File:World Trade Center Mexico City.jpg|thumb|right|300px|World Trade Center, [[Mexico City]].]]
Mexico is among the world's most open economies, but it is dependent on trade with the U.S., which bought 86% of its exports in 2005. Top U.S. exports to Mexico include electronic equipment, motor vehicle parts, and chemicals. Top Mexican exports to the U.S. include petroleum, cars, and electronic equipment. There is considerable intra-company trade.

Mexico is an active and constructive member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It hosted the September 2003 WTO Ministerial Meeting in Cancun. The Mexican Government and many businesses support a Free Trade Area of the Americas.

Trade disputes between the U.S. and Mexico are generally settled through direct negotiations between the two countries or via WTO or North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) panels. The most significant areas of friction involve agricultural products such as sugar, high fructose corn syrup, apples, and rice.

Starting in 1994, [[NAFTA]] greatly boosted Mexico's exports to the U.S. and made the country more attractive for foreign investment. It also helped it to weather the 1994-1995 peso crisis by ensuring access to U.S. and Canadian markets. There has been a growth in the orther states of Mexico of large multinational companies whose maquiladora assembly operations have gained an increasingly larger proportion of Mexico's export production. Meanwhile, the proportion of production by smaller manufacturing firms and other producers has steadily shrunk. Mexico continues to be an importer of technology and innovative processes, and likewise remains heavily dependent on the performance of the U.S. economy. Manufacturing remains concentrated in the Federal District, Jalisco and Nuevo León. Mexico's inadequate road system, particularly in the central and southern states, is a serious impediment to attracting foreign investment in those regions, as well for exploiting the full potential of NAFTA.<ref>Edward J. Chambers, and Peter H. Smith, eds. ''NAFTA in the New Millennium.'' (2002) 520 pp. scholarly studies on trade, labor, migration, transport, and the environment.
</ref>

In 2018 NAFTA was renegotiated and replaced with the United States-Mexico-Canada ([[USMCA]]) trade agreement. [[Ford]] Motor Company previously agreed with its workers, the [[United Auto Workers]] (UAW), to spend $900 million on a new electric vehicle product line for its Avon Lake, [[Ohio]] plant. The UAW had endorsed Joe Biden in the 2020 election. By March of 2021, Ford announced it was shifting production to Mexico claiming "conditions had changed since 2019" when the agreement was made, according to ''[[Reuters]]''.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-ford-ohio-idUSKBN2B82V9</ref> The Biden junta refused to enforce provisions of the USMCA, which replaced the NAFTA trade deal.

====Agriculture====
[[Image:Velasco El Valle de Mexico.jpg|right|Velasco The Valley of Mexico]]
Mexico's agrarian reform program began in 1917, when the government began distribution of land to farmers. Extended further in the 1930s, delivery of land to peasants continued into the 1960s and 1970s at varying rates. This cooperative agrarian reform, which guaranteed small farmers a means of subsistence livelihood, also caused land fragmentation and lack of capital investment, since commonly held land could not be used as collateral. Additionally, only 12% of Mexico's land area is arable, of which less than 3% is irrigated. This, coupled with a general lack of economic opportunity in rural areas, has made it difficult to raise the productivity and living standards of Mexico's subsistence farmers.
[[File:Poinsettia Mexico.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Poinsettia.]]

Agriculture accounted for 4% of GDP in 2005, yet agricultural employment accounted for over 16% of total employment because wages are low. However, the number of Mexican farmers is steadily decreasing as they seek greater economic opportunities from off-farm employment.

Poor availability of credit continues to plague agriculture. Agricultural loans were hard hit by the 1994 peso crisis and many private banks view agricultural lending, particularly to smaller producers, as too risky. Several government entities provide public credit to the rural sector, including Financiera Rural, a development bank dedicated to supporting agriculture.
In an effort to raise rural productivity and living standards, Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution was amended in 1992 to allow for the transfer of communal land to the farmers cultivating it. They then could rent or sell the land, opening the way for larger farms and economies of scale. There have been few actual sales of communal land, and most have been limited primarily to suburban areas where land values are high. One inhibiting factor may be community opposition based on vested interests in maintaining the communal land system.

Mexico subsidizes agricultural production through various support programs, the most notable being the PROCAMPO initiative. Since the early 1990s, the availability of program payments has shifted from primarily grains and legumes to all commodities, provided a farmer was producing during a certain base period. Total support program funding for 2004 was approximately $2.4 billion, with PROCAMPO payments of $88 per hectare for producers with more than five hectares and $100 per hectare for producers with 1-5 hectares.

====Manufacturing and Foreign Investment====
The manufacturing sector, which accounts for about 18% of GDP, grew by 1.2% in 2005. Construction grew by 4% in real terms in 2005, fueled by a boom in housing finance.

According to Mexico's Ministry of Economy, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Mexico for 2005 was $18.8 billion, down slightly from the year before. The U.S. was once again the largest foreign investor in Mexico, accounting for 66% of reported FDI. The most recent numbers released by Mexico show FDI for January through June 2006 at $8.7 billion.

====Oil and Gas====
[[File:Offshore platforms Mexico.jpg|thumb|370px|Offshore platforms.]]
In 2005 Mexico was the world's sixth-largest oil producer, its eighth-largest oil exporter, and the third-largest supplier of oil to the U.S. Oil and gas revenues provide more than one-third of all Mexican Government revenues.

Mexico's state-owned oil company, Pemex, holds a constitutionally established monopoly for the exploration, production, transportation, and marketing of the nation's oil. While private investment in natural gas transportation, distribution, and storage has been permitted, Pemex remains in sole control of natural gas exploration and production. Despite substantial reserves, Mexico is a net natural gas importer.

====Transportation and Communications====
Mexico's land transportation network is one of the most extensive in Latin America with 117,000 kilometers (km.) of paved roads, including more than 10,000 kilometers of four-lane paved roads. The 26,622 kilometers (16,268 mi.) of government-owned railroads in Mexico have been privatized through the sale of 50-year operating concessions.

Mexico's ports have experienced a boom in investment and traffic following a 1993 law that privatized the port system. Mexico's ports moved nearly 1.7 million containers in 2003. A number of international airlines serve Mexico, with direct or connecting flights from most major cities in the United States, Canada, Europe, Japan, and Latin America. Most Mexican regional capitals and resorts have direct air services to Mexico City or the United States. In 2005, the Government of Mexico agreed to sell Mexicana, one of the two main national airlines, to a private investor. Airports are semi-privatized with the government still the majority shareholder, but with each regional airport group maintaining operational autonomy.
[[File:Cancun Mexico.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Cancun.]]
The telecommunications sector is dominated by Telmex, the former state-owned monopoly. Several international companies compete in the sector with limited success. The teledensity rate in Mexico (around 16%) is among the lowest in Latin America. Cellular penetration is much higher with over 33 million cellular customers in 2004. However, 31 million of these customers use prepaid cards, and many use their phones to receive calls only. Mexico's satellite service sector was opened to competition, including limited foreign direct investment, in 2001.

====Tourism====
[[Image:Mar campechano.jpg|thumb|Mexico's sea]]
Tourism—mostly from the U.S. and Canada—is the third largest industry, with revenues of $13 billion in 2008. 80 Million Americans visited in 2008, and despite the [[Recession of 2008]] the numbers are up for 2009 because Mexico is a much cheaper destination than Europe.

The most visited destinations are Mexico City, [[Cancun]], [[Acapulco]] and the border cities.
Mexico City is the world's third-largest metropolis (following [[Tokyo]] and NYC). New tourist areas are Huatulco, Zihuatanejo, Ixtapa, and Puerto Escondido on the Pacific coast

[http://www.sectur.gob.mx/wb2/secturing/sect_1052_tourism_information The Ministry of Tourism], through INFOTUR, provides free information to Mexican and foreign tourists, including co-nationals, about tourist destinations, attractions and services.
{{Clear}}

====National Holidays====
[[Image:Camp01.jpg|right|Handicrafts]]
*Mexican Independence Day, September 16: the day that Miguel Hidalgo delivered [[The Grito de Dolores|El Grito de Dolores]], and announced the Mexican revolt against Spanish rule.
*Flag Day, February 24: honoring the Mexican Flag
*Primero de Mayo: May 1: equivalent to the U.S. Labor Day
*[[Cinco de Mayo]]: May 5: honoring the Mexican victory over the French army at [[Puebla]] in 1862. This holiday is also celebrated unofficially in parts of the U.S.

[[File:Hacienda Quintana Roo Mexico.jpg|left|280px]]

{{Clear}}

== See also ==
[[Image:Paola Espinosa.jpg|thumb|Paola Espinosa, together with Tatiana Ortiz, won bronze medals in Beijing 2008.]]
*[[Mexican History]]
*[[Mexican Painters]]
*[[Our Lady of Guadalupe]]
*[[Edzna]]
*[[Jaina]]
*[[Maya]]
*[[Aztecs]]
*[[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]
*[[The Fine Arts Palace]]
*[[Aguascalientes]]
*[[Cristero War]]

== External links ==

*[http://mexico.pinnacle-travel.org/culture.htm Official and Religious Holidays] Pinnacle Travel
*[http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/mexico/index.html Mexico - 2007] Facts and more
*[http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=Mexico Mexico at "Everything2"]
*[http://www.mexicotourismauthority.com/travel.asp Travel destinations]
*[http://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Articles/mexico_religion.htm Mexico religion] From Library of Congress, Country Studies.
*[http://www.explorandomexico.com/about-mexico/5/5/ Mexican Painters] Explorando Mexico.
*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/mexico.htm Mexico] One World - Nations Online.
 

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:North American Countries]]
[[Category:Mexico]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Featured articles]]
[[Category:Immigration]]

Democratic Republic of the Congo

2024-06-02T17:51:18Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name=''République Démocratique du Congo''
|map=Congo demrep rel98.jpg
|map2=Location of DemRep Congo.png
|flag=Flag of Belgium.png
|arms=Arms of DemRep Congo.png
|capital=Kinshasa
|government=Semi-Presidential Republic
|language=French
|monarch=
|president=Joseph Kabila
|chancellor=
|pm=Augustin Matata Ponyo
|area=2,344,858 km²
|pop=92,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp=$47,500,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year=
|gdp-pc=$514 (2020)
|currency=Franc Congolais (CDF)
|idd=+243
|tld=.cd
}}
The '''Democratic Republic of the Congo''' ('''D.R.C.''') is a country in central Africa and the second largest on the continent. Formerly known as the '''Belgian Congo''' and '''Zaire''', and often called '''Congo,''' it covers most of the [[Congo River]] basin, with an area of almost 1 million square kilometers (400,000 sq. mi.).

==Geography==
The vast, low-lying central area is a basin-shaped plateau sloping toward the west and covered by tropical rainforest. This area is surrounded by mountainous terraces in the west, plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest, and dense grasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. High mountains are found in the extreme eastern region.

D.R.C. lies on the Equator, with one-third of the country to the north and two-thirds to the south. The climate is hot and humid in the river basin and cool and dry in the southern highlands. South of the Equator, the rainy season lasts from October to May and north of the Equator, from April to November. Along the Equator, rainfall is fairly regular throughout the year. During the wet season, thunderstorms often are violent but seldom last more than a few hours. The average rainfall for the entire country is about 107 centimeters (42 in.).

==People==
[[File:Congo people.jpg|thumb|left|240px|At Luvungi, Sud-Kivu Province.]]
The population of D.R.C. was estimated at 17.7 million in 2011. As many as 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished and named. Some of the larger groupings of tribes are the [[Kongo]], [[Luba]], and [[Anamongo]]. Although 700 local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of French and the intermediary languages Kikongo, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala.

About 50% of the Congolese population is Christian, predominantly Roman Catholic. Most of the non-Christians adhere to either traditional religions or syncretic sects. Traditional religions include concepts such as monotheism, animism, vitalism, spirit and ancestor worship, witchcraft, and sorcery and vary widely among ethnic groups; none is formalized. The syncretic sects often merge Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals. The most popular of these sects, Kimbanguism, was seen as a threat to the colonial regime and was banned by the Belgians. Kimbanguism, officially "the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet Simon Kimbangu," now claims about 3 million members, primarily among the Bakongo tribe of Bas-Congo and Kinshasa. In 1969, it was the first independent African church admitted to the [[World Council of Churches]].

Before independence, education was largely in the hands of religious groups. The primary school system was well developed at independence; however, the secondary school system was limited, and higher education was almost nonexistent in most regions of the country. The principal objective of this system was to train low-level administrators and clerks. Since independence, efforts have been made to increase access to education, and secondary and higher education have been made available to many more Congolese. According to estimates made in 2000, 41.7% of the population has no schooling, 42.2% has primary schooling, 15.4% has secondary schooling, and 0.7% has university schooling. At all levels of education, males greatly outnumber females. The largest state-run universities are the [[University of Kinshasa]], the University of Lubumbashi, and the University of Kisangani. The elite continue to send their children abroad to be educated, primarily in Western Europe.
*Population (2011 est.): 71.7 million.
*Annual growth rate (2008 est.): 3.24%.
*Ethnic groups: More than 200 African ethnic groups; the Luba, Kongo, and Anamongo are some of the larger groupings of tribes.
*Religions (2011 est.): Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 20%, other syncretic sects and traditional beliefs 10%, Kimbanguist 10%, Muslim 10%.
*Language: Official—French. National languages—Lingala, [[Swahili]], Kikongo, Tshiluba.
*Education: Literacy (2008 est.)--French or local language: 55% (women), 76% (men). Schooling (2007 est.)--none 21%, primary 46%, secondary 30%, university 3%.
*Health (2007 est.): Infant mortality rate—92/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2008 est.)--51.3 yrs.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Following nominations by each of the various signatory groups, President Kabila on June 30, 2003 issued a decree that formally announced the transitional government lineup. The four vice presidents took the oath of office on July 17, 2003, and most incoming ministers assumed their new functions within days thereafter.

A transitional constitution was adopted on April 2, 2003; a new constitution was promulgated February 2006. Extensive executive, legislative, and military powers are vested in the president. The legislature does not have the power to overturn the government through a vote of no confidence. The judiciary is nominally independent; the president has the power to dismiss and appoint judges. The president is head of a 35-member cabinet of ministers.

President [[Joseph Kabila]] has made significant progress in liberalizing domestic political activity, establishing a transitional government, and undertaking economic reforms in cooperation with the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF). However, serious human rights problems remain in the security services and justice system. The eastern part of the country is characterized by ongoing violence and armed conflict, which has created a humanitarian disaster and contributed to civilian deaths (more than 3.8 million, according to a prominent international non-governmental organization). MONUC continues to play an important peacekeeping role in the D.R.C., and in October 2004, its authorized force strength increased to 16,700.

On July 30, 2006 the D.R.C. held its first free, democratic, multi-party elections in more than 40 years. The D.R.C.’s 25 million registered voters were charged with electing a president (from a field of 33 candidates) and 500 deputies to the National Assembly (out of a total of 9,709 candidates). Despite some unexpected technical and logistical difficulties, coupled with isolated incidents of violence and intimidation, the elections were held in a largely calm and orderly fashion. Voter turnout nationwide was high, particularly in the eastern provinces, compared to the December 2005 constitutional referendum.

The Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) on August 20, 2006 announced official provisional results from the July 30 presidential elections. According to CEI figures, incumbent Joseph Kabila won 44.81% of the votes cast versus Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba’s 20.3%. As no candidate won a majority of votes in the first round and in accordance with the country’s electoral law, the top two recipients, Kabila and Bemba faced off in a second round of balloting. Threats to the D.R.C.’s transitional process were marked by military clashes in Kinshasa just hours after provisional election results were announced. This crisis was exclusively confined to central Kinshasa in the Gombe area and was essentially a clash between Vice President Bemba and President Kabila’s militias. The runoff presidential elections were held on October 29, 2006. On November 27, 2006 the Congolese Supreme Court declared President Kabila the winner over Vice President Bemba by a margin of 58% to 42%. Kabila was inaugurated on December 6, 2006.

Voters in July 2006 also chose from among 9,709 legislative candidates to fill 500 seats in the National Assembly, representing 169 electoral districts. Approximately one-third of these districts elected one deputy by a simple majority. The rest were multiple-seat districts, ranging from two representatives to a maximum of 17 (in one of Kinshasa’s voting districts). In these areas, deputies were chosen by proportional representation using open party lists. To select the winners in multiple-seat districts, all valid votes cast were first divided according to political party. Next, an “electoral quotient” was determined by dividing the number of votes cast by the number of representatives to be elected. Finally, the number of votes a party received was divided by this “electoral quotient” to determine how many seats the party will win. The candidates ultimately elected are those who received the highest number of votes within their particular party lists. National Assembly deputies will also serve five-year terms and there is no restriction on the number of times they can be re-elected.

Organizing the D.R.C.’s July 2006 elections presented significant logistical challenges. Supported in large part by the MONUC peacekeeping mission, the Independent Electoral Commission opened more than 50,000 polling stations nationwide and employed some 300,000-poll workers on election day and to oversee the ballot counting process. The presidential and legislative ballots were printed in South Africa and altogether weighed nearly 1,800 tons, requiring 75 round-trip flights between the D.R.C. and South Africa.

The population of the D.R.C. is estimated to be about 60 million, and the country’s electoral law grants the right to vote to those ages 18 or older. For the July 2006 elections, the CEI reported that of the 25,420,99 registered voters, 17,931,238 went to the polls, a voter participation rate of 70.54%. Of the 17.9 million ballots cast, 993,704 (approximately 5%) were disqualified due to empty ballots or marking errors. In 2005, approximately 25.7 million Congolese registered as voters (out of an original estimate of 28 million eligible to do so). In the D.R.C.’s December 2005 constitutional referendum, roughly two-thirds of all registered voters participated.

The D.R.C. legislature held its first session on September 22, 2006. On February 26, 2007, Prime Minister Antoine Gizenga and the new Congolese cabinet formally took office. In May 2007, Kengo wa Dongo was elected Senate President.

On December 7, 2011, Joseph Kabila, the former president announced the results from the November 28 presidential elections. According to those figures, he won 49% of the votes cast versus Etienne Tshisekedi’s 32%.
The CEI reported several irregularities, including voters participation of 100,14 % in the Monono region.

===Principal Government Official===
*President—Joseph Kabila

===Foreign Relations===
Its location in the center of Africa has made D.R.C. a key player in the region since independence. Because of its size, mineral wealth, and strategic location, Zaire was able to capitalize on [[Cold War]] tensions to garner support from the West. In the early 1990s, however, in the face of growing evidence of human rights abuses, Western support for the incumbent government waned as pressure for internal reform increased.

D.R.C.’s relations with neighboring countries have often been driven by security concerns, leading to intricate and interlocking alliances. Domestic conflicts in the [[Central African Republic]], [[Sudan]], [[Uganda]], [[Angola]], [[Rwanda]], and [[Burundi]] have at various times created bilateral and regional tensions. The current crisis in eastern D.R.C. has its roots both in the use of the Congo as a base by various insurgency groups attacking neighboring countries and in the absence of a strong Congolese Government with a military capable of securing Congo’s borders. The war has been exacerbated and prolonged by the exploitation of Congo’s resources by neighboring countries. Although 2003 and early 2004 saw a number of improvements in regional relations, mid-to-late 2004 was marked by increased tension between the D.R.C. and Rwanda.

==Economy==
Sparsely populated in relation to its area, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is home to a vast potential of natural resources and mineral wealth. Nevertheless, the D.R.C. is one of the poorest countries in the world, with per capita annual income of about $98 in 2003. This is the result of years of mismanagement, corruption, and war.

In 2001, the Government of the D.R.C. under Joseph Kabila undertook a series of economic reforms to reverse this steep decline. Reforms were monitored by the IMF and included liberalization of petroleum prices and exchange rates and adoption of disciplined fiscal and monetary policies. The reform program reduced inflation from over 500% per year in 2000 to only about 7% at an annual rate in 2003. In June 2002, the World Bank and IMF approved new credits for the D.R.C. for the first time in over a decade. Bilateral donors, whose assistance has been almost entirely dedicated to humanitarian interventions in recent years, also are beginning to fund development projects in the D.R.C. In October 2003, the World Bank launched a multi-sector plan for development and reconstruction. The Paris Club also granted the D.R.C. Highly Indebted Poor Country status in July 2003. This will help alleviate the D.R.C.’s external sovereign debt burden and potentially free funds for economic development.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the Congolese economy, accounting for 56.3% of GDP in 2002. The main cash crops include [[coffee]], palm oil, [[rubber]], [[cotton]], [[sugar]], [[tea]], and [[cocoa]]. Food crops include [[cassava]], plantains, maize, groundnuts, and [[rice]]. Industry, especially the mining sector, is underdeveloped relative to its potential in the D.R.C. In 2002, industry accounted for only 18.8% of GDP, with only 3.9% attributed to manufacturing. Services reached 24.9% of GDP. The Congo was the world's fourth-largest producer of industrial [[diamond]]s during the 1980s, and diamonds continue to dominate exports, accounting for over half of exports ($642 million) in 2003. The Congo's main copper and cobalt interests are dominated by Gecamines, the state-owned mining giant. Gecamines production has been severely affected by corruption, civil unrest, world market trends, and failure to reinvest. In recent years, gold mining has boomed in the country's southern provinces.

For decades, corruption and misguided policy have created a dual economy in the D.R.C. Individuals and businesses in the formal sector operated with high costs under arbitrarily enforced laws. As a consequence, the informal sector now dominates the economy. In 2002, with the population of the D.R.C. estimated at 56 million, only 230,000 Congolese working in private enterprise in the formal sector were enrolled in the social security system. Approximately 600,000 Congolese were employed by the government.

In the past year, the Congolese Government has approved a new investment code and a new mining code and has designed a new commercial court. The goal of these initiatives is to attract investment by promising fair and transparent treatment to private business. The World Bank also is supporting efforts to restructure the D.R.C.'s large parastatal sector, including Gecamines, and to rehabilitate the D.R.C.’s neglected infrastructure, including the Inga Dam hydroelectric system.

The outbreak of war in the early days of August 1998 caused a major decline in economic activity. Economic growth, however, resumed in 2002 with a 3% growth rate continuing in 2003 at 5%. The country had been divided de facto into different territories by the war, and commerce between the territories had halted. With the installation of the transitional government in July 2003, the country has been "de jure" reunified, and economic and commercial links have begun to reconnect.

In June 2000, the United Nations established a Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Congolese Resources to examine links between the war and economic exploitation. Reports issued by the panel indicate that countries involved in the war in Congo have developed significant economic interests. These interests may complicate efforts by the government to better control its natural resources and to reform the mining sector. A final panel report was issued in October 2003. The Panel of Experts mandate was not renewed.
*GDP (2010): $13.1 billion.
*Annual GDP growth rate (2010): 6.1%.
*Per capita GDP (2010): $189.
*Natural resources: Copper, cobalt, diamonds, gold, other minerals; petroleum; wood; hydroelectric potential.
*Agriculture: Cash crops—coffee, rubber, palm oil, cotton, cocoa, sugar, tea. Food crops—manioc, corn, legumes, plantains, peanuts.
*Land use: Agriculture 3%; pasture 7%; forest/woodland 77%; other 13%.
*Industry: Types—processed and unprocessed minerals; consumer products, including textiles, plastics, footwear, cigarettes, metal products; processed foods and beverages, cement, timber.
*Currency: Congolese franc (FC). The U.S. dollar is also used as legal tender.
*Trade: Exports (2010)--$7.5 billion. Products—diamonds, gold, cobalt, copper, coffee, petroleum, wood. Main partners—EU, Japan, South Africa, U.S., China. Imports (2010)--$7.0 billion. Products—consumer goods (food, textiles), capital equipment, refined petroleum products. Partners—EU, China, South Africa, U.S.
*Official debt (2010 est.): $3.9 billion.

==History==
The area known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 10,000 years ago and settled in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. by Bantus from present-day [[Nigeria]]. Discovered in 1482 by Portuguese navigator Diego Cao it was explored in the late 19th century by English journalist Henry Morton Stanley.

The Congo was officially colonized in 1885 as a personal possession of Belgian [[King Leopold II]] as the Congo Free State. Waging a successful propaganda campaign to bill Leopold as a champion of human rights, Leopold garnered the support of Liberals and Conservatives alike. However, word surfaced that the Congolese were being treated terribly by Leopold, his mercenaries, and the Force Publique, a military organization made up mostly of Africans run by Leopold. The maltreatment of native rubber workers created an international scandal that has often been called the first global human rights movement, and in 1907, full control was given to the Belgian Government. It renamed the country the Belgian Congo.

Following a series of riots and unrest, the Belgian Congo was granted its independence on June 30, 1960. Parliamentary elections in 1960 produced Patrice Lumumba as prime minister and Joseph Kasavubu as president of the renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Within the first year of independence, several events destabilized the country: the army mutinied; the governor of Katanga province attempted secession; a UN peacekeeping force was called in to restore order; Prime Minister Lumumba died under mysterious circumstances; and Col. Joseph Désiré Mobutu (later Mobutu Sese Seko) took over the government and ceded it again to President Kasavubu.

Unrest and rebellion plagued the government until 1965, when Lieutenant General Mobutu, by then commander in chief of the national army, again seized control of the country and declared himself president for 5 years. Mobutu quickly centralized power into his own hands and was elected unopposed as president in 1970. Embarking on a campaign of cultural awareness, Mobutu renamed the country the Republic of Zaire and required citizens to adopt African names. Relative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan rebels, staged in Angola, launched a series of invasions into the Katanga region. The rebels were driven out with the aid of Belgian paratroopers.

During the 1980s, Mobutu continued to enforce his one-party system of rule. Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the Union pour la Democratie et le Progres Social (UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.

As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, and by a faltering economy. In April 1990 Mobutu agreed to the principle of a multi-party system with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting Kinshasa to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.

In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing more than 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop Laurent Monsengwo as its chairman, along with Etienne Tshisekedi, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and Kengo Wa Dondo as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next 2 years, they never took place.

By 1996, the war and genocide in neighboring Rwanda had spilled over to Zaire. Rwandan [[Hutu]] militia forces (Interahamwe), who fled [[Rwanda]] following the ascension of a [[Tutsi]]-led government, were using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursions against Rwanda.

In October 1996, Rwandan troops (RPA) entered Zaire, simultaneously with the formation of an armed coalition led by Laurent-Desire Kabila known as the Alliance des Forces Democratiques pour la Liberation du Congo-Zaire (AFDL). With the goal of forcibly ousting Mobutu, the AFDL, supported by Rwanda and Uganda, began a military campaign toward Kinshasa. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country, and Kabila marched into Kinshasa on May 17, 1997. Kabila declared himself president, consolidated power around himself and the AFDL, and renamed the country the Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R.C.). Kabila’s Army Chief and the Secretary General of the AFDL were Rwandan, and RPA units continued to operate tangentially with the D.R.C.’s military, which was renamed the Forces Armees Congolaises (FAC).

Over the next year, relations between Kabila and his foreign backers deteriorated. In July 1998, Kabila ordered all foreign troops to leave the D.R.C. Most refused to leave. On August 2, fighting erupted throughout the D.R.C. as Rwandan troops in the D.R.C. "mutinied," and fresh Rwandan and Ugandan troops entered the D.R.C. Two days later, Rwandan troops flew to Bas-Congo, with the intention of marching on Kinshasa, ousting Laurent Kabila, and replacing him with the newly formed Rwandan-backed rebel group called the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Democratie (RCD). The Rwandan campaign was thwarted at the last minute when Angolan, Zimbabwean, and Namibian troops intervened on behalf of the D.R.C. Government. The Rwandans and the RCD withdrew to eastern D.R.C., where they established de facto control over portions of eastern D.R.C. and continued to fight the Congolese Army and its foreign allies.

In February 1999, Uganda backed the formation of a rebel group called the Mouvement pour la Liberation du Congo (MLC), which drew support from among ex-Mobutuists and ex-FAZ soldiers in Equateur province (Mobutu’s home province). Together, Uganda and the MLC established control over the northern third of the D.R.C.

At this stage, the D.R.C. was divided de facto into three segments, and the parties controlling each segment had reached military deadlock. In July 1999, a cease-fire was proposed in Lusaka, Zambia, which all parties signed by the end of August. The Lusaka Accord called for a cease-fire, the deployment of a UN peacekeeping operation, MONUC, the withdrawal of foreign troops, and the launching of an "Inter-Congolese Dialogue" to form a transitional government leading to elections. The parties to the Lusaka Accord failed to fully implement its provisions in 1999 and 2000. Laurent Kabila drew increasing international criticism for blocking full deployment of UN troops, hindering progress toward an Inter-Congolese Dialogue, and suppressing internal political activity.

On January 16, 2001, Laurent Kabila was assassinated. He was succeeded by his son, Joseph Kabila. Joseph Kabila reversed many of his father’s negative policies; over the next year, MONUC deployed throughout the country, and the Inter-Congolese Dialogue proceeded. By the end of 2002, all Angolan, Namibian, and Zimbabwean troops had withdrawn from the D.R.C. Following D.R.C.-Rwanda talks in South Africa that culminated in the Pretoria Accord in July 2002, Rwandan troops officially withdrew from the D.R.C. in October 2002, although there were continued, unconfirmed reports that Rwandan soldiers and military advisers remained integrated with RCD/G forces in eastern D.R.C. Ugandan troops officially withdrew from the D.R.C. in May 2003.

In October 2001, the Inter-Congolese Dialogue began in [[Addis Ababa]] under the auspices of Facilitator Ketumile Masire (former president of [[Botswana]]). The initial meetings made little progress and were adjourned. On February 25, 2002, the dialogue was reconvened in South Africa. It included representatives from the government, rebel groups, political opposition, civil society, and Mai-Mai (Congolese local defense militias). The talks ended inconclusively on April 19, 2002, when the government and the MLC brokered an agreement that was signed by the majority of delegates at the dialogue but left out the RCD/G and opposition UDPS party, among others.

This partial agreement was never implemented, and negotiations resumed in South Africa in October 2002. This time, the talks led to an all-inclusive powersharing agreement, which was signed by delegates in [[Pretoria]] on December 17, 2002, and formally ratified by all parties on April 2, 2003.

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2823.htm]

{{African Countries}}

[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

South Africa

2024-06-02T17:47:46Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''Republic of South Africa''
|map =South africa rel 2005.jpg
|map2 =SouthAfrica location.png
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =Arms of South Africa.png
|capital =Pretoria, Cape Town, Bloemfontein
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional democracy
|government-raw =
|language =[[Zulu]], [[Xhosa]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Sepedi]], [[English]], [[Setswana]], [[Sesotho]], [[Xitsonga]], [[Swati]], [[Venda]], [[isiNdebele]]
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Cyril Ramaphosa
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =471,445 sq mi
|pop =61,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$350,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$5,738 (2020)
|currency =Rand
}}
'''South Africa''' is a British colony located on the southern tip of [[Africa]] and one of the largest on the continent. While relatively wealthy compared to other African countries, its economy is stagnant and the country is home to increasing amounts of [[violence]], [[racism]], and [[discrimination]] against its [[Afrikaner]] residents. It is also adopting increasingly [[Liberal|left-wing]] policies.

South Africa has a very advantageous location for trade routes by sea from Western Europe to [[India]] and the Far East. As a result, there was far more immigration by Europeans to South Africa than any other region of Africa, and whites of European ancestry (English and Dutch) ruled South Africa until the late twentieth century. Since then, democracy has brought representative government to the African ethnic groups.

==People==
[[File:Durban South Africa.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Durban.]]
Until 1991, South African law divided the population into four major racial categories: Africans (black), whites, coloreds, and Asians. Although this law has been abolished, many South Africans still view themselves and each other according to these categories. Black Africans comprise about 79% of the population and are divided into a number of different ethnic groups. Whites comprise about 10% of the population. They are primarily descendants of Dutch, French, English, and German settlers who began arriving at the Cape of Good Hope in the late 17th century. Coloreds are mixed-race people primarily descending from the earliest settlers and the indigenous peoples. They comprise about 9% of the total population. Asians descend from Indian workers brought to South Africa in the mid-19th century to work on the sugar estates in Natal. They constitute about 2.5% of the population and are concentrated in the KwaZulu-Natal Province.

Education is in transition. Under the apartheid system schools were segregated, and the quantity and quality of education varied significantly across racial groups. The laws governing this segregation have been abolished. The long and arduous process of restructuring the country's educational system has begun and is ongoing. The challenge is to create a single, nondiscriminatory, nonracial system that offers the same standards of education to all people.
*Annual growth rate (2004 World Bank Group): 0.8%.
*Population (2004, 46.6 million): Composition—black 79%; white 9.6%; colored 8.9%; Asian (Indian) 2.5%. Official figures from 2000 South African Census at http://www.statssa.gov.za/.
*Languages: Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, and Xitsonga (all official languages).
*Religions: Predominantly Christian; traditional African, Hindu, Muslim, Jewish.
*Education: Years compulsory—7–15 years of age for all children. The South African Schools Act, Act 84 of 1996, passed by Parliament in 1996, aims to achieve greater educational opportunities for black children, mandating a single syllabus and more equitable funding for schools.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2000)--59 per live births. Life expectancy—52 yrs. women; 50 yrs. men. Health data from 2000 U.S. Census Report: HIV/AIDS Country Profiles: [https://www.census.gov/ipc/hiv/safrica.pdf].

===Religion===
[[File:Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu.jpg|thumb|230px|Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu.]]
The 2001 religious demography census estimated that 80% of the population is Christian. Hindus, Muslims, Jews, Buddhists, and adherents of traditional African beliefs combines constitute about 4% of the population. Approximately 15% of the population indicated that it belongs to no particular religion or declined to indicate an affiliation.

African Independent Churches (AICs) are the largest group of Christian churches. Once regarded as Ethiopian churches, the majority are now referred to as Zionist or Apostolic churches. There are more than 4,000 AICs, with a membership of more than 10 million, constituting approximately 20% of the population. The Zionist Christian Church is the largest AIC, with an estimated membership of more than four million. AICs serve more than half the population in northern KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga areas. There are at least 900 AICs are in Soweto.

Other Christian groups include Protestants (Dutch Reformed family of Churches, Anglican, Baptist, Congregational, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian) and the Roman Catholic Church. Greek Orthodox, the Church of Scientology, and Seventh-day Adventist churches are also active.

African traditionalists make up less than 1% of the population. Practitioners include traditional healers, often referred to as witches, although they do not see themselves as such. Many of the African traditionalists combine Christian and indigenous religious practices, and 15% of the population claims no affiliation with any formal religious organization. It is believed that many of these persons adhere to indigenous religions.

An estimated two-thirds of South Africa's Indian population, a majority of which resides in KwaZulu-Natal, practice Hinduism. The small Muslim community is mostly made up of Cape Malays of Indonesian descent, and the remainder is largely of Indian extraction.

==Government and Political Conditions==
South Africa is a multiparty parliamentary democracy in which constitutional power is shared between the president and the Parliament. The country is unusual in that it technically has three capital cities, since the three branches of the federal government are divided between them. As such, Pretoria houses the executive branch, Cape Town houses the legislative branch, and Bloemfontein houses the judicial branch. Therefore, these cities are known respectively as the executive capital, the legislative capital and the judicial capital.

The Parliament consists of two houses, the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces, which are responsible for drafting the laws of the republic. The National Assembly also has specific control over bills relating to monetary matters. The current 400-member National Assembly was retained under the 1997 constitution, although the constitution allows for a range of between 350 and 400 members. The Assembly is elected by a system of "list proportional representation." Each of the parties appearing on the ballot submits a rank-ordered list of candidates. The voters then cast their ballots for a party.

Seats in the Assembly are allocated based on the percentage of votes each party receives. In the 2004 elections, the ANC won 279 seats in the Assembly, more than a two-thirds majority and an increase of 13 seats from 1999; the Democratic Alliance (DA) won 50, the IFP 28, the New National Party (NNP) 7, the United Democratic Movement (UDM) 9, and other groups won the remaining 27. In the 2004 electoral campaign, the ANC aligned with the NNP, and the DA aligned with the IFP. On August 6, the NNP announced that it would merge with the ANC. Elected representatives of the party would, however, continue to hold their seats in the national and provincial legislatures as NNP members until the next floor-crossing period in September 2005.

The National Council of Provinces (NCOP) consists of 90 members, 10 from each of the nine provinces. The NCOP replaced the former Senate as the second chamber of Parliament and was created to give a greater voice to provincial interests. It must approve legislation that involves shared national and provincial competencies as defined by an annex to the constitution. Each provincial delegation consists of six permanent and four rotating delegates.

The president is the head of state. Following the April 14, 2004 elections, the National Assembly re-elected Thabo Mbeki as President. The president's constitutional responsibilities include assigning cabinet portfolios, signing bills into law, and serving as commander in chief of the military. The president works closely with the deputy president and the cabinet. There are currently 28 posts in the cabinet. Of the 28 ministers, Mbeki appointed two from outside the ANC—one from the former NNP and one from the Azanian Peoples Organization (Azapo). On June 14, 2005, President Mbeki informed the South African Parliament that then-Deputy President Jacob Zuma was being "released" from his duties following the conviction of a close associate on corruption charges relating to monetary payments to Zuma. On June 22, Mbeki named former Minister for Minerals and Energy Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka to the position of Deputy President, the first woman to hold this office.

Following prior allegations, and a finding by Judge Chris Nicholson, that Prescient Mbeki may have exerted improper political influence regarding the prosecution of Jacob Zuma, the National Executive Committee of the ANC recalled Mbeki on Sunday, 21 September 2008. He formally tendered his resignation from office on Monday, 22 September, which became effective at midnight on 24 September 2008. Dr Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri served as acting State President from then until the election of the new State President.

The ANC's deputy president, Kgalema Motlanthe was elected and sworn in as South Africa's third democratic State President, during a full sitting of Parliament on 25 September 2008.

The third arm of the central government is an independent judiciary. The Constitutional Court is the highest court for interpreting and deciding constitutional issues, while the Supreme Court of Appeal is the highest court for non-constitutional matters. Most cases are heard in the extensive system of High Courts and Magistrates Courts. The constitution's bill of rights provides for due process including the right to a fair, public trial within a reasonable time of being charged and the right to appeal to a higher court. The bill of rights also guarantees fundamental political and social rights of South Africa's citizens.

South Africa has strict [[gun control]] laws.<ref>Kirkwood, R. Cort (August 29, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29910-gun-grab-in-south-africa-coming Gun Grab in South Africa Coming?] ''The New American''. Retrieved August 29, 2018.</ref>

===Principal Government Officials===
*State President—Kgalema Motlanthe
*Executive Deputy President—Ms. Baleka Mbete

===Challenges Ahead===
[[File:De Jonge Farm View Villiersdorp Cape.jpg|thumb|280px|De Jonge, Farm View Villiersdorp, Cape.]]
South Africa's post-apartheid governments have made remarkable progress in consolidating the nation's peaceful transition to democracy. Programs to improve the delivery of essential social services to the majority of the population are underway. Access to better opportunities in education and business is becoming more widespread. Nevertheless, transforming South Africa's society to remove the legacy of apartheid will be a long-term process requiring the sustained commitment of the leaders and people of the nation's disparate groups.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), chaired by 1984 Nobel Peace Prize winner Archbishop Desmond Tutu, helped to advance the reconciliation process. Constituted in 1996 and having completed its work by 2001, the TRC was empowered to investigate apartheid-era human rights abuses committed between 1960 and May 10, 1994; to grant amnesty to those who committed politically motivated crimes; and to recommend compensation to victims of abuses. In November 2003, the Government began allocation of $4,600 (R30,000) reparations to individual apartheid victims. The TRC's mandate was part of the larger process of reconciling the often conflicting political, economic, and cultural interests held by the many peoples that make up South Africa's diverse population. The ability of the government and people to agree on many basic questions of how to order the country's new society will remain a critical challenge.

One important issue continues to be the relationship of provincial and local administrative structures to the national government. Prior to April 27, 1994, South Africa was divided into four provinces and 10 black "homelands," four of which were considered independent by the South African Government. Both the interim constitution and the 1997 constitution abolished this system and substituted nine provinces. Each province has an elected legislature and chief executive—the provincial premier. Although in form a federal system, in practice the nature of the relationship between the central and provincial governments continues to be the subject of considerable debate, particularly among groups desiring a greater measure of autonomy from the central government. A key step in defining the relationship came in 1997 when provincial governments were given more than half of central government funding and permitted to develop and manage their own budgets. However, the national government exerts a measure of control over provinces by appointing provincial premiers.

Although South Africa's economy is in many areas highly developed, the exclusionary nature of apartheid and distortions caused in part by the country's international isolation until the 1990s have left major weaknesses. The economy is now in a process of transition as the government seeks to address the inequities of apartheid, stimulate growth, and create jobs. Business, meanwhile, is becoming more integrated into the international system, and foreign investment has increased dramatically over the past several years. Still, the economic disparities between population groups are expected to persist for many years, remaining an area of priority attention for the government.

===Human Rights===
The 1997 constitution's bill of rights nominally provides extensive guarantees, including equality before the law and prohibitions against discrimination; the right to life, privacy, property, and freedom and security of the person; prohibition against slavery and forced labor; and freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and association. The legal rights of criminal suspects also are enumerated, as are citizens' entitlements to a safe environment, housing, education, and healthcare. The constitution provides for an independent and impartial judiciary. These provisions are not consistently followed.

Since the abolition of apartheid, levels of political violence in South Africa have dropped dramatically. Violent crime and organized criminal activity are at high levels and are a grave concern, however. Partly as a result, [[vigilante]] action and mob justice sometimes occur. Violence and discrimination have occurred against the country's white minority.

Some members of the police commit abuses, and deaths in police custody as a result of excessive force remain a problem. The government has taken action to investigate and punish some of those who commit such abuses. In April 1997, the government established an Independent Complaints Directorate to investigate deaths in police custody and deaths resulting from police action.

===Foreign Relations===
South African forces fought on the Allied side in World Wars I and II and participated in the postwar UN force in Korea. South Africa was a founding member of the League of Nations and in 1927 established a Department of External Affairs with diplomatic missions in the main west European countries and in the United States. At the founding of the League of Nations, South Africa was given the mandate to govern Southwest Africa, now Namibia, which had been a German colony before World War I. In 1990, Namibia attained independence, with the exception of the enclave of Walvis Bay, which was reintegrated into Namibia in March 1994. After South Africa held its first nonracial election in April 1994, most sanctions imposed by the international community in opposition to the system of apartheid were lifted. On June 1, 1994, South Africa rejoined the Commonwealth, and on June 23, 1994, the UN General Assembly accepted its credentials. South Africa served as the African Union's (AU) first president from July 2003 to July 2004.

Having emerged from the international isolation of the apartheid era, South Africa has become a leading international actor. Its principal foreign policy objective is to promote the economic, political, and cultural regeneration of Africa, through the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD); to promote the peaceful resolution of conflict in Africa; and to use multilateral bodies to ensure that developing countries’ voices are heard on international issues. South Africa has played a key role in seeking an end to various conflicts and political crises on the African continent, including in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Comoros. South Africa has pursued "quiet diplomacy" in its approach to the crisis in Zimbabwe.

==Economy==
South Africa has a two-tiered economy; one rivaling other developed countries and the other with only the most basic infrastructure. It therefore is a productive and industrialized economy that exhibits many characteristics associated with developing countries, including a division of labor between formal and informal sectors, and uneven distribution of wealth and income. The formal sector, based on mining, manufacturing, services, and agriculture, is well developed.

The transition to a democratic, nonracial government, begun in early 1990, stimulated a debate on the direction of economic policies to achieve sustained economic growth while at the same time redressing the socioeconomic disparities created by apartheid. The Government of National Unity's initial blueprint to address this problem was the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP). The RDP was designed to create programs to improve the standard of living for the majority of the population by providing housing—a planned 1 million new homes in 5 years—basic services, education, and health care. While a specific "ministry" for the RDP no longer exists, a number of government ministries and offices are charged with supporting RDP programs and goals.
*GDP (2004): $213 billion. 2004 GDP at market prices (baseline year 2000)--1.374 billion rand (R).
*Real GDP growth rate (2004): 3.7%.
*GDP per capita (2004): $3,480.
*Unemployment (September 2004): 27.8%.
*Natural resources: Almost all essential commodities, except petroleum products and bauxite. Only country in the world that manufactures fuel from coal.
*Industry: Types—minerals, mining, motor vehicles and parts, machinery, textiles, chemicals, fertilizer, information technology, electronics, other manufacturing, and agroprocessing.
*Trade (2004): Exports--$36.3 billion (2003 merchandise exports R256 billion; 2003 gold exports R35 billion): gold, other minerals and metals, agricultural products, motor vehicles and parts. Major markets—U.K., U.S., Germany, Italy, Japan, East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa. Imports--$34 billion (2003 merchandise imports R263 billion): machinery, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products, textiles, and scientific instruments. Major suppliers—Germany, U.S., Japan, U.K., Italy.
GDP composition (2003): Agriculture and mining (primary sector)--11%; industry (secondary sector)--24%; services (tertiary sector)--65%. World's largest producer of platinum, gold, and chromium; also significant coal production.

The Government of South Africa demonstrated its commitment to open markets, privatization, and a favorable investment climate with its release of the crucial Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy—the neoliberal economic strategy to cover 1996-2000. The strategy had mixed success. It brought greater financial discipline and macroeconomic stability but has failed to deliver in key areas. Formal employment continued to decline, and despite the ongoing efforts of black empowerment and signs of a fledgling black middle class and social mobility, the country's wealth remains very unequally distributed along racial lines. However, South Africa's budgetary reforms such as the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework and the Public Finance Management Act—which aims at better reporting, auditing, and increased accountability—and the structural changes to its monetary policy framework—including inflation targeting—have created transparency and predictability and are widely acclaimed. Trade liberalization also has progressed substantially since the early 1990s. South Africa has reduced its import-weighted average tariff rate from more than 20% in 1994 to 7% in 2002. These efforts, together with South Africa's implementation of its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations and its constructive role in launching the Doha Development Round, show South Africa's acceptance of free market principles.

====Financial Policy====
South Africa has a sophisticated financial structure with a large and active stock exchange that ranks 17th in the world in terms of total market capitalization. The South African Reserve Bank (SARB) performs all central banking functions. The SARB is independent and operates in much the same way as Western central banks, influencing interest rates and controlling liquidity through its interest rates on funds provided to private sector banks. Quantitative credit controls and administrative control of deposit and lending rates have largely disappeared. South African banks adhere to the Bank of International Standards core standards.

The South African Government has taken steps to gradually reduce remaining foreign exchange controls, which apply only to South African residents. Private citizens are now allowed a one-time investment of up to 750,000 rand (R) in offshore accounts. Since 2001, South African companies may invest up to R750 million in Africa and R500 million elsewhere.

====Trade and Investment====
South Africa has rich mineral resources. It is the world's largest producer and exporter of gold and platinum and also exports a significant amount of coal. During 2000, platinum overtook gold as South Africa's largest foreign exchange earner. The value-added processing of minerals to produce ferroalloys, stainless steels, and similar products is a major industry and an important growth area. The country's diverse manufacturing industry is a world leader in several specialized sectors, including railway rolling stock, synthetic fuels, and mining equipment and machinery.

Primary agriculture accounts for about 4% of the gross domestic product. Major crops include citrus and deciduous fruits, corn, wheat, dairy products, sugarcane, tobacco, wine, and wool. South Africa has many developed irrigation schemes and is a net exporter of food.

South Africa's transportation infrastructure is well-developed, supporting both domestic and regional needs. The Johannesburg International Airport serves as a hub for flights to other southern African countries. The domestic telecommunications infrastructure provides modern and efficient service to urban areas, including cellular and Internet services. In 1997, Telkom, the South African telecommunications parastatal, was partly privatized and entered into a strategic equity partnership with a consortium of two companies, including SBC, a U.S. telecommunications company. In exchange for exclusivity to provide certain services for 5 years, Telkom assumed an obligation to facilitate network modernization and expansion into unserved areas. The government is evaluating a proposal to establish a second network operator to compete with Telkom across its spectrum of services. Three cellular companies provide service to over 9 million subscribers.

South Africa's GDP is expected to increase gradually during the next few years, and in 2005 the government revised upward its 2005 estimated growth to 4.3%. Annual GDP growth between 1994 and 2004 averaged 3.0%. In 2003, real GDP growth slowed to a rate of 2.8%, but increased to 3.7% in 2004. The government estimates that the economy must achieve growth at a minimum of 6% to offset unemployment, which is estimated at 28%, although unofficial sources put it as high as 41%. In an effort to boost economic growth and spur job creation, the government has launched special investment corridors to promote development in specific regions and also is working to encourage small, medium, and microenterprise development. One of the great successes of the ANC government has been to get consumer inflation, which had been running in the double digits for over 20 years, under control. By 1998, inflation had fallen to 6.9%, and in 1999 and 2000 inflation was running at less than 6.0%. The rand's rapid depreciation in late 2001, however, led to greater inflationary pressure, causing 2002 inflation of 9.2%. The South African government cut the inflation rate to 4% in 2004, and the rand appreciated 39% from 2002 to 2004. The South African Reserve Bank increased interest rates and along with the 28% rand appreciation in 2003 led a reduced consumer inflation of 5.8%. The government also has made inroads into reducing the fiscal deficit and increasing foreign currency reserves. The government deficit was 1.1% of GDP in 2002 and 2.6% in 2003. The government's 2005 budget called for a moderate increase in spending to promote faster growth and poverty alleviation, while curbing budget deficits.

Exports reached 28.2% of GDP in 2003, up from 11.5% a decade ago. South Africa's major trading partners include the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Japan. South Africa's trade with other Sub-Saharan African countries, particularly those in the southern Africa region, has increased substantially. South Africa is a member of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). In August 1996, South Africa signed a regional trade protocol agreement with its SADC partners. The agreement was ratified in December 1999, and implementation began in September 2000. It intends to provide duty-free treatment for 85% of trade by 2008 and 100% by 2012.

South Africa has made great progress in dismantling its old economic system, which was based on import substitution, high tariffs and subsidies, anticompetitive behavior, and extensive government intervention in the economy. The new leadership has moved to reduce the government's role in the economy and to promote private sector investment and competition. It has significantly reduced tariffs and export subsidies, loosened exchange controls, cut the secondary tax on corporate dividends, and improved enforcement of intellectual property laws. A new competition law was passed and became effective on September 1, 1999. A U.S.-South Africa bilateral tax treaty went into effect on January 1, 1998, and a bilateral trade and investment framework agreement was signed in February 1999.

South Africa is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). U.S. products qualify for South Africa's [[most-favored-nation]] [[tariff]] rates. South Africa also is an eligible country for the benefits under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), and most of its products can enter the United States market duty-free. South Africa has done away with most import permits except on used products and products regulated by international treaties. It also remains committed to the simplification and continued reduction of tariffs within the WTO framework and maintains active discussions with that body and its major trading partners.

As a result of a November 1993 bilateral agreement, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) can assist U.S. investors in the South African market with services such as political risk insurance and loans and loan guarantees. In July 1996, the United States and South Africa signed an investment fund protocol for a $120 million OPIC fund to make equity investments in South Africa and southern Africa. OPIC is establishing an additional fund—the Sub-Saharan Africa Infrastructure Fund, capitalized at $350 million—for investment in infrastructure projects. The Trade and Development Agency also has been actively involved in funding feasibility studies and identifying investment opportunities in South Africa for U.S. businesses.

====HIV/AIDS====
South Africa is one of the countries most affected by HIV, with 5 million HIV infected individuals. Twenty percent of the 15-49 year old population is infected, and in parts of the country more than 35% of women of childbearing age are infected. Overall, 11-12% of the population is infected. About 1,700 new infections occur each day, and approximately 40% of deaths are believed to be AIDS-related. There are approximately 660,000 children who have lost one or both parents, and by 2008 1.6 million children will have been orphaned by AIDS. Without effective prevention and treatment 5-7 million cumulative AIDS deaths are anticipated by 2010 (with 1.5 million deaths in 2010 alone), and there will be over 1 million sick with AIDS. The epidemic could cost South Africa as much as 17% in GDP growth by 2010. The extraction industries, education, and health are among the sectors that will be severely affected. A 2003 national operational plan provides the structure for a comprehensive response to HIV and AIDS, including a national rollout of antiretroviral therapy.

====Environment====
[[File:Boyley The Homestead.jpg|thumb|Boyley, The Homestead.]]
South Africa's Government is committed to managing the country's rich and varied natural resources in a responsible and sustainable manner. In addition, numerous South African non-governmental organizations have emerged as a potent force in the public policy debate on the environment. In international environmental organizations, South Africa is seen as a key leader among developing countries on issues such as climate change, conservation, and biodiversity. This leading role was underscored by South Africa's selection to host the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002.

==History==
People have inhabited southern Africa for thousands of years. Members of the Khoisan language groups are the oldest surviving inhabitants of the land, but only a few are left in South Africa today—and they are located in the western sections. Most of today's black South Africans belong to the Bantu language group, which migrated south from central Africa, settling in the Transvaal region sometime before AD 100. The Nguni, ancestors of the Zulu and Xhosa, occupied most of the eastern coast by 1500.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the Cape of Good Hope, arriving in 1488. However, permanent white settlement did not begin until 1652 when the Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station on the Cape. In subsequent decades, French Huguenot refugees, the Dutch, and Germans began to settle in the Cape. Collectively, they form the Afrikaner segment of today's population. The establishment of these settlements had far-reaching social and political effects on the groups already settled in the area, leading to upheaval in these societies and the subjugation of their people.

By 1779, European settlements extended throughout the southern part of the Cape and east toward the Great Fish River. It was here that Dutch authorities and the Xhosa fought the first frontier war. The British gained control of the Cape of Good Hope at the end of the 18th century. Subsequent British settlement and rule marked the beginning of a long conflict between the Afrikaners and the English.

Beginning in 1836, partly to escape British rule and cultural hegemony and partly out of resentment at the recent abolition of slavery, many Afrikaner farmers (Boers) undertook a northern migration that became known as the "Great Trek." This movement brought them into contact and conflict with African groups in the area, the most formidable of which were the Zulus. Under their powerful leader, Shaka (1787-1828), the Zulus conquered most of the territory between the Drakensberg Mountains and the sea (now KwaZulu-Natal).

In 1828, Shaka was assassinated and replaced by his half-brother Dingane. In 1838, Dingane was defeated and deported by the Voortrekkers (people of the Great Trek) at the battle of Blood River. The Zulus, nonetheless, remained a potent force, defeating the British in the historic battle of Isandhlwana before themselves being finally conquered in 1879.

In 1852 and 1854, the independent Boer Republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State were created. Relations between the republics and the British Government were strained. The discovery of diamonds at Kimberley in 1870 and the discovery of large gold deposits in the Witwatersrand region of the Transvaal in 1886 caused an influx of European (mainly British) immigration and investment. In addition to resident black Africans, many blacks from neighboring countries also moved into the area to work in the mines. The construction by mine owners of hostels to house and control their workers set patterns that later extended throughout the region.

Boer reactions to this influx and British political intrigues led to the Anglo-Boer Wars of 1880-81 and 1899-1902. British forces prevailed in the conflict, and the republics were incorporated into the British Empire. In May 1910, the two republics and the British colonies of the Cape and Natal formed the Union of South Africa, a self-governing dominion of the British Empire. The Union's constitution kept all political power in the hands of whites.

In 1912, the South Africa Native National Congress was founded in Bloemfontein and eventually became known as the [[African National Congress]] (ANC). Its goals were the elimination of restrictions based on color and the enfranchisement of and parliamentary representation for blacks. Despite these efforts the government continued to pass laws limiting the rights and freedoms of blacks.

In 1948, the National Party (NP) won the all-white elections and began passing legislation codifying and enforcing an even stricter policy of white domination and racial separation known as "apartheid" (separateness). In the early 1960s, following a protest in Sharpeville in which 69 protesters were killed by police and 180 injured, the ANC and Pan-African Congress (PAC) were banned. [[Nelson Mandela]] and many other anti-apartheid leaders were convicted and imprisoned on charges of treason.

The ANC and PAC were forced underground and fought apartheid through guerrilla warfare and sabotage. In May 1961, South Africa relinquished its dominion status and declared itself a republic. It withdrew from the Commonwealth in part because of international protests against apartheid. In 1984, a new constitution came into effect in which whites allowed coloreds and Asians a limited role in the national government and control over their own affairs in certain areas. Ultimately, however, all power remained in white hands. Blacks remained effectively disenfranchised.

Popular uprisings in black and colored townships in 1976 and 1985 helped to convince some NP members of the need for change. Secret discussions between those members and Nelson Mandela began in 1986. In February 1990, State President F.W. de Klerk, who had come to power in September 1989, announced the unbanning of the ANC, the PAC, the South African Communist Party and all other anti-apartheid groups. Two weeks later, Nelson Mandela was released from prison.

In 1991, the Group Areas Act, Land Acts, and the Population Registration Act—the last of the so-called "pillars of apartheid"—were abolished. A long series of negotiations ensued, resulting in a new constitution promulgated into law in December 1993. The country's first nonracial elections were held on April 26–28, 1994, resulting in the installation of Nelson Mandela as President on May 10, 1994.

Following the 1994 elections, South Africa was governed under an interim constitution establishing a Government of National Unity (GNU). This constitution required the Constitutional Assembly (CA) to draft and approve a permanent constitution by May 9, 1996. After review by the Constitutional Court and intensive negotiations within the CA, the Constitutional Court certified a revised draft on December 2, 1996. President Mandela signed the new constitution into law on December 10, and it entered into force on February 3, 1997. The GNU ostensibly remained in effect until the 1999 national elections. The parties originally comprising the GNU—the ANC, the NP, and the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP)--shared executive power. On June 30, 1996, the NP withdrew from the GNU to become part of the opposition.

During Nelson Mandela's 5-year term as President of South Africa, the government committed itself to reforming the country. The ANC-led government focused on social issues that were neglected during the apartheid era such as unemployment, housing shortages, and crime. Mandela's administration began to reintroduce South Africa into the global economy by implementing a market-driven economic plan known as Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR). In order to heal the wounds created by apartheid, the government created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) under the leadership of Archbishop Desmond Tutu. During the first term of the ANC's post-apartheid rule, President Mandela concentrated on national reconciliation, seeking to forge a single South African identity and sense of purpose among a diverse and splintered populace, riven by years of conflict. The diminution of political violence after 1994 and its virtual disappearance by 1996 were testament to the abilities of Mandela to achieve this difficult goal.

Nelson Mandela stepped down as President of the ANC at the party's national congress in December 1997, when Thabo Mbeki assumed the mantle of leadership. Mbeki won the presidency of South Africa after national elections in 1999, when the ANC won just shy of a two-thirds majority in Parliament. President Mbeki shifted the focus of government from reconciliation to transformation, particularly on the economic front. With political transformation and the foundation of a strong democratic system in place after two free and fair national elections, the ANC recognized the need to focus on bringing economic power to the black majority in South Africa. In April 2004, the ANC won nearly 70% of the national vote, and Mbeki was reelected for his second 5-year term. In his 2004 State of the Nation address, Mbeki promised his government would reduce poverty, stimulate economic growth, and fight crime. Mbeki said that the government would play a more prominent role in economic development.

South Africa hosted the World Cup (soccer) in 2010, the first time it was held in Africa.

In 2018, President [[Jacob Zuma]] resigned due to corruption charges. He was replaced by [[Cyril Ramaphosa]], who passed a law allowing the confiscation and redistribution of land from the country's white South Africans with no compensation – something also attempted by the [[Marxist]] government of [[Zimbabwe]] under [[Robert Mugabe]].<ref name="Redistribution">Byas, Steve (February 27, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/28379-new-south-african-president-to-follow-zimbabwean-redistribution-model New South African President to Follow Zimbabwean Redistribution Model]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref> The country's government had become increasingly sympathetic to Marxism and Communism.<ref name="TurnToCommunism">Multiple references:
*[https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/item/29037-alex-newman-ernst-roets-south-africa-turn-to-communism-exposed South Africa's Turn to Communism Exposed]. ''The New American''. May 11, 2018. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (June 30, 2014). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/18594-south-africa-enters-second-phase-of-communist-revolution South Africa Enters “Second Phase” of Communist Revolution]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref> The next president, Cyril Ramaphosa, had difficulties reducing the corruption common in the country.<ref>Cassim, Zaheer; Bhatti, Jabeen (February 14, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/feb/14/cyril-ramaphosa-fails-tackle-south-africa-corrupti/ Despite promises, South Africa's president struggles to clean up dysfunction, corruption]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved February 16, 2019.</ref>

==Crime, violence, and discrimination==
One of the largest challenges which South Africa faces is Crime. Crime in South Africa is a major political and social issue. Rape is endemic in South Africa.<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1909220.stm]</ref><ref>[http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1008.html]</ref>

South African Farm Murders is a highly political issue with some claiming genocide or ethnic cleansing. According to the government, the murders are "just the result of ordinary crime", but the Agricultural Unions believe it forms part of [[genocide]] committed against the Boers of South Africa.<ref>
[http://www.tlu.co.za/International%20Bulletins/2007/IB070315%20%20Forced%20Sales,%20Expropriations%20and%20Farm%20Attacks%20-%20Two%20Sides%20of%20the%20same%20Coin.htm]</ref> Genocide Watch of New Haven, Connecticut claims 2.2% of Boer farmers have been victims of violent homicide by 2002. Other reports show robbery is not the motive in these homicides. An article in ''WorldNetDaily'' cites the homicide rate among South African Boer farmers at 264 per 100,000, while Genocide Watch cites a figure of 311 per 100,000 as of 2002.

Despite the violence and racist societal attitudes<ref>Multiple references:
*Wallen, Joe (March 24, 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/south-africa-white-farmers-eff-mbuyiseni-ndlozi-anc-interview-a8271096.html South Africa: Taking farms from whites is justified because 'it's not really their land', says EFF spokesman]. ''The Independent''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Govender, Peroshni (March 30, 2010). [https://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-safrica-racism-20100330-idAFJOE62T0IM20100330 South Africa's ANC defends "Kill the Boer" song]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Pollak, Joel B. (August 24, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/08/24/south-africa-julius-malema-trumps-right-were-coming-for-white-farmers/ South Africa’s Julius Malema: Trump’s Right, We’re Coming for White Farmers]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref> against South Africa's white minority, South Africa's increasingly Communist-sympathizing<ref name="TurnToCommunism"/> government has turned a blind eye toward them and is increasingly discriminatory against them.<ref>Multiple references:
*Newman, Alex (March 19, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/28538-world-finally-notices-plight-of-south-africa-s-minority-farmers World Finally Notices Plight of South Africa's Minority Farmers]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (March 25, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/28577-secession-push-grows-as-south-african-regime-plots-land-thefts Secession Push Grows as South African Regime Plots Land Thefts]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*[https://video.foxnews.com/v/5785308294001/?playlist_id=5198073478001#sp=show-clips Minority of farmers struggle for survival in South Africa]. ''Fox News Video''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Liddle, Rod (Mach 17, 2018). [https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/03/genocide-in-south-africa-now-thats-a-black-and-white-issue/ Genocide in South Africa: now that’s a black-and-white issue]. ''The Spectator''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*[https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/33937-alex-newman-war-on-south-africa-behind-the-deep-state War on South Africa | Behind the Deep State]. ''The New American''. November 4, 2019. Retrieved November 4, 2019.</ref> In 2018, the country's parliament voted to enact a policy of confiscating land from white South Africans without compensation for the explicit purpose of redistributing the land to blacks, following the example of [[Zimbabwe]] under Marxist [[Robert Mugabe]].<ref name="Redistribution"/><ref>Byas, Steve (April 25, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/foreign-policy/item/28837-petition-effort-to-admit-endangered-white-south-africans-spreads-and-intensifies Petition Effort to Admit Endangered White South Africans Spreads and Intensifies]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref><ref>The confiscation, after it went into effect:
*Morton, Victor (August 20, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/aug/20/south-africa-begins-seizing-white-owned-farms/ South Africa begins seizing white-owned farms in land redistribution program]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved August 20, 2018.
*Duke, Selwyn (August 22, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29853-south-africa-white-farmers-land-to-be-taken-are-their-lives-next South Africa: White Farmers’ Land to be Taken — Are Their Lives Next?] ''The New American''. Retrieved August 22, 2018.
*Pollak, Joel B. (August 20, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/08/20/report-south-africa-expropriates-first-farms-without-compensation/ Report: South Africa Expropriates First Farms Without Compensation]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> Considering the far-left shift of the country, it made sense that former U.S. president [[Barack Obama]] visited the country to make a speech advocating for [[far-left]] ideals<ref>Newman, Alex (July 24, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29624-in-south-africa-obama-outlines-globalist-agenda-for-humanity In South Africa, Obama Outlines Globalist Agenda for Humanity]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</ref><ref>Munro, Neil (July 17, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/economics/2018/07/17/obama-abolish-the-nation-state/ Obama: Abolish the Nation-State!] ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 17, 2018.</ref> – and he praised the country's racist strongman leaders.<ref>Newman, Alex (July 25, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29634-amid-racist-land-grabs-obama-praises-south-african-strongman Amid Racist Land Grabs, Obama Praises South African Strongman]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 25, 2018. See also:
*Newman, Alex (July 29, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29658-obama-slams-trump-while-deifying-communist-terror-leader Obama Slams Trump While Deifying Communist Terror Leader]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 30, 2018.</ref> A racist left-wing South African parliamentarian stated that "your time is up, white people" when discussing the amendment.<ref>Duke, Selwyn (December 11, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/30878-your-time-is-up-white-people-south-africa-sets-date-for-white-farmers-land-grab-law “Your time is up, white people”: South Africa Sets Date for “White Farmers Land-grab Law”]. ''The New American''. Retrieved December 11, 2018.</ref> Conservative U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] criticized the South African government for failing to respect property rights.<ref>Brock, Joe (November 21, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-land-afriforum-insight/trump-and-land-fears-boost-south-africas-white-right-state-idUSKCN1NQ0FY Trump and land fears boost South Africa's white right 'state']. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 22, 2018.</ref> Rather than work to solve these issues, the South African government focused on promoting identity politics for its favored people groups.<ref>Rodrigo, Chris Mills (May 30, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/446138-south-african-president-names-countrys-first-ever-cabinet-with-50 South African president names country's first-ever Cabinet with 50 percent women]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved May 30, 2019.</ref> In July 2019, a South African government panel studying the issue of land redistribution recommended changing the constitution to allow seizing land from white owners without any compensation in some instances.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-land/south-african-land-reform-panel-recommends-seizures-without-pay-in-certain-circumstances-idUSKCN1UN0F9 South African land reform panel recommends seizures without pay in certain circumstances]. ''Reuters''. July 28, 2019. Retrieved July 28, 2019.</ref>

In place of the racist pro-white policies of the 20th century, the South African government of the early 21st century has gone in exactly the opposite direction, implementing racist and discriminatory policies in favor of black people – and against both mixed race and white individuals.<ref>Murphy, James (April 27, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/32141-in-mixed-race-south-africa-some-believe-apartheid-was-better-than-the-current-system In Mixed-Race South Africa, Some Believe Apartheid Was Better Than the Current System]. ''The New American''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.</ref>

A Boer blog site points out that the Dutch Boer's of South Africa who were integrated into the South African state forcibly by British Afrikaners after the Boer War, were not promulgators of the policy of Apartheid implemented by the dominant Afrikaners. The author states the Dutch Boers first faced the loss of their ethnic identity by British Afrikaners during the Apartheid era, and that the policy of the current South African government is now to remove completely the ethnic communities identity.<ref>[http://www.stopboergenocide.com/29301/index.html Boer, Afrikaner, or White, Which Are You?] by Adriana Stuijt. Retrieved from Stop Boer Genocide.com 11 July 2007.</ref>

The government-supported racism and discrimination against white South Africans are discussed in the 2018 book ''Kill the Boer'' by Ernst Roets.<ref>https://www.killtheboerbook.com/</ref>

===Genocide allegations===
The African National Congress has been accused of promoting genocide against the Boer in South Africa.<ref>[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=28421 'Kill the Boer, kill the farmer'], By Anthony C. LoBaido, ''WorldNetDaily.com'', July 28, 2002. Retrieved July 12, 2007.</ref><ref>Genocide Watch:[http://www.genocidewatch.org/BoersSlain01.htm Over 4.000 Boer Farmers In South Africa Have Been Murdered Since 1991]. Retrieved from Genocide Watch July 29, 2015.[http://www.genocidewatch.org/images/White_Genocide_TVA.pdf]</ref> These allegations are supported by anti-Apartheid activist Dr. Gregory Stanton, who points out that the murder rate of Afrikaner farmers is four times as high as the country's overall murder rate, which itself is many times higher than the rate in the U.S.<ref>Multiple references:
*Newman, Alex (October 24, 2012). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/13280-genocide-communism-threaten-south-africa Genocide and Communism Threaten South Africa]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (December 11, 2014). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/19699-warnings-grow-over-communism-and-genocide-in-south-africa Warnings Grow Over Communism and Genocide in South Africa]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref>

The victims of this ongoing onslaught are usually elderly white citizens with the assailants generally being black Africans.<ref>
[http://www.ilanamercer.com/TheGenocideInDemocraticSA.htm]</ref>

Several far-left South African politicians, such as Andile Mngxitama and Julius Malema, have made public statements one could interpret as promoting genocide.<ref>Duke, Selwyn (December 14, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/30929-white-genocide-south-african-politician-kill-whites-their-women-and-their-children White Genocide? South African Politician: Kill Whites, “Their Women,” and “Their Children”]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 14, 2018.</ref>

===Persecuting Christians===
In March 2019, a South African court forced the Dutch Reformed Church to recognize same-sex "marriage" and drop its former opposition to it.<ref>Multiple references:
*Smith, Samuel (March 8, 2019). [https://www.christianpost.com/news/south-african-court-rules-dutch-reformed-church-gay-marriage-ban-unconstitutional.html South African court rules Dutch Reformed Church’s gay marriage ban is unconstitutional]. ''The Christian Post''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.
*Barillas, Martin M. (March 22, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/south-african-court-rules-christian-church-discriminates-against-gays-in-refusing-them-marriage South African court rules Christian church discriminates against gays in refusing them ‘marriage’]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.
*Mitchley, Alex (March 8, 2019). [https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/same-sex-marriages-dutch-reformed-churchs-decision-diminished-gay-congregants-integrity-court-20190308 Same-sex marriages: Dutch Reformed Church's decision diminished gay congregants' integrity - court]. ''News 24''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.
*Germaner, Shain (March 25, 2019). [https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-03-25-now-dutch-reformed-church-wont-appeal-same-sex-ruling/ Now Dutch Reformed Church won’t appeal same-sex ruling]. ''Sunday Times''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.</ref>

===Current Issues===
Currently, there has been much [[violence]] in South Africa, mainly in the poor townships, against foreigners. In particular against [[Zimbabwe]] natives who have fled the regime of [[Robert Mugabe]]. This is due to a perception that the immigrants are taking jobs and land from native born South Africans.

====Islamist political push====

At [[Swords of Iron]]:
Outcry over [[Hamas]] visit to South Africa.
The population is generally supportive of Israel but intimidated by a loud radicalized Muslim community.”
Representatives of Hezbollah, Palestine Islamic Jihad, and the Palestine Liberation Organisation were also present.

In addition, “South Africa’s foreign policy is stuck in the 1960s Cold War with deep ideological revolutionary attachments to the oppressive regimes of Cuba, Venezuela, Iran and Palestine. Although claiming to support a two-state solution, for the South African government, Israel is a colonial manifestation of Western imperialism.”

Adding to all that, "South Africa has a substantial array of domestic challenges and many believe that focusing on Israel’s war with Hamas proves a convenient distraction."
<ref>[https://www.jns.org/hamas-delegation-in-south-africa-for-palestinian-solidarity-event/ Hamas delegation in South Africa for Palestinian solidarity event], ''JNS'', Dec 2, 2023.

“The population is generally supportive of Israel but intimidated by a loud radicalized Muslim community.”</ref>

It led to SA arguing a fake-genocide<ref>Bret Stephens, [https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/16/opinion/israel-hamas-war-genocide.html The Genocide Charge Against Israel Is a Moral Obscenity], ''New York Times'', Jan. 16, 2024.<blockquote>
The U.S. and Britain killed a staggering number of German and Japanese civilians on the path to defeating the regimes that had started World War II - often known as the Good War. Events such as the bombings of Dresden or Tokyo, to say nothing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were far more indiscriminate than anything Israel stands accused of doing. But no serious person holds Franklin Roosevelt to be on a moral par with Adolf Hitler. What the Allies did were acts of war in the service of a lasting peace, not genocide in the service of a fanatical aim.

Reasonable people can argue that Israel has been excessive in its use of force, or deficient in its concern for Palestinian civilians. I disagree. But how curious that the discussion has turned to genocide because it's the behavior of the Jewish state that's in question. And how telling that the accusation is the same one that rabid bigots have been making for years: that the Jews are the real Nazis - guilty of humanity's worst crimes and deserving of its worst punishments.

A verdict against Israel at the International Court of Justice would signal that another international institution has adopted the moral outlook of antisemites.</blockquote></ref><ref>Max Boot, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2024/01/15/israel-south-africa-genocide-charge-unjustified/ South Africa's False Charges of Israeli "Genocide"], ''Washington Post'', January 15, 2024.<blockquote>
Israelis struggle to understand how their country could be accused of carrying out genocide in a war they did not start. If any party to the conflict is guilty of attempted genocide, it is Hamas. This terrorist organization, which is explicitly dedicated to the destruction of the Jewish state, has carried out war crimes, including the murder of Israeli civilians, the kidnapping of more than 200 Israelis (including old people and young children), and the widespread use of rape and sexual violence against Israeli girls and women.

There is no denying that Israeli forces have inflicted large-scale death and destruction in Gaza. This is a great tragedy for the people of Gaza, but primary blame must lie with Hamas, because it launched an unprovoked attack on Israel and uses civilians as human shields, in violation of the laws of war.

But there is no evidence that Israelis have engaged in a deliberate campaign to "destroy, in whole or in part," the Palestinian people - which is what "genocide" means in international law. If Israel, with all the firepower at its disposal, had been trying to commit mass murder, the death toll would have been higher by orders of magnitude.

Far from trying to deliberately slaughter Palestinian civilians, Israeli forces have made extensive efforts to notify them in advance of military operations and urge them to move out of the line of fire. Israeli forces ordered "humanitarian pauses" to facilitate relief efforts and created a "humanitarian corridor" for evacuations from northern to southern Gaza.

Israel has also facilitated the entry of more than 8,000 trucks carrying more than 145,000 tons of food to Gaza since the start of the war, some of which Hamas has seized for itself. These are clearly not the actions of a nation bent on exterminating the Palestinian people.</blockquote></ref><ref>David Isaac, [https://www.jns.org/210-congress-members-denounce-south-africas-genocide-charge/ 210 Congress members denounce South Africa’s genocide charge], ''JNS'', January 24, 2024.<blockquote>
"We vigorously denounce South Africa’s deeply hostile stance towards Israel and thoroughly reject its charge of genocide," the congress members wrote.
Two hundred and ten members of the U.S. Congress sent an open letter to U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken on Tuesday condemning South Africa for filing "a grossly unfounded case against Israel at the International Court of Justice (ICJ)."
"South Africa’s accusation of genocide against Israel exposes how far Israel’s enemies will go in their attempts to demonize the Jewish state," the signatories wrote.
The letter notes that while South Africa barely acknowledged the Hamas terrorists "who gleefully massacred, mutilated, raped, and kidnapped innocent civilians" on Oct. 7, it made "grossly unfounded and defamatory charges against Israel on the world stage."
Calling it an abuse of the judicial process to delegitimize Israel, the letter goes on to state that to charge the Jewish state with genocide is "particularly cynical given that the term ‘genocide’ was coined following the murder of six million Jews in the Holocaust."</blockquote></ref> "case" against Israel - who is fighting a regime that uses its civilians to make sure they die in their war on Israeli civilians. Anti-Israel case backed by almost only Islamic nations. (Plot is to put, push a non-lslamic face in the front).<ref>[https://elderofziyon.blogspot.com/2024/01/besides-islamic-states-almost-no-one.html Besides Islamic states, almost no one supports South Africa's (fake) "genocide" case], EoZ, January 9, 2024.<blockquote>
Al Jazeera lists the countries which have officially backed the South African case before the ICJ claiming Israel is engaged in "genocide."

It starts with the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC). And then it lists three countries - Malaysia, Jordan and Turkey - which all happen to be members of the OIC themselves. (If those countries calling out their support separately is significant, then one must wonder why the other 54 members of the OIC have not.)

The only other country that publicly backs the case is Bolivia, which has a pretty poor human rights record itself.</blockquote>

"Trick is to put, push a non-lslamic face in front. (Preferably non-white, to recycle a hint at the libel of ''Whiteness'' - dedpite Israeli reality of multi-color - multi-ethnic). A well orchestrated Islamic bigotry stunt."
[https://elderofziyon.blogspot.com/2024/01/besides-islamic-states-almost-no-one.html?m=1#comment-6363823304 at EoZ].</ref>
Pratically, "South Africa acting as Hamas’s legal arm,"<ref>[https://www.jns.org/south-africa-acting-as-hamass-legal-arm-israel-says-after-icj-hearing South Africa acting as Hamas’s legal arm, Israel says after ICJ hearing].<blockquote>
Pretoria demanded that the ICJ order an immediate end to IDF operations in Gaza • Israeli FM calls proceedings "the greatest show of hypocrisy in history."</blockquote>
''JNS'', January 11, 2024.</ref> at: "the greatest show of hypocrisy in history."

South African Christian leaders oppose ICJ charge: 'cannot keep silent.'
They called the decision "fundamentally flawed" after Hamas entered Israel on October 7 and raped, mutilated burned and murdered innocent Israelis.
"This was a deliberate genocide attempt and is supported by Hamas' charter calling for the total destruction of Israel," the Christians wrote. "Israel does not seek to wipe Gaza or the Palestinians off the face of the map. It seeks to defend itself. This is a case of victim blaming by our government."
It will be seen by the country's major trading partners said they see the case as an endorsement of Hamas's terrorism.
They also condemn the government for failing to condemn Hamas's actions in Gaza.
"Such actions could be interpreted as direct support to Hamas's tactics, including using civilians as human shields and diverting aid for military purposes and the building of tunnels, rather than humanitarian relief sent to the Palestinian people, which Hamas intercepted," the letter continued.
In addition, the letter said that the slogan "'from the river to the sea' means Israel must become Palestine and Jews must be destroyed. Aside from denying the Jews a right to a homeland in the aftermath of the Holocaust, where does this leave us Christians?<ref>Maayan Jaffe-Hoffman, [https://www.jpost.com/christianworld/article-781640 South African Christian leaders oppose ICJ charge: Cannot keep silent], ''JPost'', January 10, 2024.<blockquote>

They also condemn the government for failing to condemn Hamas's actions in Gaza.

Christians throughout South Africa have risen against the government's decision to take Israel to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on charges that it is committing (so-called) genocide against Palestinians in Gaza.

"The African National Congress government and their allies' decision to take Israel to the International Court of Justice has brought us to a place where, like the time of Queen Esther in the Bible, we cannot keep silent," said Tshego Motaung, head of the Healing of the Nations prayer for Israel movement in an article published on the South African Christian website Gateway News. "We cannot keep silent when a government that has failed on its domestic mandate wants to rise as a hero in the global political arena."

Her article, published on Tuesday, came on the heels of an open letter by dozens of faith-based organizations in opposition to the case.

"We, the South African Christian leaders, strongly oppose the decision by the South African government to launch the case against Israel and demand it be rescinded immediately," the letter read.

"We had hoped and prayed that our government would use its influence as a peacemaker to bring about a meaningful and lasting peace in the Middle East," the letter continued. "Regrettably, it has elected not to do so and instead has chosen sides. We, as Christians, deplore the loss of innocent lives, be it the Jews, Palestinians, Christians, or any other people, but are strongly opposed to the decision."

Groups call South Africa's decision to launch complaint "fundamentally flawed".

The organizations, which include the South African Christian Leaders Forum, Christian View Network, Bridges for Peace, International Christian Embassy in Jerusalem, and about two dozen others, called the decision "fundamentally flawed" after Hamas entered Israel on October 7 and raped, mutilated burned and murdered innocent Israelis.

"This was a deliberate genocide attempt and is supported by Hamas' charter calling for the total destruction of Israel," the Christians wrote. "Israel does not seek to wipe Gaza or the Palestinians off the face of the map. It seeks to defend itself. This is a case of victim blaming by our government."

Moreover, they said that the decision would go against the best interest of South Africa and could have determinative political and economic consequences, given that the country's major trading partners said they see the case as an endorsement of Hamas's terrorism.

They also condemn the government for failing to condemn Hamas's actions in Gaza.

"Such actions could be interpreted as direct support to Hamas's tactics, including using civilians as human shields and diverting aid for military purposes and the building of tunnels, rather than humanitarian relief sent to the Palestinian people, which Hamas intercepted," the letter continued.

In addition, the letter said that the slogan "'from the river to the sea' means Israel must become Palestine and Jews must be destroyed. Aside from denying the Jews a right to a homeland in the aftermath of the Holocaust, where does this leave us Christians?

"Places of worship for Christians in the Holy Land will be destroyed," the Christians said.

The writers added that South Africa is not a Muslim country but majority-Christian.

"The South African government has prejudiced the interests of its own people to achieve the political and religious objectives of others. The government is also aware that the one-sided approach it has adopted has placed its Jewish citizens at risk by inciting antisemitism as well as eroding the freedom of religion of Christians in South Africa," the letter read.

Speaking to The Jerusalem Post from South Africa, Motaung said the nation is not involved in South Africa's foreign policy. She noted that although the people vote for those in power, "there is a serious disconnect with the majority."

The Christian community in South Africa "has been standing with Israel for years," Motaung noted. But she said that the recent Israel-Hamas war and rising anti-Israel sentiment have led local Christians to be even more vocal.

"Christians are standing with Israel because we believe in the Bible," she told the Post.

Motaung added in her Gateway News article: "History has recorded over many generations of kings and kingdoms who rose against Israel and the Jewish people, seeking to wipe them out.

"Israel still exists because none of those attempts succeeded," she concluded. "Perhaps this decision to be an accuser of Israel may just be what is needed to hasten the judgment of God against the ANC government and deliver the people of South Africa from their corruption."</blockquote></ref>

Sen. John Fetterman, 'what in the World Is Going On?', excoriated South Africa for its hypocrisy in claiming that Israel’s military, which has been called “the most moral army in the history of warfare,” was guilty of (so-called) "genocide",<ref>[https://pjmedia.com/robert-spencer/2024/01/12/todays-most-effective-conservative-senator-speaks-out-again-n4925440 Today’s Most Effective Conservative Senator Speaks Out Again], ''PJMedia'', Jan 12, 2024</ref> while in South Africa itself, a major political leader led a crowd in singing “Kill the Boer,” and numerous white farmers have indeed been killed.<ref>Rebecca Downs, [https://townhall.com/tipsheet/rebeccadowns/2024/01/11/fetterman-response-on-south-africa-n2633489 Fetterman Gives Us Another 'Based' Take on Israel], ''TownHall'', January 11, 2024</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{African Countries}}
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:South Africa]]
[[Category:African History]]
[[Category:Nuclear Defense]]

South Africa

2024-06-02T17:47:31Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
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|map =South africa rel 2005.jpg
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|capital =Pretoria, Cape Town, Bloemfontein
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|government =Constitutional democracy
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|language =[[Zulu]], [[Xhosa]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Sepedi]], [[English]], [[Setswana]], [[Sesotho]], [[Xitsonga]], [[Swati]], [[Venda]], [[isiNdebele]]
|king =
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|president =Cyril Ramaphosa
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|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =471,445 sq mi
|pop =61,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$350,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$5,738 (2020)
|currency =Rand
}}
'''South Africa''' is a country located on the southern tip of [[Africa]] and one of the largest on the continent. While relatively wealthy compared to other African countries, its economy is stagnant and the country is home to increasing amounts of [[violence]], [[racism]], and [[discrimination]] against its [[Afrikaner]] residents. It is also adopting increasingly [[Liberal|left-wing]] policies.

South Africa has a very advantageous location for trade routes by sea from Western Europe to [[India]] and the Far East. As a result, there was far more immigration by Europeans to South Africa than any other region of Africa, and whites of European ancestry (English and Dutch) ruled South Africa until the late twentieth century. Since then, democracy has brought representative government to the African ethnic groups.

==People==
[[File:Durban South Africa.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Durban.]]
Until 1991, South African law divided the population into four major racial categories: Africans (black), whites, coloreds, and Asians. Although this law has been abolished, many South Africans still view themselves and each other according to these categories. Black Africans comprise about 79% of the population and are divided into a number of different ethnic groups. Whites comprise about 10% of the population. They are primarily descendants of Dutch, French, English, and German settlers who began arriving at the Cape of Good Hope in the late 17th century. Coloreds are mixed-race people primarily descending from the earliest settlers and the indigenous peoples. They comprise about 9% of the total population. Asians descend from Indian workers brought to South Africa in the mid-19th century to work on the sugar estates in Natal. They constitute about 2.5% of the population and are concentrated in the KwaZulu-Natal Province.

Education is in transition. Under the apartheid system schools were segregated, and the quantity and quality of education varied significantly across racial groups. The laws governing this segregation have been abolished. The long and arduous process of restructuring the country's educational system has begun and is ongoing. The challenge is to create a single, nondiscriminatory, nonracial system that offers the same standards of education to all people.
*Annual growth rate (2004 World Bank Group): 0.8%.
*Population (2004, 46.6 million): Composition—black 79%; white 9.6%; colored 8.9%; Asian (Indian) 2.5%. Official figures from 2000 South African Census at http://www.statssa.gov.za/.
*Languages: Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, and Xitsonga (all official languages).
*Religions: Predominantly Christian; traditional African, Hindu, Muslim, Jewish.
*Education: Years compulsory—7–15 years of age for all children. The South African Schools Act, Act 84 of 1996, passed by Parliament in 1996, aims to achieve greater educational opportunities for black children, mandating a single syllabus and more equitable funding for schools.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2000)--59 per live births. Life expectancy—52 yrs. women; 50 yrs. men. Health data from 2000 U.S. Census Report: HIV/AIDS Country Profiles: [https://www.census.gov/ipc/hiv/safrica.pdf].

===Religion===
[[File:Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu.jpg|thumb|230px|Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu.]]
The 2001 religious demography census estimated that 80% of the population is Christian. Hindus, Muslims, Jews, Buddhists, and adherents of traditional African beliefs combines constitute about 4% of the population. Approximately 15% of the population indicated that it belongs to no particular religion or declined to indicate an affiliation.

African Independent Churches (AICs) are the largest group of Christian churches. Once regarded as Ethiopian churches, the majority are now referred to as Zionist or Apostolic churches. There are more than 4,000 AICs, with a membership of more than 10 million, constituting approximately 20% of the population. The Zionist Christian Church is the largest AIC, with an estimated membership of more than four million. AICs serve more than half the population in northern KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga areas. There are at least 900 AICs are in Soweto.

Other Christian groups include Protestants (Dutch Reformed family of Churches, Anglican, Baptist, Congregational, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian) and the Roman Catholic Church. Greek Orthodox, the Church of Scientology, and Seventh-day Adventist churches are also active.

African traditionalists make up less than 1% of the population. Practitioners include traditional healers, often referred to as witches, although they do not see themselves as such. Many of the African traditionalists combine Christian and indigenous religious practices, and 15% of the population claims no affiliation with any formal religious organization. It is believed that many of these persons adhere to indigenous religions.

An estimated two-thirds of South Africa's Indian population, a majority of which resides in KwaZulu-Natal, practice Hinduism. The small Muslim community is mostly made up of Cape Malays of Indonesian descent, and the remainder is largely of Indian extraction.

==Government and Political Conditions==
South Africa is a multiparty parliamentary democracy in which constitutional power is shared between the president and the Parliament. The country is unusual in that it technically has three capital cities, since the three branches of the federal government are divided between them. As such, Pretoria houses the executive branch, Cape Town houses the legislative branch, and Bloemfontein houses the judicial branch. Therefore, these cities are known respectively as the executive capital, the legislative capital and the judicial capital.

The Parliament consists of two houses, the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces, which are responsible for drafting the laws of the republic. The National Assembly also has specific control over bills relating to monetary matters. The current 400-member National Assembly was retained under the 1997 constitution, although the constitution allows for a range of between 350 and 400 members. The Assembly is elected by a system of "list proportional representation." Each of the parties appearing on the ballot submits a rank-ordered list of candidates. The voters then cast their ballots for a party.

Seats in the Assembly are allocated based on the percentage of votes each party receives. In the 2004 elections, the ANC won 279 seats in the Assembly, more than a two-thirds majority and an increase of 13 seats from 1999; the Democratic Alliance (DA) won 50, the IFP 28, the New National Party (NNP) 7, the United Democratic Movement (UDM) 9, and other groups won the remaining 27. In the 2004 electoral campaign, the ANC aligned with the NNP, and the DA aligned with the IFP. On August 6, the NNP announced that it would merge with the ANC. Elected representatives of the party would, however, continue to hold their seats in the national and provincial legislatures as NNP members until the next floor-crossing period in September 2005.

The National Council of Provinces (NCOP) consists of 90 members, 10 from each of the nine provinces. The NCOP replaced the former Senate as the second chamber of Parliament and was created to give a greater voice to provincial interests. It must approve legislation that involves shared national and provincial competencies as defined by an annex to the constitution. Each provincial delegation consists of six permanent and four rotating delegates.

The president is the head of state. Following the April 14, 2004 elections, the National Assembly re-elected Thabo Mbeki as President. The president's constitutional responsibilities include assigning cabinet portfolios, signing bills into law, and serving as commander in chief of the military. The president works closely with the deputy president and the cabinet. There are currently 28 posts in the cabinet. Of the 28 ministers, Mbeki appointed two from outside the ANC—one from the former NNP and one from the Azanian Peoples Organization (Azapo). On June 14, 2005, President Mbeki informed the South African Parliament that then-Deputy President Jacob Zuma was being "released" from his duties following the conviction of a close associate on corruption charges relating to monetary payments to Zuma. On June 22, Mbeki named former Minister for Minerals and Energy Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka to the position of Deputy President, the first woman to hold this office.

Following prior allegations, and a finding by Judge Chris Nicholson, that Prescient Mbeki may have exerted improper political influence regarding the prosecution of Jacob Zuma, the National Executive Committee of the ANC recalled Mbeki on Sunday, 21 September 2008. He formally tendered his resignation from office on Monday, 22 September, which became effective at midnight on 24 September 2008. Dr Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri served as acting State President from then until the election of the new State President.

The ANC's deputy president, Kgalema Motlanthe was elected and sworn in as South Africa's third democratic State President, during a full sitting of Parliament on 25 September 2008.

The third arm of the central government is an independent judiciary. The Constitutional Court is the highest court for interpreting and deciding constitutional issues, while the Supreme Court of Appeal is the highest court for non-constitutional matters. Most cases are heard in the extensive system of High Courts and Magistrates Courts. The constitution's bill of rights provides for due process including the right to a fair, public trial within a reasonable time of being charged and the right to appeal to a higher court. The bill of rights also guarantees fundamental political and social rights of South Africa's citizens.

South Africa has strict [[gun control]] laws.<ref>Kirkwood, R. Cort (August 29, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29910-gun-grab-in-south-africa-coming Gun Grab in South Africa Coming?] ''The New American''. Retrieved August 29, 2018.</ref>

===Principal Government Officials===
*State President—Kgalema Motlanthe
*Executive Deputy President—Ms. Baleka Mbete

===Challenges Ahead===
[[File:De Jonge Farm View Villiersdorp Cape.jpg|thumb|280px|De Jonge, Farm View Villiersdorp, Cape.]]
South Africa's post-apartheid governments have made remarkable progress in consolidating the nation's peaceful transition to democracy. Programs to improve the delivery of essential social services to the majority of the population are underway. Access to better opportunities in education and business is becoming more widespread. Nevertheless, transforming South Africa's society to remove the legacy of apartheid will be a long-term process requiring the sustained commitment of the leaders and people of the nation's disparate groups.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), chaired by 1984 Nobel Peace Prize winner Archbishop Desmond Tutu, helped to advance the reconciliation process. Constituted in 1996 and having completed its work by 2001, the TRC was empowered to investigate apartheid-era human rights abuses committed between 1960 and May 10, 1994; to grant amnesty to those who committed politically motivated crimes; and to recommend compensation to victims of abuses. In November 2003, the Government began allocation of $4,600 (R30,000) reparations to individual apartheid victims. The TRC's mandate was part of the larger process of reconciling the often conflicting political, economic, and cultural interests held by the many peoples that make up South Africa's diverse population. The ability of the government and people to agree on many basic questions of how to order the country's new society will remain a critical challenge.

One important issue continues to be the relationship of provincial and local administrative structures to the national government. Prior to April 27, 1994, South Africa was divided into four provinces and 10 black "homelands," four of which were considered independent by the South African Government. Both the interim constitution and the 1997 constitution abolished this system and substituted nine provinces. Each province has an elected legislature and chief executive—the provincial premier. Although in form a federal system, in practice the nature of the relationship between the central and provincial governments continues to be the subject of considerable debate, particularly among groups desiring a greater measure of autonomy from the central government. A key step in defining the relationship came in 1997 when provincial governments were given more than half of central government funding and permitted to develop and manage their own budgets. However, the national government exerts a measure of control over provinces by appointing provincial premiers.

Although South Africa's economy is in many areas highly developed, the exclusionary nature of apartheid and distortions caused in part by the country's international isolation until the 1990s have left major weaknesses. The economy is now in a process of transition as the government seeks to address the inequities of apartheid, stimulate growth, and create jobs. Business, meanwhile, is becoming more integrated into the international system, and foreign investment has increased dramatically over the past several years. Still, the economic disparities between population groups are expected to persist for many years, remaining an area of priority attention for the government.

===Human Rights===
The 1997 constitution's bill of rights nominally provides extensive guarantees, including equality before the law and prohibitions against discrimination; the right to life, privacy, property, and freedom and security of the person; prohibition against slavery and forced labor; and freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and association. The legal rights of criminal suspects also are enumerated, as are citizens' entitlements to a safe environment, housing, education, and healthcare. The constitution provides for an independent and impartial judiciary. These provisions are not consistently followed.

Since the abolition of apartheid, levels of political violence in South Africa have dropped dramatically. Violent crime and organized criminal activity are at high levels and are a grave concern, however. Partly as a result, [[vigilante]] action and mob justice sometimes occur. Violence and discrimination have occurred against the country's white minority.

Some members of the police commit abuses, and deaths in police custody as a result of excessive force remain a problem. The government has taken action to investigate and punish some of those who commit such abuses. In April 1997, the government established an Independent Complaints Directorate to investigate deaths in police custody and deaths resulting from police action.

===Foreign Relations===
South African forces fought on the Allied side in World Wars I and II and participated in the postwar UN force in Korea. South Africa was a founding member of the League of Nations and in 1927 established a Department of External Affairs with diplomatic missions in the main west European countries and in the United States. At the founding of the League of Nations, South Africa was given the mandate to govern Southwest Africa, now Namibia, which had been a German colony before World War I. In 1990, Namibia attained independence, with the exception of the enclave of Walvis Bay, which was reintegrated into Namibia in March 1994. After South Africa held its first nonracial election in April 1994, most sanctions imposed by the international community in opposition to the system of apartheid were lifted. On June 1, 1994, South Africa rejoined the Commonwealth, and on June 23, 1994, the UN General Assembly accepted its credentials. South Africa served as the African Union's (AU) first president from July 2003 to July 2004.

Having emerged from the international isolation of the apartheid era, South Africa has become a leading international actor. Its principal foreign policy objective is to promote the economic, political, and cultural regeneration of Africa, through the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD); to promote the peaceful resolution of conflict in Africa; and to use multilateral bodies to ensure that developing countries’ voices are heard on international issues. South Africa has played a key role in seeking an end to various conflicts and political crises on the African continent, including in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Comoros. South Africa has pursued "quiet diplomacy" in its approach to the crisis in Zimbabwe.

==Economy==
South Africa has a two-tiered economy; one rivaling other developed countries and the other with only the most basic infrastructure. It therefore is a productive and industrialized economy that exhibits many characteristics associated with developing countries, including a division of labor between formal and informal sectors, and uneven distribution of wealth and income. The formal sector, based on mining, manufacturing, services, and agriculture, is well developed.

The transition to a democratic, nonracial government, begun in early 1990, stimulated a debate on the direction of economic policies to achieve sustained economic growth while at the same time redressing the socioeconomic disparities created by apartheid. The Government of National Unity's initial blueprint to address this problem was the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP). The RDP was designed to create programs to improve the standard of living for the majority of the population by providing housing—a planned 1 million new homes in 5 years—basic services, education, and health care. While a specific "ministry" for the RDP no longer exists, a number of government ministries and offices are charged with supporting RDP programs and goals.
*GDP (2004): $213 billion. 2004 GDP at market prices (baseline year 2000)--1.374 billion rand (R).
*Real GDP growth rate (2004): 3.7%.
*GDP per capita (2004): $3,480.
*Unemployment (September 2004): 27.8%.
*Natural resources: Almost all essential commodities, except petroleum products and bauxite. Only country in the world that manufactures fuel from coal.
*Industry: Types—minerals, mining, motor vehicles and parts, machinery, textiles, chemicals, fertilizer, information technology, electronics, other manufacturing, and agroprocessing.
*Trade (2004): Exports--$36.3 billion (2003 merchandise exports R256 billion; 2003 gold exports R35 billion): gold, other minerals and metals, agricultural products, motor vehicles and parts. Major markets—U.K., U.S., Germany, Italy, Japan, East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa. Imports--$34 billion (2003 merchandise imports R263 billion): machinery, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products, textiles, and scientific instruments. Major suppliers—Germany, U.S., Japan, U.K., Italy.
GDP composition (2003): Agriculture and mining (primary sector)--11%; industry (secondary sector)--24%; services (tertiary sector)--65%. World's largest producer of platinum, gold, and chromium; also significant coal production.

The Government of South Africa demonstrated its commitment to open markets, privatization, and a favorable investment climate with its release of the crucial Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy—the neoliberal economic strategy to cover 1996-2000. The strategy had mixed success. It brought greater financial discipline and macroeconomic stability but has failed to deliver in key areas. Formal employment continued to decline, and despite the ongoing efforts of black empowerment and signs of a fledgling black middle class and social mobility, the country's wealth remains very unequally distributed along racial lines. However, South Africa's budgetary reforms such as the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework and the Public Finance Management Act—which aims at better reporting, auditing, and increased accountability—and the structural changes to its monetary policy framework—including inflation targeting—have created transparency and predictability and are widely acclaimed. Trade liberalization also has progressed substantially since the early 1990s. South Africa has reduced its import-weighted average tariff rate from more than 20% in 1994 to 7% in 2002. These efforts, together with South Africa's implementation of its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations and its constructive role in launching the Doha Development Round, show South Africa's acceptance of free market principles.

====Financial Policy====
South Africa has a sophisticated financial structure with a large and active stock exchange that ranks 17th in the world in terms of total market capitalization. The South African Reserve Bank (SARB) performs all central banking functions. The SARB is independent and operates in much the same way as Western central banks, influencing interest rates and controlling liquidity through its interest rates on funds provided to private sector banks. Quantitative credit controls and administrative control of deposit and lending rates have largely disappeared. South African banks adhere to the Bank of International Standards core standards.

The South African Government has taken steps to gradually reduce remaining foreign exchange controls, which apply only to South African residents. Private citizens are now allowed a one-time investment of up to 750,000 rand (R) in offshore accounts. Since 2001, South African companies may invest up to R750 million in Africa and R500 million elsewhere.

====Trade and Investment====
South Africa has rich mineral resources. It is the world's largest producer and exporter of gold and platinum and also exports a significant amount of coal. During 2000, platinum overtook gold as South Africa's largest foreign exchange earner. The value-added processing of minerals to produce ferroalloys, stainless steels, and similar products is a major industry and an important growth area. The country's diverse manufacturing industry is a world leader in several specialized sectors, including railway rolling stock, synthetic fuels, and mining equipment and machinery.

Primary agriculture accounts for about 4% of the gross domestic product. Major crops include citrus and deciduous fruits, corn, wheat, dairy products, sugarcane, tobacco, wine, and wool. South Africa has many developed irrigation schemes and is a net exporter of food.

South Africa's transportation infrastructure is well-developed, supporting both domestic and regional needs. The Johannesburg International Airport serves as a hub for flights to other southern African countries. The domestic telecommunications infrastructure provides modern and efficient service to urban areas, including cellular and Internet services. In 1997, Telkom, the South African telecommunications parastatal, was partly privatized and entered into a strategic equity partnership with a consortium of two companies, including SBC, a U.S. telecommunications company. In exchange for exclusivity to provide certain services for 5 years, Telkom assumed an obligation to facilitate network modernization and expansion into unserved areas. The government is evaluating a proposal to establish a second network operator to compete with Telkom across its spectrum of services. Three cellular companies provide service to over 9 million subscribers.

South Africa's GDP is expected to increase gradually during the next few years, and in 2005 the government revised upward its 2005 estimated growth to 4.3%. Annual GDP growth between 1994 and 2004 averaged 3.0%. In 2003, real GDP growth slowed to a rate of 2.8%, but increased to 3.7% in 2004. The government estimates that the economy must achieve growth at a minimum of 6% to offset unemployment, which is estimated at 28%, although unofficial sources put it as high as 41%. In an effort to boost economic growth and spur job creation, the government has launched special investment corridors to promote development in specific regions and also is working to encourage small, medium, and microenterprise development. One of the great successes of the ANC government has been to get consumer inflation, which had been running in the double digits for over 20 years, under control. By 1998, inflation had fallen to 6.9%, and in 1999 and 2000 inflation was running at less than 6.0%. The rand's rapid depreciation in late 2001, however, led to greater inflationary pressure, causing 2002 inflation of 9.2%. The South African government cut the inflation rate to 4% in 2004, and the rand appreciated 39% from 2002 to 2004. The South African Reserve Bank increased interest rates and along with the 28% rand appreciation in 2003 led a reduced consumer inflation of 5.8%. The government also has made inroads into reducing the fiscal deficit and increasing foreign currency reserves. The government deficit was 1.1% of GDP in 2002 and 2.6% in 2003. The government's 2005 budget called for a moderate increase in spending to promote faster growth and poverty alleviation, while curbing budget deficits.

Exports reached 28.2% of GDP in 2003, up from 11.5% a decade ago. South Africa's major trading partners include the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Japan. South Africa's trade with other Sub-Saharan African countries, particularly those in the southern Africa region, has increased substantially. South Africa is a member of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). In August 1996, South Africa signed a regional trade protocol agreement with its SADC partners. The agreement was ratified in December 1999, and implementation began in September 2000. It intends to provide duty-free treatment for 85% of trade by 2008 and 100% by 2012.

South Africa has made great progress in dismantling its old economic system, which was based on import substitution, high tariffs and subsidies, anticompetitive behavior, and extensive government intervention in the economy. The new leadership has moved to reduce the government's role in the economy and to promote private sector investment and competition. It has significantly reduced tariffs and export subsidies, loosened exchange controls, cut the secondary tax on corporate dividends, and improved enforcement of intellectual property laws. A new competition law was passed and became effective on September 1, 1999. A U.S.-South Africa bilateral tax treaty went into effect on January 1, 1998, and a bilateral trade and investment framework agreement was signed in February 1999.

South Africa is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). U.S. products qualify for South Africa's [[most-favored-nation]] [[tariff]] rates. South Africa also is an eligible country for the benefits under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), and most of its products can enter the United States market duty-free. South Africa has done away with most import permits except on used products and products regulated by international treaties. It also remains committed to the simplification and continued reduction of tariffs within the WTO framework and maintains active discussions with that body and its major trading partners.

As a result of a November 1993 bilateral agreement, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) can assist U.S. investors in the South African market with services such as political risk insurance and loans and loan guarantees. In July 1996, the United States and South Africa signed an investment fund protocol for a $120 million OPIC fund to make equity investments in South Africa and southern Africa. OPIC is establishing an additional fund—the Sub-Saharan Africa Infrastructure Fund, capitalized at $350 million—for investment in infrastructure projects. The Trade and Development Agency also has been actively involved in funding feasibility studies and identifying investment opportunities in South Africa for U.S. businesses.

====HIV/AIDS====
South Africa is one of the countries most affected by HIV, with 5 million HIV infected individuals. Twenty percent of the 15-49 year old population is infected, and in parts of the country more than 35% of women of childbearing age are infected. Overall, 11-12% of the population is infected. About 1,700 new infections occur each day, and approximately 40% of deaths are believed to be AIDS-related. There are approximately 660,000 children who have lost one or both parents, and by 2008 1.6 million children will have been orphaned by AIDS. Without effective prevention and treatment 5-7 million cumulative AIDS deaths are anticipated by 2010 (with 1.5 million deaths in 2010 alone), and there will be over 1 million sick with AIDS. The epidemic could cost South Africa as much as 17% in GDP growth by 2010. The extraction industries, education, and health are among the sectors that will be severely affected. A 2003 national operational plan provides the structure for a comprehensive response to HIV and AIDS, including a national rollout of antiretroviral therapy.

====Environment====
[[File:Boyley The Homestead.jpg|thumb|Boyley, The Homestead.]]
South Africa's Government is committed to managing the country's rich and varied natural resources in a responsible and sustainable manner. In addition, numerous South African non-governmental organizations have emerged as a potent force in the public policy debate on the environment. In international environmental organizations, South Africa is seen as a key leader among developing countries on issues such as climate change, conservation, and biodiversity. This leading role was underscored by South Africa's selection to host the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002.

==History==
People have inhabited southern Africa for thousands of years. Members of the Khoisan language groups are the oldest surviving inhabitants of the land, but only a few are left in South Africa today—and they are located in the western sections. Most of today's black South Africans belong to the Bantu language group, which migrated south from central Africa, settling in the Transvaal region sometime before AD 100. The Nguni, ancestors of the Zulu and Xhosa, occupied most of the eastern coast by 1500.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the Cape of Good Hope, arriving in 1488. However, permanent white settlement did not begin until 1652 when the Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station on the Cape. In subsequent decades, French Huguenot refugees, the Dutch, and Germans began to settle in the Cape. Collectively, they form the Afrikaner segment of today's population. The establishment of these settlements had far-reaching social and political effects on the groups already settled in the area, leading to upheaval in these societies and the subjugation of their people.

By 1779, European settlements extended throughout the southern part of the Cape and east toward the Great Fish River. It was here that Dutch authorities and the Xhosa fought the first frontier war. The British gained control of the Cape of Good Hope at the end of the 18th century. Subsequent British settlement and rule marked the beginning of a long conflict between the Afrikaners and the English.

Beginning in 1836, partly to escape British rule and cultural hegemony and partly out of resentment at the recent abolition of slavery, many Afrikaner farmers (Boers) undertook a northern migration that became known as the "Great Trek." This movement brought them into contact and conflict with African groups in the area, the most formidable of which were the Zulus. Under their powerful leader, Shaka (1787-1828), the Zulus conquered most of the territory between the Drakensberg Mountains and the sea (now KwaZulu-Natal).

In 1828, Shaka was assassinated and replaced by his half-brother Dingane. In 1838, Dingane was defeated and deported by the Voortrekkers (people of the Great Trek) at the battle of Blood River. The Zulus, nonetheless, remained a potent force, defeating the British in the historic battle of Isandhlwana before themselves being finally conquered in 1879.

In 1852 and 1854, the independent Boer Republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State were created. Relations between the republics and the British Government were strained. The discovery of diamonds at Kimberley in 1870 and the discovery of large gold deposits in the Witwatersrand region of the Transvaal in 1886 caused an influx of European (mainly British) immigration and investment. In addition to resident black Africans, many blacks from neighboring countries also moved into the area to work in the mines. The construction by mine owners of hostels to house and control their workers set patterns that later extended throughout the region.

Boer reactions to this influx and British political intrigues led to the Anglo-Boer Wars of 1880-81 and 1899-1902. British forces prevailed in the conflict, and the republics were incorporated into the British Empire. In May 1910, the two republics and the British colonies of the Cape and Natal formed the Union of South Africa, a self-governing dominion of the British Empire. The Union's constitution kept all political power in the hands of whites.

In 1912, the South Africa Native National Congress was founded in Bloemfontein and eventually became known as the [[African National Congress]] (ANC). Its goals were the elimination of restrictions based on color and the enfranchisement of and parliamentary representation for blacks. Despite these efforts the government continued to pass laws limiting the rights and freedoms of blacks.

In 1948, the National Party (NP) won the all-white elections and began passing legislation codifying and enforcing an even stricter policy of white domination and racial separation known as "apartheid" (separateness). In the early 1960s, following a protest in Sharpeville in which 69 protesters were killed by police and 180 injured, the ANC and Pan-African Congress (PAC) were banned. [[Nelson Mandela]] and many other anti-apartheid leaders were convicted and imprisoned on charges of treason.

The ANC and PAC were forced underground and fought apartheid through guerrilla warfare and sabotage. In May 1961, South Africa relinquished its dominion status and declared itself a republic. It withdrew from the Commonwealth in part because of international protests against apartheid. In 1984, a new constitution came into effect in which whites allowed coloreds and Asians a limited role in the national government and control over their own affairs in certain areas. Ultimately, however, all power remained in white hands. Blacks remained effectively disenfranchised.

Popular uprisings in black and colored townships in 1976 and 1985 helped to convince some NP members of the need for change. Secret discussions between those members and Nelson Mandela began in 1986. In February 1990, State President F.W. de Klerk, who had come to power in September 1989, announced the unbanning of the ANC, the PAC, the South African Communist Party and all other anti-apartheid groups. Two weeks later, Nelson Mandela was released from prison.

In 1991, the Group Areas Act, Land Acts, and the Population Registration Act—the last of the so-called "pillars of apartheid"—were abolished. A long series of negotiations ensued, resulting in a new constitution promulgated into law in December 1993. The country's first nonracial elections were held on April 26–28, 1994, resulting in the installation of Nelson Mandela as President on May 10, 1994.

Following the 1994 elections, South Africa was governed under an interim constitution establishing a Government of National Unity (GNU). This constitution required the Constitutional Assembly (CA) to draft and approve a permanent constitution by May 9, 1996. After review by the Constitutional Court and intensive negotiations within the CA, the Constitutional Court certified a revised draft on December 2, 1996. President Mandela signed the new constitution into law on December 10, and it entered into force on February 3, 1997. The GNU ostensibly remained in effect until the 1999 national elections. The parties originally comprising the GNU—the ANC, the NP, and the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP)--shared executive power. On June 30, 1996, the NP withdrew from the GNU to become part of the opposition.

During Nelson Mandela's 5-year term as President of South Africa, the government committed itself to reforming the country. The ANC-led government focused on social issues that were neglected during the apartheid era such as unemployment, housing shortages, and crime. Mandela's administration began to reintroduce South Africa into the global economy by implementing a market-driven economic plan known as Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR). In order to heal the wounds created by apartheid, the government created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) under the leadership of Archbishop Desmond Tutu. During the first term of the ANC's post-apartheid rule, President Mandela concentrated on national reconciliation, seeking to forge a single South African identity and sense of purpose among a diverse and splintered populace, riven by years of conflict. The diminution of political violence after 1994 and its virtual disappearance by 1996 were testament to the abilities of Mandela to achieve this difficult goal.

Nelson Mandela stepped down as President of the ANC at the party's national congress in December 1997, when Thabo Mbeki assumed the mantle of leadership. Mbeki won the presidency of South Africa after national elections in 1999, when the ANC won just shy of a two-thirds majority in Parliament. President Mbeki shifted the focus of government from reconciliation to transformation, particularly on the economic front. With political transformation and the foundation of a strong democratic system in place after two free and fair national elections, the ANC recognized the need to focus on bringing economic power to the black majority in South Africa. In April 2004, the ANC won nearly 70% of the national vote, and Mbeki was reelected for his second 5-year term. In his 2004 State of the Nation address, Mbeki promised his government would reduce poverty, stimulate economic growth, and fight crime. Mbeki said that the government would play a more prominent role in economic development.

South Africa hosted the World Cup (soccer) in 2010, the first time it was held in Africa.

In 2018, President [[Jacob Zuma]] resigned due to corruption charges. He was replaced by [[Cyril Ramaphosa]], who passed a law allowing the confiscation and redistribution of land from the country's white South Africans with no compensation – something also attempted by the [[Marxist]] government of [[Zimbabwe]] under [[Robert Mugabe]].<ref name="Redistribution">Byas, Steve (February 27, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/28379-new-south-african-president-to-follow-zimbabwean-redistribution-model New South African President to Follow Zimbabwean Redistribution Model]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref> The country's government had become increasingly sympathetic to Marxism and Communism.<ref name="TurnToCommunism">Multiple references:
*[https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/item/29037-alex-newman-ernst-roets-south-africa-turn-to-communism-exposed South Africa's Turn to Communism Exposed]. ''The New American''. May 11, 2018. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (June 30, 2014). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/18594-south-africa-enters-second-phase-of-communist-revolution South Africa Enters “Second Phase” of Communist Revolution]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref> The next president, Cyril Ramaphosa, had difficulties reducing the corruption common in the country.<ref>Cassim, Zaheer; Bhatti, Jabeen (February 14, 2019). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2019/feb/14/cyril-ramaphosa-fails-tackle-south-africa-corrupti/ Despite promises, South Africa's president struggles to clean up dysfunction, corruption]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved February 16, 2019.</ref>

==Crime, violence, and discrimination==
One of the largest challenges which South Africa faces is Crime. Crime in South Africa is a major political and social issue. Rape is endemic in South Africa.<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1909220.stm]</ref><ref>[http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1008.html]</ref>

South African Farm Murders is a highly political issue with some claiming genocide or ethnic cleansing. According to the government, the murders are "just the result of ordinary crime", but the Agricultural Unions believe it forms part of [[genocide]] committed against the Boers of South Africa.<ref>
[http://www.tlu.co.za/International%20Bulletins/2007/IB070315%20%20Forced%20Sales,%20Expropriations%20and%20Farm%20Attacks%20-%20Two%20Sides%20of%20the%20same%20Coin.htm]</ref> Genocide Watch of New Haven, Connecticut claims 2.2% of Boer farmers have been victims of violent homicide by 2002. Other reports show robbery is not the motive in these homicides. An article in ''WorldNetDaily'' cites the homicide rate among South African Boer farmers at 264 per 100,000, while Genocide Watch cites a figure of 311 per 100,000 as of 2002.

Despite the violence and racist societal attitudes<ref>Multiple references:
*Wallen, Joe (March 24, 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/south-africa-white-farmers-eff-mbuyiseni-ndlozi-anc-interview-a8271096.html South Africa: Taking farms from whites is justified because 'it's not really their land', says EFF spokesman]. ''The Independent''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Govender, Peroshni (March 30, 2010). [https://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-safrica-racism-20100330-idAFJOE62T0IM20100330 South Africa's ANC defends "Kill the Boer" song]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Pollak, Joel B. (August 24, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/08/24/south-africa-julius-malema-trumps-right-were-coming-for-white-farmers/ South Africa’s Julius Malema: Trump’s Right, We’re Coming for White Farmers]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 24, 2018.</ref> against South Africa's white minority, South Africa's increasingly Communist-sympathizing<ref name="TurnToCommunism"/> government has turned a blind eye toward them and is increasingly discriminatory against them.<ref>Multiple references:
*Newman, Alex (March 19, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/28538-world-finally-notices-plight-of-south-africa-s-minority-farmers World Finally Notices Plight of South Africa's Minority Farmers]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (March 25, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/28577-secession-push-grows-as-south-african-regime-plots-land-thefts Secession Push Grows as South African Regime Plots Land Thefts]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*[https://video.foxnews.com/v/5785308294001/?playlist_id=5198073478001#sp=show-clips Minority of farmers struggle for survival in South Africa]. ''Fox News Video''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Liddle, Rod (Mach 17, 2018). [https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/03/genocide-in-south-africa-now-thats-a-black-and-white-issue/ Genocide in South Africa: now that’s a black-and-white issue]. ''The Spectator''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*[https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/33937-alex-newman-war-on-south-africa-behind-the-deep-state War on South Africa | Behind the Deep State]. ''The New American''. November 4, 2019. Retrieved November 4, 2019.</ref> In 2018, the country's parliament voted to enact a policy of confiscating land from white South Africans without compensation for the explicit purpose of redistributing the land to blacks, following the example of [[Zimbabwe]] under Marxist [[Robert Mugabe]].<ref name="Redistribution"/><ref>Byas, Steve (April 25, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/usnews/foreign-policy/item/28837-petition-effort-to-admit-endangered-white-south-africans-spreads-and-intensifies Petition Effort to Admit Endangered White South Africans Spreads and Intensifies]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref><ref>The confiscation, after it went into effect:
*Morton, Victor (August 20, 2018). [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/aug/20/south-africa-begins-seizing-white-owned-farms/ South Africa begins seizing white-owned farms in land redistribution program]. ''The Washington Times''. Retrieved August 20, 2018.
*Duke, Selwyn (August 22, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29853-south-africa-white-farmers-land-to-be-taken-are-their-lives-next South Africa: White Farmers’ Land to be Taken — Are Their Lives Next?] ''The New American''. Retrieved August 22, 2018.
*Pollak, Joel B. (August 20, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/national-security/2018/08/20/report-south-africa-expropriates-first-farms-without-compensation/ Report: South Africa Expropriates First Farms Without Compensation]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved August 23, 2018.</ref> Considering the far-left shift of the country, it made sense that former U.S. president [[Barack Obama]] visited the country to make a speech advocating for [[far-left]] ideals<ref>Newman, Alex (July 24, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29624-in-south-africa-obama-outlines-globalist-agenda-for-humanity In South Africa, Obama Outlines Globalist Agenda for Humanity]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 25, 2018.</ref><ref>Munro, Neil (July 17, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/economics/2018/07/17/obama-abolish-the-nation-state/ Obama: Abolish the Nation-State!] ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 17, 2018.</ref> – and he praised the country's racist strongman leaders.<ref>Newman, Alex (July 25, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29634-amid-racist-land-grabs-obama-praises-south-african-strongman Amid Racist Land Grabs, Obama Praises South African Strongman]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 25, 2018. See also:
*Newman, Alex (July 29, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/29658-obama-slams-trump-while-deifying-communist-terror-leader Obama Slams Trump While Deifying Communist Terror Leader]. ''The New American''. Retrieved July 30, 2018.</ref> A racist left-wing South African parliamentarian stated that "your time is up, white people" when discussing the amendment.<ref>Duke, Selwyn (December 11, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/30878-your-time-is-up-white-people-south-africa-sets-date-for-white-farmers-land-grab-law “Your time is up, white people”: South Africa Sets Date for “White Farmers Land-grab Law”]. ''The New American''. Retrieved December 11, 2018.</ref> Conservative U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] criticized the South African government for failing to respect property rights.<ref>Brock, Joe (November 21, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-land-afriforum-insight/trump-and-land-fears-boost-south-africas-white-right-state-idUSKCN1NQ0FY Trump and land fears boost South Africa's white right 'state']. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 22, 2018.</ref> Rather than work to solve these issues, the South African government focused on promoting identity politics for its favored people groups.<ref>Rodrigo, Chris Mills (May 30, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/446138-south-african-president-names-countrys-first-ever-cabinet-with-50 South African president names country's first-ever Cabinet with 50 percent women]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved May 30, 2019.</ref> In July 2019, a South African government panel studying the issue of land redistribution recommended changing the constitution to allow seizing land from white owners without any compensation in some instances.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-safrica-land/south-african-land-reform-panel-recommends-seizures-without-pay-in-certain-circumstances-idUSKCN1UN0F9 South African land reform panel recommends seizures without pay in certain circumstances]. ''Reuters''. July 28, 2019. Retrieved July 28, 2019.</ref>

In place of the racist pro-white policies of the 20th century, the South African government of the early 21st century has gone in exactly the opposite direction, implementing racist and discriminatory policies in favor of black people – and against both mixed race and white individuals.<ref>Murphy, James (April 27, 2019). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/32141-in-mixed-race-south-africa-some-believe-apartheid-was-better-than-the-current-system In Mixed-Race South Africa, Some Believe Apartheid Was Better Than the Current System]. ''The New American''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.</ref>

A Boer blog site points out that the Dutch Boer's of South Africa who were integrated into the South African state forcibly by British Afrikaners after the Boer War, were not promulgators of the policy of Apartheid implemented by the dominant Afrikaners. The author states the Dutch Boers first faced the loss of their ethnic identity by British Afrikaners during the Apartheid era, and that the policy of the current South African government is now to remove completely the ethnic communities identity.<ref>[http://www.stopboergenocide.com/29301/index.html Boer, Afrikaner, or White, Which Are You?] by Adriana Stuijt. Retrieved from Stop Boer Genocide.com 11 July 2007.</ref>

The government-supported racism and discrimination against white South Africans are discussed in the 2018 book ''Kill the Boer'' by Ernst Roets.<ref>https://www.killtheboerbook.com/</ref>

===Genocide allegations===
The African National Congress has been accused of promoting genocide against the Boer in South Africa.<ref>[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=28421 'Kill the Boer, kill the farmer'], By Anthony C. LoBaido, ''WorldNetDaily.com'', July 28, 2002. Retrieved July 12, 2007.</ref><ref>Genocide Watch:[http://www.genocidewatch.org/BoersSlain01.htm Over 4.000 Boer Farmers In South Africa Have Been Murdered Since 1991]. Retrieved from Genocide Watch July 29, 2015.[http://www.genocidewatch.org/images/White_Genocide_TVA.pdf]</ref> These allegations are supported by anti-Apartheid activist Dr. Gregory Stanton, who points out that the murder rate of Afrikaner farmers is four times as high as the country's overall murder rate, which itself is many times higher than the rate in the U.S.<ref>Multiple references:
*Newman, Alex (October 24, 2012). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/13280-genocide-communism-threaten-south-africa Genocide and Communism Threaten South Africa]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.
*Newman, Alex (December 11, 2014). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/19699-warnings-grow-over-communism-and-genocide-in-south-africa Warnings Grow Over Communism and Genocide in South Africa]. ''The New American''. Retrieved May 20, 2018.</ref>

The victims of this ongoing onslaught are usually elderly white citizens with the assailants generally being black Africans.<ref>
[http://www.ilanamercer.com/TheGenocideInDemocraticSA.htm]</ref>

Several far-left South African politicians, such as Andile Mngxitama and Julius Malema, have made public statements one could interpret as promoting genocide.<ref>Duke, Selwyn (December 14, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/africa/item/30929-white-genocide-south-african-politician-kill-whites-their-women-and-their-children White Genocide? South African Politician: Kill Whites, “Their Women,” and “Their Children”]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved December 14, 2018.</ref>

===Persecuting Christians===
In March 2019, a South African court forced the Dutch Reformed Church to recognize same-sex "marriage" and drop its former opposition to it.<ref>Multiple references:
*Smith, Samuel (March 8, 2019). [https://www.christianpost.com/news/south-african-court-rules-dutch-reformed-church-gay-marriage-ban-unconstitutional.html South African court rules Dutch Reformed Church’s gay marriage ban is unconstitutional]. ''The Christian Post''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.
*Barillas, Martin M. (March 22, 2019). [https://www.lifesitenews.com/news/south-african-court-rules-christian-church-discriminates-against-gays-in-refusing-them-marriage South African court rules Christian church discriminates against gays in refusing them ‘marriage’]. ''LifeSiteNews''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.
*Mitchley, Alex (March 8, 2019). [https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/same-sex-marriages-dutch-reformed-churchs-decision-diminished-gay-congregants-integrity-court-20190308 Same-sex marriages: Dutch Reformed Church's decision diminished gay congregants' integrity - court]. ''News 24''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.
*Germaner, Shain (March 25, 2019). [https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-03-25-now-dutch-reformed-church-wont-appeal-same-sex-ruling/ Now Dutch Reformed Church won’t appeal same-sex ruling]. ''Sunday Times''. Retrieved April 29, 2019.</ref>

===Current Issues===
Currently, there has been much [[violence]] in South Africa, mainly in the poor townships, against foreigners. In particular against [[Zimbabwe]] natives who have fled the regime of [[Robert Mugabe]]. This is due to a perception that the immigrants are taking jobs and land from native born South Africans.

====Islamist political push====

At [[Swords of Iron]]:
Outcry over [[Hamas]] visit to South Africa.
The population is generally supportive of Israel but intimidated by a loud radicalized Muslim community.”
Representatives of Hezbollah, Palestine Islamic Jihad, and the Palestine Liberation Organisation were also present.

In addition, “South Africa’s foreign policy is stuck in the 1960s Cold War with deep ideological revolutionary attachments to the oppressive regimes of Cuba, Venezuela, Iran and Palestine. Although claiming to support a two-state solution, for the South African government, Israel is a colonial manifestation of Western imperialism.”

Adding to all that, "South Africa has a substantial array of domestic challenges and many believe that focusing on Israel’s war with Hamas proves a convenient distraction."
<ref>[https://www.jns.org/hamas-delegation-in-south-africa-for-palestinian-solidarity-event/ Hamas delegation in South Africa for Palestinian solidarity event], ''JNS'', Dec 2, 2023.

“The population is generally supportive of Israel but intimidated by a loud radicalized Muslim community.”</ref>

It led to SA arguing a fake-genocide<ref>Bret Stephens, [https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/16/opinion/israel-hamas-war-genocide.html The Genocide Charge Against Israel Is a Moral Obscenity], ''New York Times'', Jan. 16, 2024.<blockquote>
The U.S. and Britain killed a staggering number of German and Japanese civilians on the path to defeating the regimes that had started World War II - often known as the Good War. Events such as the bombings of Dresden or Tokyo, to say nothing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were far more indiscriminate than anything Israel stands accused of doing. But no serious person holds Franklin Roosevelt to be on a moral par with Adolf Hitler. What the Allies did were acts of war in the service of a lasting peace, not genocide in the service of a fanatical aim.

Reasonable people can argue that Israel has been excessive in its use of force, or deficient in its concern for Palestinian civilians. I disagree. But how curious that the discussion has turned to genocide because it's the behavior of the Jewish state that's in question. And how telling that the accusation is the same one that rabid bigots have been making for years: that the Jews are the real Nazis - guilty of humanity's worst crimes and deserving of its worst punishments.

A verdict against Israel at the International Court of Justice would signal that another international institution has adopted the moral outlook of antisemites.</blockquote></ref><ref>Max Boot, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2024/01/15/israel-south-africa-genocide-charge-unjustified/ South Africa's False Charges of Israeli "Genocide"], ''Washington Post'', January 15, 2024.<blockquote>
Israelis struggle to understand how their country could be accused of carrying out genocide in a war they did not start. If any party to the conflict is guilty of attempted genocide, it is Hamas. This terrorist organization, which is explicitly dedicated to the destruction of the Jewish state, has carried out war crimes, including the murder of Israeli civilians, the kidnapping of more than 200 Israelis (including old people and young children), and the widespread use of rape and sexual violence against Israeli girls and women.

There is no denying that Israeli forces have inflicted large-scale death and destruction in Gaza. This is a great tragedy for the people of Gaza, but primary blame must lie with Hamas, because it launched an unprovoked attack on Israel and uses civilians as human shields, in violation of the laws of war.

But there is no evidence that Israelis have engaged in a deliberate campaign to "destroy, in whole or in part," the Palestinian people - which is what "genocide" means in international law. If Israel, with all the firepower at its disposal, had been trying to commit mass murder, the death toll would have been higher by orders of magnitude.

Far from trying to deliberately slaughter Palestinian civilians, Israeli forces have made extensive efforts to notify them in advance of military operations and urge them to move out of the line of fire. Israeli forces ordered "humanitarian pauses" to facilitate relief efforts and created a "humanitarian corridor" for evacuations from northern to southern Gaza.

Israel has also facilitated the entry of more than 8,000 trucks carrying more than 145,000 tons of food to Gaza since the start of the war, some of which Hamas has seized for itself. These are clearly not the actions of a nation bent on exterminating the Palestinian people.</blockquote></ref><ref>David Isaac, [https://www.jns.org/210-congress-members-denounce-south-africas-genocide-charge/ 210 Congress members denounce South Africa’s genocide charge], ''JNS'', January 24, 2024.<blockquote>
"We vigorously denounce South Africa’s deeply hostile stance towards Israel and thoroughly reject its charge of genocide," the congress members wrote.
Two hundred and ten members of the U.S. Congress sent an open letter to U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken on Tuesday condemning South Africa for filing "a grossly unfounded case against Israel at the International Court of Justice (ICJ)."
"South Africa’s accusation of genocide against Israel exposes how far Israel’s enemies will go in their attempts to demonize the Jewish state," the signatories wrote.
The letter notes that while South Africa barely acknowledged the Hamas terrorists "who gleefully massacred, mutilated, raped, and kidnapped innocent civilians" on Oct. 7, it made "grossly unfounded and defamatory charges against Israel on the world stage."
Calling it an abuse of the judicial process to delegitimize Israel, the letter goes on to state that to charge the Jewish state with genocide is "particularly cynical given that the term ‘genocide’ was coined following the murder of six million Jews in the Holocaust."</blockquote></ref> "case" against Israel - who is fighting a regime that uses its civilians to make sure they die in their war on Israeli civilians. Anti-Israel case backed by almost only Islamic nations. (Plot is to put, push a non-lslamic face in the front).<ref>[https://elderofziyon.blogspot.com/2024/01/besides-islamic-states-almost-no-one.html Besides Islamic states, almost no one supports South Africa's (fake) "genocide" case], EoZ, January 9, 2024.<blockquote>
Al Jazeera lists the countries which have officially backed the South African case before the ICJ claiming Israel is engaged in "genocide."

It starts with the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC). And then it lists three countries - Malaysia, Jordan and Turkey - which all happen to be members of the OIC themselves. (If those countries calling out their support separately is significant, then one must wonder why the other 54 members of the OIC have not.)

The only other country that publicly backs the case is Bolivia, which has a pretty poor human rights record itself.</blockquote>

"Trick is to put, push a non-lslamic face in front. (Preferably non-white, to recycle a hint at the libel of ''Whiteness'' - dedpite Israeli reality of multi-color - multi-ethnic). A well orchestrated Islamic bigotry stunt."
[https://elderofziyon.blogspot.com/2024/01/besides-islamic-states-almost-no-one.html?m=1#comment-6363823304 at EoZ].</ref>
Pratically, "South Africa acting as Hamas’s legal arm,"<ref>[https://www.jns.org/south-africa-acting-as-hamass-legal-arm-israel-says-after-icj-hearing South Africa acting as Hamas’s legal arm, Israel says after ICJ hearing].<blockquote>
Pretoria demanded that the ICJ order an immediate end to IDF operations in Gaza • Israeli FM calls proceedings "the greatest show of hypocrisy in history."</blockquote>
''JNS'', January 11, 2024.</ref> at: "the greatest show of hypocrisy in history."

South African Christian leaders oppose ICJ charge: 'cannot keep silent.'
They called the decision "fundamentally flawed" after Hamas entered Israel on October 7 and raped, mutilated burned and murdered innocent Israelis.
"This was a deliberate genocide attempt and is supported by Hamas' charter calling for the total destruction of Israel," the Christians wrote. "Israel does not seek to wipe Gaza or the Palestinians off the face of the map. It seeks to defend itself. This is a case of victim blaming by our government."
It will be seen by the country's major trading partners said they see the case as an endorsement of Hamas's terrorism.
They also condemn the government for failing to condemn Hamas's actions in Gaza.
"Such actions could be interpreted as direct support to Hamas's tactics, including using civilians as human shields and diverting aid for military purposes and the building of tunnels, rather than humanitarian relief sent to the Palestinian people, which Hamas intercepted," the letter continued.
In addition, the letter said that the slogan "'from the river to the sea' means Israel must become Palestine and Jews must be destroyed. Aside from denying the Jews a right to a homeland in the aftermath of the Holocaust, where does this leave us Christians?<ref>Maayan Jaffe-Hoffman, [https://www.jpost.com/christianworld/article-781640 South African Christian leaders oppose ICJ charge: Cannot keep silent], ''JPost'', January 10, 2024.<blockquote>

They also condemn the government for failing to condemn Hamas's actions in Gaza.

Christians throughout South Africa have risen against the government's decision to take Israel to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on charges that it is committing (so-called) genocide against Palestinians in Gaza.

"The African National Congress government and their allies' decision to take Israel to the International Court of Justice has brought us to a place where, like the time of Queen Esther in the Bible, we cannot keep silent," said Tshego Motaung, head of the Healing of the Nations prayer for Israel movement in an article published on the South African Christian website Gateway News. "We cannot keep silent when a government that has failed on its domestic mandate wants to rise as a hero in the global political arena."

Her article, published on Tuesday, came on the heels of an open letter by dozens of faith-based organizations in opposition to the case.

"We, the South African Christian leaders, strongly oppose the decision by the South African government to launch the case against Israel and demand it be rescinded immediately," the letter read.

"We had hoped and prayed that our government would use its influence as a peacemaker to bring about a meaningful and lasting peace in the Middle East," the letter continued. "Regrettably, it has elected not to do so and instead has chosen sides. We, as Christians, deplore the loss of innocent lives, be it the Jews, Palestinians, Christians, or any other people, but are strongly opposed to the decision."

Groups call South Africa's decision to launch complaint "fundamentally flawed".

The organizations, which include the South African Christian Leaders Forum, Christian View Network, Bridges for Peace, International Christian Embassy in Jerusalem, and about two dozen others, called the decision "fundamentally flawed" after Hamas entered Israel on October 7 and raped, mutilated burned and murdered innocent Israelis.

"This was a deliberate genocide attempt and is supported by Hamas' charter calling for the total destruction of Israel," the Christians wrote. "Israel does not seek to wipe Gaza or the Palestinians off the face of the map. It seeks to defend itself. This is a case of victim blaming by our government."

Moreover, they said that the decision would go against the best interest of South Africa and could have determinative political and economic consequences, given that the country's major trading partners said they see the case as an endorsement of Hamas's terrorism.

They also condemn the government for failing to condemn Hamas's actions in Gaza.

"Such actions could be interpreted as direct support to Hamas's tactics, including using civilians as human shields and diverting aid for military purposes and the building of tunnels, rather than humanitarian relief sent to the Palestinian people, which Hamas intercepted," the letter continued.

In addition, the letter said that the slogan "'from the river to the sea' means Israel must become Palestine and Jews must be destroyed. Aside from denying the Jews a right to a homeland in the aftermath of the Holocaust, where does this leave us Christians?

"Places of worship for Christians in the Holy Land will be destroyed," the Christians said.

The writers added that South Africa is not a Muslim country but majority-Christian.

"The South African government has prejudiced the interests of its own people to achieve the political and religious objectives of others. The government is also aware that the one-sided approach it has adopted has placed its Jewish citizens at risk by inciting antisemitism as well as eroding the freedom of religion of Christians in South Africa," the letter read.

Speaking to The Jerusalem Post from South Africa, Motaung said the nation is not involved in South Africa's foreign policy. She noted that although the people vote for those in power, "there is a serious disconnect with the majority."

The Christian community in South Africa "has been standing with Israel for years," Motaung noted. But she said that the recent Israel-Hamas war and rising anti-Israel sentiment have led local Christians to be even more vocal.

"Christians are standing with Israel because we believe in the Bible," she told the Post.

Motaung added in her Gateway News article: "History has recorded over many generations of kings and kingdoms who rose against Israel and the Jewish people, seeking to wipe them out.

"Israel still exists because none of those attempts succeeded," she concluded. "Perhaps this decision to be an accuser of Israel may just be what is needed to hasten the judgment of God against the ANC government and deliver the people of South Africa from their corruption."</blockquote></ref>

Sen. John Fetterman, 'what in the World Is Going On?', excoriated South Africa for its hypocrisy in claiming that Israel’s military, which has been called “the most moral army in the history of warfare,” was guilty of (so-called) "genocide",<ref>[https://pjmedia.com/robert-spencer/2024/01/12/todays-most-effective-conservative-senator-speaks-out-again-n4925440 Today’s Most Effective Conservative Senator Speaks Out Again], ''PJMedia'', Jan 12, 2024</ref> while in South Africa itself, a major political leader led a crowd in singing “Kill the Boer,” and numerous white farmers have indeed been killed.<ref>Rebecca Downs, [https://townhall.com/tipsheet/rebeccadowns/2024/01/11/fetterman-response-on-south-africa-n2633489 Fetterman Gives Us Another 'Based' Take on Israel], ''TownHall'', January 11, 2024</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{African Countries}}
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:South Africa]]
[[Category:African History]]
[[Category:Nuclear Defense]]

Kenya

2024-06-02T17:46:56Z

Bytemsbu:

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|government =Republic
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|president =William Ruto
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|area =45,405 sq mi
|pop =54,000,000 (2020)
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|gdp-pc =$1,852 (2020)
|currency =Kenyan shilling
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'''Kenya''', a former British colony in East Africa is famous for its majestic wildlife. The Republic of Kenya with a growing population of 38 million, shares borders with [[Ethiopia]], [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] and [[Sudan]]. Its coastline borders the [[Indian Ocean]]. Peace had prevailed since an uprising in the former British colony in the 1950s. A political crisis exploded into violence in early 2008, with a resolution finally reached in mid-April. Kenya faces herculean challenges, as the poor nation must deal with a fast-growing population, exploding slums and diminishing available land. During the crisis Kenya's infrastructure suffered severe damage with countless houses, shops, businesses, factories and schools burned out, and the lucrative safari tourist business almost shut down. The crisis ignited long-standing ethnic grievances, which violently split the nation along ethnic lines.<ref>Jeffrey Gettleman, "Unity Cabinet Formed in Kenya, Ending Deadlock," [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/14/world/africa/14kenya.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin ''New York Times'' April 14, 2008]</ref>

In 2009 a devastating drought swept across Kenya, killing livestock, crops and children. Fights over water erupted in city slums, while in the rural areas bitter ethnic tensions escalated as communities fought over the last remaining pieces of fertile grazing land.

The basics of Kenya's economy, agriculture and tourism, are especially imperiled.<ref>Jeffrey Gettleman, "Lush Land Dries Up, Withering Kenya’s Hopes," [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/08/world/africa/08kenya.html?th&emc=th ''New York Times'' Sept. 7, 2009]</ref>

==Geography==
Kenya rises from a low coastal [[plain]] on the [[Indian Ocean]] in a series of mountain ridges and plateaus which stand above 3,000 meters (9,000 ft.) in the center of the country. The Rift Valley bisects the country above [[Nairobi]], opening up to a broad arid plain in the north. Highlands cover the south before descending to the shores of [[Lake Victoria]] in the west. The climate is "tropical in south, west, and central regions; arid and semi-arid in the north and the northeast".<ref>US Department of State, The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs, ''Background Note: Kenya''[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2962.htm]</ref>

==Population==
[[File:Maasai Kenya.jpg|thumb|Maasai women.]]
===Ethnics===
Kenya's ethnic groups comprise the following: [[Kikuyu]] 22%, [[Luhya]] 14%, [[Luo]] 13%, [[Kalenjin]] 12%, [[Kamba]] 11%, [[Kisii]] 6%, [[Meru]] 6%, other African 15% and non-African (Asian, European, and Arab) 1%.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ke.html See]</ref> The 1999 census dropped its ethnic categories in order to ease social tension in which questions of ethnic identity had created a climate of distrust and suspicion among Kenyans. Recent elections have seen these groups generally vote along ethnic and tribal lines, but with exceptions. In the cities, such as [[Nairobi]], old ethnic divisions are less stark than in the more traditional countryside.<ref>See E. S. Atieno Odhiambo, "Ethnic Cleansing and Civil Society in Kenya 1969-1992." ''Journal of Contemporary African Studies'' 2004 22(1): 29-42.</ref>
===Religion===
Approximately 80% of the population of 35.5 million is Christian (Protestant 45%, Roman Catholic 33%), 10% is Muslim, less than 1% is Hindu, Sikh, and Baha'i, while the remainder follows various traditional indigenous religions.

The North Eastern Province, where the population is predominantly ethnic Somali, is home to 15% of the Muslim population. Sixty percent of the Muslim population lives in Coast Province, comprising 50 percent of the total population there. Western areas of Coast Province are mostly Christian. The upper part of Eastern Province is home to 10% of the country's Muslims, where they are the majority religious group. Apart from a small ethnic Somali population in Nairobi, the rest of the country is largely Christian.

Upper Eastern, North Eastern, and Coast Provinces, which together are home to approximately 75% of the Muslim population, have less developed infrastructure, lower levels of education, and higher levels of poverty and unemployment than many other parts of the country. The new coalition Government created a Ministry of the Development of Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands to specifically redress this situation. The Minister is a Muslim from the North Eastern Province.

===Rural ties===
Most city residents retain links with their rural, extended families and leave the city periodically to help work on the family farm. About 75% of the work force is engaged in agriculture, mainly as subsistence farmers. The national motto of Kenya is Harambee, meaning "pull together." In that spirit, volunteers in hundreds of communities build schools, clinics, and other facilities each year and collect funds to send students abroad. The six state [[universities]] enroll about 45,000 students, representing some 25% of the Kenyan students who qualify for admission. There are six private universities.

*Population (June 2007 est.): 36.9 million.
*Major ethnic groups: Kikuyu 22%, Luyia 14%, Luo 14%, Kalenjin 11%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Meru 5%.
*Religions: Christian 80%, Muslim 10%, traditional African religions 9%, Hindu/Sikh/Baha'i/Jewish 1%.
*Languages: [[English]] (official), [[Swahili]] (national), over 40 other languages from the Bantu, Nilotic, and Cushitic linguistic groups.
*Education: First 8 years of primary [[school]] are provided free by the government. Attendance—92% for primary grades. Adult literacy rate—85.1%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—57.4/1,000. [[Life]] expectancy—55.3 yrs (2007 est.).
*Work force (1.95 million wage earners): public sector 30%; private sector 70%. Informal sector workers—6.4 million. Services—45%; industry and commerce—35%; agriculture—20%.

==2008 political crisis==

Kenya is a Presidential Representative Republic, where the President acts both as head of State and head of Government. Executive power is wielded by the government. Legislative power is shared between the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary acts independently of both legislative and executive organs of government. The position of prime minister, to be held by opposition leader Raila Odinga, was created in Feb. 2008 as part of a compromise brokered by former UN head Kofi Annan to end the election crisis. The exact powers of the new position are unclear.<ref>"Odinga pledges to rebuild Kenya" [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7270379.stm BBC News, Feb. 29, 2008]</ref> After six weeks of tense negotiations a cabinet was announced on April 14, with 94 members, including Odinga as prime minister.<ref>Jeffrey Gettleman, "Unity Cabinet Formed in Kenya, Ending Deadlock," [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/14/world/africa/14kenya.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin ''New York Times'' Ap. 14, 2008]</ref>

The constitution dates from the year of its independence (1963). The unicameral legislature consists of 222 members, with 210 directly elected. The remaining twelve are appointed by the President. The legal system is influenced by English, tribal and Islamic law. The country is subdivided into seven provinces and areas surrounding the capital, [[Nairobi]].

Kenya has had a relatively stable political history since independence (omitting recent political unrest and rioting). It escaped much of the internal tribal warfare and civil war which crippled neighboring nations such as Ethiopia, Uganda, and Somalia. It held elections in December 2002 which were deemed free and fair by international observers. Kenya has until recently been used as an example of a recovering African nation free of many of the domestic problems which beset many of her neighboring states. The 2002 election heralded a peaceful transfer of power from the [[Kenya African Union]] to the [[National Rainbow Coalition]].

Kenya exploded into violence following a disputed election in December 2007 in which the government proclaimed incumbent president Mwai Kibaki had defeated Raila Odinga, leader of the Orange Democratic Movement, by 4.58m votes to 4.35m.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/world/africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10415208 See ''The Economist'' Dec 30, 2007 at]</ref> Wide civil strife displaced over 600,000 people. This is an ethnic conflict with the Kikuyus taking the brunt of the attacks. They have controlled the government and most businesses since 1963 while comprising 22% of the population.<ref>Jeffrey Gettleman, "Kenya Kikuyus, Long Dominant, Are Now Routed," [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/07/world/africa/07kenya.html?ref=world ''New York Times'' Jan. 7, 2008]</ref> The philosophy of "majimboism," which initially meant minority rights, has transformed into local policies of expelling other groups. Thousands have died in ethnic cleansing, and the UN estimates over 600,000 people have been uprooted. About half have gone to camps in churches, police stations, stables, and prisons; conditions are poor. The growing ethnic segregation is pulling students and teachers out of schools and leaving thousands of jobs vacant across the economy.<ref>The official death estimate is 1,000, based on deaths in hospitals; journalists report the actual toll is far higher. Jeffrey Gettleman, "Signs in Kenya of a Land Redrawn by Ethnicity," [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/15/world/africa/15kenya.html?ref=africa ''New York Times'' Feb. 15, 2008]</ref>

==Government==
The [[unicameral]] National Assembly consists of 210 members elected to a term of 5 years from single-member constituencies, plus 12 members nominated by [[political parties]] on a proportional representation basis. The [[president]] appoints the [[vice president]] and cabinet members from among those elected to the assembly. The [[attorney general]] and the speaker are ex-officio members of the National Assembly.

The [[judiciary]] is headed by a High Court, consisting of a [[Chief Justice]] and High Court judges and judges of Kenya's [[Court of Appeal]], all appointed by the [[president]].

Local administration is divided among 69 rural districts, each headed by a commissioner appointed by the president. The government has proposed 37 more districts, but these are not yet ratified by [[Parliament]]. The districts are joined to form seven rural provinces. Nairobi has special provincial status. The Ministry of State in charge of Provincial Administration and Internal Security supervises the administration of districts and provinces.
===Foreign Relations===
Despite internal tensions in [[Sudan]] and [[Ethiopia]], Kenya has maintained good relations with its northern neighbors. Recent relations with [[Uganda]] and [[Tanzania]] have improved as the three countries work for mutual [[economic]] benefit.

Kenya has hosted and played an active role in the negotiations to resolve the civil war in Sudan and to reinstate a central government authority in [[Somalia]]. The Sudan [[peace]] negotiations have made major progress, resulting in the signing in Kenya of agreements between the Khartoum government and the southern Sudan rebels to put an end to the two-decade-long war. On January 9, 2005 a Sudan North-South Comprehensive Peace Accord was signed in Nairobi. Negotiations in the Somali National Reconciliation Conference resulted at the end of 2004 in the establishing of Somali Transitional Federal Institutions ([[Assembly]], President, Prime Minister, and Government). Until early 2005, Kenya served as a major host both for these institutions and for refugees from Somalia as well as Sudan. Between May and June 2005, members of the Somalia Transitional Federal Institutions relocated to Somalia.

Kenyan relations with Zimbabwe have deteriorated in recent years, a trend that is mainly due to harsh Kenyan condemnations of the government of Robert Mugabe. Kenyan officials cite Mugabe's anti-western stance as a primary source of Zimbabwe's economic collapse.

Kenya maintains a moderate profile in [[Third World]] [[politics]]. Kenya's relations with Western countries are generally friendly, although current political and economic instabilities are sometimes blamed on Western pressures.

==Economy==
Immediately following independence Kenya enjoyed a period of economic growth, mainly due to public investment and high levels of foreign investment. From the mid-1970s to 1993, her economic performance declined as a direct result of the downturn in the international agriculture market, poor credit, and higher oil prices. In the mid-1990s, Kenya began an economic liberalization effort in tandem with the [[International Monetary Fund]] and the [[World Bank]]. This allowed a sharp increase in economic fortunes despite setbacks in the early 21st century. However, the IMF suspended Kenya's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Program due to the government's failure to maintain reforms and curb corruption.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ke.html See]</ref> Over the following few years efforts at reform were top priority in order to get the IMF back on board. Recent efforts at the highest level have been to combat corruption in government which is believed to be widespread from the local level to the very highest level of government.

After independence, Kenya promoted rapid economic growth through public investment, encouragement of smallholder agricultural production, and incentives for private (often foreign) industrial investment. Gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an annual average of 6.6% from 1963 to 1973. Agricultural production grew by 4.7% annually during the same period, stimulated by redistributing estates, diffusing new crop strains, and opening new areas to cultivation. After experiencing moderately high growth rates during the 1960s and 1970s, Kenya's economic performance during the last two decades has been far below its potential. The economy grew by an annual average of only 1.5% between 1997 and 2002, which was below the population growth estimated at 2.5% per annum, leading to a decline in per capita incomes. The decline in economic performance in the last two decades was largely due to inappropriate agricultural policies, inadequate credit, and poor international terms of trade contributing to the decline in agriculture. Kenya's inward-looking policy of import substitution and rising oil prices made Kenya's manufacturing sector uncompetitive. The government began a massive intrusion in the private sector. Lack of export incentives, tight import controls, and foreign exchange controls made the domestic environment for investment even less attractive.

===1990s and economic crisis===
From 1991 to 1993, Kenya had its worst economic performance since independence. Growth in GDP stagnated, and agricultural production shrank at an annual rate of 3.9%. Inflation reached a record 100% in August 1993, and the government's budget deficit was over 10% of GDP. As a result of these combined problems, bilateral and multilateral donors suspended program aid to Kenya in 1991. In the 1990s, the government implemented economic reform measures to stabilize the economy and restore sustainable growth. In 1994, nearly all administrative controls on producer and retail prices, imports, foreign exchange, and grain marketing were removed. The Government of Kenya privatized a range of publicly owned companies, reduced the number of civil servants, and introduced conservative fiscal and monetary policies. By the mid-1990s, the government lifted price controls on petroleum products. In 1995, foreigners were allowed to invest in the Nairobi Stock Exchange (NSE). In July 1997, the Government of Kenya refused to meet commitments made earlier to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on governance reforms. As a result, the IMF suspended lending for 3 years, and the World Bank also put a $90-million structural adjustment credit on hold.
*Annual growth rate (2006): 6.1%.
*Gross national income per capita (2006): $455.
*Natural resources: Wildlife, land.
*Agriculture: Products—tea, coffee, sugarcane, horticultural products, corn, wheat, rice, sisal, pineapples, pyrethrum, dairy products, meat and meat products, hides, skins. Arable land—5%.
*Industry: Types—petroleum products, grain and sugar milling, cement, beer, soft drinks, textiles, vehicle assembly, paper, and light manufacturing.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$3.1 billion: tea, coffee, horticultural products, petroleum products, cement, pyrethrum, soda ash, sisal, hides and skins, fluorspar. Major markets—Uganda, Tanzania, United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Egypt, South Africa, United States. Imports--$7.2 billion: machinery, vehicles, crude petroleum, iron and steel, resins and plastic materials, refined petroleum products, pharmaceuticals, paper and paper products, fertilizers, wheat. Major suppliers—U.K., Japan, South Africa, Germany, United Arab Emirates, Italy, India, France, United States, Saudi Arabia.

===Reform===
The Government of Kenya took some positive steps on reform, including the establishment of the Kenyan Anti-Corruption Authority in 1999, and the adoption of measures to improve the transparency of government procurements and reduce the government payroll. In July 2000, the IMF signed a $150 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF), and the World Bank followed suit shortly after with a $157 million Economic and Public Sector Reform credit. The Anti-Corruption Authority was declared unconstitutional in December 2000, and other parts of the reform effort faltered in 2001. The IMF and World Bank again suspended their programs.

Net foreign direct investment (FDI) was negative from 2000-2003, but started trickling back in 2004, as demonstrated by an increase in the number of enterprises operating in Export Processing Zones (EPZs) from 66 to 74 between 2003 and 2004. The value of total investments increased from Ksh18.7 billion (U.S. $247.3 million) in 2005 to Ksh20.1 billion (over U.S. $278.3 million) in 2006. Following the end of the Multifiber Arrangement (MFA) textile agreement in January 2005, several textile and apparel factories closed, leaving 68 EPZ enterprises. In 2006, this number increased to 70 EPZ enterprises.
===Recovery after 2002===
The economy began to recover after 2002, registering 2.8% growth in 2003, 4.3% in 2004, 5.8% in 2005, and 6.1% in 2006. Under the leadership of President Kibaki, who took over on December 30, 2002, the Government of Kenya began an ambitious economic reform program and resumed its cooperation with the World Bank and the IMF. The National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) government enacted the Anti-Corruption and Economic Crimes Act and Public Officers Ethics Act in May 2003 aimed at fighting graft in public offices. There was some movement to reduce corruption in 2003, but the government did not sustain that momentum. Other reforms especially in the judiciary, public procurement etc., led to the unlocking of donor aid and a renewed hope of economic revival.

In November 2003, following the signing into law of key anti-corruption legislation and other reforms by the new government, donors reengaged as the IMF approved a three-year $250 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility and donors committed $4.2 billion in support over 4 years. In December 2004, the IMF approved Kenya's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) arrangement equivalent to U.S. $252.8 million to support the government's economic and governance reforms. However, the government's ability to stimulate economic demand through fiscal and monetary policy remains fairly limited while the pace at which the government is pursuing reforms in other key areas remains slow. Although the Privatization Law was enacted in 2005, modest steps have been made on privatizing of parastatals apart from Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen) and the concession of Kenya Railways, while civil service reform is limited despite the government's assertion that reforms would be undertaken. Accelerating growth to achieve Kenya's potential and reduce the poverty that afflicts more than 56% of its population will require continued de-regulation of business, improved delivery of government services, addressing structural reforms, massive investment in new infrastructure (especially roads), reduction of chronic insecurity caused by crime, and improved economic governance generally.

The current expansion is fairly broad-based and is built on a stable macro-environment fostered by government, and the resilience, resourcefulness, and improved confidence of the private sector. Nairobi continues to be the primary communication and financial hub of East Africa. It enjoys the region's best transportation linkages, communications infrastructure, and trained personnel, although these advantages are less prominent than in past years. On January 31, 2007, the government signed a $2.7 million contract with Tyco Telecommunications to perform an undersea survey for the construction of a fiber-optic cable to Fujairah in the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) called the East African Marine Systems (TEAMS). Two other fiber-optic cables projects are being pursued to link Kenya to the rest of East Africa and India. Once TEAMS and the domestic fiber-optic cables planned by the government are completed, the economy is expected to benefit significantly from reduced internet access prices and improved capacity. A wide range of foreign firms maintain regional branches or representative offices in the city. In March 1996, the Presidents of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda re-established the East African Community (EAC). The EAC's objectives include harmonizing tariffs and customs regimes, free movement of people, and improving regional infrastructures. In March 2004, the three East African countries signed a Customs Union Agreement paving the way for a common market. The Customs Union and a Common External Tariff were established on January 1, 2005, but the EAC countries are still working out exceptions to the tariff. Rwanda and Burundi have since joined the community. In May 2007, during a Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) Summit, 13 heads of state endorsed a move to adopt a COMESA customs union and set December 8, 2008 as the target date for its adoption.

===Agriculture===
[[File:Maasai - Adumu Kenya.jpg|left|200px]]
Many Kenyans engage in subsistence farming. Cash crops, such as coffee and tea are grown on the [[Kenyan Highlands]], as well as crops used for domestic consumption such as wheat and corn. On the lower lying areas coconuts, pineapples, cashew nuts, cotton, sugarcane, sisal, and corn are all grown, following a similar subsistence level of farming. Kenya has a relatively large white population (some 30,000) who engage in agriculture also. Some of these large farms have been subdivided among the African population.

Much of the country is savannah, where cattle is the primary animal of trade. Kenya also produces milk, cheese, eggs, pork and poultry.

===Tourism===
As in most developing countries, the service sector of the Kenyan economy is underdeveloped. Kenya does attract wealthy foreign tourists attracted by its beaches and wildlife. The stunning variety of wildlife in the country is protected in [[Tsavo National Park]] (8,034 sq mi/20,808 km2) in the southeast of the country.

Tourism is now Kenya's largest foreign exchange earning sector, followed by flowers, tea and coffee. In 2006 tourism generated $803 million, up from $699 million the previous year. Africa is Kenya's largest export market, followed by the European Union (EU). Kenya benefits significantly from the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Although Congress renewed the AGOA third-country fabric provision in December 2006 to provide more time to develop local cotton and fabric production that meets the buyers' rigorous standards, its apparel industry is struggling to hold its ground against Asian competition. Kenya's main exports to the U.S. are AGOA-program garments, but it continues to run a trade deficit with the U.S.

===Environment===
Kenya faces profound environmental challenges brought on by high population growth, deforestation, shifting climate patterns, and the overgrazing of cattle in marginal areas in the north and west of the country. Significant portions of the population will continue to require emergency food assistance in the coming years.

====Media====
The key independent print media in Kenya are the Nation Media Group, the Standard Group, People Limited, and the Times Media Group. The Nation Media Group publications, which include the Daily Nation, the Sunday Nation, the Business Daily, the weekly East African, and the only Swahili publications, Taifa Leo and Taifa Jumapili, have the largest circulations. The Standard and the Sunday Standard, published by the Standard Group, are also popular newspapers, although with smaller circulations. Approximately 120 foreign correspondents representing 100 media organizations report from Nairobi. There is no government-owned or controlled newspaper.

Major independent radio and television media are the Kenya Television Network (KTN), the broadcast media arm of the Standard Group; Nation Radio/TV, owned by the Nation Media Group; and Citizen Radio/Television, owned by Royal Media Services. The government owns and controls the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) and its subsidiaries. KBC is the only national radio and television network.

Kenya also has hundreds of FM radio stations, some broadcasting in Swahili or in local languages. Radio has a wide reach in Kenya, especially in rural areas. Some major international broadcasters, including the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Voice of America (VOA), and Radio France Internationale (RFI), rebroadcast their programming in Kenya.

==Education==
Kenyan education can be divided into three periods: Colonial era (1890s to 1961), 1961–73, 1973–88, and 1988–present. Western education was pioneered by Protestant and Catholic missionaries, but missionary influence has diminished as the public education system has been extended. During the colonial period, most schooling was segregated by race. Since independence, all its schools have become multiracial. By the 1980s 2/3 of children of school age attended, including 77% at the primary level and 13% at the secondary. In 1990 5.4 million children attended 14,700 primary schools, with 640,000 students in some 2,650 secondary schools. More than half the secondary schools are aided or maintained by the government. A majority of the adult population remains literate.

The leading center is the University of Nairobi, with 200 programs in six colleges on seven campuses. Founded in 1956 as the Royal Technical College, it had links with the University of London, and took its present name in 1970, when it had 2700 students. By 1992 it had about 14,000 students, mostly Kenyans. By 2004 it enrolled 29,000 undergraduates and 7,000 graduate students. There are 4,000 staff members and 90,000 alumni.<ref>See [http://www.uonbi.ac.ke/] and [http://www.uonbi.ac.ke/management/downloads/Info_Booklet.pdf]</ref>

Many Kenyans continue their formal education at universities; scholarships enable some to study abroad; especially in the United States and Commonwealth nations. A notable example is Barack Obama, Sr. (1936-1982), born of Luo ethnicity in a village in Nyanza Province, who became a graduate student at the University of Hawaii. In 1960 he married an American graduate student, Ann Dunham. Their only child was [[Barack Obama|Barack Hussein Obama Jr.]], the president of the United States. Obama Sr. deserted his family in Hawaii, studied economics at Harvard, and returned to Kenya as a senior civil servant. Frustrated as a Luo by the Kikuyu dominance, he became an alcoholic and died in 1982. "His ideas about how Kenya should progress often put him at odds with the politics of tribe and patronage," his son said in a 2006 speech in Nairobi, "and because he spoke his mind, sometimes to a fault, he ended up being fired from his job and prevented from finding work in the country for many, many years." The son visited the village, where his grandmother still lives.<ref>Kevin Merida, "The Ghost of a Father," ''Washington Post'' December 14, 2007 online at [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2007/12/13/ST2007121301893.html]</ref>

The recent period since 1980 has been marked by a major reduction in funding for schools and a drop in attendance at the primary level.

==History==
The interior is a history of migrations, and the activities of most of the major tribes are not well known before the 19th century. On the coast, trading settlements were established by 150 AD. By 1000 AD Persian and Arab traders were well established. A [[Swahili]] culture developed in the towns, notably Pate, Malindi, and Mombasa. The Portuguese arrived in 1498, with a powerful navy. The goal was not settlement but the establishment of naval bases that would give Portugal control of the Indian Ocean. After decades of small-scale conflict the Portuguese were defeated in Kenya by Arabs from Oman. Under Seyyid Said, the Omani sultan who moved his capital to [[Zanzibar]] in the early 19th century, the Arabs created long-distance trade routes into the interior. The dry reaches of the north were lightly inhabited by seminomadic pastoralists. In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and competed for land as long-distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenya coast on the east and the kingdoms of Uganda on the west. Arab, Shirazi, and coastal African cultures produced an Islamic Swahili people trading in a variety of up-country commodities, including slaves.
===1850-1920===
By 1850 European explorers had begun mapping the interior. British interest in the area developed later in the century, stimulated by German competition, and in 1887 the Imperial British East Africa Company, a private concern, leased from Seyyid Said his mainland holdings, a 10-mile (16-km)-wide strip of land along the coast. In 1895 the British government took over and claimed the interior as far west as Lake Naivasha; it set up the '''East Africa Protectorate'''. The border was extended to Uganda in 1902, and in 1920 the enlarged protectorate, except for the original coastal strip, which remained a protectorate, became a crown colony. With the beginning of colonial rule in 1895, the Rift Valley and the surrounding Highlands became the enclave of white immigrants engaged in large-scale coffee farming dependent on mostly Kikuyu labor. This area's fertile land has always made it the site of migration and conflict. There were no significant mineral resources—none of the gold or diamonds that attracted so many to South Africa.

===Railways===
The British government decided, primarily for strategic reasons, to build a railway linking Mombasa with the British protectorate of [[Uganda]]. A major feat of engineering, the "Uganda railway" (that is the railway inside Kenya leading to Uganda) was completed in 1903 and was a decisive event in modernizing the area. As governor of Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard was instrumental in initiating railway extension policy that led to construction of the Nairobi-Thika and Konza-Magadi railways.<ref>John M. Mwaruvie, "Kenya's 'Forgotten' Engineer and Colonial Proconsul: Sir Percy Girouard and Departmental Railway Construction in Africa, 1896-1912." ''Canadian Journal of History'' 2006 41(1): 1-22. Issn: 0008-4107 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

Some 32,000 workers were imported from British India to do the manual labor. Many stayed, as did most of the Indian traders and small businessmen who saw opportunity in the opening up of the interior of Kenya. Rapid economic development was seen as necessary to make the railroad pay, and since the African population was accustomed to subsistence rather than export agriculture, the government decided to encourage European settlement in the fertile highlands, which had small African populations. The railway opened up the interior, not only to the European farmers, missionaries, and administrators, but also to systematic government programs to attack slavery, witchcraft,<ref>Richard D. Waller, "Witchcraft and Colonial Law in Kenya." ''Past & Present'' 2003 (180): 241-275. Issn: 0031-2746 Fulltext: [[OUP]] The Africans saw witchcraft as a powerful influence on their lives and frequently took violent action against suspected witches. To control this aggression, the British colonial administration passed laws, beginning in 1909, which made the practice of witchcraft illegal. These laws gave the local population a legal, nonviolent way to stem the activities of witches.</ref> disease, and famine. By the time the railroad was built, military resistance by the African population to the original British takeover had petered out. However new grievances were being generated by the process of European settlement. Governor Percy Girouard is associated with the debacle of the Second Maasai Agreement of 1911, which led to their forceful removal from the fertile Laikipia plateau to semi-arid Ngong. To make way for the Europeans (largely Britons and whites from South Africans), the Masai were restricted to the southern Loieta plains in 1913. The Kikuyu claimed some of the land reserved for Europeans and continued to feel that they had been deprived of their inheritance.

In the initial stage of colonial rule, the administration relied on traditional communicators, usually chiefs. When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought, partly because of settler pressure, newly educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils.
===First World War===
Kenya became a military base for the British in the [[First World War]] (1914-1918), as efforts to subdue the German colony to the south were frustrated. Before the war African political focus was diffuse, but after the war an immediate hardship caused by new taxes and reduced wages and new settlers threatening African land led to new movements. The experiences gained by Africans in the war coupled with the creation of the white-settler-dominated '''Kenya Crown Colony''', gave rise to considerable political activity in the 1920s which culminated in Archdeacon Owen's "Piny Owacho" (Voice of the People) movement and the "Young Kikuyu Association" (renamed the "East African Association") started in 1921 by Harry Thuku (1895-1970), which gave a sense of nationalism to many Kikuyu and advocated civil disobedience. From the 1920s, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) focused on unifying the Kikuyu into one geographic polity, but its project was undermined by controversies over ritual tribute, land allocation, the ban on female circumcision, and support for politician Harry Thuku.

Much activity between the wars was local, and this succeeded most among the Luo of Kenya, where progressive young leaders became senior chiefs. By the later 1930s government began to intrude on ordinary Africans through marketing controls, stricter educational supervision, and land changes. Traditional chiefs became irrelevant and younger men became communicators by training in the missionary churches and civil service. Pressure on ordinary Kenyans by governments in a hurry to modernize in the 1930s to 1950s enabled the mass political parties to acquire support for "centrally" focused movements, but even these often relied on local communicators.<ref>J. M. Lonsdale, "Some Origins of Nationalism in East Africa." ''Journal of African History'' 1968 9(1): 119-146. Issn: 0021-8537 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8537(1968)9%3A1%3C119%3ASOONIE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X in Jstor]</ref>

===Representation===
Kenya became a locus of resettlement of young, upper-class British officers after the war, giving a strong aristocratic tone to the white settlers. If they had ₤1000 in assets they could get a free 1000 acre farm; the goal of the government was to speed up modernization and economic growth. The set up coffee plantations, which required expensive machinery, a stable labour force, and four years to start growing crops. The veterans did escape democracy and taxation in England, but they failed in their efforts to gain control of the colony. The upper-class bias in migration policy meant that whites would always be a small minority. Many of them left after independence.<ref>C. J. Duder, "'Men of the Officer Class': The Participants in the 1919 Soldier Settlement Scheme in Kenya," ''African Affairs,'' Vol. 92, No. 366. (Jan., 1993), pp. 69-87.
[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-9909%28199301%2992%3A366%3C69%3A%27OTOCT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I in JSTOR]; Dane Kennedy, ''Islands of White: Settler Society and Culture in Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, 1890-1939,'' (1987).</ref>

Power remained concentrated in the governor's hands; weak legislative and executive councils made up of official appointees were created in 1906. The European settlers were allowed to elect representatives to the Legislative Council in 1920, when the colony was established. The white settlers, 30,000 strong, sought "responsible government," in which they would have a voice. They opposed similar demands by the far more numerous Indian community. The European settlers gained representation for themselves and minimized representation on the Legislative Council for Indians and Arabs. The government appointed a European to represent African interests on the Council. In "Devonshire declaration" of 1923 the Colonial Office declared that the interests of the Africans (comprising over 95% of the population) must be paramount—achieving that goal took four decades.

===Second World War===
In the Second World War (1939–45) Kenya became an important British military base for successful campaigns against Italy in the Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia. The war brought money and an opportunity for military service for 98,000 men, called "askaris". The war stimulated African nationalism. After the war, African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the King's African Rifles (KAR). Looking for middle-class employment and social privileges, they challenged existing relationships within the colonial state. For the most part, veterans did not participate in national politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society. The social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of Kenyan defense forces, created a new class of modernized Africans with distinctive characteristics and interests. These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.<ref>Hal Brands, "Wartime Recruiting Practices, Martial Identity and Post-world War II Demobilization in Colonial Kenya." ''Journal of African History'' 2005 46(1): 103-125. Issn: 0021-8537; Meshack Owino, "'For Your Tomorrow, We Gave Our Today': A History of Kenya African Soldiers in the Second World War." PhD dissertation Rice U. 2004. 671 pp. DAI 2004 65(2): 651-A. DA3122519 Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>
===Rural trends===
British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Muang'a District 1920-45. Relying on concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and "betterment" of farming in the colonial tribal reserves. While criticized as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved resilient, and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state's agrarian reforms.<ref>A. Fiona D. Mackenzie, "Contested Ground: Colonial Narratives and the Kenyan Environment, 1920-1945." ''Journal of Southern African Studies'' 2000 26(4): 697-718. Issn: 0305-7070 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0305-7070(200012)26%3A4%3C697%3ACGCNAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U in Jstor]</ref>

Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War. Among the Luo the larger agricultural production unit was the patriarch's extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a regular basis. This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self-sufficient with little contact with the broader market. Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops, already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities. The Limitation of Action Act in 1968 sought to modernize traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences, with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.<ref>Amos O. Odenyo, "Conquest, Clientage, and Land Law among the Luo of Kenya." ''Law & Society Review'' 1973 7(4): 767-778. Issn: 0023-9216 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0023-9216(197322)7%3A4%3C767%3ACCALLA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P in Jstor]</ref>

===Political mobilisation===
In 1944 Thuku founded and was first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union (KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU). This acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya's legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting élite African opinion. The KAU soon became dominated by the Kikuyu, the African group most affected by the European presence and the most politically active. In 1947 [[Jomo Kenyatta]], former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for Africans.

In response to the rising pressures the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative Council and increased its role. By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab, and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 African and 1 Arab member chosen by the governor. The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954.
===Mau-Mau Rising===
A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the "Mau Mau" rising, a terrorist movement directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers. It was the largest and most successful such movement in British Africa, but it was not emulated by the other colonies. The protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups. The Mau Mau movement was also a bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu. Harry Thuku said in 1952, "To-day we, the Kikuyu, stand ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government. Why? Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau." The British killed over 4000, and the Mau Mau many more, as the assassinations and killings on all sides reflecting the ferocity of the movement and the ruthlessness with which the British suppressed it.<ref>Demographers have refuted the often repeated allegation that 300,000 Kikuyu died in the uprising. The number was exaggerated by a factor of 10 according to John Blacker, "The Demography of Mau Mau: Fertility and Mortality in Kenya in the 1950s: a Demographer's Viewpoint." ''African Affairs'' 2007 106(423): 205-227. Issn: 0001-9909 Fulltext: [[OUP]]</ref> Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961. To support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop. Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee license, and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union.

===Constitutional debates===
After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African members to the Legislative Council under a weighted franchise based on education. The new colonial constitution of 1958 increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the principle of "one man, one vote." However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position, feared the effects of universal suffrage.

At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the English settlers of the New Kenya Group, led by Michael Blundell. However many whites rejected the New Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it move away from racial quotas and toward independence. Following the agreement a new African party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), with the slogan "Uhuru," or "Freedom," was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader James S. Gichuru and labor leader Tom Mboya. Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969. He was praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism. Mboya as General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labor and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and after independence skillfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement.<ref>David Goldsworthy, "Ethnicity and Leadership in Africa: the 'Untypical' Case of Tom Mboya." ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 1982 20(1): 107-126. Issn: 0022-278x Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-278X(198203)20%3A1%3C107%3AEALIAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 in Jstor]</ref> A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by R. Ngala and M. Muliro. In the elections of February 1961, KANU won 18 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11. (Twenty seats were reserved by quota for Europeans, Asians, and Arabs.) Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president of KANU in October.

In 1959, nationalist leader Tom Mboya began a program, funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the United States for higher education. There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials opposed the program anyway. In 1959 [[Barack Obama Sr.]] arrived in Hawaii in the first wave. The next year Senator [[John F. Kennedy]] helped fund the program, which trained some 70% of the top leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, environmentalist Wangari Maathai.<ref>Michael Dobbs, "Obama Overstates Kennedys' Role in Helping His Father," [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/29/AR2008032902031.html?hpid=topnews ''Washington Post'' Mar. 30, 2008]</ref>

===Independence===
In 1962 a KANU-KADU coalition government, including both Kenyatta and Ngala, was formed. The 1962 constitution established a bicameral legislature consisting of a 117-member House of Representatives and a 41-member Senate. The country was divided into 7 semi-autonomous regions, each with its own regional assembly. The quota principle of reserved seats for non-Africans was abandoned, and open elections were held in May 1963. KADU gained control of the assemblies in the Rift Valley, Coast, and Western regions. KANU won majorities in the Senate and House of Representatives, and in the assemblies in the Central, Eastern, and Nyanza regions.<ref>No assembly could be formed in the Northeast Region, because separatist Somalis had boycotted the elections, and its House and Senate seats also remained vacant.</ref> Kenya now achieved internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as its first prime minister. The British and KANU agreed, over KADU protests, to constitutional changes in October 1963 strengthening the central government. Kenya became independent on Dec. 12, 1963. In 1964 Kenya became a republic, and constitutional changes further centralized the government.

The British government bought out the white settlers and they mostly left Kenya. The Indian minority dominated retail business in the cities and most towns, but was deeply distrusted by the Africans. As a result, 120,000 of the 176,000 Indians kept their old British passports rather than become citizens of an independent Kenya; large numbers left Kenya, most of them headed to the UK.

===Kenyatta regime: 1963-1978===
Once in power Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics. The plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru. By 1978 most of the country's wealth and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Gikuyu-Embu-Meru Association (GEMA), together comprising 30% of the population. At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta's support, spread beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands "stolen by the whites" - even when these had previously belonged to other groups. The other groups, a 70% majority, were outraged, setting up long-term ethnic animosities.<ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/democracy_power/kenya_roots_crisis Gérard Prunier, "Kenya: roots of crisis," Jan 7, 2008, online at]</ref>

KADU disbanded in 1964 and KANU was the only party until 1966 when a faction broke away as the Kenya People's Union (KPU). KPU advocated a more "scientific" route to socialism—criticizing the slow progress in land redistribution and employment opportunities—as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the Soviet Union. In June 1969 Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta, was assassinated. Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo country KPU was banned. The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective and actual members. KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented, and civil servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU. Kenya thereby became a one-party state.<ref>Suzanne D. Mueller, "Government and Opposition in Kenya, 1966-9," ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 1984 22(3): 399-427. Issn: 0022-278x Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-278X(198409)22%3A3%3C399%3AGAOIK1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in Jstor]</ref>

Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one-party rule allowed Mzee ("Old Man") Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, claimed he achieved "political stability." Underlying social tensions were evident, however. Kenya's very rapid population growth rate and considerable rural to urban migration were in large part responsible for high unemployment and disorder in the cities. There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged economic position in the country of Asians and Europeans.

====Foreign policies====
Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance.<ref>David A. Percox, ''Britain, Kenya and the Cold War: Imperial Defence, Colonial Security and Decolonisation.'' (2004)</ref> Kenya worked unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda did not win approval. However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule. The EAC collapsed in 1977 and it was officially dissolved in 1984. Kenya's relations with Somalia deteriorated over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by Somalia. In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion effectively ended.
===Moi regime, 1978-2002===
Kenyatta died in 1978 and was succeeded by Daniel Arap Moi (b. 1924) who ruled as President 1978-2002. Moi, a member of the Kalenjin ethnic group, quickly consolidated his position and governed in an authoritarian and corrupt manner. By 1986, Moi had concentrated all the power - and most of its attendant economic benefits - into the hands of his Kalenjin tribe and of a handful of allies from minority groups.

In mid-1982 lower-level air force personnel backed by university students attempted a coup to oust Moi. It failed and was followed by looting of Asian-owned stores by Nairobi's poor blacks and by attacks on Asian population. Robert Ouko, the senior Luo in Moi's cabinet, was appointed to expose corruption at high levels but was murdered a few months later. Moi's closest associate was implicated in Ouko's murder; Moi dismissed him but not before his remaining Luo support had evaporated. Germany recalled its ambassador to protest the "increasing brutality" of the regime, and foreign donors pressed Moi to allow other parties, which was done in December 1991 through a constitutional amendment.

The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) emerged as the leading opposition to KANU, and dozens of leading KANU figures switched parties. But FORD, led by Oginga Odinga (1911–1994), a Luo, and Kenneth Matiba, a Kikuyu, split into two ethnically based factions. In the first open presidential elections in a quarter century, in December 1992, Moi won with 37 percent of the vote, Matiba received 26 percent, Mwai Kibaki (of the mostly Kikuyu Democratic Party) 19 percent, and Odinga 18 percent. In the Assembly, KANU won 97 of the 188 seats at stake. Moi's government in 1993 agreed to economic reforms long urged by the [[World Bank]] and the [[IMF|International Monetary Fund]], which restored enough aid for Kenya to service its $7.5 billion foreign debt.

Obstructing the press both before and after the 1992 elections, Moi continually maintained that multiparty politics would only promote tribal conflict. His own regime depended upon exploitation of inter-group hatreds. Under Moi, the apparatus of clientage and control was underpinned by the system of powerful provincial commissioners, each with a bureaucratic hierarchy based on chiefs (and their police) that was more powerful than the elected members of parliament. Elected local councils lost most of their power, and the provincial bosses were answerable only to the central government, which in turn was dominated by the president. The emergence of mass opposition in 1990-91 and demands for constitutional reform were met by rallies against pluralism. The regime leaned on the support of the Kalenjin and incited the Maasai against the Kiyuku. Government politicians denounced the Kiyuku as traitors, obstructed their registration as voters, and threatened them with dispossession. In 1993 and after, mass evictions of Kiyuku took place, often with the direct involvement of army, police, and game rangers. Armed clashes and many casualties, including deaths, resulted.<ref>Jacqueline M. Klopp, "'Ethnic Clashes' and Winning Elections: the Case of Kenya's Electoral Despotism." ''Canadian Journal of African Studies'' 2001 35(3): 473-517. Issn: 0008-3968 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0008-3968(2001)35%3A3%3C473%3A%22CAWET%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 in Jstor]</ref>

Moi ruled using a strategic mixture of ethnic favoritism, state repression, and marginalization of opposition forces. He utilized detention and torture, looted public finances, and appropriated land and other property. Moi sponsored irregular army units that attacked the Luo, Luhya, and Kikuyu communities, and he disclaimed responsibility by assigning the violence to ethnic clashes arising from a land dispute.<ref>Philip G. Roessler, "Donor-induced Democratization and the Privatization of State Violence in Kenya and Rwanda." ''Comparative Politics'' 2005 37(2): 207-227. Issn: 0010-4159</ref> Beginning in 1998, Moi engaged in a carefully calculated strategy to manage the presidential succession in his and his party's favor. Faced with the challenge of a new, multiethnic political coalition, Moi shifted the axis of the 2002 electoral contest from ethnicity to the politics of generational conflict. The strategy backfired, ripping his party wide open and resulting in its humiliating defeat of his candidate, Kenyatta's son, in the December 2002 general elections.<ref>Jeffrey Steeves, "Presidential Succession in Kenya: the Transition from Moi to Kibaki." ''Commonwealth & Comparative Politics'' 2006 44(2): 211-233. Issn: 1466-2043 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Peter Mwangi Kagwanja, "'Power to Uhuru': Youth Identity and Generational Politics in Kenya's 2002 Elections." ''African Affairs'' 2006 105(418): 51-75. Issn: 0001-9909 Fulltext: [[OUP]]</ref>
===21st century===
On 27 December 2002 by 62% the voters overwhelmingly elected members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament and NaRC candidate [[Mwai Kibaki]] (1931- ) to the presidency. Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union's (KANU) presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate of outgoing president Moi. International and local observers reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less violent than those of both 1992 and 1997. His strong showing allowed Kibaki to choose a strong cabinet, to seek international support, and to balance power within the NaRC.

Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment. The annual rate of growth improved from -1.6% in 2002 to 2.6% by 2004, 3.4% in 2005, and 5.5% in 2007. However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already well-off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the Moi years. Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May–November 2007 alone.<ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/democracy_power/kenya_roots_crisis Gérard Prunier, "Kenya: roots of crisis," Jan 7, 2008, online at]</ref>

Once regarded as the world's "most optimistic," Kibaki's regime quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked with the discredited Moi forces. The continuity between Kibaki and Moi set the stage for the self-destruction of Kibaki's National Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus. The western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy, backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945- ) and his Orange Democratic Movement (ODM).<ref>Godwin R. Murunga, and Shadrack W. Nasong'o, "Bent on Self-destruction: the Kibaki Regime in Kenya." ''Journal of Contemporary African Studies'' 2006 24(1): 1-28. Issn: 0258-9001 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime. The ODM charged the Kikuyu have grabbed everything and all the other tribes have lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen. In the December 2007 elections the ODM won a landslide for Parliament, but the counting for president was rigged by the government which proclaimed Kibaki had been reelected.

"Majimboism" was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Kiswahili, and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership. Today "majimboism" is code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fueling the kind of ethnic cleansing that has swept the country since the election. Majimboism has always had a strong following in the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land was stolen by outsiders. The December 2007 was in part a referendum on majimboism. It pitted today's majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood for the status quo of a highly centralized government that has delivered considerable economic growth but has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands — corruption, aloofness, favoritism and its flip side, marginalization. In the town of Londiani in the Rift Valley, Kikuyu traders settled decades ago. In February, 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school. Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organizing into gangs armed with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu-dominated areas like Nakuru. "We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism," wrote one of Kenya's leading columnists, Macharia Gaitho.<ref>Jeffrey Gettleman, "Signs in Kenya of a Land Redrawn by Ethnicity," [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/15/world/africa/15kenya.html?ref=africa ''New York Times'' Feb. 15, 2008]</ref>

2013 [[Uhuru Kenyatta]] was elected as president.

===Social Change===
====Fertility decline====
Between 1980 and 2000 total fertility in Kenya fell by about 40%, from some eight births per woman to around five. During the same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10%. The difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya, though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological sterility. The Demographic and Health Surveys carried out every five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet need for contraception. These differences may be attributed, in part at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence and to the Kenya government's active promotion of family planning, which the Uganda government did not promote until 1995.<ref>: John Blacker, et al. "Fertility in Kenya and Uganda: a Comparative Study of Trends and Determinants." ''Population Studies'' 2005 59(3): 355-373. Issn: 0032-4728</ref>

====Luo====
The Luo population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of its modern elite compared to those of other groups. However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the Jomo Kenyatta era (1963-1978). While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo numbers.<ref>Lesa Morrison, "The Nature of Decline: Distinguishing Myth from Reality in the Case of the Luo of Kenya." ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 2007 45(1): 117-142. Issn: 0022-278x</ref>

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* Odhiambo, E. S. Atieno and Lonsdale, John, eds. ''Mau Mau and Nationhood: Arms, Authority and Narration.'' Ohio U. Press 2003. 306 pp.
* Odhiambo, E. S. Atieno. "Ethnic Cleansing and Civil Society in Kenya 1969-1992." ''Journal of Contemporary African Studies'' 2004 22(1): 29-42. Issn: 0258-9001 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Ogot, B. A. and Ochieng, W. R., eds. ''Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940-93.'' Ohio U. Press, 1996. 270 pp. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/decolonization-and-independence-in-kenya-1940-93-by-w-r-ochieng-b-a-ogot.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]]
* Ogot, B. A. ''Historical dictionary of Kenya'' (1981)
* Percox, David A. ''Britain, Kenya and the Cold War: Imperial Defence, Colonial Security and Decolonisation.'' Tauris, 2004. 252 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Britain-Kenya-Cold-Decolonisation-International/dp/1850434603/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199578692&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]
* Pinkney, Robert. ''The International Politics of East Africa.'' Manchester U. Pr., 2001. 242 pp. compares Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
* Press, Robert M. ''Peaceful Resistance: Advancing Human Rights and Democratic Freedoms.'' Ashgate, 2006. 227 pp.
* Sabar, Galia. ''Church, State, and Society in Kenya: From Mediation to Opposition, 1963-1993.'' F. Cass, 2002. 334 pp.
* Sandgren, David P. ''Christianity and the Kikuyu: Religious Divisions and Social Conflict.'' Peter Lang, 1989. 209 pp.
* Smith, David Lovatt. ''Kenya, the Kikuyu and Mau Mau.'' Mawenzi, 2005. 359 pp.
* Steinhart, Edward O. ''Black Poachers, White Hunters: A Social History of Hunting in Colonial Kenya.'' Oxford: James Currey, 2006. 248 pp.
* Tignor, Robert L. ''Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963.'' Princeton U. Press, 1998. 419 pp.

===Primary sources===
* Kareri, Charles Muhuro. ''The Life of Charles Muhoro Kareri.'' U. of Wisconsin-Madison, African Studies Program, 2003. 104 pp.
* Lewis, Joanna, ed. ''From Mau Mau to Harambee: Memoirs and Memoranda of Colonial Kenya, Tom Askwith.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1995. 221 pp.
* Maathai, Wangari Muta. ''Unbowed: A Memoir.'' Knopf, 2006. 314 pp.

==External links==
* [http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/ghana/index.html ''New York Times'' Guide to useful sites]
*[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080105/ap_on_re_af/kenya_elections Kenya ready to form unity government] - Associated Press, Jan. 5, 2008

* Parts of this article comes from the U.S. State Department and is in the public domain at [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2962.htm]
====References====
<references/>

{{African Countries}}

[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Kenya]]
[[Category:African History]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Tanzania

2024-06-02T17:46:37Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania''
|map =Tanzania rel 2003.jpg
|map2 =Location of Tanzania.png
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =Arms of Tanzania.PNG
|capital =Dodoma
|capital-raw =
|government =Republic
|government-raw =
|language =Swahili
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Mizengo Pinda
|pm-raw =
|area =364,898 sq mi
|pop =62,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$62,500,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$1,000 (2020)
|currency =Tanzanian shilling
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Tanzania''' is a nation in east [[Africa]]. Its area is 362,162 square miles (883,749 km2) and it has a population (2000) of 32.1 million. The capital city is [[Dodoma]], but the main city and commercial centre is [[Dar es Salaam]]. Tanzania comprises the territory of [[Tanganyika]], a former German colony which was mandated to the United Kingdom after the [[First World War]], and the former British colony of [[Zanzibar]]. Tanganyika gained independence in 1961 and Zanzibar in 1963; the two states merged to form Tanzania on 16 April 1964.

==People==
Population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Density varies from 3 persons per square mile (1 per km2.) in arid regions to 133 per square mile (51 per km2.) in the mainland's well-watered highlands to 347 per square mile (134 per km2.) on Zanzibar. More than 80% of the population is rural. Dar es Salaam is the capital and largest city; Dodoma, located in the center of Tanzania, has been designated the legislative capital and the Parliament meets there four times a year.

The African population consists of more than 120 ethnic groups, of which the Sukuma, Haya, Nyakyusa, Nyamwezi, and Chaga have more than 1 million members each. The majority of Tanzanians, including such large tribes as the Sukuma and the Nyamwezi, are of Bantu stock. Groups of Nilotic or related origin include the nomadic Masai and the Luo, both of which are found in greater numbers in neighboring Kenya. Two small groups speak languages of the Khoisan family peculiar to the Bushman and Hottentot peoples. Cushitic-speaking peoples, originally from the Ethiopian highlands, reside in a few areas of Tanzania.

Although much of Zanzibar's African population came from the mainland, one group known as Shirazis traces its origins to the island's early Persian settlers. Non-Africans residing on the mainland and Zanzibar account for 1% of the total population. The Asian community, including Hindus, Sikhs, Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, and Goans, has declined by 50% in the past decade to 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans reside in Tanzania.

Each ethnic group has its own language, but the national language is Kiswahili, a Bantu-based tongue with strong Arabic borrowings.
*Population: Mainland—39.3 million. Zanzibar—1 million (est.).
*Religions: Muslim 40%, Christian 40%, indigenous beliefs 20%.
*Language: Kiswahili (official), English.
*Education: Attendance—73.2% Mainland (primary); 71.4% Zanzibar.
*Literacy: Females 67% Mainland; 76.8% Zanzibar.
*Literacy: Males 79.9% Mainland; 86% Zanzibar.
*Health: Infant mortality rate—68/1,000. Life expectancy—50 years.
*Work force: Agriculture—80%; industry, commerce, government—20%.

==Government==
Tanzania's president and National Assembly members are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for 5-year terms. The president appoints a prime minister who serves as the government's leader in the National Assembly. The president selects his cabinet from among National Assembly members. The Constitution also empowers him to nominate 10 non-elected members of Parliament, who also are eligible to become cabinet members. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were held in December 2005.

The unicameral National Assembly has up to 325 members: the Attorney General, the Speaker, five members elected from the Zanzibar House of Representatives to participate in the Parliament, 75 special women's seats apportioned among the political parties based on their election results, 233 constituent seats from the mainland, and up to 10 members nominated by the president. In 2006, the president nominated seven members and the Speaker was elected to a constituent seat, bringing the total number of Members of Parliament to 320. The ruling party, CCM, holds about 82% of the seats in the Assembly. Laws passed by the National Assembly are valid for Zanzibar only in specifically designated union matters.

Zanzibar's House of Representatives has jurisdiction over all non-union matters. There are currently 81 members in the House of Representatives in Zanzibar: 50 elected by the people, 10 appointed by the president of Zanzibar, 5 ex officio members, an attorney general appointed by the president, and 15 special seats allocated to women. Ostensibly, Zanzibar's House of Representatives can make laws for Zanzibar without the approval of the union government as long as it does not involve union-designated matters. The terms of office for Zanzibar's president and House of Representatives also are 5 years. The semiautonomous relationship between Zanzibar and the union is a relatively unique system of government.

Tanzania has a five-level judiciary combining the jurisdictions of tribal, Islamic, and British common law. Appeal is from the primary courts through the district courts, resident magistrate courts, to the high courts, and the high courts to the Court of Appeals. District and resident court magistrates are appointed by the Chief Justice, except for judges of the High Court and Court of Appeals, who are appointed by the president. The Zanzibari court system parallels the legal system of the union, and all cases tried in Zanzibari courts, except for those involving constitutional issues and Islamic law, can be appealed to the Court of Appeals of the union. A commercial court was established on the mainland in September 1999 as a division of the High Court.

For administrative purposes, Tanzania is divided into 26 regions—21 on the mainland, 3 on Zanzibar, and 2 on Pemba. Ninety-nine district councils have been created to further increase local authority. These districts are also now referred to as local government authorities. Currently there are 114 councils operating in 99 districts, 22 are urban and 92 are rural. The 22 urban units are classified further as city (Dar es Salaam and Mwanza), municipal (Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro, Shinyanga, Tabora, and Tanga), and town councils (the remaining 11 communities).

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Jakaya Kikwete
*Vice President—Dr. Ali Mohamed Shein
*Prime Minister—Mizengo Pinda
*President of Zanzibar—Amani Abeid Karume
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Bernard Membe

===Political Conditions===
From independence in 1961 until the mid-1980s, Tanzania was a one-party state, with a socialist model of economic development. Beginning in the mid-1980s, under the administration of President Ali Hassan Mwinyi, Tanzania undertook a number of political and economic reforms. In January and February 1992, the government decided to adopt multiparty democracy. Legal and constitutional changes led to the registration of 11 political parties. Two parliamentary by-elections (won by CCM) in early 1994 were the first-ever multiparty elections in Tanzanian history.

In October 2000, Tanzania held its second multi-party general elections. The ruling CCM party's candidate, Benjamin W. Mkapa, defeated his three main rivals, winning the presidential election with 71% of the vote. In the parliamentary elections, CCM won 202 of the 232 elected seats. In the Zanzibar presidential election, Abeid Amani Karume, the son of former President Abeid Karume, defeated CUF candidate Seif Sharif Hamad. The election was marred by irregularities, especially on Zanzibar, and subsequent political violence claimed at least 23 lives in January 2001, mostly on Pemba island. Also, 16 CUF members were expelled from the Union Parliament after boycotting the legislature to protest the Zanzibar election results.

In October 2001, the CCM and the CUF parties signed a reconciliation agreement which called for electoral reforms on Zanzibar and set up a Commission of Inquiry to investigate the deaths that occurred in January 2001 on Pemba. The agreement also led to the presidential appointment of an additional CUF official to become a member of the Union Parliament. Changes to the Zanzibar Constitution in April 2002 allowed both the CCM and CUF parties to nominate members to the Zanzibar Electoral Commission. In May 2003, the Zanzibar Electoral Commission conducted by-elections to fill vacant seats in the parliament, including those seats vacated by the CUF boycott. Observers considered these by-elections, the first major test of the reconciliation agreement, to be free, fair, and peaceful.

In October 2005, presidential and parliamentary elections were scheduled to take place. However, the death of an opposition vice presidential candidate forced a postponement until December. Zanzibari presidential elections went forward as scheduled. Although there were many administrative improvements over the 2000 elections in Zanzibar, the poll was marred by violence and intimidation. Abeid Amani Karume edged out Seif Sharif Hamad 53% to 46% in an election widely deemed to have had serious irregularities by international observers. In contrast, the December 2005 elections in mainland Tanzania proceeded with few if any problems, and the popular Kikwete won by over 80% of the vote. The ruling CCM party also picked up additional parliamentary seats, leaving the opposition parties fractured and marginalized.

President Kikwete, Vice President Ali Mohamed Shein, Prime Minister Edward Lowassa, and National Assembly members will serve until the next general elections in 2010. Similarly, Zanzibar President Karume and members of the Zanzibar House of Representatives also will complete their terms of office in 2010.

In 2001, the East African Community (EAC)--formerly a customs union in 1967 consisting of Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda—was revived, and a new treaty was signed that paves the way for an economic and political union of the three countries. In July 2007, Rwanda and Burundi joined the EAC as full members.

===Foreign Relations===
Tanzania's first president, Julius Nyerere also was one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement, and, during the Cold War era, Tanzania played an important role in regional and international organizations, such as the Non-Aligned Movement, the front-line states, the G-77, and the Organization of African Unity (OAU). One of Africa's best-known elder statesmen, Nyerere was personally active in many of these organizations, and served chairman of the OAU (1984–85) and chairman of six front-line states concerned with eliminating apartheid in Southern Africa. Nyerere's death, in October 1999, is still commemorated annually.

Tanzania enjoys good relations with its neighbors in the region and in recent years has been an active participant in efforts to promote the peaceful resolution of disputes. Tanzania helped to broker peace talks to end the conflict in Burundi; a comprehensive cease-fire was signed in Dar es Salaam on September 7, 2006. Tanzania also supports the Lusaka agreement concerning the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In March 1996, Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya revived discussion of economic and regional cooperation. These talks culminated with the signing of an East African Cooperation Treaty in September 1999; a treaty establishing a Customs Union was signed in March 2004. The Customs Union went into effect January 1, 2005 and, in time, should lead to complete economic integration. On July 1, 2007 Rwanda and Burundi joined the EAC and the Customs Union as full members. Tanzania is the only country in East Africa which also is a member of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC). In January 2005, Tanzania became a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council serving a two-year term that ended on December 31, 2006.

==Economy==
[[File:Dhow Indian Ocean near Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|300px|A Dhow in the Indian Ocean. The background shows the Zanzibar Island, 2011.]]
Significant measures have been taken to liberalize the Tanzanian economy along market lines and encourage both foreign and domestic private investment. Beginning in 1986, the Government of Tanzania embarked on an adjustment program to dismantle state economic controls and encourage more active participation of the private sector in the economy. The program included a comprehensive package of policies which reduced the budget deficit and improved monetary control, substantially depreciated the overvalued exchange rate, liberalized the trade regime, removed most price controls, eased restrictions on the marketing of food crops, freed interest rates, and initiated a restructuring of the financial sector.
*GDP (2006): $12.1 billion.
*Average growth rate (2006): 6.2%.
*Per capita income (2006): $320.
*Natural resources: Hydroelectric potential, coal, iron, gemstones, gold, natural gas, nickel, diamonds, crude oil potential, forest products, wildlife, fisheries.
*Agriculture (2004): 46.4% of GDP. Products—coffee, cotton, tea, tobacco, cloves, sisal, cashew nuts, maize, livestock, sugar cane, paddy, wheat, pyrethrum.
*Industry/manufacturing (2004): 8.8% of GDP. Types—textiles, agro-processing, light manufacturing, construction, steel, aluminum, paints, cement, cooking oil, beer, mineral water and soft drinks.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$1.723 billion (merchandise exports, 2006): coffee, cotton, tea, sisal, cashew nuts, tobacco, cut flowers, seaweed, cloves, fish and fish products, minerals (diamonds, gold, and gemstones), manufactured goods, horticultural products; services (tourism services, communication, construction, insurance, financial, computer, information, government, royalties, personal and other businesses). Major markets—U.K., Germany, India, Japan, Italy, China, Bahrain, Malaysia, South Korea, Thailand, Pakistan, Indonesia. Primary imports—petroleum, consumer goods, machinery and transport equipment, used clothing, chemicals, pharmaceuticals. Major suppliers—U.K., Germany, Japan, India, Italy, U.S., United Arab Emirates, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Africa, Kenya.

In July 2003, Tanzania's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) arrangement with the International Monetary Fund was extended for an additional three years. In June 2003, the Tanzanian Government successfully completed a previous three-year PRGF, the successor program to the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF). From 1996-1999, Tanzania had an ESAF agreement. Tanzania also embarked on a major restructuring of state-owned enterprises. The program has so far divested 335 out of some 425 parastatal entities. Overall, real economic growth has averaged about 4% a year, much better than the previous 20 years, but not enough to improve the lives of average Tanzanians. Also, the economy remains overwhelmingly donor-dependent. Moreover, Tanzania has an external debt of $7.5 billion. The servicing of this debt absorbs about 40% of total government expenditures. Tanzania has qualified for debt relief under the enhanced Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Debts worth over $6 billion were canceled following implementation of the Paris Club VII Agreement. Agriculture dominates the economy, providing more than 44% of GDP and 80% of employment. Cash crops, including coffee, tea, cotton, cashews, sisal, cloves, and pyrethrum, account for the vast majority of export earnings. While the volume of major crops—both cash and goods marketed through official channels—have increased in recent years, large amounts of produce never reach the market. Poor pricing and unreliable cash flow to farmers continue to frustrate the agricultural sector.

Accounting for less than 10% of GDP, Tanzania's industrial sector is one of the smallest in Africa. It was hard hit during the 2002-2003 drought years and again in 2005-2006 by persistent power shortages caused by low rainfall in the hydroelectric dam catchment area, a condition compounded by years of neglect and bad management at the state-controlled electric company. Management of the electric company was

The main industrial activities (90%) are dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) specializing in food processing including dairy products, meat packing, preserving fruits and vegetables, production of textile and apparel, leather tanning and plastics. A few larger factories (10%) manufacture cement, rolled steel, corrugated iron, aluminum sheets, cigarettes, beer and bottling beverages, fruit juices and mineral water. Other factories produce raw materials, import substitutes, and processed agricultural products. Poor infrastructure in water and electricity supply systems continue to hinder factory production. In general, Tanzania’s manufacturing sector targets primarily the domestic market with limited exports of

Despite Tanzania's past record of political stability, an unattractive investment climate has discouraged foreign investment. Government steps to improve the business climate include redrawing tax codes, floating the exchange rate, licensing foreign banks, and creating an investment promotion center to cut red tape. In terms of mineral resources and the largely untapped tourism sector, Tanzania could become a viable and attractive market for U.S. goods and services.

Zanzibar's economy is based primarily on the production of cloves (90% grown on the island of Pemba), the principal foreign exchange earner. Exports have suffered with the downturn in the clove market. Tourism is a promising sector with a number of new hotels and resorts have been built in recent years.

The Government of Zanzibar legalized foreign exchange bureaus on the islands before the mainland Tanzania moved to do so. The effect was to increase the availability of consumer commodities. Furthermore, with external funding, the Government of Zanzibar plans to make the port of Zanzibar a free port. In 2007, the rehabilitation of Zanzibar’s port facilities commenced with assistance from European donors. The island's manufacturing sector is limited mainly to import substitution industries, such as cigarettes, shoes, and process agricultural products. In 1992, the government designated two export-producing zones and encouraged the development of offshore financial services. Zanzibar still imports much of its staple requirements, petroleum products, and manufactured articles.

==History==
[[Image:Kilimanjaro.jpg|thumb|Mount Kilimanjaro]]
====Tanganyika/Tanzania====
Little is known of the history of Tanganyika's interior during the early centuries of the Christian era. The area is believed to have been inhabited originally by ethnic groups using a click-tongue language similar to that of Southern Africa's Bushmen and Hottentots. Although remnants of these early tribes still exist, most were gradually displaced by Bantu farmers migrating from the west and south and by Nilotes and related northern peoples. Some of these groups had well-organized societies and controlled extensive areas by the time the Arab slavers, European explorers, and missionaries penetrated the interior in the first half of the 19th century.

The coastal area first felt the impact of foreign influence as early as the 8th century, when Arab traders arrived. By the 12th century, traders and immigrants came from as far away as Persia (now Iran) and India. They built a series of highly developed city and trading states along the coast, the principal one being Kibaha, a settlement of Persian origin that held ascendancy until the Portuguese destroyed it in the early 1500s.

The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama explored the East African coast in 1498 on his voyage to India. By 1506, the Portuguese claimed control over the entire coast. This control was nominal, however, because the Portuguese did not colonize the area or explore the interior. Assisted by Omani Arabs, the indigenous coastal dwellers succeeded in driving the Portuguese from the area north of the Ruvuma River by the early 18th century. Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Seyyid Said (l804-56) moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1841.

European exploration of the interior began in the mid-19th century. Two German missionaries reached Mt. Kilimanjaro in the 1840s. British explorers Richard Burton and John Speke crossed the interior to Lake Tanganyika in 1857. David Livingstone, the Scottish missionary-explorer who crusaded against the slave trade, established his last mission at Ujiji, where he was "found" by Henry Morton Stanley, an American journalist-explorer, who had been commissioned by the New York Herald to locate him.

German colonial interests were first advanced in 1884. Karl Peters, who formed the Society for German Colonization, concluded a series of treaties by which tribal chiefs in the interior accepted German "protection." Prince Otto von Bismarck's government backed Peters in the subsequent establishment of the German East Africa Company.

In 1886 and 1890, Anglo-German agreements were negotiated that delineated the British and German spheres of influence in the interior of East Africa and along the coastal strip previously claimed by the Omani sultan of Zanzibar. In 1891, the German Government took over direct administration of the territory from the German East Africa Company and appointed a governor with headquarters at Dar es Salaam.

Although the German colonial administration brought cash crops, railroads, and roads to Tanganyika, European rule provoked African's resistance, culminating in the Maji Maji rebellion of 1905-07. The rebellion, which temporarily united a number of southern tribes and ended only after an estimated 120,000 Africans had died from fighting or starvation, is considered by most Tanzanians to have been one of the first stirrings of nationalism.

German colonial domination of Tanganyika ended after World War I when control of most of the territory passed to the United Kingdom under a League of Nations mandate. After World War II, Tanganyika became a UN trust territory under British control. Subsequent years witnessed Tanganyika moving gradually toward self-government and independence.

In 1954, Julius K. Nyerere, a school teacher who was then one of only two Tanganyikans educated abroad at the university level, organized a political party—the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). TANU-supported candidates were victorious in the Legislative Council elections of September 1958 and February 1959. In December 1959, the United Kingdom agreed to the establishment of internal self-government following general elections to be held in August 1960. Nyerere was named chief minister of the subsequent government.

In May 1961, Tanganyika became autonomous, and Nyerere became Prime Minister under a new constitution. Full independence was achieved on December 9, 1961. Julius. Nyerere was elected President when Tanganyika became a republic within the Commonwealth a year after independence.

====Zanzibar====
An early Arab/Persian trading center, Zanzibar fell under Portuguese domination in the 16th and early 17th centuries but was retaken by Omani Arabs in the early 18th century. The height of Arab rule came during the reign of Sultan Seyyid Said, who encouraged the development of clove plantations, using the island's slave labor.

The Arabs established their own garrisons at Zanzibar, Pemba, and Kilwa and carried on a lucrative trade in slaves and ivory. By 1840, Said had transferred his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar and established a ruling Arab elite. The island's commerce fell increasingly into the hands of traders from the Indian subcontinent, who Said encouraged to settle on the island.

Zanzibar's spices attracted ships from as far away as the United States. A U.S. consulate was established on the island in 1837. The United Kingdom's early interest in Zanzibar was motivated by both commerce and the determination to end the slave trade. In 1822, the British signed the first of a series of treaties with Sultan Said to curb this trade, but not until 1876 was the sale of slaves finally prohibited.

The Anglo-German agreement of 1890 made Zanzibar and Pemba a British protectorate. British rule through a Sultan remained largely unchanged from the late 19th century until after World War II.

Zanzibar's political development began in earnest after 1956, when provision was first made for the election of six nongovernmental members to the Legislative Council. Two parties were formed: the Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP), representing the dominant Arab and "Arabized" minority, and the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP), led by Abeid Karume and representing the Shirazis and the African majority.

The first elections were held in July 1957. The ASP won three of the six elected seats, with the remainder going to independents. Following the election, the ASP split; some of its Shirazi supporters left to form the Zanzibar and Pemba People's Party (ZPPP). The January 1961 election resulted in a deadlock between the ASP and a ZNP-ZPPP coalition.

====United Republic of Tanzania====
Zanzibar received its independence from the United Kingdom on December 19, 1963, as a constitutional monarchy under the sultan. On January 12, 1964, the African majority revolted against the sultan and a new government was formed with the ASP leader, Abeid Karume, as President of Zanzibar and Chairman of the Revolutionary Council. Under the terms of its political union with Tanganyika in April 1964, the Zanzibar Government retained considerable local autonomy.

On April 26, 1964, Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania on October 29, 1964.

To form a sole ruling party in both parts of the union Nyerere merged TANU with the Zanzibar ruling party, the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) of Zanzibar to form the CCM (Chama cha Mapinduzi-CCM Revolutionary Party), on February 5, 1977. The CCM was to be the sole instrument for mobilizing and controlling the population in all significant political or economic activities. He envisioned the party as a "two-way street" for the flow of ideas and policy directives between the village level and the government. On April 26, 1977, the union of the two parties was ratified in a new constitution. The merger was reinforced by principles enunciated in the 1982 union constitution and reaffirmed in the constitution of 1984.

President Nyerere stepped down from office and was succeeded as President by Ali Hassan Mwinyi in 1985. Nyerere retained his position as Chairman of the ruling CCM party for 5 more years and was influential in Tanzanian politics until his death in October 1999. The current President, Jakaya Kikwete, was elected in December 2005. Zanzibar President Amani Abeid Karume, the son of Zanzibar’s first president, was elected in 2000, in general elections that were marked by widespread irregularities throughout the Isles. His predecessor, Salmin Amour, was first elected in single-party elections in 1990, then re-elected in 1995 in Zanzibar’s first multi-party elections. These elections also were tainted by violence and serious irregularities in the voting process.

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!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2843.htm]}}}.
|}

{{African Countries}}
[[Category:Tanzania]]

Uganda

2024-06-02T17:46:17Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name=''Jamhuri ya Uganda Republic of Uganda''
|map=Uganda rel 2005.jpg
|map2=Location of Uganda.PNG
|flag=Union_jack.jpg
|arms=Arms of uganda.PNG
|capital=Kampala
|government=Democratic republic
|language=Swahili, English
|monarch=
|president=Yoweri Museveni
|chancellor=
|pm=Ruhakana Rugunda
|area=93,072 sq. mi.
|pop=47,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis=
|gdp=$37,500,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year=
|gdp-pc=$789 (2020)
|currency=Ugandan shilling
|idd=+243
|tld=.cd
}}
The '''Republic of Uganda,''' or '''Uganda,''' is a country in East Africa, bordered to the east by [[Kenya]], on the north by [[Sudan]], to the west by the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Rwanda]] on the southwest, and [[Tanzania]] to the south. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of [[Lake Victoria]], within which it shares borders with Kenya and Tanzania.

==People==
Africans of three main ethnic groups — [[Bantu]], [[Nile|Nilotic]], and [[Ham|Nilo-Hamitic]] — constitute most of the population. The Bantu are the most numerous and include the [[Baganda]], which, with 18% of the population, constitute the largest single ethnic group. Individual ethnic groups in the southwest include the Banyankole and Bahima, 10%; the Bakiga, 7%; the Banyarwanda, 6%; the Bunyoro, 3%; and the Batoro, 3%. Residents of the north, largely Nilotic, include the Langi, 6%, and the Acholi, 5%. In the northwest are the Lugbara, 4%, and the Karamojong, 2%, occupy the considerably drier, largely [[pastoral]] territory in the northeast. The Basoga, 8% and the Bagisu, 5% are among ethnic groups in the East. Europeans, Asians, and [[Arabs]] make up about 1% of the population with other groups accounting for the remainder.

Uganda's population is predominantly rural, and its population density highest in the southern regions. Until 1972, Asians constituted the largest nonindigenous ethnic group in Uganda. In that year, the [[E.D. Amin]] regime expelled 50,000 Asians, who had been engaged in trade, industry, and various professions. In the years since Amin's overthrow in 1979, Asians have slowly returned and now number around 30,000. Other nonindigenous people in Uganda include Arabs, Western [[missionary|missionaries]], [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO) workers, diplomats, and business people.
*Population (2009): 32.7 million
*Annual growth rate (2009 est.): 3.3%
*Ethnic groups: Baganda, Banyankole, Bahima, Bakiga, Banyarwanda, Bunyoro, Batoro, Langi, Acholi, Lugbara, Karamojong, Basoga, Bagisu, and others
*Religions (2009): Christian 85%, Muslim 12%, other 3%
*Languages: English (official), Swahili (official), Luganda, and numerous other local languages
*Education: Attendance (2008; primary school completion rate)--56%. Literacy (2003-2008)--74%
*Health (2009): Infant mortality rate—79.4/1,000. Life expectancy—52.7 yrs
===Religion===
According to official government figures, an estimated 85% of the country is Christian, 12% Muslim, and the remaining 3% follow traditional indigenous beliefs, Hinduism, Baha'i, and Judaism. Some Muslims and Christians believe that the Muslim community is larger than the government numbers reflect.

Of the Christian population, the Roman Catholic Church has the largest number of followers with 42%, the Anglican Church has an estimated 36%, and the Evangelical and Pentecostal claim the rest. Evangelical and Pentecostal churches are very active. The Muslim population is primarily Sunni. Traditional indigenous beliefs are practiced in some rural areas and are sometimes blended with or practiced alongside Christianity or Islam. Indian nationals are the most significant immigrant population; members of this community are primarily Shi'a Muslim followers of the Aga Khan or practice Hinduism. The northern and West Nile regions are predominantly Catholic, while Iganga District in eastern Uganda has the highest percentage of Muslims. The rest of the country has a mix of religious affiliations.

There were few reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice.

==Government==
The 1995 constitution established Uganda as a [[republic]] with an executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The constitution provides for an executive president, to be elected every 5 years. President [[Yoweri Museveni]], in power since 1986, was elected in 1996 and reelected in 2001 and 2006. Legislative responsibility is vested in the parliament; legislative elections were last held in February 2006. There currently are 332 members of parliament, of which 79 are women. The Ugandan judiciary operates as an independent branch of government and consists of magistrate's courts, high courts, courts of appeals, and the [[Supreme Court]]. [[Parliament]] and the [[judiciary]] have significant amounts of independence and wield significant power.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President and Commander in Chief—[[Yoweri Kaguta Museveni]]
*Vice President—[[Edward Ssekandi]]
*Prime Minister—Ruhakana Rugunda
*Foreign Minister—[[Sam Kutesa]]
*Minister of Defense—[[Crispus Kiyonga]]
*Ambassador to the United States—[[Perezi K. Kamunanwire]]

===Political Conditions===
Since assuming power, Museveni and his government have largely put an end to the [[human rights]] abuses of earlier governments and initiated substantial economic [[liberalization]] and general [[freedom of the press]], due to economic pressures from international governments such as the [[International Monetary Fund]] and the [[World Bank]].

The [[Lord's Resistance Army]] (LRA), which seeks to overthrow the Ugandan Government, has murdered and kidnapped civilians in the north and east since 1986. Although the LRA does not threaten the stability of the government, LRA violence at one time displaced up to 1.7 million people, creating a humanitarian catastrophe, particularly when they were forced into internally displaced persons (IDP) camps for their own protection. The [[Uganda People's Defense Force]] (UPDEF) launched "[[Operation Iron Fist]]" against LRA rebels in northern Uganda in 2002 and conducted operations against LRA sanctuaries in southern [[Sudan]] with the permission of the Sudanese Government. The Sudanese Government had previously supported the LRA.

There have been significant new developments in this conflict since January 2006. With the signing of the Sudanese "Comprehensive Peace Agreement," the Government of Southern Sudan (GOSS) was created. To protect this fragile peace from LRA incursions in southern Sudan, Riek Machar, a GOSS Vice President, launched efforts to broker a peace agreement between the Government of Uganda and the LRA in July 2006. Those talks are ongoing and represent the first time there has been meaningful progress in ending this conflict. As a result, many northern Ugandans are leaving the IDP camps and returning to their villages.

In 1998, Uganda deployed a sizable military force to the eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (D.R.C.), ostensibly to prevent attacks from Ugandan rebel groups operating there. There were widespread allegations that Ugandan military and civilian officials were involved in the illegal exploitation of Congolese natural resources. After much international pressure, Uganda withdrew its troops from the D.R.C. in June 2003. Relations with the D.R.C., however, continue to be [[frost]]y. When the LRA left southern Sudan and relocated to eastern Congo in September 2005, Museveni threatened to enter the D.R.C. and "go after" the LRA if neither Congo nor the UN peacekeepers in the region would take action. The recent peace talks have taken a lot of steam out of those threats, however, and Uganda seems focused on seeing the talks to conclusion.

===Foreign Relations===
The Ugandan Government generally seeks good relations with other nations without reference to [[ideological]] orientation.<ref>http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/af/uganda9103.html</ref> Relations with [[Rwanda]], [[Congo]] and [[Sudan]] have sometimes been strained because of [[security]] concerns. President Museveni has been highly active in attempts to implement a peace agreement [[Burundi]] and has supported peace initiatives in Sudan and [[Somalia]].

In the past, neighbors were concerned about Uganda's relationship with [[Libya]], which had supplied military equipment and bartered [[fuel]] to Uganda. In addition to its friendly ties to Western nations, Uganda has maintained friendly ties with [[North Korea]]. Uganda has strained relations with Sudan because of past Sudanese support for the LRA. The LRA seeks to overthrow the Uganda Government and has inflicted brutal violence on the population in northern Uganda, including rape, kidnapping, torture, and murder. In 2002 Uganda and Sudan reestablished diplomatic ties and signed a [[protocol]] permitting the UPDF to enter southern Sudan and engage the LRA. The protocol ought to be renewed periodically.

Another rebel group operating in western Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, near the [[Rwenzori Mountains]], the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), emerged as a threat in 1996 and wields considerable power over the local population. It has largely been defeated by the UPDF and the affected areas of western Uganda have been secured. Remnants of the ADF remain in eastern Congo.

==Defense==
The Uganda Peoples Defense Force (UPDF)--previously the National Resistance Army—constitutes the armed forces of Uganda. Prior to 2000, U.S. military forces participated with the UPDF in training activities under the African Crisis Response Initiative. U.S. military assistance was terminated in 2000 as a result of the Ugandan incursion into the D.R.C. Following the June 2003 UPDF withdrawal of troops from the D.R.C., the U.S. restarted limited nonlethal military assistance.

==Economy==
Uganda's economy has great potential. Endowed with significant natural resources, including huge tracts of [[land]], regular [[rain]]fall, and [[mineral]] deposits, it appeared poised for rapid economic growth and development at independence. However, chronic political instability and erratic economic management produced a record of persistent economic decline that left Uganda among the world's [[poor]]est and least-developed countries.

Since assuming power in early 1986, Museveni's government has taken important steps toward economic rehabilitation. The country's infrastructure — notably its transportation and communications systems, which had been destroyed by war and neglect — is being rebuilt. Recognizing the need for increased external support, Uganda negotiated a paper policy framework with the [[IMF]] and the [[World Bank]] in 1987. It subsequently began implementing economic policies designed to restore price stability and sustainable balance of payments, improve capacity utilization, rehabilitate infrastructure, restore producer incentives through proper price policies, and improve resource mobilization and allocation in the public sector. These policies produced positive results. Inflation, which ran at 240% in 1987 and 42% in June 1992, was 5.4% for fiscal year 1995–96 and 5.1% in 2003. In 2008 it was a mere 3.2%.

Investment as a percentage of GDP was estimated at 20.3% in 2003 compared to 13.7% in 1999. Private sector investment, largely financed by private transfers from abroad, was 14.9% of GDP in 2002. Gross national savings as a percentage of GDP was estimated at 6.4% in 2003. The Ugandan Government has also worked with donor countries to reschedule or cancel substantial portions of the country's external debts.

Agricultural products supply nearly all of Uganda's foreign exchange earnings, with [[coffee]] (of which Uganda is Africa's leading producer) accounting for about 19% and [[fish]] 17% of the country's exports in 2002. Exports of non-traditional products, including apparel, hides, skins, [[vanilla]], [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, cut [[flower]]s, and [[fish]] are growing, while traditional exports [[cotton]], [[tea]], and [[tobacco]] continue to be mainstays.

Most industry is related to [[agriculture]]. The industrial sector is being rehabilitated to resume production of building and construction materials, such as [[cement]], reinforcing [[rod]]s, corrugated [[roof]]ing sheets, and [[lead]] [[paint]]. Domestically produced consumer goods include [[plastics]], [[soap]], [[cork]], [[beer]], and [[soft drink]]s.

Uganda has about 30,000 kilometers (18,750 mi.), of [[road]]s; some 2,800 kilometers (1,750 mi.) are paved. Most radiate from [[Kampala]]. The country has about 1,350 kilometers (800 mi.) of rail lines. A [[railroad]] originating at [[Mombasa]] on the [[Indian Ocean]] connects with [[Tororo]], where it branches westward to [[Jinja]], Kampala, and [[Kasese]] and northward to [[Mbale]], [[Soroti]], [[Lira]], [[Gulu]], and [[Kapwatch]], though the routes west of Kampala and north of Mbale currently are not in use. Uganda's important road and rail links to Mombasa serve its transport needs and also those of its neighbors — [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], and parts of the [[Congo]] and [[Sudan]]. An international [[airport]] is at [[Entebbe]] on the shores of [[Lake Victoria]], some 20 miles south of Kampala.

*[[GDP]] (nominal, 2009): $16.04 [[billion]]
*[[Inflation]] rate (annual headline or CPI, 2005/2006): 6.6%
*Natural resources: [[Copper]], [[cobalt]], [[hydropower]], [[limestone]], [[salt]], [[phosphate]], [[oil]]
*Agriculture: Cash crops: coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, [[sugarcane]], cut flowers, vanilla. Food crops: [[banana]]s, [[corn]], [[cassava]], [[potatoe]]s, [[millet]], [[pulse]]s. Livestock and fisheries: [[beef]], [[goat]], [[meat]], [[milk]], Nile [[perch]], [[tilapia]]
*Industry: processing of agricultural products (cotton [[gin]]ning, coffee [[cure|curing]]), cement production, [[light]] consumer goods, [[textile]]s
*Trade: Exports (2009)--$3.1 billion: [[coffee]], [[fish]] and fish products, [[tea]], [[tobacco]], [[textiles]], [[cement]], [[maize]], [[electricity]]. Major markets--[[EU]], [[Sudan]], [[Kenya]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Switzerland]], [[Rwanda]]. Imports (2009)--$4.3 billion: [[petroleum]], road [[vehicles]], [[cereals]], [[industrial machinery]], [[iron]] and [[steel]], [[medical]]/[[pharmaceutical]] supplies. Major suppliers--[[EU]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Kenya]], [[India]], [[China]], [[Japan]].
*Fiscal year: July 1 – June 30 annually

==History==
When [[Arab]] traders moved inland from their enclaves along the [[Indian Ocean]] coast of [[East Africa]] and reached the interior of Uganda in the 1830s, they found several African kingdoms with well-developed political institutions dating back several centuries. These traders were followed in the 1860s by British explorers searching for the source of the Nile River. [[Protestant]] missionaries entered the country in 1877, followed by [[Catholic]] missionaries in 1879.

In 1888, control of the emerging British "sphere of interest" in East Africa was assigned by royal charter to the Imperial [[British East Africa Company]], an arrangement strengthened in 1890 by an Anglo-German agreement confirming British dominance over Kenya and Uganda. In 1894, the Kingdom of [[Buganda]] was placed under a formal British [[protectorate]].

Britain granted internal self-government to Uganda in 1961, with the first elections held on March 1, 1961. [[Benedicto Kiwanuka]] of the [[Democratic Party]] became the first Chief Minister. Uganda maintained its [[Commonwealth]] membership. A second round of elections in April 1962 elected members to a new National Assembly. [[Milton Obote]], leader of the majority coalition in the National Assembly, became prime minister and led Uganda to formal independence on October 9, 1962.

In succeeding years, supporters of a centralized state vied with those in favor of a loose federation and a strong role for tribally-based local kingdoms. Political maneuvering climaxed in February 1966, when Prime Minister Milton Obote suspended the constitution, assumed all government powers, and removed the ceremonial president and vice president. In September 1967, a new constitution proclaimed Uganda a republic, gave the president even greater powers, and abolished the traditional kingdoms. On January 25, 1971, Obote's government was ousted in a military coup led by armed forces commander [[Idi Amin Dada]]. Amin declared himself president, dissolved the parliament, and amended the constitution to give himself absolute power.

Amin's 8-year rule produced economic decline, social disintegration, and massive human rights violations. The [[Acholi]] and [[Langi]] ethnic groups were particular objects of Amin's political persecution because they had supported Obote and made up a large part of the army. In 1978, the International Commission of Jurists estimated that more than 100,000 Ugandans had been murdered during Amin's reign of terror; some authorities place the figure much higher.

In October 1978, the armed forces of [[Tanzania]] repulsed an incursion of Amin's troops into Tanzanian territory. The Tanzanian force, backed by Ugandan exiles, waged a [[Uganda-Tanzania War|war of liberation]] against Amin's troops and Libyan soldiers sent to help him. On April 11, 1979, [[Kampala]] was captured, and Amin fled with his remaining forces.

After Amin's self-imposed exile, the Uganda National Liberation Front formed an interim government with [[Yusuf Lulz]] as president. This government adopted a ministerial system of administration and created a quasi-parliamentary organ known as the National Consultative Commission (NCC). The NCC and the Lulz cabinet reflected widely differing political views. In June 1979, following a dispute over the extent of presidential powers, the NCC replaced Lulz with [[Godfrey Binaisa]]. In a continuing dispute over the powers of the interim presidency, Binaisa was removed in May 1980. Thereafter, Uganda was ruled by a military commission chaired by [[Paulo Muwanga]]. December 1980 elections returned the UPC to power under the leadership of President Obote, with Muwanga serving as vice president. Under Obote, the security forces had one of the world's worst [[human rights]] records. In their efforts to stamp out an [[insurgency]] led by [[Yoweri Museveni]]'s National Resistance Army (NRA), they laid waste to a substantial section of the country, especially in the [[Luwero]] area north of [[Kampala]].

Obote ruled until July 27, 1985, when an army brigade, composed mostly of ethnic Acholi troops and commanded by Lt. Gen. Basilio Olara-Okello, took Kampala and proclaimed a military government. Obote fled to exile in Zambia. The new regime, headed by former defense force commander Gen. Tito Okello (no relation to Lt. Gen. Olara-Okello), opened negotiations with Museveni's insurgent forces and pledged to improve respect for human rights, end [[tribal]] rivalry, and conduct "free and fair" elections. In the meantime, massive human rights violations continued as the Okello government murdered civilians and ravaged the countryside in order to destroy the NRA's support.

Negotiations between the Okello government and the NRA were conducted in [[Nairobi]] in the fall of 1985, with Kenyan President [[Daniel Moi]] seeking a cease-fire and a coalition government in Uganda. Although agreeing in late 1985 to a [[cease-fire]], the NRA continued fighting, seized Kampala in late January 1986, and assumed control of the country, forcing Okello to flee north into [[Sudan]]. Museveni's forces organized a government with Museveni as president and dominated by the political grouping called the National Resistance Movement (NRM or the "Movement").

A referendum was held in March 2000 on whether Uganda should retain the Movement system, with limited operation of political parties, or adopt multi-party politics. Although 70% of voters endorsed retention of the Movement system, the referendum was widely criticized for low voter turnout and unfair restrictions on Movement opponents. Museveni was re-electedA to a second five-year term in March 2001. Parliamentary elections were held in June 2001, and more than 50% of contested seats were won by newcomers. Movement supporters nevertheless remained in firm control of the legislative branch. Observers believed that the 2001 presidential and parliamentary elections generally reflected the will of the electorate; however, both were marred by serious irregularities, particularly in the period leading up to the elections, such as restrictions on political party activities, incidents of violence, voter intimidation, and fraud.

A Constitutional Review Commission (CRC) issued a report proposing comprehensive constitutional change in December 2003. The government, however, took issue with many CRC recommendations and made counter-proposals in September 2004. A July 2005 national referendum resulted in the adoption of a multiparty system of government and the subsequent inclusion of opposition parties in elections and government.

In February 2006, the country held its first multiparty general elections since President Museveni came to power in 1986. The election generally reflected the will of the people, although [[election fraud|serious irregularities]] occurred. Ruling NRM candidate President Museveni was declared the winner with 59.26% of the vote, giving him a third term in office following the passage of a controversial amendment in June 2005 to eliminate presidential term limits. Opposition FDC leader [[Kizza Besigye]] captured 37.39% of the vote, while the remaining contestants received less than 2% of the vote each, according to official figures from the Electoral Commission.

==Anti-Homosexuality Bill of 2009==
In 2009, Parliament member David Bahati submitted a bill before the Parliament of Uganda which would have introduced the death penalty for "aggravated homosexuality", including cases where at least one participant was a minor, or those who repeated offenders, [[HIV]] positive, or disabled.<ref name="bbc">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13392723 Ugandan anti-gay bill 'shelved by parliament']</ref> In addition, the bill required anyone who had knowledge about a homosexual person to turn them over to authorities or face prosecution themselves.<ref name="bbc"/> People in Uganda already face life in prison for sodomy.<ref name="bbc"/> The bill also criminalizes the [[homosexual agenda|promotion of homosexuality]], thereby making it illegal to protest the measures once they are passed.

Most HIV infection in Africa occurs through heterosexual contact, so arguments in favor of Uganda's action on that count carry little weight. Various high-profile politicians around the world including President [[Obama]], pressured the Ugandan parliament to drop the legislation. The Ugandan Parliament adjourned in May 2011 without debating the bill.<ref name="bbc"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

Source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2963.htm]

{{African Countries}}
[[Category:Landlocked Countries]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Uganda|*]]
[[Category:African History]]

Brazil

2024-06-02T17:45:05Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República Federativa do Brasil''
|map =Brazil rel94.jpg
|map2 =Brazil1.png
|flag =Flag of Portugal.png
|arms =Arms of Brazil.png
|capital =Brasilia
|capital-raw =
|government =
|government-raw =Presidential Federal republic
|language =Portuguese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president = Lula da Silva
|conservative-leader=Jair Bolsonaro
|vice-president = Geraldo Alckmin
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =3,287,597 sq mi
|pop =215,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$1,850,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$8,605 (2020)
|currency =real
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}}
Located in [[South America]],<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html CIA World Factbook]</ref> '''Brazil''' has the third largest area among North/South American countries and the second largest population, having a total of 213 million people as of 2020. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas. About three-quarters of all Brazilians belong to the [[Roman Catholic Church]]; most others are [[Protestant]], members of a growing [[evangelical]] movement, or follow practices derived from African religions. [[São Paulo]] is its largest city, and the famous [[Rio de Janeiro]] is a major port city and former capital of Brazil. Brasilia is the present capital and became so in 1960 after it was planned and developed in 1956.

Brazil successfully hosted the 2016 Summer [[Olympics]], the 2014 [[World Cup]], and the 2013 World Youth Day. Brazil is known for its spectacular beaches, such as its world-renowned Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro.

[[Pele]], for long the most famous athlete in the world (he played [[soccer]]), was Brazilian.

Until 2023, Brazil was led by the [[conservative]] president [[Jair Bolsonaro]]. His foreign minister was the anti-[[Marxist]] conservative [[Ernesto Araújo]]. In the [[Brazil presidential election, 2022|presidential election of 2022]], Bolsonaro was narrowly, reportedly defeated by Lula da Silva, the leftist and then former president and an ex-convict, the election is questioned because of several issues with the electronic voting system.

==Geography==
[[File:Rio de Janeiro Brasil.jpg|thumb|left|Rio de Janeiro.]]
Brazil's topography includes the world's largest rain forest, which occupies roughly two-thirds of country. Through this forest run the many tributaries of the Amazon, second-longest river (after the Nile) in the world.
*Area: 8,511,965 km2. (3,290,000 sq. mi.); slightly smaller than the U.S.
*Cities: Capital—Brasilia (pop. 2.5 million). Other cities—São Paulo (10.9 million), Rio de Janeiro (6.1 million), Belo Horizonte (2.4 million), Salvador (2.9 million), Fortaleza (2.4 million), Recife (1.5 million), Porto Alegre (1.4 million), Curitiba (1.8 million).
*Terrain: Dense forests in northern regions including Amazon Basin; semiarid along northeast coast; mountains, hills, and rolling plains in the southwest, including Mato Grosso; midwestern savannahs; the world's largest wetland area; and coastal lowland.
*Climate: Mostly tropical or semitropical with temperate zone in the south.

==People==
[[File:Brasileiros.JPG|180px|left]]
With its estimated 186 million inhabitants, Brazil has the largest population in Latin America and the fifth-largest in the world. The majority of its people live in the south-central area, which includes the industrial cities of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte. Urban growth has been rapid; by 2005, 81% of the total population was living in urban areas. This growth has aided economic development but also has created serious social, security, environmental, and political problems for major cities.

Six major groups make up the Brazilian population: the Portuguese, who colonized Brazil in the 16th century; Africans brought to Brazil as slaves; various other European, Middle Eastern, and Asian immigrant groups who have settled in Brazil since the mid-19th century; and indigenous peoples of Tupi and Guarani language stock. Intermarriage between the Portuguese and indigenous people or slaves was common. Although the major European ethnic stock of Brazil was originally Portuguese, subsequent waves of immigration have contributed to a diverse ethnic and cultural heritage.
[[File:Amistoso selecao.jpg|thumb|left|World Cup 2014.]]
[[File:Brasil 2.JPG|240px|right]]
From 1875 until 1960, about 5 million Europeans immigrated to Brazil, settling mainly in the four southern states of São Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. Immigrants have come mainly from Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan, Poland, and the Middle East. The largest Japanese community outside Japan is in São Paulo. Despite class distinctions, national identity is strong, and racial friction is a relatively new phenomenon. Indigenous full-blooded Indians, located mainly in the northern and western border regions and in the upper Amazon Basin, constitute less than 1% of the population. Their numbers are declining as contact with the outside world and commercial expansion into the interior increase. Brazilian Government programs to establish reservations and to provide other forms of assistance have existed for years but are controversial and often ineffective.

Brazil prohibits [[abortion]] unless necessary to save the life of the mother. Sometimes courts have authorized [[abortion]] in specific cases of rape or fetal handicap.<ref>https://www.hli.org/brazil.html</ref>

== Government ==

Brazil is a federal republic with 26 states and a federal district. The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government, made up of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president holds office for four years, with the right to re-election for an additional four-year term, and appoints his own cabinet. There are 81 senators, three for each state and the Federal District, and 513 deputies. Senate terms are eight years, staggered so that two-thirds of the upper house is up for election at one time and one-third four years later. Chamber terms are four years, with elections based on a complex system of proportional representation by states. Each state is eligible for a minimum of eight seats; the largest state delegation (São Paulo's) is capped at 70 seats. This system is weighted in favor of geographically large but sparsely populated states.

Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. Since it is common for politicians to switch parties, the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. The major political parties are:
*Social Liberal Party (PSL-conservative-right)
*Workers' Party (PT-left-wing)
*Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB-center)
*Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB-center-left)
*Progressive Party (PP-right)
*Brazilian Labor Party (PTB-center-right)
*Democrats (DEM-center-right)
*Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB-left)
*Popular Socialist Party (PPS-left)
*Democratic Labor Party (PDT-left)
*Communist Party of Brazil (PCdoB-left)
*Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL-left)
President Lula was re-elected October 29, 2006, in a second round victory with over sixty percent of the vote, over Geraldo Alckmin of the PSDB. Lula's PT party failed to win a majority in either the lower or upper houses in concurrent legislative elections and will be obliged to form a coalition with the centrist PMDB party—which won the most seats in the lower house and may end up with the largest number in the Senate—and a collection of minor parties. However, party loyalty is weak in Brazil, and it is common for politicians to switch parties, changing the balance of power in Congress. The PT won five of twenty-seven governorships, but the opposition PSDB remains in control of the critical states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais. The PMDB, as in the legislative elections, won the most governorships of any one party, controlling seven states. Because of the mandatory revenue allocation to states and municipalities provided for in the 1988 constitution, Brazilian governors and mayors have exercised considerable power since 1989.

Lula's electoral victory came despite a series of corruption scandals that resulted in the resignation of senior PT officials and the electoral defeat of several congressmen from parties allied to the PT. At least four congressional investigations are ongoing, though Lula has yet to be personally linked to any of the scandals.

In the 2018 presidential election, [[conservative]] [[Jair Bolsonaro]] was elected Brazil's president, marking a major shift in Brazilian politics from the Marxist Left to the conservative-nationalist Right.

===Chief of State and Cabinet Members===
[[Image:Brasilia - Congress.jpg|thumb|200px|Brazilian Congress]]
*President—[[Lula da Silva]]
*Vice President—
*Minister of Defense—
*Minister of Finance—
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—
*Minister of Science and Technology—
*Minister of Justice—
*Chief of staff—

{{clear}}

===Foreign Relations===
[[File:Trump and Bolsonaro, March 2019.jpg|thumb|350px|Bolsonaro and U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] in March 2019]]
Brazil has traditionally been a leader in the inter-American community and played an important role in collective security efforts, as well as in economic cooperation in the Western Hemisphere. Brazil supported the Allies in both World Wars. During World War II, its expeditionary force in Italy played a key role in the Allied victory at Monte Castello. It is a member of the Organization of American States (OAS) and a party to the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty). Recently, Brazil has given high priority to expanding relations with its South American neighbors and is a founding member of the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI), the Community of South American Nations (CASN) and Mercosul, a customs union including Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Venezuela and Brazil, with Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador as associate members.

Along with Argentina, Chile, and the U.S., Brazil is one of the guarantors of the Peru-Ecuador peace process. Brazil is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in its specialized agencies. It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, the former Belgian Congo, Cyprus, Mozambique, Angola, East Timor, and most recently Haiti. Brazil is currently leading the UN peacekeeping force in Haiti. Brazil served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council from 2004 to 2005. Prior to this, it had been a member of the UN Security Council four times. Brazil is lobbying for a permanent position on the council.

As Brazil's domestic economy has grown and diversified, the country has become increasingly involved in international economic and trade policy discussions. For example, Brazil has been a leader of the G-20 group of nations in the WTO Doha Round talks. The U.S., Western Europe, and Japan are primary markets for Brazilian exports and sources of foreign lending and investment. China is a growing market for Brazilian exports. Brazil also has bolstered its commitment to nonproliferation through ratification of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), signing a full-scale nuclear safeguard agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), acceding to the Treaty of Tlatelolco, and joining the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

== Economy ==
[[File:ChristredeemerRio.jpg|right|300px|thumb|''Christ the Redeemer'', overlooking Rio de Janeiro]]
Brazil's economy is the largest economy in South America, the second-largest economy in the Americas, and the ninth-largest economy in the world. It is aided by a benign international environment, grew approximately 2.9% in 2005 and 3.7% in 2006. (Note: In early 2007, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) revised its methodology for computing gross domestic product and announced revised figures for 2000–2006.) Sustained growth, coupled with booming exports, healthy external accounts, moderate inflation, decreasing unemployment, and reductions in the debt-to-GDP ratio. President Lula and his economic team have implemented prudent fiscal and monetary policies and have pursued necessary microeconomic reforms.

Brazil has made progress but significant vulnerabilities remain. Despite registering year-on-year declines from 2004 to 2006, Brazil's (largely domestic) government debt remains high, at 50% of GDP. Total foreign debt, while falling, is still large in relation to Brazil's export base. Over time this concern will be reduced by healthy export growth, which has anchored the positive trade and current accounts. Personal incomes improved since 2004 after a significant decline over the previous decade. Income and land distribution remains skewed.

Sustaining high growth rates in the longer term depends on the impact of President Lula's structural reform program and efforts to build a more welcoming climate for investment, both domestic and foreign. In its first year, the [[Lula da Silva]] administration passed key tax and pension reforms to improve the government fiscal accounts. Judicial reform and an overhaul of the bankruptcy law were passed in late 2004, along with tax measures to create incentives for long-term savings and investments.

Legislation promoting public-private partnerships, a key effort to attract private investment to infrastructure, also passed in 2004. Labor reform and proposals to increase autonomy for the Central Bank are pending. In January 2007, the Lula administration announced a package of reforms to increase public investment and control spending growth. Despite this well-considered reform agenda, much remains to be done to improve the regulatory climate for investments, particularly in the energy sector; to simplify tax systems at the state and federal levels; and to further reform the pension system.

<blockquote>
Under Mr. da Silva, Brazil emerged as one of the world's major economies, along with Russia, India and China. It is estimated that 30 million people joined the middle class during his eight-year presidency. [https://www.voanews.com/english/news/Rousseff-Sworn-In-as-Brazils-First-Woman-President-112749864.html]
</blockquote>

===Trade Policy===
[[File:Ponte estaiada Octavio Frias - Sao Paulo.jpg|thumb|left|350px|The Octavio Frias de Oliveira bridge, São Paulo.]]
President Lula has made economic growth and poverty alleviation top priorities. Export promotion is a main component in plans to generate growth and reduce what is seen as a vulnerability to international financial market gyrations. To increase exports, the government is seeking access to foreign markets through trade negotiations and increased export promotion as well as government financing for exports.

To increase its international profile (both economically and politically), the Lula administration is seeking expanded trade ties with developing countries, as well as a strengthening of the Mercosul (Mercosur in Spanish) customs union with Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentina. In 2004, Mercosul concluded free trade agreements with Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Peru, adding to its existing agreements with Chile and Bolivia to establish a commercial base for the newly launched South American Community of Nations. Mercosul is pursuing free trade negotiations with Mexico and Canada and has resumed trade negotiations with the EU. The trade bloc also plans to launch trilateral free trade negotiations with India and South Africa, building on partial trade liberalization agreements concluded with these countries in 2004. In July 2006, Venezuela was admitted to the trade bloc as a full member; China has increased its importance as an export market for Brazilian soy, iron ore and steel, becoming Brazil's fourth largest trading partner and a potential source of investment.

===Reform Agenda===
In 2003, Congress passed Lula's key reforms of the public sector pension system and the tax code. The 2004 legislative season was not very productive, in part because of a political scandal early in the year followed by campaigning for the October municipal elections. In December 2004, several key bills passed into law, including a reform of the judicial system, a modern bankruptcy law, and Public-Private Partnerships to fund infrastructure projects. In March 2005, a law to legalize biotechnology crops and stem cell research passed. The domestic political scandal, which surfaced in June 2005 and led to multiple congressional investigations, sidetracked most reform legislation for the remainder of the 2005 and 2006 sessions.

===Agriculture===
[[File:Caracol Falls Brazil.jpg|thumb|Caracol Falls.]]
Agriculture is a major sector of the Brazilian economy, and is key for economic growth and foreign exchange. Agriculture accounts for 8% of GDP (30% when including agribusiness) and 40% of Brazilian exports. Brazil enjoyed a positive agricultural trade balance of $43 billion in 2006. Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugar cane, coffee, tropical fruits, frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ), and has the world's largest commercial cattle herd (50% larger than the U.S.) at 170 million head. Brazil is also an important producer of soybeans (second to the United States), corn, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, and forest products. The remainder of agricultural output is in the livestock sector, mainly the production of beef and poultry (second to the United States), pork, milk, and seafood.

===Other Aspects===
Forests cover half of Brazil, with the largest rain forest in the world located in the Amazon Basin. Recent migrations into the Amazon and large-scale burning of forest areas have brought international attention. The government has reduced incentives for such activity and is implementing an ambitious environmental plan that includes an Environmental Crimes Law with serious penalties for infractions.

Brazil has one of the most advanced industrial sectors in Latin America. Accounting for one-third of GDP, Brazil's diverse industries range from automobiles and parts, other machinery and equipment, steel, textiles, shoes, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, and petrochemicals, to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables. Most major automobile producers have established production facilities in Brazil.
[[File:Cia de Dança Deborah Colker.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Cia. de Dança Deborah Colker.]]
Brazil has a diverse and sophisticated services industry as well. Mail and telecommunications are the largest, followed by banking, energy, commerce, and computing. During the 1990s, Brazil's financial services industry underwent a major overhaul and is relatively sound. The financial sector provides local firms a wide range of financial products. The largest financial firms are Brazilian (and the two largest banks are government-owned), but U.S. and other foreign firms have an important share of the market.

Privatization triggered a flood of investors after 1996. The yearly investment average in the telecommunications sector the 4 years prior to the start of privatization was R$5.8 billion, and the annual average for the four years following privatization was R$16.3 billion, nearly tripling. Investment in the electrical power sector increased from R$5.3 billion annually in the pre-privatization era to R$7.2 billion. U.S. companies provided a great deal of this influx of cash. After 2000, many of these investors suffered huge losses in the face of adverse regulatory decisions and especially the sharp depreciation of the real. The energy sector was especially hard hit.
[[File:Neimeyer Cathedrale de Brasilia.jpg|thumb|Cathedral of Brasilia by [[Oscar Niemeyer]].]]
In 2001, Brazil experienced an electricity crisis due to inadequate rainfall for its hydroelectric system and insufficient new investment in the sector. Mandatory rationing and price hikes were sufficient to prevent blackouts. The rationing system officially ended on March 1, 2002. Lula's then-Energy Minister unveiled an energy plan in July 2003, which left many vital details undefined and most investors dissatisfied.

The Government of Brazil has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported oil. In the mid-1980s, imports accounted for more than 70% of Brazil's oil and derivatives needs; the net figure is nearing zero. Brazil is expected to become a net exporter of oil in 2007 as output from the Campos Basin continues to increase. Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of hydroelectric power. Of its total installed electricity-generation capacity of 90,000 megawatts, hydrological power accounts for 66,000 megawatts (74%).

Proven mineral resources are extensive. Large iron and manganese reserves are important sources of industrial raw materials and export earnings. Deposits of nickel, tin, chromite, bauxite, beryllium, copper, lead, tungsten, zinc, gold, and other minerals are exploited. High-quality, coking-grade coal required in the steel industry is in short supply.

==History==
[[File:Pedro Americo, Independence or Death, 1888.jpg|thumb|Pedro Americo, Independence or Death, 1888.]]
Pedro Alvares Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal in 1500. The colony was ruled from Lisbon until 1808, when Dom Joao VI and the rest of the Portuguese royal family fled from Napoleon's army, and established its seat of government in Rio de Janeiro. Dom Joao VI returned to Portugal in 1821. His son declared Brazil's independence on September 7, 1822, and became emperor with the title of Dom Pedro I. His son, Dom Pedro II, ruled from 1831 to 1889, when a federal republic was established in a coup led by Deodoro da Fonseca, Marshal of the Army. Slavery had been abolished a year earlier by the Regent Princess Isabel while Dom Pedro II was in Europe.

From 1889 to 1930, the government was a constitutional republic, with the presidency alternating between the dominant states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais. This period ended with a military coup that placed Getulio Vargas, a civilian, in the presidency; Vargas remained as dictator until 1945. Between 1945 and 1961, Jose Linhares, Gaspar Dutra, Vargas himself, Café Filho, Carlos Luz, Nereu Ramos, Juscelino Kubitschek, and Janio Quadros were elected presidents. When Quadros resigned in 1961, Vice President Joao Goulart succeeded him.
[[Image:Pan de azucar.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pan de Azucar (Sugarloaf Mountain) in Rio de Janeiro]]
Goulart's years in office were marked by high inflation, economic stagnation, and the increasing influence of radical political elements. The armed forces, alarmed by these developments, staged a coup on March 31, 1964. The coup leaders chose as president [[Humberto Castelo Branco]], followed by Arthur da Costa e Silva (1967–69), Emilio Garrastazu Medici (1969–74), and Ernesto Geisel (1974–79), all of whom were senior army officers. Geisel began a democratic opening that was continued by his successor, Gen. Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo (1979–85). Figueiredo not only permitted the return of politicians exiled or banned from political activity during the 1960s and 1970s, but also allowed them to run for state and federal offices in 1982.
[[File:Brasil.JPG|240px|left]]
At the same time, an electoral college consisting of all members of congress and six delegates chosen from each state continued to choose the president. In January 1985, the electoral college voted Tancredo Neves from the opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB) into office as president. However, Neves became ill in March and died a month later. His Vice President, former Senator Jose Sarney, became president upon Neves' death. Brazil completed its transition to a popularly elected government in 1989, when Fernando Collor de Mello won 53% of the vote in the first direct presidential election in 29 years. In 1992, a major corruption scandal led to his impeachment and ultimate resignation. Vice President Itamar Franco took his place and governed for the remainder of Collor's term culminating in the October 3, 1994 presidential elections, when Fernando Henrique Cardoso was elected president with 54% of the vote. Cardoso took office January 1, 1995, and pursued a program of ambitious economic reform. He was re-elected in October 1998 for a second four-year term. Luiz Inacio da Silva, commonly known as Lula, was elected president in 2002, after his fourth campaign for the office.

[[File:Lula da Silva.jpg|150px|thumbnail|left|Lula da Silva.]]
[[File:Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva.jpg|150px|thumbnail|Lula with the Cuban Leftist hat.]]
President Lula, a former union leader, was Brazil's first working-class president. After taking office, he took a prudent fiscal path, warning that social reforms would take years and that Brazil had no alternative but to maintain tight fiscal [[Ascesis|austerity]] policies. Economic growth in 2004 and the first half of 2005 was strong with increases in employment and real wages. Growth slowed somewhat in the second half of 2005, but rebounded modestly in 2006.

Brazil's leftist government enacted strict gun control laws in the early 20th century, and in the two subsequent decades saw a massive increase in violent crime.<ref>De Castro, Fernando (September 14, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/gun-control-and-crime-rise-in-brazil_3073802.html Gun Control and Crime Rise in Brazil]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved September 15, 2019.</ref>

Brazilian President [[Dilma Rousseff]] was impeached for corruption in 2016. The same year President Lula da Silva was accused of bribery, both political figures are socialists. He claimed that there was nobody in Brazil more honest than him.<ref>[http://politica.estadao.com.br/blogs/fausto-macedo/nao-tem-uma-viva-alma-mais-honesta-do-que-eu-afirma-lula/ In Portuguese: "Não existe viva alma mais honesta do que eu"]</ref> Lula has been labeled by those involved in "[[Petrolão]]" (the corruption scandal of [[Petrobras]]) as "chefe da quadrilha" (head of the gang of thieves).<ref>http://www.ilisp.org/noticias/delcidio-confirma-lula-e-o-chefe-da-quadrilha-e-as-campanhas-de-dilma-foram-ilegais/</ref> In 2017, Lula was sentenced to nine years in jail by [[Sérgio Moro]], based
on the accusation of receiving and hiding an apartment as bribe. He wasn't arrested, since, by Brazilian law, he can appeal in liberty.
<ref>https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-40488914</ref><ref>https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-07-12/brazil-s-lula-sentenced-to-prison-on-corruption-charges</ref> On 2018-01-24, TRF-4 (''Tribunal Regional Federal 4'', Brazilian's court of appeal) confirmed by unanimous decision all accusations against Lula, and raised his period to 12 years and one month. He continued to appeal the ruling.<ref>Official TRF-4 site: https://www2.trf4.jus.br/trf4/controlador.php?acao=noticia_visualizar&id_noticia=13418</ref><ref>Veja: https://veja.abril.com.br/politica/julgamento-de-lula-no-trf4-acompanhe-ao-vivo/</ref><ref>Brazilian government official news site: http://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/politica/noticia/2018-01/desembargadores-do-trf4-mantem-condenacao-de-lula-no-caso-triplex</ref>

In February 2019, Lula's sentence was expanded after he received a separate 13-year sentence.<ref>Martel, Frances (February 9, 2019). [https://www.breitbart.com/latin-america/2019/02/07/brazil-sentences-socialist-ex-president-lula-to-another-13-years-in-prison-bringing-total-to-25/ Brazil Sentences Socialist Ex-President Lula to Another 13 Years in Prison, Bringing Total to 25]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved February 9, 2019.</ref> However, on November 8, 2019, Lula was released from prison after a Brazilian Supreme Court decision that did not apply to him specifically.<ref>Trevisani, Paulo; Forero, Juan (November 8, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/brazilian-judge-orders-release-of-former-president-lula-da-silva-11573243399 Former Brazilian President ‘Lula’ da Silva Released From Jail]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 8, 2019.</ref><ref>Boadle, Anthony; Benassatto, Leonardo (November 8, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-corruption-court/lula-leaves-prison-firing-up-brazils-left-and-right-idUSKBN1XI1YC Lula leaves prison, firing up Brazil's left and right]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 9, 2019.</ref>

[[File:Bolsonaro and his wife in Brasil's Bicentennial Military Parade.jpeg|350px|thumbnail|Bolsonaro and his wife in Brasil's Bicentennial Military Parade on 2022.]]
Brazil has seen a growing [[conservative]] and [[evangelical]] movement.<ref>Pearson, Samantha (April 8, 2018). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/brazil-turns-rightward-heralding-new-chapter-for-latin-america-1523216901 Brazil Turns Rightward, Heralding New Chapter for Latin America]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved April 9, 2018.</ref> In 2018, Brazil ended 15 years of Marxist rule by electing [[Jair Bolsonaro]], a strong conservative and nationalist, as president. Brazil was an economic success having deflation while other countries had the opposite. Security grew under the conservative president, Bolsonaro is a great defender of economic and social freedom, he stopped the São Paulo Forum, recovered Brazilian national pride and personal gun registration soared almost 500% under Bolsonaro's government.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/es/minuto-a-minuto/20220629-registro-de-armas-personales-se-dispar%C3%B3-casi-500-bajo-gobierno-de-bolsonaro|title=Registro de armas personales se disparó casi 500% bajo gobierno de Bolsonaro|language=es|publisher=France 24|date=June 29, 2022}}</ref> He also was defiant against COVID-19 restrictions and vaccine, questioning the use of masks, the vaccines, even delaying the purchase of them. He said "Now everything is a pandemic, we have to end it. I'm sorry for the dead, I'm sorry. We will all die one day. There's no use trying to run away from it. We have to stop being a country of f*gg*ts (...) Face this bare-chested, fight"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2020-11-11/jair-bolsonaro-tenemos-que-dejar-de-ser-un-pais-de-maricas.html|title=Jair Bolsonaro: "Tenemos que dejar de ser un país de maricas"|publisher=El País|date=November 11, 2020|language=es}}</ref> He also said that if he gets COVID would be only a "gripezinha" (small cold).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-55107536|language=pt|date=November 27, 2022|title=2 momentos em que Bolsonaro chamou covid-19 de 'gripezinha', o que agora nega}}</ref> He defended Brazilian sovereignty over the most of the Amazon against globalists like Leonardo DiCaprio and Emmanuel Macron that wanted to globalize the region. The Bicentennial of the Independence of Brazil happen during Bolsonaro's government.
[[File:Jair Bolsonaro official photo.jpg|thumbnail|240px|Former President Jair Messias Bolsonaro]]
In the [[Brazil presidential election, 2022|2022 elections]], Bolsonaro's coalition won the biggest right-wing conservative majority in the history of Brazil. The presidential election consisted in two rounds, in which in both Bolsonaro started winning and in the end it was changed in favor of Lula (the North of Brazil starts counting later, and its mostly leftist). Brazil has an electronic voting systems, the President tried to change it but the political system stopped the reform.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2021-08-11/bolsonaro-sufre-una-gran-derrota-politica-al-rechazar-el-congreso-su-propuesta-para-cambiar-el-sistema-de-voto.html|title=Bolsonaro sufre una gran derrota política al rechazar el Congreso su propuesta para cambiar el sistema de voto|language=es|publisher=El País|date=August 11, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bnamericas.com/es/noticias/congreso-frena-planes-de-bolsonaro-de-abandonar-el-voto-electronico|title=Congreso frena planes de Bolsonaro de abandonar el voto electrónico|date=August 11, 2022|language=es|publisher=BN América}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.poder360.com.br/governo/camara-enterra-voto-impresso-e-derrota-jair-bolsonaro/|title=Câmara enterra voto impresso e derrota Jair Bolsonaro|publisher=Poder 360|date=Augusto 10, 2022|language=pt}}</ref> The Supreme Electoral Court censored (in collaboration with [[Big Tech]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://g1.globo.com/politica/eleicoes/2020/noticia/2020/09/30/tse-lanca-parceria-com-whatsapp-para-coibir-disparos-em-massa-nas-eleicoes.ghtml|publisher=Globo|title=TSE lança parceria com redes sociais contra desinformação durante a campanha eleitoral|date=September 30, 2022|language=pt}}</ref> a lot of posts in support of President Bolsonaro in Social Media, alleging "Fake News" against Lula when calling him corrupt. The main counterweight to the power of President Jair Bolsonaro was the Supreme Federal Court of Brazil.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://panampost.com/oriana-rivas/2022/10/21/censura-en-brasil-corrupto-lula/|publisher=Panam Post|title=Censura en Brasil estaría yendo "muy lejos": prohibido llamar "corrupto" a Lula|date=October 21, 2022|language=es}}</ref> The Supreme Electoral Court President, Alexandre de Morães, ordered the arrest of a conservative congressman, Daniel Silveira, center, after Silveira criticized Morães and other court judges.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/es/2022/09/26/espanol/brasil-bolsonaro-supremo-tribunal.html|title=¿El máximo tribunal de Brasil se extralimita en su defensa de la democracia?|publisher=The New York Times|date=September 26, 2022|language=es}}</ref>

After the media declared Lula the winner, Bolsonaro went silent for two days and truckers went on strike on 18 states and more than 26 highways<ref>{{cite web|url=https://radio.uchile.cl/2022/11/01/aumenta-tension-en-brasil-mientras-bolsonaro-calla-camioneros-cortan-26-carreteras-durante-mas-de-12-horas/|title=Aumenta tensión en Brasil: Mientras Bolsonaro calla, camioneros cortan 26 carreteras durante más de 12 horas|publisher=Diario U de Chile|date=November 1, 2022|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OtnkK4bkOC0|title=Insurrection in Brazil. 18 states block roads. Election results contested by Bolsonaro's supporters.|date=October 31, 2022|publisher=
Emil Cosman}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eldesconcierto.cl/internacional/2022/11/01/ordenan-reforzar-acciones-para-enfrentar-bloqueos-de-adherentes-a-bolsonaro-en-brasil.html|title=Brasil vive tensa noche: Adherentes de Bolsonaro denuncian fraude y bloquean carreteras|language=es|publisher=El Desconcierto|date=November 1, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.df.cl/internacional/politica/bloqueos-de-camiones-y-silencio-de-bolsonaro-marcan-las-jornadas-de|title=Bloqueos de camiones y silencio de Bolsonaro marcan las jornadas de Brasil tras elecciones|language=es|date=November 1, 2022|publisher=Diario Financiero}}</ref> supporting protesters that are calling for a military intervention. Bolsonaro didn't concede but accepted having a transition of power, he also supported the protesters cause and called them to be peaceful.

Bolsonaro's security measures saved more than 20,000 lives since becoming president in Brazil, homicides fell by 34% since Bolsonaro introduced reforms that made the purchase and sale of guns in civilian hands more flexible.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://derechadiario.com.ar/latinoamerica/latinoamerica_brasil/las-medidas-de-seguridad-de-bolsonaro-salvaron-mas-de-20-000-vidas-desde-su-llegada-a-la-presidencia-en-brasil|title=Las medidas de seguridad de Bolsonaro salvaron más de 20.000 vidas desde su llegada a la presidencia en Brasil|publisher=La Derecha Diario|date=October 28, 2022|language=es}}</ref>

== Presidents ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!President
!Years
!State
!Party
!Vice President(s)
|-
|1. Deodoro da Fonseca
|1889-1891
|Alagoas
|none
|Peixoto
|-
|2. Floriano Peixoto
|1891-1894
|Alagoas
|None
|none
|-
|3. Prudente de Morais
|1894-1898
|São Paulo
|Federal Republican
|Vitorino
|-
|4. Campos Sales
|1898-1902
|São Paulo
|Paulist Republican
|Rosa e Silva
|-
|5. Rodrigues Alves
|1902-1906
|São Paulo
|Paulist Republican
|Pena
|-
|6. Afonso Pena
|1906-1909
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|Peçanha
|-
|7. Nilo Peçanha
|1909-1910
|Rio de Janeiro
|Fluminensian Republican
|none
|-
|8. Hermes da Fonseca
|1910-1914
|Rio Grande do Sul
|Conservative Republican
|Brás
|-
|9. Venceslau Brás
|1914-1918
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|Santos
|-
|10. Delfim Moreira
|1918-1919
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|none
|-
|11. Epitácio Pessoa
|1919-1922
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|Moreira
|-
|12. Artur Bernardes
|1922-1926
|Minas Gerais
|Minerian Republican
|Coimbra
|-
|13. Washington Luís
|1926-1930
|São Paulo
|Paulist Republican
|Viana
|-
|14. [[Getúlio Vargas]]
|1930-1945
|Rio Grande do Sul
|Liberal Alliance
|none
|-
|15. José Linhares
|1945-1946
|Ceará
|none
|none
|-
|16. Eurico Gaspar Dutra
|1946-1951
|Mato Grosso
|Social Democratic
|Ramos
|-
|17. [[Getúlio Vargas]]
|1951-1954
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[Brazilian Labour Party|Brazilian Labour]]
|Filho
|-
|18. Café Filho
|1954-1955
|Rio Grande do Norte
|Social Progressive
|none
|-
|19. Carlos Luz
|1955
|Minas Gerais
|Social Democratic
|none
|-
|20. Nereu Ramos
|1955-1956
|Santa Catarina
|Social Democratic
|none
|-
|21. Juscelino Kubitschek
|1956-1961
|Minas Gerais
|Social Democratic
|Goulart
|-
|22. Jânio Quadros
|1961
|Mato Grosso do Sul
|[[National Labour Party|National Labour]]
|Goulart
|-
|23. Ranieri Mazzilli
|1961
|São Paulo
|Social Democratic
|none
|-
|24. João Goulart
|1961-1964
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[Brazilian Labour]]
|none
|-
|25. Ranieri Mazzilli
|1964
|São Paulo
|Social Democratic
|none
|-
|26. [[Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco]]
|1964-1967
|Ceará
|[[National Renewal Alliance]]
|Alkmin
|-
|27. [[Arthur da Costa e Silva]]
|1967-1969
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[National Renewal Alliance]]
|Aleixo
|-
|28. [[Emílio Garrastazu Médici]]
|1969-1974
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[National Renewal Alliance]]
|Rademaker
|-
|29. [[Ernesto Geisel]]
|1974-1979
|Rio Grande do Sul
|[[National Renewal Alliance]]
|Santos
|-
|30. [[João Figueiredo]]
|1979–1985
|Rio de Janeiro
|Democratic Social
|Chaves
|-
|31. [[José Sarney]]
|1985–1990
|Maranhão
|[[Brazilian Democratic Movement]]
|none
|-
|32. Fernando Collor de Mello
|1990–1992
|Rio de Janeiro
|[[Party of National Reconstruction|National Reconstruction]]
|Franco
|-
|33. Itamar Franco
|1992–1995
|Bahia
|[[Party of National Reconstruction|National Reconstruction]]
|none
|-
|34. Fernando Henrique Cardoso
|1995–2002
|Rio de Janeiro
|[[Brazilian Social Democratic Party|Brazilian Social Democratic]]
|Maciel
|-
|35. [[Lula da Silva]]
|2002–2010
|Pernambuco
|[[Worker's Party|Worker's]]
|Alencar
|-
|36. [[Dilma Rousseff]]
|2011–2016
|Minas Gerais
|[[Worker's Party|Worker's]]
|Temer
|-
|37. [[Michel Temer]]
|2016–2018
|São Paulo
|[[Brazilian Democratic Movement]]
|''None''
|-
|38. [[Jair Bolsonaro]]
|2019–2022
|Rio de Janeiro
|[[Social Liberal Party|Social Liberal]]
|Mourão
|-
|39. [[Lula da Silva]]
|2023–present
|Pernambuco
|[[Worker's Party|Worker's]]
|Alckmin
|}

== The 2014 World Cup ==
[[File:Cathedral illumination for world cup 2014.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cathedral]] of Brasília; illumination for world cup 2014.]]

The [[FIFA World Cup|FIFA 2014 World Cup]] was hosted in Brazil between 12 June and 13 July 2014. Twelve cities were selected for this tournament: Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasília, DF, São Paulo, SP, Porto Alegre, RS, Fortaleza, CE, Belo Horizonte, MG, Salvador, BA, Recife, PE, Cuiabá, MT Manaus, AM, Natal, RN, and Curitiba, PR. The United States team had as base camp the city of São Paulo, São Paulo. The tournament started with hosts Brazil facing Croatia on 12 June.

Teams and camps: Algeria (Sorocaba), Australia (Vitoria), Argentina (Vespasiano), Belgium (Mogi das Cruzes), Bosnia-Hercegovina (Guaruja), Brazil (Teresopolis), Cameroon (Vitoria), Chile (Belo Horizonte), Colombia (Cotia), Costa Rica (Santos), Croatia (Mata de Sao Joao), Ecuador (Viamao), England (Rio de Janeiro), France (Ribeirao Preto), Germany (Santa Cruz Cabralia), Ghana (Maceio), Greece (Aracaju), Honduras (Porto Feliz), Italy (Mangaratiba), Iran (Guarulhos), Ivory Coast (Aguas de Lindoia), Japan (Itu), South Korea (Foz do Iguacu), Mexico (Santos), Netherlands (Rio de Janeiro), Nigeria (Campinas), Portugal (Campinas), Russia (Itu), Spain (Curitiba), Switzerland (Porto Seguro), Uruguay (Sete Lagoas), United States (São Paulo). [https://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/25998576]

Brazilian Government website on the 2014 World Cup: [http://www.copa2014.gov.br/en Brazil and the World Cup.] [http://www.pinterest.com/armando4411/brazil-2014-stadiums/ See also: World Cup 2014 - Stadiums Architecture.]

The winner of this event was [[Germany]].

[[File:Arena das Dunas Natal.jpg|thumb|center|350px|Arena das Dunas, Natal.]]

==See also==
[[File:Samba Brazil carnaval.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|Samba Brazil carnaval, 2011.]]

* [[Campinas Brazil Temple]]
* [[Gallery of South-American painting]]
* [[Gallery of Latin-American painting]]
* [[Mídia Sem Máscara]]

[[File:Arena da Amazonia, Manaus.jpg|thumb|left|Arena da Amazonia, Manaus.]]

{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

 

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35640.htm]}}}.
|}

 

{{Nb countries south america}}

[[Category:Brazil]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Mozambique

2024-06-02T17:31:10Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Moçambique''
|map =Mozambique rel95.jpg
|map2 =Location of Mozambique.PNG
|flag =Flag of Portugal.png
|arms =Arms of Mozambique.jpg
|capital =
|capital-raw =Maputo
|government =
|government-raw =Parliamentary democracy
|language =Portuguese, Emakhuwa, Xichangana
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Filipe Nyusi
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Carlos Agostinho do Rosário
|pm-raw =
|area =308,642 sq. mi.
|pop =31,250,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$9.788 billion
|gdp-year =2007 est.
|gdp-pc =$956
|currency =Metical
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Republic of Mozambique''' is a country on the south-eastern coast of [[Africa]], bordering the Mozambique Channel and located between [[South Africa]] and [[Tanzania]]. A Portuguese colony until independence in 1975, the subsequent mass-immigration of settlers, economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a prolonged civil war hindered the country's development until the mid 1990s.

The ruling Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the following year provided for multiparty elections and a free market economy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in 1992. In December 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition as Joaquim Chissano stepped down after 18 years in office. His elected successor, Armando Emilio Guebuza, promised to continue the sound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment. Mozambique has seen very strong economic growth since the end of the civil war largely due to post-conflict reconstruction.

==Geography==
*Area: 308,642 sq. miles; slightly less than twice the size of California.
*Major cities: Capital—Maputo (pop. 1.2 million—2005 est.); Beira, Matola, Nampula, Quelimane, Tete, Nacala.
*Terrain: Varies from lowlands to high plateau.
*Climate: Tropical to subtropical.

==People==
[[File:Nacala Bay Diving Mozambique.jpg|left|200px]]
Mozambique's major ethnic groups encompass numerous subgroups with diverse languages, dialects, cultures, and histories. Many are linked to similar ethnic groups living in neighboring countries. The north-central provinces of Zambezia and Nampula are the most populous, with about 45% of the population. The estimated 4 million Makhuwa are the dominant group in the northern part of the country. The Sena and Ndau are prominent in the Zambezi valley, and the Tsonga and Shangaan dominate in southern Mozambique.

Despite the influence of Islamic coastal traders and European colonizers, the people of Mozambique have largely retained an indigenous culture based on small-scale agriculture. Mozambique's most highly developed art forms are wood sculpture, for which the Makonde in northern Mozambique are particularly renowned, and dance. The middle and upper classes continue to be heavily influenced by the Portuguese colonial and linguistic heritage.

Under the colonial regime, educational opportunities for black Mozambicans were limited, and 93% of that population was illiterate. In fact, most of today's political leaders were educated in missionary schools. After independence, the government placed a high priority on expanding education, which reduced the illiteracy rate to about two-thirds of the population, as primary school enrollment increased. Unfortunately, in recent years school construction and teacher training enrollments have not kept up with population growth. With post-war enrollments reaching all-time highs, the quality of education has suffered.

*Nationality: Noun and adjective—Mozambican(s).
*Population (2009 est.): 20.4 million; 48.2% male and 51.8% female.
*Population annual growth rate (2009): 1.7%.
*Ethnic groups: Makhuwa, Tsonga, Makonde, Shangaan, Shona, Sena, Ndau, and other indigenous groups, and approximately 10,000 Europeans, 35,000 Euro-Africans, and 15,000 South Asians.
*Religions: Christian 40%, Muslim 20%, indigenous African and other beliefs 40% (1997 census—recent estimates give a higher Muslim percentage).
*Languages: Portuguese (official), various indigenous languages.
*Education: Mean years of schooling (adults over 25): men 2.1, women 1.2. Primary net enrollment rate (2005)--78%. Adult illiteracy rate (2008)--52.2%.
*Health: Infant mortality rate (2007)--111/1,000. Life expectancy (2007)--40.4 years.
*Work force (9.4 million est. 2006): Agriculture—81%; industry—6%; services—13% (1997 estimate).

====Religion====
During the colonial era, Christian missionaries were active in Mozambique, and many foreign clergy remain in the country. According to the national census, about 40% of the population is Christian, at least 20% is Muslim, and the remainder adheres to traditional beliefs. According to the 1997 census, 24% of the population of 19.9 million are Roman Catholic, 22% Protestant, 20% Muslim, and one-third do not profess a religion or belief; however, religious leaders speculated that a significant number of this group practiced some form of traditional indigenous religions, a category not included in the 1997 census. The South Asian immigrant population is predominantly Muslim.

Major Christian groups include Anglican, Baptist, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Congregational, Methodist, Nazarene, Presbyterian, Jehovah's Witnesses, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, and Universal Church of the Kingdom of God, as well as evangelical, apostolic, and Pentecostal churches. The three principal Islamic organizations are the Mohammedan Community, Islamic Congress, and Islamic Council. There are small Jewish, Hindu, and Baha'i groups.

Religious communities are dispersed throughout the country. The northern provinces are predominantly Muslim, particularly along the coast, while areas of the northern interior have a stronger concentration of Christian communities. Christians are generally more numerous in the southern and central regions, but Muslims are also present in these areas.

Muslim journalists report that the distinction between Sunni and Shi'a is not particularly important for many local Muslims, and Muslims are much more likely to identify themselves by the local religious leader they follow than as Sunni or Shi'a.

Many small, independent Protestant and Catholic churches that have split from mainstream denominations fuse African traditional beliefs and practices within a Christian framework. The country's leading mosques and the Catholic Church have gradually eliminated many traditional indigenous practices from their places of worship; however, some Christian and Muslim adherents continue to incorporate traditional practices and rituals.

Most places of worship nationalized by the Government in 1977 have been returned to their respective religious organizations; however, the Catholic Church and a few Muslim communities maintained that other properties, including schools, health centers, and private residences, remaining in state hands belong to them and continued to press for their return. The issue of restitution is complex, as many of these buildings continued to be used for government-administered schools and clinics.

While all major religious groups are represented in the National Assembly and government ministries, many Muslims felt underrepresented because the majority of leadership positions in the Government and media services were held by Christians.

In Jan 2024, an article in Islamic State ([[ISIS]]) weekly claims ten civilians killed, over 200 houses burned in series of attacks against Christian villages in northern Mozambique in two-week span.<ref>[https://www.memri.org/jttm/article-islamic-state-isis-weekly-claims-ten-civilians-killed-over-200-houses-burned-series ISIS Claims Killing 10 Christians In Mozambique], ''Memri'', Jan 14, 2024</ref>

==Government and Political Conditions==
Mozambique is a constitutional democracy with an estimated population of 20 million. President Armando Guebuza was elected in 2004 in what national and international observers judged to be generally free and fair elections, despite some irregularities.

The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) has been the ruling political party since independence in 1975, heavily influencing both policymaking and implementation. While civilian authorities generally maintain effective control of the security forces, there have been some instances in which elements of the security forces acted independently. In 1994 the country held its first democratic elections. Joaquim Chissano was elected President with 53% of the vote, and a 250-member National Assembly was voted in with 129 FRELIMO deputies, 112 RENAMO deputies, and 9 representatives of three smaller parties that formed the Democratic Union (UD). By 1999, more than one-half (53%) of the legislation passed originated in the Assembly.

After some delays, in 1998 the country held its first local elections to provide for local representation and some budgetary authority at the municipal level. The principal opposition party, RENAMO, boycotted the local elections, citing flaws in the registration process. Independent slates contested the elections and won seats in municipal assemblies. Turnout was very low.

In the aftermath of the 1998 local elections, the government resolved to make more accommodations to the opposition's procedural concerns for the second round of multiparty national elections in 1999. Working through the National Assembly, the electoral law was rewritten and passed by consensus in December 1998. Financed largely by international donors, a very successful voter registration was conducted from July to September 1999, providing voter registration cards to 85% of the potential electorate (more than 7 million voters).

The second general elections were held December 3–5, 1999, with high voter turnout. International and domestic observers agreed that the voting process was well organized and went smoothly. Both the opposition and observers subsequently cited flaws in the tabulation process that, had they not occurred, might have changed the outcome. In the end, however, international and domestic observers concluded that the close result of the vote reflected the will of the people.

The second local elections, involving 33 municipalities with some 2.4 million registered voters, took place in November 2003. This was the first time that FRELIMO, RENAMO-UE, and independent parties competed without significant boycotts. The 24% turnout was well above the 15% turnout in the first municipal elections. FRELIMO won 28 mayoral positions and the majority in 29 municipal assemblies, while RENAMO won 5 mayoral positions and the majority in 4 municipal assemblies. The voting was conducted without violent incidents. However, the period immediately after the elections was marked by objections about voter and candidate registration and vote tabulation, as well as calls for greater transparency.

The third general elections occurred on December 1–2, 2004. FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza won with 64% of the popular vote. His opponent, Afonso Dhlakama of RENAMO, received 32% of the popular vote. The estimated 44% turnout was well below the almost 70% turnout in the 1999 general elections. FRELIMO won 160 seats in Parliament. A coalition of RENAMO and several small parties won the 90 remaining seats. Armando Guebuza was inaugurated as the President of Mozambique on February 2, 2005. Elections in Mozambique’s 43 municipalities took place on November 19, 2008. FRELIMO mayoral candidates won in 42 of the 43 contests. Presidential and parliamentary elections are scheduled for October 28, 2009.

Despite the government's strong anticorruption rhetoric, corruption in the executive and legislative branches was widely perceived to be endemic in 2008. The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected that corruption was a serious problem, with no change in ranking from the previous year. For the first time in five years, the country dropped in Transparency International's 2008 Corruption Perception Index, indicating that corruption was rampant. Petty corruption by low-level government officials to supplement low incomes, and high-level corruption by a small group of politically and economically connected elites continued to be the norm. Corruption largely resulted from a lack of checks and balances, minimal accountability, and a culture of impunity. Local non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as the Center for Public Integrity, and media groups continued to be the main civic forces fighting corruption, reporting and investigating numerous corruption cases. The law requires that all members of the government declare and deposit their assets with the Constitutional Council, but does not require that such information be made available to the general public.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—Filipe Nyusi
*Prime Minister—Carlos Agostinho do Rosário
*Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation—Oldemiro Baloi
*Minister of Finance—Manuel Chang
*Minister of National Defense--
*Minister of the Interior—Jose Pacheco
*Minister of Industry and Commerce—Antonio Fernando
*Minister of Justice—Maria Benvinda Levi
*Minister of Agriculture—Soares Nhaca
*Minister in the Presidency for Diplomatic Affairs—Francisco Caetano Madeira

===Foreign Relations===
While allegiances dating back to the [[National liberation movement|liberation struggle]] remain relevant, Mozambique's foreign policy has become increasingly pragmatic. The twin pillars of Mozambique's foreign policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbors and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners.

During the 1970s and early 1980s, Mozambique's foreign policy was inextricably linked to the struggles for majority rule in Rhodesia and South Africa, as well as superpower competition and the Cold War. Mozambique's decision to enforce UN sanctions against Rhodesia and deny that country access to the sea led Ian Smith's regime to undertake overt and covert actions to destabilize the country, including sponsoring the rebel group RENAMO. After the change of government in Zimbabwe in 1980, the apartheid regime in South Africa continued to finance the destabilization of Mozambique.

The 1984 Nkomati Accord, while failing in its goal of ending South African support to RENAMO, opened initial diplomatic contacts between the Mozambican and South African Governments. This process gained momentum with South Africa's elimination of apartheid, which culminated in the establishment of full diplomatic relations in October 1993. While relations with neighboring Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania show occasional strains, Mozambique's ties to these countries remain strong.

In the years immediately following its independence, Mozambique benefited from considerable assistance from some western countries, notably the Scandinavians. Moscow and its allies, however, became Mozambique's primary economic, military, and political supporters and its foreign policy reflected this linkage. This began to change in 1983; in 1984 Mozambique joined the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Western aid quickly replaced Soviet support, with the Scandinavians, the United States, the Netherlands, and the European Union becoming increasingly important sources of development assistance. Italy also maintains a profile in Mozambique as a result of its key role during the peace process. Relations with Portugal, the former colonial power, are complex and of some importance as Portuguese investors play a visible role in Mozambique's economy.

Mozambique is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and ranks among the moderate members of the African Bloc in the United Nations and other international organizations. Mozambique also belongs to the Organization of African Unity/African Union and the Southern African Development Community. In 1994, the government became a full member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, in part to broaden its base of international support but also to please the country's sizeable Muslim population. Similarly, in early 1996 Mozambique joined its Anglophone neighbors in the Commonwealth. In the same year, Mozambique became a founding member and the first President of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), and maintains close ties with other Lusophone states.

==Economy==
At the end of the civil war in 1992, Mozambique ranked among the poorest countries in the world. It still ranks among the least developed nations with very low socioeconomic indicators. In the last decade, however, Mozambique has experienced a notable economic recovery. Per capita GDP in 2008 was estimated at U.S. $956, a significant increase over the mid-1980s level of U.S. $120. With high foreign debt and a good track record on economic reform, Mozambique was the first African nation and sixth country worldwide to qualify for debt relief under the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) initial HIPC (Heavily Indebted Poor Countries) Initiative. In April 2000, Mozambique qualified for the Enhanced HIPC program and reached its completion point in September 2001. This led to the Paris Club members agreeing in November 2001 to substantially reduce the remaining bilateral debt, resulting in the complete forgiveness of a considerable volume of bilateral debt. The United States already finished the process and has forgiven Mozambique's debt.

During their summit in Scotland in July 2005, the G8 nations agreed to significant multilateral debt relief for the world's least developed nations. On December 21, 2005, the IMF formalized the complete cancellation of all Mozambican IMF debt contracted prior to January 1, 2005, worth U.S. $153 million.
*GDP (2007): $9.788 billion.
*Annual economic (GDP) growth rate (2008): 6.5%.
*Per capita gross domestic product (2008): $956.
*Natural resources: Hydroelectric power, coal, natural gas, titanium ore, tantalite, graphite, iron ore, semi-precious stones, and arable land.
*Agriculture (21% of GDP; annual growth 7.9%): Exports—cotton, cashew nuts, sugarcane, tea, cassava (tapioca), corn, coconuts, sisal, citrus and tropical fruits, potatoes, sunflowers, beef and poultry. Domestically consumed food crops—corn, pigeon peas, cassava, rice, beef, pork, chicken, and goat.
*Industry (31% of GDP; annual growth 10%): Types—food, beverages, chemicals (fertilizer, soap, paints), aluminum, petroleum products, textiles, cement, glass, asbestos, and tobacco.
*Services (39.7% of GDP; annual growth 4.7%).
*Trade: Imports (2008)--$3.29 billion. Import commodities—machinery and equipment, vehicles, fuel, chemicals, metal products, foodstuffs and textiles. Main suppliers—South Africa, Netherlands, Portugal. Exports (2008)--$2.7 billion. Export commodities—aluminum, cashews, prawns, cotton, sugar, citrus, timber, bulk electricity, natural gas. Main markets—Belgium, South Africa, Zimbabwe.

The resettlement of civil war refugees, political stability, and continuing economic reforms have led to a high economic growth rate. Between 1994 and 2006, average annual GDP growth was approximately 8%. Mozambique achieved this growth rate even though the devastating floods of 2000 slowed GDP growth to 2.1%. As of 2008, the average growth rate was at 6.5%. Future strong expansion requires continued economic reforms, major foreign direct investment, and the resurrection of the agriculture, transportation, and tourism sectors. Focusing on economic growth in the agricultural sector is a major challenge for the government. Although more than 80% of the population engages in small-scale agriculture, the sector suffers from inadequate infrastructure, commercial networks, and investment. However, a majority of Mozambique's arable land is still uncultivated, leaving room for considerable growth.

The government's tight control of spending and the money supply, combined with financial sector reform, successfully reduced inflation from 70% in 1994 to less than 5% in 1998-1999. Economic disruptions resulting from the devastating floods of 2000 caused inflation to jump to 12.7% that year. The government is still working to bring inflation down to those lower numbers. In 2004 inflation was 9.1%; in 2005 it climbed to 11.2%; in 2006 it dropped back down to 9.4%. As of May 2009, the floating exchange rate was approximately 26.7 meticais per dollar. (Note: In July 2006 the government revised its currency, dropping three zeros. Thus a coin formerly worth 1,000 meticais was from then on worth only one metical. And thus, where a dollar previously had been worth, for example, 26,000 meticais, it was from July onward worth 26.)

Economic reform has been extensive. More than 1,200 state-owned enterprises (mostly small) have been privatized. Preparations for privatization and/or sector liberalization are underway for the remaining parastatals, including telecommunications, electricity, ports, and the railroads. The government frequently selects a strategic foreign investor when privatizing a parastatal. Additionally, customs duties have been reduced, and customs management has been streamlined and reformed. The government introduced a value-added tax in 1999 as part of its efforts to increase domestic revenues.

In 2008, Mozambique exported U.S. $2.7 billion worth of goods and imported U.S. $3.2 billion worth of goods. Support programs provided by foreign donors and private financing of foreign direct investment mega-projects and their associated raw materials have largely compensated for balance-of-payment shortfalls. The medium-term outlook for exports is encouraging, as a number of recent foreign investment projects have improved the trade balance. This export growth is expected to continue. MOZAL I, a large aluminum smelter that commenced production in mid-2000, greatly expanded Mozambique's trade volume. In April 2001, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) approved financing assistance for MOZAL II, which doubled overall production capacity. Phase two went online in April 2003, five months ahead of schedule, using primarily Mozambican workers during construction. Traditional Mozambican exports include cashews, shrimp, fish, copra, sugar, cotton, tea, and citrus and exotic fruits. Most of these industries are being rehabilitated. In addition, Mozambique is less dependent upon imports for basic food and manufactured goods as the result of steady increases in local production.

In December 1999, the Mozambican Council of Ministers approved the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Trade Protocol. The Protocol will create a free trade zone among more than 200 million consumers in the SADC region. Implementation of the Protocol began in 2002 and had an overall zero-tariff target set for 2008; however, Mozambique's country-specific zero-tariff goal is currently 2015. Mozambique joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) on August 26, 1995.

==History==
Mozambique's first inhabitants were San hunter and gatherers, ancestors of the Khoisani peoples. Between the first and fourth centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking peoples migrated from the north through the Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas. The Bantu were farmers and ironworkers.

When Portuguese explorers reached Mozambique in 1498, Arab trading settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries. From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the East. Later, traders and prospectors penetrated the interior regions, seeking gold and slaves. Although Portuguese influence gradually expanded, its power was limited and exercised through individual settlers who were granted extensive autonomy. As a result, investment lagged while Lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with India and the Far East and to the colonization of Brazil.

By the early 20th century the Portuguese had shifted the administration of much of the country to large private companies, controlled and financed mostly by the British, which established railroad lines to neighboring countries and supplied cheap—often forced—African labor to the mines and plantations of the nearby British colonies and South Africa. Because policies were designed to benefit white settlers and the Portuguese homeland, little attention was paid to Mozambique's national integration, its economic infrastructure, or the skills of its population.

After World War II, while many European nations were granting independence to their colonies, Portugal clung to the concept that Mozambique and other Portuguese possessions were overseas provinces of the mother country, and emigration to the colonies soared. Mozambique's Portuguese population at the time of independence was about 250,000. The drive for Mozambican independence developed apace, and in 1962 several anti-colonial political groups formed the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), which initiated an armed campaign against Portuguese colonial rule in September 1964. After 10 years of sporadic warfare and major political changes in Portugal, Mozambique became independent on June 25, 1975.

The last 30 years of Mozambique's history have reflected political developments elsewhere in the 20th century. Following the April 1974 coup in Lisbon, Portuguese colonialism collapsed. In Mozambique, the military decision to withdraw occurred within the context of a decade of armed anti-colonial struggle, initially led by American-educated Eduardo Mondlane, who was assassinated in 1969. When independence was achieved in 1975, the leaders of FRELIMO's military campaign rapidly established a one-party state allied to the Soviet bloc and outlawed rival political activity. FRELIMO eliminated political pluralism, religious educational institutions, and the role of traditional authorities.

The new government gave shelter and support to South African (ANC) and Zimbabwean (ZANU) liberation movements while the governments of first Rhodesia and later apartheid South Africa fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central Mozambique called the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO). Civil war, sabotage from neighboring states, and economic collapse characterized the first decade of Mozambican independence. Also marking this period were the mass exodus of Portuguese nationals, weak infrastructure, nationalization, and economic mismanagement. During most of the civil war, the government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas, many of which were cut off from the capital. An estimated 1 million Mozambicans perished during the civil war, 1.7 million took refuge in neighboring states, and several million more were internally displaced. In the third FRELIMO party congress in 1983, President Samora Machel conceded the failure of socialism and the need for major political and economic reforms. He died, along with several advisers, in a suspicious 1986 plane crash.

His successor, Joaquim Chissano, continued the reforms and began peace talks with RENAMO. The new constitution enacted in 1990 provided for a multi-party political system, market-based economy, and free elections. The civil war ended in October 1992 with the Rome General Peace Accords. Under supervision of the ONUMOZ peacekeeping force of the United Nations, peace returned to Mozambique.

By mid-1995 the more than 1.7 million Mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighboring Malawi, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Zambia, Tanzania, and South Africa as a result of war and drought had returned, as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, a further estimated 4 million internally displaced people returned to their areas of origin.

==See also==
* [[Big government]] [[Welfare state]] leads to [[Nanny state]], leads to [[Police state]]

==References==
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mz.html#People CIA World Factbook]
{{Reflist}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/7035.htm]}}}.
|}

{{African Countries}}

[[Category:Communist States]]
[[Category:Police State]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Angola

2024-06-02T17:30:41Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''República de Angola''
|map =Angola rel90.jpg
|map2 =Location of Angola.png
|flag =Flag of Portugal.png
|arms =Arms of Angola.png
|capital =Luanda
|capital-raw =
|government =Multi-party republic
|government-raw =
|language =Portuguese
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =João Lourenço
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =481,354 sq mi
|pop =35,000,000 (2022)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$65,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =2005
|gdp-pc =$1,958 (2020)
|currency =Kwanza
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Angola''' is a country in southwestern [[Africa]]. It borders [[Namibia]], [[Zambia]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (adjacent to the [[Cabinda]] enclave). The capital of Angola is Luanda.

==Geography==
Angola is located on the South Atlantic Coast of West Africa between Namibia and the Republic of the Congo. It also is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north and east and Zambia to the east. The country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The upper reaches of the Zambezi River pass through Angola, and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool Benguela current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal Baja California. There is a short rainy season lasting from February to April. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild. The interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from November through April followed by a cool dry season from May to October when overnight temperatures can fall to freezing. Elevations generally range from 3,000 to 6,000 feet. The far north and Cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year.
*Area: 1,246,700 km2. (481,354 sq. mi), about twice the size of Texas.
*Cities: Capital—Luanda (est. pop. 5.0 million); Huambo (750,000); Benguela (600,000).
*Terrain: A narrow, dry coastal strip extending from the far north (Luanda) to Namibia in the south; well watered agricultural highlands; savanna in the far east and south; and rain forest in the north and the enclave of Cabinda.
*Climate: Tropical and tropical highland.

==People==
Estimates of Angola's population vary widely, as there has been no census since 1970, but it is estimated at no less than 15.5 million. Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, and Bakongo 13%. Other groups include Chokwe, Lunda, Ganguela, Nhaneca-Humbe, Ambo, Herero, and Xindunga. In addition, mixed racial (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). Portuguese is both the official and predominant language.
*Population (2005 est.): 15,500,000.
*Annual population growth rate (2004): 2.8%.
*Ethnic groups: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mixed racial 2%, European 1%.
*Religions (2001 official est.): Roman Catholic 68%, various Protestant 20%; indigenous beliefs 12%.
*Languages: Portuguese (official), Ovimbundu, Kimbundu, Bakongo, and others.
*Education: Years compulsory—8. Enrollment (combined gross enrollment for primary, secondary, and tertiary schools, 2004 est.)--26%. Literacy (total population over 15 that can read and write, 2004 est.)--67.4% (female 54.2%, male 82.9%).
*Health: Life expectancy (2004 est.)--total population 40.7 years. Infant mortality rate (2004 est.)--154/1,000.
*Work force (2003 est. 5.6 million): Agriculture—85%; industry and commerce—15%; services—6%.
===Religion===
The majority of the 16 million population is Christian, and of those, Roman Catholics are the largest religious group. The Catholic Church estimates that 55 percent of the population is Catholic, but this figure cannot be verified. Data from the National Institute for Religious Affairs (INAR) indicates African Christian denominations make up 25 percent of the population; 10 percent of the population follows a major Protestant tradition, such as Methodist, Baptist, Congregationalist (United Church of Christ), and Assembly of God; and 5 percent belongs to various Brazilian Evangelical churches. A small portion of the rural population practices animism or traditional indigenous religions. There is also a small Muslim community, estimated at 80,000-90,000 adherents, composed largely of migrants from West Africa and families of Lebanese origin.

Governmental agencies, church groups, and civil society organizations continued campaigns against traditional religions that involve shamans, employ animal sacrifices, or were identified as practicing witchcraft. The goal of these campaigns was to discourage abusive practices that can sometimes stem from the practice of traditional indigenous beliefs, in particular violence associated with exorcism. Church-related organizations focused on the doctrinal issues related to such practices as animal sacrifices or the use of shamans. There were periodic reports of child and elder abuse stemming from accusations of witchcraft, generally in rural areas and smaller cities. In some instances these accusations led to exorcism rituals that included willful neglect and physical abuse. In some cases deaths have been reported<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108352.htm 2008 State Department Report on Religious Freedom in Angola]</ref>

==Government and Political Conditions==
Angola changed from a one-party Marxist–Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a nominal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections, in which President dos Santos won the first-round election with 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%; a runoff never took place. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The government is based on ordinances, decrees, and decisions issued by a president and his ministers or through legislation produced by the National Assembly and approved by the president. The parliament is generally subordinate to the executive.

Few opportunities exist for opposition parties to challenge MPLA dominance. President dos Santos, following a recommendation of the Council of the Republic, has said legislative elections are being planned for 2008, with presidential elections to follow in 2009. A multi-party constitutional reform process will resume following elections.

Angola is governed by a president who is assisted by a prime minister and 31 cabinet ministers, all appointed by the president. Political power is concentrated in the presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the president (head of state and government), the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. The president, the Council of Ministers, and individual ministers in their areas of competence have the ability to legislate by decree.

Of the 220 deputies in the National Assembly, 130 are elected at large, and 5 are elected to represent each of the 18 provinces. The Electoral Law also calls for the election of three additional deputies to represent citizens living abroad; however, those positions were not filled in the 1992 elections. The ruling MPLA controls 59% of the seats.

The central government administers the country through 18 provinces. Governors of the provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president.

The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only a fraction of the 164 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Recently, the Supreme Court has acted as a Constitutional Court.

The 27-year-long civil war ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The government estimates that 4.7 million people were internally displaced by the civil war. In March 2007, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and Angola jointly celebrated the end of a 5-year organized voluntary repatriation program that returned home more than 400,000 Angolan refugees. The Angolan Government estimates as many as 100,000 refugees remain outside Angola, and it is working to help those who wish to return. Daily conditions of life throughout the country mirror the inadequate administrative infrastructure as well as weak social institutions. Government support for social institutions is often inadequate. Many hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.

===Principal Government Officials===
*President—[[João Lourenço]]
*Vice President—Bornito de Sousa
*President of the National Assembly—Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos

===Foreign Relations===
From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Soviet Union and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the [[Southern African Development Community]] as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely anglophone neighbors to the south. In 1997, Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops fought in support of the Laurent and Joseph Kabila governments. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) in support of President Sassou-Nguesso. Angola has also engaged in a more robust economic relationship with the People's Republic of China. The P.R.C. has extended a U.S. $2 billion credit line to Angola.

Multilaterally, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and a means of expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil. During the peace process, the government fully cooperated with the UN Mission in Angola (UNMA), which concluded its mandate in mid-February 2003. Angola concluded a 2-year term on the UN Security Council in December 2004. In June 2007, it began a 3-year term on the Human Rights Council.

==Defense==
The Angolan Armed Forces, known by its Portuguese acronym FAA, are headed by a chief of staff who reports to the civilian minister of defense. There are three services—the army, navy, and air force. Total manpower is about 140,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 130,000 personnel. The navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes, Bell helicopters, and Italian trainers. The "Casa Militar," or presidential guard, answers directly to the Office of the President and is separate from FAA command and control structures.

==Economy==
Angola has a fast-growing economy largely due to a major oil boom, but it also ranks in the bottom 10% of most socioeconomic indicators. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projects that Angola's real GDP will increase by 31.4% in 2007, although the Angolan Government in July reduced its own projection for 2007 real GDP growth to 19.8%. Aside from the oil sector and diamonds, Angola is recovering from 27 years of nearly continuous warfare, corruption, and economic mismanagement. Despite abundant natural resources, and rising per capita GDP, it was ranked 161 out of 177 countries on the 2006 UN Development Program's (UNDP) Human Development Index. Subsistence agriculture sustains one-third of the population.

By contrast, the rapidly expanding petroleum industry—now producing approximately 1.7 million barrels per day (bpd), behind only Nigeria in Africa—accounts for 51.7% of GNP, 95% of exports, and 80% of government revenues. Production is expected to reach 1.8 million barrels per day by the end of 2007. Angola also produces 40,000 bpd of locally refined oil. Oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy, though a local content initiative promulgated by the Angolan Government is pressuring oil companies to source from local businesses.

Block 15, located offshore of the enclave of Cabinda, currently provides 40% of Angola's crude oil production. ExxonMobil, through its subsidiary Esso, is the operator with a 40% share. In 2005, Block 15's second major sub-field, Kizomba B, came online producing at about 250,000 bpd. BP, ENI-Agip, and Statoil are partners in the concession. Chevron operates Block 0, also in offshore Cabinda, which provides one-quarter of Angola's crude oil production. Its partners in Block 0 are Sonangol (the Angolan state oil company), TotalFinaElf, and ENI-Agip. In 2006, Block 0 had a total production of 400,000 bpd, and drilling activity continues at a high level. Chevron also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, which started pumping in January 2000 and produced 105,000 bpd in 2006.

TotalFinaElf brought the first Kwanza Basin deepwater blocks on-line with production from its Block 17 concession that began in February 2002. Inauguration of the Dalia oilfield in December 2006 combined with the Girassol field already in operation brought Block 17's total production to approximately 500,000 bpd as of July 2007. Exploration is ongoing in ultra-deep water concessions and in deepwater and shallow concessions in the Namibe Basin. BP made the first significant ultra-deepwater find in its Block 31 concession in 2002 and had reached nine significant discoveries by the end of 2005. BP expects to ship its first crude from the Plutonio oilfied in Block 18 in September 2007 and expects Plutonio to average 200,000 bpd in full production. Marathon also drilled a successful well in its Block 32 ultra-deep water concession. TotalFinaElf operates Angola's one refinery (in Luanda) as a joint venture with Sonangol; plans for a second refinery in Lobito with projected production of 200,000 bpd are moving forward. There are plans to increase capacity of the Luanda refinery from 40,000 bpd to 100,000 bpd. Chevron, Sonangol, BP, Total, and Eni are developing a $4–5 billion liquefied natural gas plant at Soyo.

Exports to Asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years, particularly China. In late 2004, China's state oil company Sinopec bought into Block 18, securing the deal by offering a $2 billion signing bonus to Sonangol, the national oil company. Sinopec has also formed a partnership with Sonangol to operate Block 3/05 (formerly Block 3/80), whose operation was transferred from Total to Sonangol. Sonangol will seek to expand its operation of onshore and shallow water blocks. This includes the northern block of Cabinda's onshore concessions, which since the reduction in hostilities with separatist forces is now open to exploration. Sonangol and Sinopec will also be eyeing future concession rounds, particularly for 23 blocks in the Kwanza Basin onshore area and the relinquished parts of Blocks 15, 17, and 18, currently operated by Exxon, Total, and BP. During 2006, Angola was the leading source country in terms of dollar value for the crude oil China imported, importing U.S. $10.928 billion, up 16.5% year on year.

Diamonds make up most of Angola's remaining exports, with yearly production at 6 million carats. Diamond sales reached approximately $1.1 billion in 2006. Despite increased corporate ownership of diamond fields, much production is currently in the hands of small-scale prospectors, often operating illegally. Only eight formal sector mines are operating out of a total of 145 concessions. In June 2005, De Beers signed a $10 million prospecting contract with the government's diamond parastatal, ending a 4-year investment dispute between De Beers and the government. The government is making an increased effort to register and license prospectors. Legal sales of rough diamonds may occur only through the government's diamond-buying parastatal, although many producers continue to bypass the system to obtain higher prices. The government has established an export certification scheme consistent with the "Kimberley Process" to identify legitimate production and sales. Other mineral resources, including gold, remain largely undeveloped, though granite and marble quarrying have begun.

In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African agricultural exporter. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive laying of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities were brought to a near standstill, and the country now imports about half of its food. Small-scale agricultural production has increased dramatically over the last 3 years as internally displaced persons (IDPs) are returning to the land. Some efforts at commercial agricultural recovery have gone forward, notably in fisheries and tropical fruits, but most of the country's vast potential remains untapped. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Recently passed land reform laws will attempt to reconcile overlapping traditional land use rights, colonial-era land claims, and recent land grants to facilitate significant commercial agricultural development.

An economic reform effort launched in 1998 was only marginally successful in addressing persistent fiscal mismanagement and corruption. In April 2000, Angola started an IMF staff-monitored program (SMP). The program lapsed in June 2001 over IMF concerns about lack of adequate Angolan progress. Under the program, the Government of Angola did succeed in unifying exchange rates and moving fuel, electricity, and water prices closer to market rates. In March 2007, the government announced it was not interested in a formally-structured IMF program, but would continue to participate in Article IV consultations and other technical assistance on an ad hoc basis.

In December 2002 President dos Santos named a new economic team to oversee homegrown reform efforts. The new team succeeded in decreasing overall government spending, rationalizing the Kwanza exchange rate, closing regulatory loopholes allowing off-budget expenditures, and capturing all revenues in the state budget. New procedures were implemented to track the flow of funds between the Treasury, Banco Nacional de Angola (the central bank), and the state-owned Banco de Poupanca e Credito, which operates the budget. The Angolan Government adopted a new investment code. Concerns remain about quasi-fiscal operations by the state oil company Sonangol, continued oil-backed commercial borrowing by the Angolan Government, and inadequate transparency and oversight in the management of public accounts. The Angolan commercial code, financial sector law, and telecommunications law all require substantial revision.

Angola is the second-largest trading partner of the United States in sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. U.S. exports to Angola primarily consist of industrial goods and services—such as oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food. On December 30, 2003, President Bush approved the designation of Angola as eligible for tariff preferences under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).
*GDP (2006 est. using purchasing power parity): $53.9 billion.
*Annual real GDP growth rate (2006 est.): 15.3%.
*Per capita GDP (2006 est. using purchasing power parity): $3,399.
*Avg. inflation rate (2006): 12.3%.
*Natural resources: Petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, bauxite, uranium, gold, granite, copper, feldspar.
*Agriculture: Products—bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc, tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fisheries products.
*Industry: Types—petroleum drilling and refining, mining, cement, basic metal products, fish processing, food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar refining, textiles.
*Trade: Exports (2007 projected)--petroleum $35.6 billion. 2006 exports consisted of petroleum and derivatives (94%), diamonds (3.5%), other (2.2%), coffee, sisal, timber, cotton, fish, scrap metal. Major markets (2004)--U.S. (37.70%), China (35.6%), France (6.4%), South Korea (2.95%). Imports (2006)--$10.7 billion: machinery, electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts, medicines, food, textiles. Major sources (2006)--Portugal (17.1%), U.S. (9.8%), South Africa (8.0%), China (8.5%), Brazil (8.6%).

==History==
In 1482, when the Portuguese first landed in what is now northern Angola, they encountered the Kingdom of the Congo, which stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. Mbanza Congo, the capital, had a population of 50,000 people. South of this kingdom were various important states, of which the Kingdom of Ndongo, ruled by the ngola (king), was most significant. Modern Angola derives its name from the king of Ndongo. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars. The Dutch occupied Luanda from 1641 to 1648, providing a boost for anti-Portuguese states. In 1648, Brazilian-based Portuguese forces re-took Luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the Congo and Ndongo states that ended with Portuguese victory in 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior did not occur until the beginning of the 20th century.

Portugal's primary interest in Angola quickly turned to slavery. The slaving system began early in the 16th century with the purchase from African chiefs of people to work on sugar plantations in São Tomé, Principé, and Brazil. Many scholars agree that by the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves not only for Brazil, but also for the Americas, including the United States. By the end of the 19th century, a massive forced labor system had replaced formal slavery and would continue until outlawed in 1961. It was this forced labor that provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and, by the mid-20th century, a major mining sector. Forced labor combined with British financing to construct three railroads from the coast to the interior, the most important of which was the transcontinental Benguela railroad that linked the port of Lobito with the copper zones of the Belgian Congo and what is now Zambia, through which it connects to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white immigration, especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms. As decolonization progressed elsewhere in Africa, Portugal, under the Salazar and Caetano dictatorships, rejected independence and treated its African colonies as overseas provinces. Consequently, three independence movements emerged: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by Agostinho Neto, with a base among Kimbundu and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the East Bloc; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the United States and the Mobutu regime in Kinshasa; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Malheiro Savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country and links to the People's Republic of China and apartheid South Africa.

From the early 1960s, elements of these movements fought against the Portuguese. A 1974 coup d'état in Portugal established a military government that promptly ceased the war and agreed, in the Alvor Accords, to hand over power to a coalition of the three movements. The ideological differences between the three movements eventually led to armed conflict, with FNLA and UNITA forces, encouraged by their respective international supporters, attempting to wrest control of Luanda from the MPLA. The intervention of troops from South Africa on behalf of UNITA and Zaire on behalf of the FNLA in September and October 1975 and the MPLA's importation of Cuban troops in November effectively internationalized the conflict. Retaining control of Luanda, the coastal strip, and increasingly lucrative oil fields in Cabinda, the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975, the day the Portuguese abandoned the capital. UNITA and the FNLA formed a rival coalition government based in the interior city of Huambo. Agostinho Neto became the first president of the MPLA government that was recognized by the United Nations in 1976. Upon Neto's death from cancer in 1979, then-Planning Minister José Eduardo dos Santos ascended to the presidency.

The FNLA's military failures led to its increasing marginalization, internal divisions, and abandonment by international supporters. An internationalized conventional civil war between UNITA and the MPLA continued until 1989. For much of this time, UNITA controlled vast swaths of the interior and was backed by U.S. resources and South African troops. Similarly, tens of thousands of Cuban troops remained in support of the MPLA, often fighting South Africans on the front lines. A U.S.-brokered agreement resulted in withdrawal of foreign troops in 1989 and led to the Bicesse Accord in 1991, which spelled out an electoral process for a democratic Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. When UNITA's Jonas Savimbi failed to win the first round of the presidential election in 1992 (he won 40% to dos Santos's 49%, which required a runoff), he called the election fraudulent and returned to war. Another peace accord, known as the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, Zambia, and signed in 1994. This agreement, too, collapsed into renewed conflict. The UN Security Council voted on August 28, 1997 to impose sanctions on UNITA. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999, which destroyed UNITA's conventional capacity and recaptured all major cities previously held by Savimbi's forces. Savimbi then declared a return to guerrilla tactics, which continued until his death in combat in February 2002.

On April 4, 2002, the Angolan Government and UNITA signed the Luena Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), which formalized the de facto cease-fire that prevailed following Savimbi's death. In accordance with the MOU, UNITA recommitted to the peace framework in the 1994 Lusaka Protocol, returned all remaining territory to Angolan Government control, quartered all military personnel in predetermined locations, and relinquished all arms. In August 2002, UNITA demobilized all military personnel and in September 2002, together with the government, reconstituted the UN-sponsored Joint Commission to resolve all outstanding political issues under the Lusaka Protocol. On November 21, 2002, UNITA and the government declared all outstanding issues resolved and the Lusaka Protocol fully implemented. UN Security Council sanctions on UNITA were lifted on December 9, 2002. UNITA and the MPLA held their first post-war party congresses in June and December 2003, respectively. The UNITA Congress saw the democratic transfer of power from interim leader General Paulo Lukumba "Gato" to former UNITA representative in Paris Isaias Henriqué Samakuva, while the MPLA Congress reaffirmed President dos Santos' leadership of party structures. Samakuva was reelected to a second 4-year term as UNITA party president at a UNITA party congress in July 2007, and will serve as UNITA's leader for the next 4 years.

The signing of the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for Peace and Reconciliation in Cabinda on August 1, 2006, is seen as a step toward ending conflict in Cabinda and in bringing about greater representation for the people of Cabinda. It follows a successful counterinsurgency campaign by the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA), who still maintain a strong troop presence there. The MOU rejects the notion of Cabindan independence, calls for the demobilization and reintegration of former Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) fighters into various governmental positions, and creates a special political and economic status for the province of Cabinda. Many FLEC military combatants have now been integrated into the Angolan Armed Forces, including some command positions. In addition, Cabindans will be given designated numbers of vice ministerial and other positions in the Angolan Government. Some FLEC members, who did not sign onto the peace memorandum, continue their independence efforts through public outreach and infrequent low-level attacks against FAA convoys and outposts.

==See also==
* [[Big government]] [[Welfare state]] leads to [[Nanny state]], leads to [[Police state]]

==References==
<references/>
[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ao.html CIA World Factbook - Angola]

{{License|license = This work is in the [[public domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the US Code.| source = [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6619.htm]}}

{{African Countries}}

[[Category:Angola]]
[[Category:African History]]
[[Category:Communist States]]
[[Category:Police State]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Jordan

2024-06-02T14:08:13Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =المملكة الأردنية الهاشمية ''Al-Mamlakah al-Urdunniyyah al-Hāšimiyyah''
|map =Jordan rel 2004.jpg
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =Arms of Jordan.png
|capital =Amman
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Arabic
|king =Abdullah II
|queen =Rania Al Abdullah
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Bisher Khasawneh
|pm-raw =
|area =45,495 sq mi
|pop =10,333,333 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$42,500,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$4,113 (2020)
|currency =Jordanian dinar
|idd =
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}}
'''Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ''' "المملكة الأردنية الهاشمية" also known as Jordan "الأردنّ" is a British colony in the [[Middle East]]. It borders [[Syria]] to the north, [[Saudi Arabia]] to the southwest, [[Iraq]] to the east, and [[Israel]] and the Palestinian territories (west bank) to the west. Along with Israel, Jordan borders the [[Dead Sea]].

==People==
Jordanians are Arabs, except for a few small communities of Circassians, Armenians, and Kurds who have adapted to Arab culture. The official language is Arabic, but English is used widely in commerce and government. About 70% of Jordan's population is urban; less than 6% of the rural population is nomadic or semi-nomadic. Most of the population lives where rainfall can support agriculture. Approximately 1.7 million registered Palestinian refugees and other displaced persons reside in Jordan, most as citizens.
*Population (2006, per IMF): 5.63 million.
*Religions (est.): Sunni Muslim 94%, Christian 6%,
*Languages: Arabic (official), English.
*Education (2006, according to Jordan's Department of Statistics): Literacy—90.9%.and is the highest in the Arab world.
*Health (2003): Infant mortality rate—19/1,000. Life expectancy—71 yrs.
*Ethnic groups: Mostly Arab but small communities of Circassians, Armenians, and Kurds.
*Work force (1.3 million, of which 260 thousand are registered guest workers): public sector 17%, services 36%, manufacturing 20%, education 12%, health and social services 10%, primary industries 5%.
*Unemployment rate (2006): 13% of economically active Jordanians.

==Government==
Jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitution promulgated on January 8, 1952. Executive authority is vested in the King and his Council of Ministers. The King signs and executes all laws. His veto power may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the National Assembly. He appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution, declares war, and commands the armed forces. Cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name. The King, who may dismiss other cabinet members at the prime minister's request, appoints the council of ministers, led by a prime minister. The cabinet is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies on matters of general policy and can be forced to resign by a two-thirds vote of "no confidence" by that body.

Legislative power rests in the bicameral National Assembly. The number of deputies in the current Chamber of Deputies is 110, with a number of seats reserved for various religions, ethnicities, and women. The Chamber, elected by universal suffrage to a 4-year term, is subject to dissolution by the King. The King appoints the 55-member Senate for a 4-year term. Parliamentary elections are scheduled to be held in the fall of 2007.

The constitution provides for three categories of courts—civil, religious, and special. About 20 women are murdered each year in Jordan in the barbaric practice known as "[[honor killing]]", sometimes for simply dating a man. Until recently, the Jordanian penal code allowed for "honor" killers to get sentences as lenient as six months. Attempts to apply thougher punishments for these henious crimes are resisted and blocked by the country's Muslim lawmakers.<ref>FOX News: [https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,246712,00.html Jordanian Shoots Dead 17-Year-Old Daughter in Honor Killing] (January 25, 2007)</ref>

Administratively, Jordan is divided into 12 governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the King. They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Chief of State—King Abdullah bin al-Hussein II
*Prime Minister—Abdullah Ensour
*Minister of Defense—Nader Al-Thahabi
*Foreign Minister—Abdelelah al-Khatib
*Ambassador to the UN—Chargé d'affaires Bashir Zubi

===Political Conditions===
King Hussein I ruled Jordan from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability for both the East Bank and Palestinian communities in Jordan. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair parliamentary elections. Controversial changes in the election law led Islamist parties to boycott the 1997 elections. King Hussein ended martial law in 1991 and legalized political parties in 1992.

King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999. Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the U.S. Abdullah, during his first year in power, refocused the government's agenda on economic reform.

Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open political environment led to the emergence of a variety of political parties. Moving toward greater independence, Jordan's Parliament has investigated corruption charges against several regime figures and has become the major forum in which differing political views, including those of political Islamists, are expressed. In June 2001, the King dissolved Parliament. Parliamentary elections were held in June 2003, and municipal elections were held in July 2003. The King appointed the former Prime Minister, Marouf Bakhit, in December 2005. Bakhit and his cabinet have set as their goal the continued legislative implementation of a ten-year reform plan, known as the National Agenda, drafted by a royal commission in 2005. The King also charged the new cabinet with strengthening Jordan's security following the November 2005 suicide hotel bombings in Amman that killed 60. New elections took place in 2007 in both the governates and the parliament, and the new primeminister Mr. [[Nader Al-Thahabi]] was appointed in November 2007.

===Foreign Relations===
Jordan has consistently followed a pro-Western foreign policy and traditionally has had close relations with the United States. These relations were damaged by support in Jordan for Iraq during the first Gulf war. Although the Government of Jordan stated its opposition to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, popular support for Iraq was driven by Jordan's Palestinian community, which favored Saddam as a champion against Western supporters of Israel.

Following the first Gulf war, Jordan largely restored its relations with Western countries through its participation in the Middle East peace process and enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq. Relations between Jordan and the Gulf countries improved substantially after King Hussein's death. Following the fall of the Iraqi regime, Jordan has played a pivotal role in supporting the restoration of stability and security to Iraq. The Government of Jordan has facilitated the training of over 50,000 Iraqi police cadets at a Jordanian facility near Amman.

Jordan signed a nonbelligerency agreement with Israel (the Washington Declaration) in Washington, DC, on July 25, 1994. Jordan and Israel signed a historic peace treaty on October 26, 1994, witnessed by President Clinton, accompanied by Secretary Christopher. The U.S. has participated with Jordan and Israel in trilateral development discussions in which key issues have been water-sharing and security; cooperation on Jordan Rift Valley development; infrastructure projects; and trade, finance, and banking issues. Jordan also participates in multilateral peace talks. Jordan belongs to the UN and several of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and World Health Organization (WHO). Jordan also is a member of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Nonaligned Movement, and Arab League.

Since the outbreak of the Intifada in September 2000, Jordan has worked to maintain lines of communication between the Israelis and the Palestinians to counsel moderation and to return the parties to negotiations of outstanding permanent status issues.

During summer 2006, Jordan provided considerable relief supplies to Lebanon and has supported U.S. efforts to generate international security assistance for Lebanese national forces.

== Defence ==
The Jordanian military is one of the most reliable in the region, augmentented with modern weaponry from the Unites States, Britain and Russia, and has had a great role in peace keeping and counter-terrorism missions throughout the world.
*[[Royal Jordanian land forces]]
*[[Royal Jordanian Airforce]]
*[[Royal Jordanian Navy]]
*[[Royal Jordanian special forces]]

==Economy==
Jordan is a small country with limited natural resources. The country is currently exploring ways to expand its limited water supply and use its existing water resources more efficiently, including through regional cooperation. Jordan also depends on external sources for the majority of its energy requirements. During the 1990s, its crude petroleum needs were met through imports from neighboring Iraq. Since early 2003, oil has been provided by some Gulf Cooperation Council member countries. In addition, a natural gas pipeline from Egypt to Jordan through the southern port city of Aqaba is now operational. The pipeline has reached northern Jordan and construction to connect it to Syria and beyond is underway.

Under King Abdullah, Jordan has undertaken a program of economic reform. The government has taken the initiative to gradually eliminate fuel subsidies, pass legislation targeting corruption, and begin tax reform. It has also worked to liberalize trade, gaining access to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2000, signing an Association Agreement with the European Union (EU) in 2001, and securing the first bilateral Free Trade Agreement between the U.S. and an Arab country in 2001. Since 2000, exports of light manufactured products, principally textiles and garments manufactured in the Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) that enter the United States tariff and quota free, have been driving economic growth. Jordan exported $6.9 million in goods to the U.S. in 1997, when two-way trade was $395 million; according to the U.S. International Trade Commission, it exported $1.42 billion in 2006, with two-way trade at $2.07 billion.

The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States that went into effect in December 2001 will phase out duties on nearly all goods and services by 2010. The agreement also provides for more open markets in communications, construction, finance, health, transportation, and services, as well as strict application of international standards for the protection of intellectual property. In 1996, Jordan and the United States signed a civil aviation agreement that provides for "open skies" between the two countries, and a U.S.-Jordan treaty for the protection and encouragement of bilateral investment entered into force in 2003.

Such developments hold considerable promise for diversifying Jordan's economy away from its traditional reliance on exports of phosphates and potash, overseas remittances, and foreign aid. The government has emphasized the information technology (IT) and tourism sectors as other promising growth sectors. The low tax and low regulation Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZ) is considered a model of a government-provided framework for private sector-led economic growth.

Jordan is classified by the World Bank as a "lower middle income country." The per capita GDP, as reported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), was $2,533 for 2006. According to Jordan's Department of Statistics, 13% of the economically active Jordanian population residing in Jordan was unemployed in 2006. Education and literacy rates and measures of social well-being are relatively high compared to other countries with similar incomes. Jordan's population growth rate has declined in recent years and is currently 2.3% as reported by the Jordanian government. One of the most important factors in the government's efforts to improve the well-being of its citizens is the macroeconomic stability that has been achieved since the 1990s. The rate of inflation in 2006 was 6.3%; the currency has been stable with an exchange rate fixed to the U.S. dollar since 1995 at JD 0.708-0.710 to the dollar. In 2006, Jordan significantly reduced its debt to GDP ratio to 73.2% of GDP.

While pursuing economic reform and increased trade, Jordan's economy will continue to be vulnerable to external shocks and regional unrest. Without calm in the region, economic growth seems destined to stay below its potential.
*Total GDP (2005): $27.96 billion
*Nominal GDP (2006): $14.3 billion.
*Annual real growth rate (2006): 6.4%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $2,533.
*Natural resources: Phosphate, potash.
*Agriculture: Products—fruits, vegetables, wheat, olive oil, barley, olives. Land—10% arable; 5% cultivated.
*Industry (26.5% of GDP in 2006): Types—phosphate mining, manufacturing, electricity and water; cement and petroleum production, and construction.
*Trade: Exports (2006)--$5.17 billion: phosphates, potash, garments, fertilizers, pharmaceutical products, agricultural products. Major markets—U.S., Iraq, India, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E., Syria, Israel, Kuwait. Imports (2006)--$11.46 billion: crude petroleum and derivatives, vehicles, machinery and equipment, cereals, fabrics and textiles. Major suppliers—Saudi Arabia (mainly crude oil and derivatives), EU, China, U.S., Egypt, South Korea, Japan, Turkey.

== History ==
The land that became Jordan is part of the richly historical [[Fertile Crescent]] region. Around 2000 B.C., Semitic [[Amorites]] settled around the [[Jordan River]] in the area called [[Canaan]]. Subsequent invaders and settlers included [[Hittites]], [[Egyptians]], [[Israelites]], [[Assyrians]], [[Babylonians]], [[Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Roman]]s, Arab [[Muslims]], Christian [[Crusaders]], [[Mamelukes]], [[Ottoman Turks]], and, finally, the [[British]]. At the end of [[World War I]], the [[League of Nations]] awarded the territory now comprising Israel, Jordan, the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza]], and [[Jerusalem]] to the United Kingdom as the mandate for [[Palestine]] and [[Transjordan]]. In 1922, the British divided the mandate by establishing the semiautonomous Emirate of Transjordan, ruled by the Hashemite Prince Abdullah, while continuing the administration of Palestine under a British High Commissioner. The mandate over Transjordan ended on May 22, 1946; on May 25, the country became the independent Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. It ended its special defense treaty relationship with the United Kingdom in 1957.

Transjordan was one of the Arab states which moved to assist Palestinian nationalists opposed to the creation of Israel in May 1948, and took part in the warfare between the Arab states and the newly founded State of Israel. The armistice agreements of April 3, 1949 left Jordan in control of the West Bank and provided that the armistice demarcation lines were without prejudice to future territorial settlements or boundary lines.

In 1956, the country gained it's full independence from the British and became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to include those portions of Palestine annexed by [[King Abdullah I]]. While recognizing Jordanian administration over the West Bank, the United States maintained the position that ultimate sovereignty was subject to future agreement.

Jordan signed a mutual defense pact in May 1967 with Egypt, and it participated in the [[Six Day War|June 1967 war]] against Israel. During the war, Israel gained control of the West Bank and all of Jerusalem. In 1989, Jordan renounced all claims to the West Bank but retained an administrative role pending a final settlement, and its 1994 treaty with Israel allowed for a continuing Jordanian role in Muslim holy places in Jerusalem. The U.S. Government considers the West Bank to be territory occupied by Israel and believes that its final status should be determined through direct negotiations among the parties concerned on the basis of [[UN]] [[Security Council Resolution 242|Security Council Resolutions 242]] and [[Security Council Resolution 338|338]].

In 1968, the Israeli army attacked the area in western Jordan to hit [[fedayeen]] controlled areas and to take control of the Salt hights in central Jordan, a battle erupted in the Jordanian valley between the Israeli troops and the Jordanian army, which led the Israelis to withraw from the area.

The 1967 war led not only to a loss of a huge part of land under Jordan's control (the West Bank), but also a dramatic increase in the number of Palestinians living in the remainder of Jordan due to an inclusion of refugees. Its Palestinian refugee population—700,000 in 1966—grew by another 300,000 from the West Bank. The period following the 1967 war saw an upsurge in the power and importance of Palestinian resistance elements (fedayeen) in Jordan. The heavily armed fedayeen constituted a growing threat to the sovereignty and security of the Hashemite state, and open fighting erupted in June 1970.

No fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire line during the October 1973 Arab-Israeli war, but Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to fight Israeli units on Syrian territory. Jordan did not participate in the Gulf war of 1990–91. In 1991, Jordan agreed, along with Syria, Lebanon, and Palestinian representatives, to participate in direct peace negotiations with Israel sponsored by the U.S. and Russia. It negotiated an end to hostilities with Israel and signed a peace treaty in 1994. Jordan has since sought to remain at peace with all of its neighbors.

==See also==
* [[Black September]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jo.html The World Fact Book]

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!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
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|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
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{{Asian Countries}}

[[Category:Middle Eastern Countries]]
[[Category:Muslim-Majority Countries]]

Hong Kong

2024-06-02T03:18:21Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =Hong Kong ''Xiānggǎng''
|map =Hong kong pol98.jpg
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =Hong Kong Emblem.png
|capital =
|capital-raw =
|government =Special Administrative Region
|government-raw =
|language = Cantonese, English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|chief Executive= Leung Cheng Ying
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =426.4 sq. miles
|pop =7,500,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$350,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$46,667 (2020)
|currency =Hong Kong dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Hong Kong''' was a pocket of [[freedom]] standing up against the oppressive [[communist]] regime of the [[Peoples Republic of China]] up to 2020. The PRC calls it a [[Special Administrative Region]]. Located at the mouth of the Pearl River and formerly a [[British]] colony, Hong Kong sits opposite the former Portuguese possession of [[Macau]]. Hong Kong consists of Hong Kong island, Lamma, Lantau and various smaller islands, and Kowloon and the New Territories on the Chinese mainland. The name "Hong Kong" means ''fragrant harbor''.

In 2019 Hong Kong was clinging to [[democracy]] against tyrannical suppression by [[communist]] [[China]]. Pro-[[globalist]] entities, like [[Nike, Inc.]], and the [[NBA]], favor [[China]] for financial gain. In 2020, the CCP violated and abolished the international peace agreement guarantying Hong Kong's democratic sovereignty, and brought the formerly free people under control of the oppressive socialist and communist slave system.

From 1841 to 1997, it was a British colony and the main trading base for the [[British Empire]] in Asia. Despite being handed back to China in 1997, it has remained autonomy under "one country, two systems" and being an SAR status. There was a [[free press]] but no [[democracy]] and no real elections; all major government decisions are made by the government of China.

The population of Hong Kong is about 7 million people. The largest urban areas are Kowloon (population 2 million), Central, Tsuen Wan and Sha Tin. Property prices in Hong Kong's Central District are the second most expensive in the world, after those of central [[Tokyo]].

==People==
{{language box
|c=香港
|p=Xiānggǎng
|j=Hoeng1 Gong2
}}
Hong Kong's population has increased steadily over the past decade, reaching about 6.92 million in 2007. Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, with an overall density of some 6,250 people per square kilometer. Cantonese, the official Chinese language in Hong Kong, is spoken by most of the population. English, also an official language, is widely understood, being spoken by more than one-third of the population. Every major religion is practiced freely in Hong Kong. All children are required by law to be in full-time education between the ages of 6 and 15. Preschool education for most children begins at age 3. Primary school begins normally at the age of 6 and lasts for 6 years. At about age 12, children progress to a 3-year course of junior secondary education. Most stay on for a 2-year senior secondary course, while others join full-time vocational training. More than 90% of children complete upper secondary education or equivalent vocational education.
*Population (mid-2007): 6.92 million.
*Population growth rate (2006): 0.6%.
*Ethnic groups: Chinese 95%; other 5%.
*Religions: About 43% participate in some form of religious practice. Christian, about 9.6%.
*Languages: Cantonese (a dialect of Chinese) and English are official.
*Education: Literacy—97.1% (98.7% male, 95.4% female).
*Health (2006): Infant mortality rate—1.8/1,000. Life expectancy—82.6 yrs. (overall); 79.5 yrs. males, 85.6 yrs. females.
*Work force (2007): 3.65 million. Wholesale, retail, and import/export trades and restaurants and hotels—28.8%; finance, insurance, real estate, and business services—13.8%; manufacturing—4.3%.

====The arts====
Hong Kong has the world's third largest film industry after [[Bollywood]] and [[Hollywood]]. Most films are produced in the [[Cantonese]] language, although a few Hong Kong stars, such as [[Jackie Chan]] are known internationally.

==Government and political conditions==
[[File:Hong Kong protests.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Grafetti from the late November 2019 Hong Kong democracy protests reads: "Dear World, CCP will infiltrate your government, Chinese enterprises $ interfere your political stance, China will harvest your home like [[Xinjiang]]. BE AWARE or BE NEXT!"<ref>https://twitter.com/HKstreetart/status/1196483549492391937/photo/1</ref>]]
The political conditions in Hong Kong formerly differed from that of the Chinese mainland due to the history of British [[colonialism]]. Hong Kong maintained a British colony for 156 years until 1997, whereby it was handed to China under the "one country, two systems" policy formulated by [[Deng Xiaoping]] and [[Margaret Thatcher]] in 1984. This policy supposedly means that [[classical liberal]] freedoms such as the [[rule of law]], [[freedom of speech]], [[economic freedom]].

In 2020 the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) was headed by Chief Executive Carrie Lam, who first took office in 2017. The Election Committee that votes on the Chief Executive (CE) is made up of approximately 800 Hong Kong residents from four constituency groups: commercial, industrial, and financial interests; professionals; labor, social services, and religious interests; and the legislature, the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, and the P.R.C. National People's Congress.

In July 2002, the Hong Kong Government implemented the Principal Officials Accountability System, which was designed to make the government more responsive to public concerns. Twelve political appointees, directly responsible to the Chief Executive, run the 12 policy bureaus. Three other senior civil service positions—the Chief Secretary, Financial Secretary, and Justice Secretary—are also filled by political appointments.

While Hong Kong remains a free and open society where human rights are respected, courts are independent, and there is well-established respect for the rule of law, residents are limited in their ability to change their government, and the legislature is limited in its power to affect government policies. The September 12, 2004 Legislative Council (Legco) elections were seen as generally free, open, and widely contested, although Hong Kong groups have alleged voter intimidation, manipulation, or pressure in connection with them.

In December 2005 the Legco rejected a Hong Kong Government-proposed package of incremental reforms to the mechanisms for choosing the CE in 2007 and forming the Legco in 2008. In July 2007, the Hong Kong Government's Commission on Strategic Development issued a Green Paper on Constitutional Development, which set out a myriad of options to reform the CE and Legco electoral mechanisms, with the "ultimate aim" of universal suffrage as prescribed by the Basic Law.
[[File:Government House Hong Kong.jpg|thumb|left|360px|Government House.]]
On December 12, 2007, former Chief Executive Donald Tsang submitted a report on the Green Paper to the central government. The report said more than half of local people wanted universal suffrage by 2012, but 2017 might be a more realistic date. In December 2007, the P.R.C. National People's Congress Standing Committee (NPCSC) issued a decision on Hong Kong's constitutional development which, while ruling out universal suffrage in 2012, appears to open the way for Hong Kong to achieve full universal suffrage for the CE in 2017, and full universal suffrage for Legco sometime thereafter. Any amendments to the Basic Law will require approval by the CE, at least two-thirds of Legco, and then the NPCSC.

In 2011- 2012, the government tried to implement National Education in Hong Kong but failed due to protests. While it may sound good to a [[Conservative]] [[American]], it has a bias slant towards China as it is missing key points in Chinese history like the June 4th incident.

On June 1, 2012, Chief Executive Leung Cheng Ying replaced Donald Tsang as Chief Executive.

On September 28, 2014, police fired tear gas onto unarmed protesters that occupied major roads in the city centre. The protests were commonly known as the Umbrella Movement. The protesters were fighting for basic Universal Suffrage instead of SAR government's view of democracy which selects pro Beijing candidates by using the election committee consisting of 1200 mostly pro Beijing citizens in Hong Kong. Instead of ending the protests, the protests spread to other areas of Hong Kong including Mongkok, a place known for shopping and triad/ gang activity, Tsim Sha Tui, a shopping and tourist district and Causeway Bay, the Hong Kong version of the [[New York]] [[Times Square]]. The protests ended on December 15, 2014, due to the lack of support from the Hong Kong public, failed tactics and police clearance of the streets.

In 2019, Hong Kong was besieged by protests of hundreds and thousands of people against an extradition bill. Opponents of the proposed law claim that it violates the "one country, two systems" policy, and that such extradition would allow political opponents to be extradited to mainland China, where their rights are not protected to the same level as in Hong Kong, citing arrests from the 2014 protests as precedent.<ref>Lily Kuo and Verna Yu. July 25, 2019. [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/10/what-are-the-hong-kong-protests-about-explainer "What are the Hong Kong protests about?".] ''The Guardian''.</ref>

Hong Kong's foreign relations and defense are the responsibility of China. Hong Kong was an independent customs territory and economic entity separate from the rest of China up until 2020, and was able to enter into international agreements on its own behalf in commercial and economic matters. Hong Kong, independently of China, formerly participated as a full member of numerous international economic organizations including the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC), and the Financial Action Task Force (FATF).
[[Image:Hongkong.jpg|center|thumb|950px|The Hong Kong skyline.]]
===National Security Service===

The National Security Service of the Hong Kong Police Force arrested five officers of the General Union of Speech Therapists on July 22, 2021. Those arrested included the chairman, deputy chairman, secretary, and treasurer on the pretext of breaching the National Security Law. The five are accused of conspiring to print seditious publications — children’s cartoon books. Approximately 550 related publications and a batch of leaflets were seized in the operation, and the union’s bank account frozen.

The National Security Service accused the books of vilifying the government and provoking hatred. Three cartoon books under suspicion were ''Guardians of the Sheep Village'', ''The Twelve Warriors of the Sheep Village'', and ''The Sheep Village Scavengers''. Sources say ''Guardians of the Sheep Village'' tells about two villages, one of whom lived with “good sheep” and the other with the “evil wolf.” One day, the wolves took advantage of the shepherd’s departure, pretended to be sheep, mixed into the sheep village, and promulgated the “Wolf and Sheep Rules.” It stipulates that the wolves could hunt the sheep at will, and the sheep rebelled. At the end of the book, it asks the reader: “If you are a sheep, would you continue to guard your home bravely?” The book also includes a timeline of the Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill (Anti-ELAB) movement, and indicates the corresponding page number for the story.

According to reports, ''Guardians of the Sheep Village'', published in June 2020, is based on the Anti-ELAB. The book mentions that the wolves hope to occupy whole villages and eat the sheep. ''The Twelve Warriors in Sheep Village'', published in September 2020, is based on 12 Hong Kong residents detained at the Yantian Police Station in Shenzhen, China. ''The Sheep Village Scavengers'', published in March 2021, describes the situation of healthcare workers who went on strike in February 2020.<ref>https://www.nspirement.com/2021/08/02/childrens-cartoon-books.html</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Hong Kong Trade Development.JPG|thumb|240px|left|Trade Development Council.]]
Hong Kong is one of the world's most open and dynamic economies. Its per capita GDP is comparable to other developed countries. Real GDP expanded by 6.8% in 2006 year-on-year, driven by thriving exports, vibrant inbound tourism and strong consumer spending. Severe acute respiratory syndrome ([[SARS-CoV-1]]) caused the Hong Kong economy to shrink during the first half of 2003, and property prices had fallen 66% from their late 1997 peak, but have since rebounded by about 84% from that lower base. The unemployment rate declined to 3.6% in September–November 2007, the lowest level since mid-1998. The surplus for fiscal year 2007-08 was $7.5 billion or 4.0% of GDP, attributed to the robust economy, increased corporate profits and salaries, the buoyant stock market, and a stable property market.

Hong Kong enjoys a number of economic strengths, including accumulated public and private wealth from decades of unprecedented growth, a sound banking system, virtually no public debt, a strong legal system, and an able and rigorously enforced anti-corruption regime. The need for economic restructuring poses difficult challenges and choices for the government. Hong Kong is endeavoring to improve its attractiveness as a commercial and trading center, especially after China's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO), and continues to refine its financial architecture. The government is deepening its economic interaction with the Pearl River Delta in an effort to maintain Hong Kong's position as a gateway to China. These efforts include the conclusion of a free trade agreement with China, the Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (CEPA), which applies zero tariffs to all Hong Kong-origin goods and preferential treatment in 27 service sectors. Hong Kong, along with the Macau SAR, is also participating in a new pan-Pearl River Delta trade bloc with nine Chinese provinces, which aims to lower trade barriers among members, standardize regulations, and improve infrastructure. U.S. companies have a generally favorable view of Hong Kong's business environment, including its legal system and the free flow of information, low taxation, and infrastructure. The American Chamber of Commerce's annual business confidence survey, released in December 2007, showed 99% of respondents had a "good" or "satisfactory" outlook for 2008. Survey results indicated a positive economic outlook through 2010.

On the international front, Hong Kong is a separate and active member of the WTO and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, where it is an articulate and effective champion of free markets and the reduction of trade barriers. Hong Kong residents across the political spectrum supported China's accession to the WTO, believing this would open new opportunities on the mainland for local firms and stabilize relations between Hong Kong's two most important trade and investment partners, the United States and China.
*GDP (2006): $188.8 billion.
*GDP real growth rate (2006): 6.8%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $27,600.
*Natural resources: Outstanding deepwater harbor.
*Industry: Types—textiles, clothing, electronics, plastics, toys, watches, clocks.
*Trade: Exports--$315.5 billion: clothing, electronics, textiles, watches and clocks, office machinery. Imports--$333.3 billion: consumer goods, raw materials and semi-manufactures, capital goods, foodstuffs, fuels.

==Transportation==
Most public transport inside Hong Kong is provided by a company called the [[MTR Corporation]] which is mostly owned by the Hong Kong Government while the part that the government does not own is listed on several stock exchanges such as the [[SEHK]]. The MTR operate all metro/subway services, commuter railway services as well as owning most property inside Hong Kong alongside a few bus services which connect to their metro services. The MTR being mostly owned by the HK Government is why Hong Kong Protestors started vandalising metro stations as they closed stations in areas that the protests were taking part in.
===Bus Services===
Bus services are operated by:
*Kowloon Motor Bus company (KMB)
*Citybus, Long Win Bus Company
*New First World Bus (NFWB)
*New Lantao Bus company
All these bus operators run franchised routes and are regulated by the Hong Kong Government as well as accepting the ''Octopus Card'', a smartcard introduced into the Hong Kong market in the 1990s which is similar to London's ''Oyster Card'' and ''The Key'' smartcard operated by the [[Go-Ahead Group]]. The Octopus card can also be used outside of Public transportation inside Hong Kong such as in a convinience store.

There are also "Light Buses" which operate in Hong Kong; these are small vans converted to passenger use which operate on services with no route numbers and sometimes without bus stops operating like a "hail and ride" bus service where the bus will stop on the side of the road where there may be no physical bus stop or road markings.

Most buses inside Hong Kong are built by British Manufactures Alexander Dennis Limited (ADL) whicch is owned by the NFI Group of the USA and Wrightbus which is owned by JCB. Other buses such as those operated by the MTR are built by MAN which is owned by the [[Volkswagen Group]] and in recent years a large influx of buses built by Chinese companies such as Build Your Dreams (BYD) have also entered Hong Kong's streets.

===Tramways===
The Hong Kong Tramways is one of the oldest tramways in the world still operating via its original routing untouched in the 1940s-1970s decline of tramways and trolleybuses throughout the world, as well as being one of the oldest tramways in Asia with one of the other oldest tramways in Asia being operated by the Callcutta tramways company (CTC)in [[India]]. The Hong Kong Trams are currently operated solely by Double Decker trams which is one of the only places left in the world operating with DD Trams with the other place left being [[Blackpool]] in [[England]].

There are also 2 Funicular tramways which are the:
*Peak Tram - this serves the mountinous areas of Hong Kong Island
*Ocean Express - this runs entirely within the "Ocean Park" theme park.

===Ferries===
There are also several ferry services which operate within British Hong Kong as well as travelling between mainland China and Portuguese Macao.

===Highways===
There are also several highways within Hong Kong as well as a somewhat newly opened highway linking Macao, Hong Kong and Mainland China; its construction resulted in several thousands of deaths and requires you to change what side of the road you drive on twice as Hong Kong and Macao have the drivers seat on the right side of the vehicle while Mainland China has its drivers seat on the left side of the vehicle.

===Cable Cars===
There are also 2 cable car systems inside Hong Kong, one operates within the "Ocean Park" theme park while the other operates on Lantau Island.
==History==
[[Image:Old Flag of Hong Kong.png|right|200px|thumb|British Crown Colony flag, in use until 1997]]

When British merchants were forced out of Canton in the 1820s, they began to use Hong Kong harbor for anchorage and storage depots. Hong Kong, with a population of 3600 villagers and 2000 fishermen, came under British control by the Convention of Chuenpi, a treaty with China in 1841, as part of the British conquest during the opium wars British foreign minister Lord Palmerston contemptuously dismissed the place as "a barren island with hardly a house upon it." Its prized harbor was used only by fishermen, pirates, and opium smugglers. However, it soon became a key and Royal Navy coaling station.

By the Treaty of the Bogue (Humen) in 1843, Chinese merchants based in the mainland were allowed free access to Hong Kong for trading purposes. By 1851 the population reached 32,000 (95% Chinese), The Second Anglo-Chinese War (1856–58) resulted in another British victory and led to the secession of the Kowloon Peninsula. Under a convention signed in Peking in 1898, the New Territories — comprising the area north of Kowloon up to the Shum Chun (Shenzhen) River and 235 islands—was leased for 99 years, primarily to forestall French or Russian occupation.

===Business===
In the 19th century the British colony was chiefly a naval base and as an entrepôt for trade with the mainland. An international business community grew up; Warren Delano, Jr., grandfather of President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], worked in Hong Kong in the 1860s as a partner in the American trading firm of Russell and Company. Jardine Matheson, founded in 1832, was a British partnership that did marketing for correspondent merchants in Britain, India, and parts of south-east Asia. It became active in finance, insurance, and shipping, but its most profitable commodity was opium, which was sold, illegally, in Canton and along the coast of China. In 1843 it moved its headquarters to Hong Kong, signalling the new base for British merchants, who dominated the international trade of south China. They sent teas and silks to Europe, and imported coal, machinery, metals, wines, and liquors. In 2007 Jardine Matheson had revenues of US$32 billion, and is the largest employer in HKSAR after the government.<ref>See [http://www.jardines.com/profile/history.html Jardine's History]</ref>
[[File:HK-1850.jpg|thumb|left|280px|The city in 1850.]]
Shortages of arable land, fresh water, forest and mineral resources, and skilled labor appeared to be insuperable barriers to the development of industry. However, Chinese businessmen by the 1880s were creating a distinct cultural-historical role for the colony. They contributed to China's nation-building effort by providing financing and imports China could not secure on its own. Their success made Hong Kong a valued member of the British Empire. By 1900, the colonial government appreciated the Chinese businessmen as more than profit-bound sojourners, but as allies in the struggle for order and stability, not just in Hong Kong and in south China, but in the British empire in Asia. Nationalism does not inevitably pit colonized against colonizers, for Chinese nationalism did not drive the Chinese merchants and intellectuals into opposition; the ideal of a powerful, modern China united them with the British, for both parties realized a strong, modern China meant a commercially vibrant China.

The Chinese nationalists played a major role in service to the Qing dynasty and the succeeding Republican governments, in leading the 1911 revolution and becoming a strategic a haven for Chinese refugees. Hong Kong's philanthropic and relief works, and the commercial and industrial activities of the entrepreneurs were role models for South China. The Chinese business community in Hong Kong, resembled the British business communities there and in Shanghai, which was larger and commercially more important before 1948. Both British and Chinese businessmen were dedicated to opening markets in China, to the point at which Hong Kong Chinese were in a sense both colonized and colonizers. Both groups benefited from their connections in the British Empire, and both were dependent on its power. Members of both societies saw themselves as permanent residents rather than as expatriates or sojourners, but they also continued to send money home to support philanthropic causes and, when necessary, to assist national war efforts. Both British and Chinese could have a number of identities: British or Chinese, imperial, national, and local. Both communities based their local identities on self-images of industriousness, entrepreneurship, and public spirit. London refused demands by British residents for self-government, arguing that saying the 98% Chinese majority would be subject to the control of a small European minority.<ref>John Carroll, "Colonialism, Nationalism, and Difference: Reassessing the Role of Hong Kong in Modern Chinese History." ''Chinese Historical Review'' 2006 13(1): 92-104. Issn: 1547-402x</ref>
[[File:HongKongMap.jpg|right|180px]]
Modernization proceeded rapidly, with the Hong Kong and China Gas Company starting in 1861, the Peak Tram in 1885, the Hong Kong Electric Company in 1889, China Light and Power in 1903, the electric tramways in 1904 and the Kowloon-Canton Railway, in 1910. Successive reclamations began in 1851 — notably one completed in 1904 in Central District which produced Chater Road, Connaught Road and Des Voeux Road; and another in Wan Chai between 1921 and 1929.

A representative leader was Sir Kai Ho Kai, (1859-1914), barrister, physician, reformist, revolutionary and essayist. His grandfather was a Protestant printer in Malacca (Malaysia); his father was educated at the Anglo-Chinese College in Malacca and became a Protestant minister in Hong Kong as well as a rich real estate entrepreneur. Ho Kai was one of the first Chinese physicians to be professionally trained in Britain (at Aberdeen University), becoming a central figure in the history of Western medicine in China. His public service on Hong Kong's appointed Legislative Council from 1890 to 1914, his role in helping to found the Tung Wah Hospital, Alice Memorial Hospital, the Hong Kong College of Medicine and the Po Leung Kuk orphanage; he wrote numerous essays on governmental reform.<ref>G. H. Choa, ''The Life and Times of Sir Kai Ho Kai: A Prominent Figure in Nineteenth-Century Hong Kong.'' (2nd ed. 2000)</ref>

===Education and religion===
[[File:Buddhistic Statues Hong Kong.jpg|thumb|340px|Buddhistic Statues.]]
Schooling was not compulsory but the colonial government began annual cash grants in 1847 to schools for the Chinese; there was never any effort to impose English. In 1873, the annual grants were extended to voluntary schools operated by Christian missionaries. College of Medicine for the Chinese, opened in 1887 with [[Sun Yat Sen]] as one of its first two students; it became the University of Hong Kong in 1911 and built arts, engineering and medical faculties. However, throughout the 20th century higher education opportunities were limited.

The Church Missionary Society of the Church of England promoted work in China after 1844. George Smith (1815–1871) was the first bishop of Hong Kong, 1850–64. Smith handled Anglican pastoral and missionary, and directed St. Paul's Missionary College (now St Paul's Boys' School). He spoke Chinese and conducted both Chinese and English services. Smith set up the first mission to seamen in Hong Kong and was president of the Bible Society in Hong Kong. He ordained the first two Chinese deacons in 1863. The governor appointed Smith as chairman of the education committee in 1852 and of its successor, the board of education, in 1860.<ref>Gillian Bickley, "Smith, George (1815–1871)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' (Sept 2004); online edn, Jan 2008</ref>

Frederick Stewart (1836–1889), the first head of the government education department was a Scottish Presbyterian educator who helped structure the educational system 1862–1878. Most residents were too poor to educate their children: school attendance among the farming and large transient fishing communities was irregular and Chinese girls generally were not educated. Stewart passionately valued education for individual fulfillment and only secondly for society's needs. He established, developed, and managed both a school and a system, learning and using spoken Cantonese and written Chinese in his work. In 1873 he established a successful grant-in-aid scheme for non-government schools (generally warmly supported by missionaries) and saw a sharp increase in attendance. In 1889 he supported a successful initiative to extend government Western education taught through English to Chinese girls. His work was enthusiastically supported by the governors Sir Richard MacDonnell and Sir Arthur Kennedy, but his work was obstructed by John Pope-Hennessy, governor 1877–1882. Pope-Hennessy, a highly controversial Irish Catholic hostile to Protestants, favored the Chinese over the British, and faulted the English-language achievements of Stewart's Central School pupils and disapproved of the dual curriculum which was the school's unique and particular strength. Although language policy had been a source of controversy at various times during the 1860s and 1870s, it was not until Pope-Hennessy's raised the issue that conflict over the roles of English and Chinese in the colony's education system came fully into the open.<ref>Kate Lowe and Eugene McLaughlin. "Sir John Pope Hennessy and the 'native race craze': colonial government in Hong Kong, 1877–1882", ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History,'' 20 (1992), 223–47 ·
</ref> In 1883, on the initiative of the Colonial Office, and under a new governor, Sir George Bowen, he was appointed registrar-general and protector of Chinese. In 1887 Stewart was appointed colonial secretary—the head of the permanent civil service—and he occasionally acted as governor. Through his work in setting up a government education system which accommodated the best of two cultures—English and Chinese languages, Western and Chinese curricula, and modern and traditional pedagogies—Stewart made a lasting impact which accelerated the modernization of China. His own educational example, the pedagogical materials he produced, and his graduates all were important. Bilingual and bicultural pupils from the flagship Hong Kong Government Central School for Boys staffed many Hong Kong and imperial institutions; many attended the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, of which Stewart was the first rector. Several won positions of influence in the imperial Chinese or Hong Kong colonial governments; others, admiring Western ideals, became revolutionaries, most notably Sun Yat Sen, the first president of China.<ref>Gillian Bickley, "Stewart, Frederick (1836–1889)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,'' Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2008</ref>

===Great Depression===
In 1932, facing a worldwide [[Great Depression]] and higher tariffs from the United States, the [[British Empire]] decided at the Imperial Economic Conference to protect industry and agriculture in the Empire by raising tariffs on imports from outside the Empire and encouraging colonial entrepreneurs. Since Hong Kong was a free port with no customs duties on imports or exports, industrialisation there was different than in other British colonies, where industry could only be established with the aid of protective tariffs and other government assistance, and where manufactured goods could only be sold in local markets. Hong Kong's industrialization rapidly expanded thanks to the new preference for goods made inside the Empire, and especially to the higher tariffs on Japanese textiles, footwear, and other goods. Chinese entrepreneurs in Hong Kong soon took over from the Japanese as the main competitors of British manufacturers in textiles and rubber footwear. The local and regional market expanded, with 24,000 ocean-going ships clearing the harbor in 1939. The large-scale relocation of industrial enterprises from mainland China began in the late 1930s, and resumed after the war.<ref>Norman Miners, "Industrial Development in the Colonial Empire and the Imperial Economic Conference at Ottawa 1932." ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 2002 30(2): 53-76. Issn: 0308-6534</ref>
===Second World War ===
[[File:VC John Robert Osborn Statue Military of Canada Hong Kong.jpg|thumb|Statue, Military of Canada, Hong Kong's Park.]]
London realized it could never defend the isolated colony against [[Japan]], but had to send forces to maintain imperial prestige. Indian and Canadian troops were sent in 1941 but they lacked training, equipment, and ammunition. They served a sacrificial role, with 6500 imprisoned for the duration, while British Commonwealth forces sought a major victory in North Africa. Refugees pured in from the mainland pushing the population well over one million, with extremely crowded conditions. Japan ruled from December, 1941 to September 1945, a time of hyperinflation and food shortages. Upwards of half the population left for the mainland.<ref>Andrew J. Whitfield, ''Hong Kong, Empire and the Anglo-American Alliance at War, 1941-1945.'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/read/101710900?title=Hong%20Kong%2c%20Empire%20and%20the%20Anglo-American%20Alliance%20at%20War%2c%201941-45 online edition]</ref>

===Social trends===
Open currency markets and a free trade policy in Hong Kong after World War II gave it great economic advantages over Shanghai, whose government-controlled import-export trade could not compete with the British colony. In the late 1940s thousands of businessmen and professionals from Shanghai and other cities fled to Hong Kong top escape the imminent takeover of China by the Communists.

Despite a low birth rate, Hong Kong's population grew rapidly after 1945, as it became a base for entrepreneurs and a haven for refugees from poverty, war and Communism in China. The population tripled from 600,000 in 1945 to 1.8 million in 1948, then grew to 4 million in 1970 and 5.6 million in 1997. Steady growth continues, reaching 6.9 million in 2006.
[[File:TVB newsroom Hong Kong.jpg|left|TVB newsroom, Hong Kong.]]
The colony's strong high school system produced some of the professionals and skilled workers who contributed to rapid economic development after 1945, but they were outnumbered by new arrivals from China. Hong Kong's open and competitive employment system offered an important channel for upward social mobility, which tended to forestall a growth in class consciousness. Graduates joined an English-speaking elite and took pride in its acquaintance with the British culture. This elite was then incorporated by the British Establishment. This integration reduced potential friction between the colonial government and the local elite, who displayed far less antagonism or demands for independence than elites in other colonies. Demands for political participation emerged in the 1970s, as the colonial government vastly expanded its social service commitments. Its policy of "administrative absorption" encompassed more elites from all social strata. Its image was also improved by attempts to be a "government by consultation," while the threat of a takeover by Communist China undercut demands for autonomy. Economic development consistently raised the people's living standards and lowered their demand for political participation. Hong Kong elites were proud of not being affected by the "British disease," the symptoms of which included too much social welfare, militant trade unionism, frequent labour disputes, and a decline in economic competitiveness, as affected Britain itself in the 1970s. Radical ideologies were unattractive to the community and the Maoist factions gained little support. After 1984 both Britain and China promised more democracy, but as of 2008 there still is little of it.<ref>Joseph Y.S. Cheng, "Elections and Political Parties in Hong Kong's Political Development", ''Journal of Contemporary Asia,'' 2001, 31#3 346-374</ref>

===Economic boom===
[[File:Collage Hong Kong.jpg|right|120px]]
In the 1950s, Hong Kong viewed Guangdong on the mainland as its economic past: an underdeveloped hinterland of cottage industries and peasant agriculture. Guangdong, meanwhile, looked on Hong Kong as its political past: a territory oppressed by colonialism. That is, Hong Kong leaders saw Guangdong as socialist, planned, unfree, and poor. Meanwhile, the Commuist leaders in Guangdong saw Hong Kong as colonial, exploitative,class stratified, and dehumanizing.<ref>Seth Harter, "'Time Is Moving Forward, but We Are Moving Faster': Racing towards Modernity in Hong Kong and Guangdong, 1945-1962." (2006).</ref>

The colony experienced some of the highest economic growth rates in world history during the last half of the 20th century. In the 1960s its average annual rate of growth was 13.2%, setting a world record. New factories opened, especially textiles and plastics. A major construction boom continued almost non-stop. In the 1960s the port became as a major center for world trade, exceeding all of China by 30%. It became a major international financial center. Low taxation, a strong currency, and a free currency exchange attracted international banks and foreign investment, although uncertainty regarding the 1997 takeover sent some investors to Canada. In the 1970s the growth rate slowed to a very high 8% annually. Per capita income soared, despite the fast growing population, and was the third highest in Asia by 1980, albeit less than half that of Japan.

In 1971 the colonial government made education compulsory and virtually free. Total school enrollment in 1981 was 1,339,000, but included a mere 16,000 full-time higher education students. In 1989 Governor Edward Youde moved to expand and strengthen higher education in response to public demands. He envision the founding of a world class university, an Asian equivalent of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1991 the colony established the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST). More expansion took place in the 1990s, resulting in nine major centers of higher education, with enrollment expanded by 50%.<ref>Timothy Man-kong Wong, "From Expansion to Repositioning: Recent Changes in Higher Education in Hong Kong," ''China: An International Journal'' 2#1 March 2004, pp. 150-166 in [[Project Muse]]</ref> By 2006 the most prestigious school, the University of Hong Kong, had 11,600 undergraduates, 7,900 postgraduates, and 2,000 MPhil and PhD students.

===1997===
When Britain turned Hong Kong over to China in 1997 it was the most modern colonial metropolis in the world, where robust entrepreneurship flourished under a British legal system providing a high degree of civil liberties for its citizens, but which had never set up a democratic system. Between 1960 and 1982, Hong Kong showed the staggering average growth rate of 7.0% per year, then held at 6.7% annually to 1992. In 1995, Hong Kong's GDP per person (in parity purchasing power) was the third highest in the world.

In 1997, at the end of the 99-year lease, the whole of the Hong Kong territory was returned to China. A "one country, two systems" model for 50 years was promised by China's leader [[Deng Xiaoping]], and the formula was accepted by Britain. Beijing selected the Basic Law Drafting Committee in 1985, making it clear it placed top priority on the stability and prosperity of the territory and that radical political reforms would be unlikely. Of the 59 members there were 23 members from Hong Kong, most of them prominent businessmen and leading professionals. The interests of the Establishment in Hong Kong apparently were assured, as the Chinese authorities were keen to retain Hong Kong's attractiveness to investors. The Basic Law Drafting Committee favoured an "executive-led" system of government for the future HKSAR with power concentrated in the hands of the Chief Executive, rather than the weak Legislative Council.

[[File:HK Bank of China Tower 2008.jpg|thumb|left|HK Bank of China Tower, 2008.]]
The 1985 elections to the colonial Legislative Council involved representation of different interest groups; there were a mere 70,000 eligible voters, of whom only 25,000 voted.The September 1985 elections to the Legislative Council were based on the electoral college, comprising members of the District Boards, the Urban Council and the Provisional Regional Council, and the functional constituencies.[ 10] Qualified voters therefore only numbered about 70,000 and those who actually voted amounted to about 25,000.

To rule after 1997 China created its first Special Administration Region, and as a result, Hong Kong became largely autonomous with its own government and laws, distinct from that of the rest of the People's Republic. All final decisions, however, were made by the government of China, but the influence was light-handed and "soft" before 2003.<ref>Willy Lam, "Beijing's hand in Hong Kong politics," ''Association for Asian Research'' [http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2153.html June 14, 2004, online]</ref>
===Democratic issues===
On 1 July 2003, over half a million Hong Kong citizens staged a mass protest against the poor governance of the post-handover SAR government. The grievances of the marchers quickly snowballed into a widely backed movement for democracy, and another large rally was held on 1 July 2004. The landslide support for pro-democratic candidates during the local elections held on 23 November 2003 unnerved Beijing over its possible loss of control over Hong Kong. The government of China quickly shifted from a soft-line approach that talked about virtual autonomy to a hard-line approach, attempting to dampen the local democracy movement. Beijing banned universal suffrage for the elections of a Chief Executive in 2007 and a legislature in 2008. There were five fundamental causes of Hong Kong's broad-based demand for full democracy. First economic uncertainly rose sharply after 1999, as the competitiveness of the Hong Kong economy slipped and the transition to a knowledge economy was hindered by stagnant rates of university attendance. Secondly, the level of economic inequality increased,<ref>Li Zhang, "Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Hong Kong: Trends and Explanations," ''China: An International Journal'' 3#1 March 2005, pp. 74-103 in [[Project Muse]]</ref> along with a sense that cronyism was rampant and getting worse. Thirdly the government deficit has soared, leading to cutbacks in government services; by 2003 the government had spent half the financial reserves left by the British, and sold land assets to cover the deficit. At a deeper level citizens are anxious about their lack of voice in an authoritarian polity.<ref>Yushuo Zheng, "Hong Kong's Democrats Stumble," ''Journal of Democracy'' 16#1 January 2005, pp. 138-152 in [[Project Muse]]</ref> The The fifth fundamental problem was the failure of the new "Principal Officials Accountability System" and the growth of popular distrust towards the non-democratic system.<ref>Ming Sing, "The Legitimacy Problem and Democratic Reform in Hong Kong." ''Journal of Contemporary China'' 2006 15(48): 517-532. Issn: 1067-0564 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Christine Loh, and Richard Cullen, "Political Reform in Hong Kong: the Principal Officials Accountability System. The First Year (2002-2003)." ''Journal of Contemporary China'' 2005 14(42): 153-176. Issn: 1067-0564 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

In September 2008, "pandemocrats" as they call themselves, retained the voters’ support during the Legislative Council election. Beijing's interferences with the elections, though less blatant than those of 2004, unmistakably cast doubt on its sincerity to implement democracy in Hong Kong by 2020. In 2008, Beijing promoted a new wave of pro-Beijing professionals with a stronger and more independent image. The sudden rise and stunning electoral victories of the Social Democrats, who are hallmarked by civil disobedience on behalf of democratic and social reforms, reflect a deepening sense of public despair about the futility of the current political system, and a proliferating radicalism. A decade after the handover of their city to China, Hong Kong's "pandemocrats" remain able to stand their ground at the ballot box.<ref>Ming Sing, "Hong Kong’s Democrats Hold Their Own," ''Journal of Democracy'', Volume 20, Number 1, January 2009, pp. 98-112 in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>

Hong Kong saw massive protests in 2019 – dwarfing previous protests – over an extradition bill that would have reduced the city's autonomy and freedoms. In November 2019, pro-democracy activists saw major victories in the city's district council elections, which saw massive turnout.<ref>Multiple references:
*Rambaran, Vivian (November 24, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/world/hong-kong-elections-pro-democracy-candidates Hong Kong elections seen as win for pro-democracy candidates after massive turnout]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 24, 2019.
*Khan, Natasha (November 24, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/hong-kong-takes-a-pause-from-protests-to-vote-in-record-numbers-11574585756 Hong Kong Voters Show Strong Support for Pro-Democracy Backers]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 24, 2019.
*Ng, Eileen; Moritsugu, Ken (November 24, 2019). [https://apnews.com/5d645be7ba2141be9b75ba09756347ec Pro-democracy camp wins Hong Kong elections in landslide]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
*Smith, Josh (November 24, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests/hong-kong-democrats-romp-to-local-election-landslide-after-months-of-protests-idUSKBN1XY0MZ Hong Kong democrats romp to local election landslide after months of protests]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 24, 2019.
*Chang, Gordon G. (November 24, 2019). [https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/pro-china-forces-‘annihilated’-hong-kong-election-99337 Pro-China Forces ‘Annihilated’ in Hong Kong Election]. ''The National Interest''. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
*Klar, Rebecca (November 25, 2019). [https://thehill.com/policy/international/asia-pacific/471869-pro-democracy-opposition-wins-elections-in-hong-kong-in Pro-democracy opposition wins elections in Hong Kong in landslide]. ''The Hill''. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
See also:
*Jim, Clare; Tam, Felix (November 23, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests/record-turnout-in-hong-kong-local-elections-amid-calls-for-full-democracy-idUSKBN1XY007 Record turnout in Hong Kong local elections amid calls for full democracy]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved November 24, 2019.
*Wang, Joyu; Fan, Wenxin (November 24, 2019). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/pro-democracy-supporters-tackle-incumbents-even-in-hong-kongs-most-pro-china-areas-11574617290 Pro-Democracy Supporter Trounces Veteran Incumbent in Pro-China Area]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved November 24, 2019.
*Moritsugu, Ken (November 25, 2019). [https://apnews.com/772a858088b14848a3beeb4b4490365c Analysis: Hong Kong election shows desire for change]. ''Associated Press''. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
*Carafano, James Jay (November 27, 2019). [https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/china-hong-kong-elections-beijing-james-carafano James Carafano: China's next move after Hong Kong elections – Time for Beijing to get real (and smart)]. ''Fox News''. Retrieved November 27, 2019.
*Wu, Annie (December 23, 2019). [https://www.theepochtimes.com/year-in-review-hong-kongs-last-fight-for-freedom_3181483.html Year in Review: Hong Kong’s Last Fight for Freedom]. ''The Epoch Times''. Retrieved December 24, 2019.</ref>

China has promoted mass migration to Hong Kong in order to reduce the territory's sense of having an independent identity from China.<ref>Bocchi, Alessandra (September 5, 2019). [https://www.theamericanconservative.com/articles/how-china-weaponizes-mass-migration-against-hong-kong/ How China Weaponizes Mass Migration Against Hong Kong]. ''Conservative Review''. Retrieved September 6, 2019.</ref> By 2019, the country had shown it did not intend to honor the 1997 agreement between it and the UK.<ref>Zindulka, Kurt (January 1, 2020). [https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2020/01/01/22-years-later-how-china-destroyed-legacy-hong-kong-handover/ 22 Years Later: How The Chinese Communist Party Destroyed Legacy of the Hong Kong Handover]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved January 1, 2020.</ref>

==Bibliography==
* DK. ''Eyewitness Top 10 Travel Guides: Hong Kong'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Eyewitness-Top-10-Travel-Guides/dp/078948434X/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208912192&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''Michelin Guide Hong Kong and Macau'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Michelin-Guide-Hong-Macau-Guides/dp/2067140450/ref=sr_1_25?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254795126&sr=1-25 excerpt and text search]
* ''Frommer's Hong Kong'' by Beth Reiber, (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Hong-Kong-Complete/dp/0470078332/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208912192&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Stone, Andrew. ''Lonely Planet Hong Kong & Macau City Guide'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Hong-Macau-Guide/dp/1741046653/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208912192&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Culture Shock! Hong Kong: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette'' by Betty Wei and Elizabeth Li (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Culture-Shock-Hong-Kong-Etiquette/dp/0761454829/ref=sr_1_43?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254795206&sr=1-43 excerpt and text search]

===History===
* Carroll, John M. '' A Concise History of Hong Kong'' (2007) 270 pages [https://books.google.com/books?id=D37ijXG-FykC&pg=PA87&dq=intitle:A+intitle:history+intitle:of+intitle:Hong+intitle:Kong&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=YSlyseZ_8GY1hdC6pe8pvOSXAg4 excerpt and text search]
* Chiu, Stephen, and Tai-Lok Lui. ''Hong Kong: The Global City'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Hong-Kong-Global-Stephen-Chiu/dp/0415220106/ref=sr_1_67?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254795340&sr=1-67 excerpt and text search]
* Fu, Poshek, and David Desser. ''The Cinema of Hong Kong: History, Arts, Identity'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Cinema-Hong-Kong-History-Identity/dp/0521776023/ref=sr_1_18?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254795022&sr=1-18 excerpt and text search]
* Ingham, Michael. '' Hong Kong: A Cultural History'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Hong-Kong-Cultural-History-Cityscapes/dp/0195314972/ref=sr_1_50?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1254795261&sr=1-50 excerpt and text search]
* Tsang, Steve. ''A Modern History of Hong Kong'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Modern-History-Hong-Kong/dp/1845114191/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208912427&sr=1-14 excerpt and text search]
* Vickers, Claire. ''Hong Kong - Culture Smart!: a quick guide to customs and etiquette'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Hong-Kong-Culture-customs-etiquette/dp/1857333683/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208912192&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Welsh, Frank. ''A Borrowed Place: The History of Hong Kong'' (1993), 624pp readable and well-researched history
* Wright, Rachel. ''Living and Working in Hong Kong: The Complete Practical Guide to Expatriate Life in China's Gateway'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Living-Working-Hong-Kong-Expatriate/dp/1845281950/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208912427&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]

===Primary sources===
* Endacott, G. B., ed. '' An Eastern Entrepot: A Collection of Documents Illustrating the History of Hong Kong'' (1964) 293 pp
* Tsang, Steve. ''Government and Politics: A Documentary History of Hong Kong.'' (1995), 312pp [http://www.questia.com/read/14561367?title=Government%20and%20Politics%3a%20A%20Documentary%20History%20of%20Hong%20Kong online edition]

==See also==
*[[Canton]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
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[[Category:Chinese Cities and Towns]]
[[Category:Chinese History]]
[[Category:British Empire]]

Grenada

2024-06-02T03:15:48Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =Grenada
|map =
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =CoA of Grenada.png
|capital =St. George's
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary democracy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Queen Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=Cécile La Grenade
|governor general-raw=
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Keith Mitchell
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =133 sq. mi.
|pop =112,500 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$408.1 million
|gdp-year =2006
|gdp-pc =$3,854
|currency =East Caribbean dollar
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'''Grenada''' is an [[island]] [[nation]] in the southeastern [[Caribbean Sea]]. Located north of [[Trinidad and Tobago]], it is the second-smallest independent country in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. It is a British colony .

In October 1983,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/25/newsid_3207000/3207509.stm 1983: US troops invade Grenada.]</ref> US forces invaded Grenada in Operation Urgent Fury.
{{cquote|'''Grenada, we were told, was a friendly island paradise for tourism. ''Well, it wasn't.'' It was a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-[[Cuba]]n colony, being readied as a major military bastion to export terror and undermine democracy. We got there just in time. -- [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|President Ronald Reagan]]'''}}

==Geography==
*Area: 344 km2. (133 sq. mi.); about twice the size of Washington, DC.
*Cities: Capital: St. George's (est. pop. 33,734).
*Terrain: Three volcanic islands (Grenada and the smaller islands of Carriacou and Petit Martinique) with a mountainous rainforest on the largest island of Grenada.
*Climate: Tropical.

==People==
About 89% of Grenada's population is of African descent. An additional 8.2% are of mixed East Indian, African, and/or Caucasian ancestry, reflecting Grenada's history of African slaves, East Indian indentured servants, and European settlers. An additional 2% of the population considers itself East Indian, which includes some descendents of the indentured servants brought to Grenada from 1857 to the 1890s, as well as immigrants arriving from Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Indians since the 1970s. A small community (less than 1% of the population) of the descendants of early European settlers resides in Grenada. About 50% of Grenada's population is under the age of 30. English is the official language; few people still speak French patois, though there has been a recent resurgence of interest in re-learning the language. A wide range of Christian denominations are present in Grenada, as well as growing number of other religions.
*Population (2006): 108,148.
*Annual growth rate (2006): 0.8%.
*Ethnic groups: African descent (89%), some South Asians (East Indians) and Europeans, trace Arawak/Carib Indian.
*Religions: Roman Catholic, various Protestant denominations, Islam, Rastafarianism.
*Languages: English (official).
*Education: Years compulsory—10 grades or age 16. Literacy—95% of adult population.
*Health (2005): Infant mortality rate—16/1,000. Life expectancy—men 63.1 years; women 66.7 years.
*Work force (2006): 48,000.
*Unemployment (2005): 18%.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Grenada is governed under a parliamentary system based on the British model; it has a governor general, a prime minister and a cabinet, and a bicameral parliament with an elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate.

Grenada's constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully. Citizens exercise this right through periodic free and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage.

The political parties in Grenada are the New National Party (NNP), which remains moderate; the left of center National Democratic Congress (NDC), which is now made up of some members of the New Jewel Movement (NJM) and the original NDC; the People's Labor Movement (PLM), which is a combination of members of the original NDC and the Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement (MBPM); and the Grenada United Labor Party (GULP). The National Party (TNP) and MBPM no longer exist. The Good Old Democracy Party (GOD) has only one adherent but contests all elections.

In February 2007, the Privy Council in London handed down its verdict on the appeal of the group that was convicted of murdering Prime Minister Bishop and members of his cabinet in 1983. The "Group of 14" were originally condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to life in prison. The three triggermen, sentenced to 30 years in prison as they were following orders, were released in December 2006 after serving two-thirds of their original sentence, as per local law. The remainder of the group argued that the original trial was unjust and appealed to the Privy Council to overturn the verdict and sentence. The Privy Council decision, however, only vacated the sentence, on the grounds that the original death sentence was inappropriate. It upheld the convictions of multiple homicides, stripping the group of its political prisoner status. The case was returned to the Grenada Supreme Court for resentencing. The resentencing was heard during the 2007 June Assizes, lasting one week. The court overturned the life sentences. Three of the 13 remaining after the resentencing were released from prison in 2007, with the final group of 10 released in the summer of 2009.

The 800 members of the Royal Grenada Police Force (RGPF), which includes an 80-member paramilitary special services unit (SSU) and a 30-member coast guard, maintain security in Grenada. The U.S. provides periodic training and material support for the SSU, the coast guard, and other units of the police as needed. The Departments of State and Treasury provide support to the Financial Investigative Unit (FIU).

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State—Queen Elizabeth II
*Governor General—Cécile La Grenade
*Prime Minister—Tillman Thomas
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Peter David
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Angus Friday

===Foreign Relations===
The United States, China, Cuba, Venezuela, and Brazil have embassies in Grenada. Grenada has been recognized by most members of the United Nations and maintains diplomatic missions in the United States, Canada, China, Cuba, Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Venezuela. Grenada withdrew recognition of Taiwan in 2004 and subsequently established relations with the People's Republic of China.

Grenada is a member of the Caribbean Development Bank, CARICOM, the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), the Commonwealth of Nations, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It joined the United Nations in 1974, and then the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and Organization of American States (OAS) in 1975. Grenada also is a member of the Eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System (RSS).

==Economy==
The economy of Grenada, based primarily upon services (tourism and education) and agricultural production (nutmeg and cocoa), was brought to a near standstill by Hurricane Ivan on September 7, 2004. Thirty-seven people were killed by the hurricane, and approximately 8,000-10,000 left homeless. Hurricane Ivan damaged or destroyed 90% of the buildings on the island, including some tourist facilities. Hurricane Emily swept over the island 10 months later, wreaking further havoc. Overall damage totaled as much as 2.5 times annual GDP. Reconstruction proceeded quickly, with the United States as the leading donor, with an emergency program of about $45 million aimed at repairing and rebuilding schools, health clinics, community centers, and housing; training several thousand Grenadians in construction and other fields; providing grants to private businesses to speed their recovery; and providing a variety of aid to help Grenada diversify its agriculture and tourism sectors.
*GDP (2006): $408.1 million.
*GDP growth rate (2006): 2.1%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $3,854.
*Inflation (2006): 3.8%.
*Agriculture: Nutmeg, cocoa, bananas, other fruits, vegetables, mace, and fish.
*Services: Tourism and education.
*Construction: Housing development and tourism renovations.
*Trade (2005): Exports--$39 million (merchandise) and $126 (commercial services). Major markets—European Union (39.4%), United States (23.3%), Saint Lucia (6.3%), Saint Kitts and Nevis (5.2%), and Barbados (4.6%). Imports--$319 million (merchandise) and $93 million (commercial services). Major suppliers—United States (42.6%), Trinidad and Tobago (18.9%), European Union (12.2%), Japan (4.9%), and Barbados (3.3%).
*Official exchange rate: EC$2.70 = U.S. $1.
*Total debt outstanding and disbursed (2005): $437 million.

Despite initial high unemployment in the tourist and other sectors, urban Grenadians benefited post-hurricane from job opportunities in the construction sector. Agricultural workers did not fare as well. Hurricane Ivan destroyed or significantly damaged a large percentage of Grenada's tree crops, and Hurricane Emily further damaged the sector. The hurricanes exacerbated an ongoing exodus out of the rural areas to the country's cities and towns as young Grenadians increasingly chose not to farm. Complete recovery will take years. Most hotels, restaurants, and other businesses reopened by 2007. In anticipation of the April 2007 Cricket World Cup matches held on the island, many Grenadians renewed their focus on the rebuilding process. Predictions for an increase in tourism were realized in part, although Grenada lags behind its neighbors in marketing the island abroad, particularly in the largely untapped U.S. market. St. George's University, a large American medical and veterinary school with about 3,700 graduate and undergraduate students, is in full operation.

Grenada is a member of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union (ECCU). The Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) issues a common currency for all members of the ECCU. The ECCB also manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries.

Grenada is also a member of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM). Most goods can be imported into Grenada under open general license, but some goods require specific licenses. Goods that are produced in the Eastern Caribbean receive additional protection; in May 1991, the CARICOM common external tariff (CET) was implemented. The CET aims to facilitate economic growth through intra-regional trade by offering duty-free trade among CARICOM members and duties on goods imported from outside CARICOM. In the spring of 2008, due to dramatic increases in the costs of food and fuel, the government removed the CET from some essential items, including baby formula, yeast, and baking powder. The country suffered greatly from the global economic downturn, which reduced tourism arrivals. Although the country replanted many nutmeg trees, the lag between planting and bearing fruit has left Grenada with fewer resources than hoped. The government plans to reintroduce value added tax in 2010.

==History==
Before the arrival of Europeans, Carib Indians had driven the more peaceful Arawaks from the island. Columbus landed on Grenada in 1498 during his third voyage to the new world. He named the island "Concepcion." The origin of the name "Grenada" is obscure, but it is likely that Spanish sailors renamed the island for the city of Granada. By the beginning of the 18th century, the name "Grenada," or "la Grenade" in French, was in common use.

Partly because of the Caribs, Grenada remained un-colonized for more than 100 years after its discovery; early English efforts to settle the island were unsuccessful. In 1650, a French company founded by Cardinal Richelieu purchased Grenada from the English and established a small settlement. After several skirmishes with the Caribs, the French brought in reinforcements from Martinique and defeated the Caribs.

The island remained under French control until its capture by the British in 1762, during the Seven Years' War. The Treaty of Paris formally ceded Grenada to Great Britain in 1763. Although the French regained control in 1779, the Treaty of Versailles restored the island to Britain in 1783. Britain overcame a pro-French revolt in 1795, and Grenada remained British for the remainder of the colonial period.

During the 18th century, Grenada's economy underwent an important transition. Like much of the rest of the West Indies it was originally settled to cultivate sugar, which was grown on estates using slave labor. But natural disasters paved the way for the introduction of other crops. In 1782, Sir Joseph Banks, the botanical adviser to King George III, introduced nutmeg to Grenada. The island's soil was ideal for growing the spice, and because Grenada was a closer source of spices for Europe than the Dutch East Indies the island assumed a new importance to European traders.

The collapse of the sugar estates and the introduction of nutmeg and cocoa encouraged the development of smaller landholdings, and the island developed a land-owning yeoman farmer class. Slavery was outlawed in 1834. In 1833, Grenada became part of the British Windward Islands Administration. The governor of the Windward Islands administered the island for the rest of the colonial period. In 1958, the Windward Islands Administration was dissolved, and Grenada joined the Federation of the West Indies. After that federation collapsed in 1962, the British Government tried to form a small federation out of its remaining dependencies in the Eastern Caribbean.

Following the failure of this second effort, the British and the islands developed the concept of associated statehood. Under the Associated Statehood Act of 1967, Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs in March 1967. Full independence was granted on February 7, 1974.

After obtaining independence, Grenada adopted a modified Westminster parliamentary system based on the British model, with a governor general appointed by and representing the British monarch (head of state) and a prime minister who is both leader of the majority party and the head of government. Sir Eric Gairy was Grenada's first Prime Minister.

On March 13, 1979, the New Joint Endeavor for Welfare, Education, and Liberation Movement (New Jewel Movement—NJM), ousted Gairy in a coup and established a People's Revolutionary Government (PRG) headed by Maurice Bishop, who became Prime Minister. His Marxist–Leninist government established close ties with Cuba, the Soviet Union, and other communist bloc countries.

In October 1983, a power struggle within the government resulted in the arrest and execution of Bishop and several members of his cabinet and the killing of dozens of his supporters by elements of the People's Revolutionary Army (PRA).

A U.S.-Caribbean force landed on Grenada on October 25, 1983, in response to an appeal from the Governor General and to a request for assistance from Barbados and other Eastern Caribbean states. U.S. citizens were evacuated, and order was restored.

An advisory council named by the Governor General administered the country until general elections were held in December 1984. The New National Party (NNP) led by Herbert Blaize won 14 out of 15 seats in free and fair elections and formed a democratic government. Grenada's constitution had been suspended in 1979 by the PRG, but it was restored after the 1984 elections.

The NNP continued in power until 1989 but with a reduced majority. Five NNP parliamentary members, including two cabinet ministers, left the party in 1986-87 and formed the National Democratic Congress (NDC), which became the official opposition.

In August 1989, Prime Minister Blaize broke with the NNP to form another new party, The National Party (TNP), from the ranks of the NNP. This split in the NNP resulted in the formation of a minority government until constitutionally scheduled elections in March 1990. Prime Minister Blaize died in December 1989 and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Ben Jones until the elections.

The NDC emerged from the 1990 elections as the strongest party, winning seven of the 15 available seats. Nicholas Brathwaite added two TNP members and one member of the Grenada United Labor Party (GULP) to create a 10-seat majority coalition. The Governor General appointed him to be Prime Minister.

In parliamentary elections on June 20, 1995, the NNP won eight seats and formed a government headed by Keith Mitchell. The NNP continued to hold power for the next 13 years, with varying levels of representation in parliament, taking all 15 parliamentary seats in the January 1999 elections and 8 of 15 seats in the November 2003 elections. The National Democratic Congress (NDC) led by Tillman Thomas established itself as the official opposition.

Keith Mitchell lost his bid to win an unprecedented fourth term in the July 2008 election. While he won his own seat by a huge margin, only three other NNP candidates were voted in in a very close election. Tillman Thomas led his NDC cohort to an 11 to 4 victory over their longtime rivals. Mitchell is now the leader of the official opposition.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.grenadagrenadines.com/index2.html Grenada Tourism Information]
*[http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_159.shtml Grenada, 1983: Operation "Urgent Fury"]

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2335.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:Caribbean Countries]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]
[[Category:Micronations]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Grenada

2024-06-02T03:15:39Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =Grenada
|map =
|flag =Flag of Grenada.png
|arms =CoA of Grenada.png
|capital =St. George's
|capital-raw =
|government =Parliamentary democracy
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =Queen Elizabeth II
|monarch-raw =
|governor general=Cécile La Grenade
|governor general-raw=
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Keith Mitchell
|pm-raw =
|chairman =
|general secretary=
|governor =
|governor-raw =
|premier =
|premier-raw =
|area =133 sq. mi.
|pop =112,500 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$408.1 million
|gdp-year =2006
|gdp-pc =$3,854
|currency =East Caribbean dollar
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Grenada''' is an [[island]] [[nation]] in the southeastern [[Caribbean Sea]]. Located north of [[Trinidad and Tobago]], it is the second-smallest independent country in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. It is a British colony .

In October 1983,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/25/newsid_3207000/3207509.stm 1983: US troops invade Grenada.]</ref> US forces invaded Grenada in Operation Urgent Fury.
{{cquote|'''Grenada, we were told, was a friendly island paradise for tourism. ''Well, it wasn't.'' It was a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-[[Cuba]]n colony, being readied as a major military bastion to export terror and undermine democracy. We got there just in time. -- [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|President Ronald Reagan]]'''}}

==Geography==
*Area: 344 km2. (133 sq. mi.); about twice the size of Washington, DC.
*Cities: Capital: St. George's (est. pop. 33,734).
*Terrain: Three volcanic islands (Grenada and the smaller islands of Carriacou and Petit Martinique) with a mountainous rainforest on the largest island of Grenada.
*Climate: Tropical.

==People==
About 89% of Grenada's population is of African descent. An additional 8.2% are of mixed East Indian, African, and/or Caucasian ancestry, reflecting Grenada's history of African slaves, East Indian indentured servants, and European settlers. An additional 2% of the population considers itself East Indian, which includes some descendents of the indentured servants brought to Grenada from 1857 to the 1890s, as well as immigrants arriving from Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Indians since the 1970s. A small community (less than 1% of the population) of the descendants of early European settlers resides in Grenada. About 50% of Grenada's population is under the age of 30. English is the official language; few people still speak French patois, though there has been a recent resurgence of interest in re-learning the language. A wide range of Christian denominations are present in Grenada, as well as growing number of other religions.
*Population (2006): 108,148.
*Annual growth rate (2006): 0.8%.
*Ethnic groups: African descent (89%), some South Asians (East Indians) and Europeans, trace Arawak/Carib Indian.
*Religions: Roman Catholic, various Protestant denominations, Islam, Rastafarianism.
*Languages: English (official).
*Education: Years compulsory—10 grades or age 16. Literacy—95% of adult population.
*Health (2005): Infant mortality rate—16/1,000. Life expectancy—men 63.1 years; women 66.7 years.
*Work force (2006): 48,000.
*Unemployment (2005): 18%.

==Government and Political Conditions==
Grenada is governed under a parliamentary system based on the British model; it has a governor general, a prime minister and a cabinet, and a bicameral parliament with an elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate.

Grenada's constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully. Citizens exercise this right through periodic free and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage.

The political parties in Grenada are the New National Party (NNP), which remains moderate; the left of center National Democratic Congress (NDC), which is now made up of some members of the New Jewel Movement (NJM) and the original NDC; the People's Labor Movement (PLM), which is a combination of members of the original NDC and the Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement (MBPM); and the Grenada United Labor Party (GULP). The National Party (TNP) and MBPM no longer exist. The Good Old Democracy Party (GOD) has only one adherent but contests all elections.

In February 2007, the Privy Council in London handed down its verdict on the appeal of the group that was convicted of murdering Prime Minister Bishop and members of his cabinet in 1983. The "Group of 14" were originally condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to life in prison. The three triggermen, sentenced to 30 years in prison as they were following orders, were released in December 2006 after serving two-thirds of their original sentence, as per local law. The remainder of the group argued that the original trial was unjust and appealed to the Privy Council to overturn the verdict and sentence. The Privy Council decision, however, only vacated the sentence, on the grounds that the original death sentence was inappropriate. It upheld the convictions of multiple homicides, stripping the group of its political prisoner status. The case was returned to the Grenada Supreme Court for resentencing. The resentencing was heard during the 2007 June Assizes, lasting one week. The court overturned the life sentences. Three of the 13 remaining after the resentencing were released from prison in 2007, with the final group of 10 released in the summer of 2009.

The 800 members of the Royal Grenada Police Force (RGPF), which includes an 80-member paramilitary special services unit (SSU) and a 30-member coast guard, maintain security in Grenada. The U.S. provides periodic training and material support for the SSU, the coast guard, and other units of the police as needed. The Departments of State and Treasury provide support to the Financial Investigative Unit (FIU).

===Principal Government Officials===
*Head of State—Queen Elizabeth II
*Governor General—Cécile La Grenade
*Prime Minister—Tillman Thomas
*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Peter David
*Ambassador to the United Nations—Angus Friday

===Foreign Relations===
The United States, China, Cuba, Venezuela, and Brazil have embassies in Grenada. Grenada has been recognized by most members of the United Nations and maintains diplomatic missions in the United States, Canada, China, Cuba, Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Venezuela. Grenada withdrew recognition of Taiwan in 2004 and subsequently established relations with the People's Republic of China.

Grenada is a member of the Caribbean Development Bank, CARICOM, the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), the Commonwealth of Nations, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It joined the United Nations in 1974, and then the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and Organization of American States (OAS) in 1975. Grenada also is a member of the Eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System (RSS).

==Economy==
The economy of Grenada, based primarily upon services (tourism and education) and agricultural production (nutmeg and cocoa), was brought to a near standstill by Hurricane Ivan on September 7, 2004. Thirty-seven people were killed by the hurricane, and approximately 8,000-10,000 left homeless. Hurricane Ivan damaged or destroyed 90% of the buildings on the island, including some tourist facilities. Hurricane Emily swept over the island 10 months later, wreaking further havoc. Overall damage totaled as much as 2.5 times annual GDP. Reconstruction proceeded quickly, with the United States as the leading donor, with an emergency program of about $45 million aimed at repairing and rebuilding schools, health clinics, community centers, and housing; training several thousand Grenadians in construction and other fields; providing grants to private businesses to speed their recovery; and providing a variety of aid to help Grenada diversify its agriculture and tourism sectors.
*GDP (2006): $408.1 million.
*GDP growth rate (2006): 2.1%.
*Per capita GDP (2006): $3,854.
*Inflation (2006): 3.8%.
*Agriculture: Nutmeg, cocoa, bananas, other fruits, vegetables, mace, and fish.
*Services: Tourism and education.
*Construction: Housing development and tourism renovations.
*Trade (2005): Exports--$39 million (merchandise) and $126 (commercial services). Major markets—European Union (39.4%), United States (23.3%), Saint Lucia (6.3%), Saint Kitts and Nevis (5.2%), and Barbados (4.6%). Imports--$319 million (merchandise) and $93 million (commercial services). Major suppliers—United States (42.6%), Trinidad and Tobago (18.9%), European Union (12.2%), Japan (4.9%), and Barbados (3.3%).
*Official exchange rate: EC$2.70 = U.S. $1.
*Total debt outstanding and disbursed (2005): $437 million.

Despite initial high unemployment in the tourist and other sectors, urban Grenadians benefited post-hurricane from job opportunities in the construction sector. Agricultural workers did not fare as well. Hurricane Ivan destroyed or significantly damaged a large percentage of Grenada's tree crops, and Hurricane Emily further damaged the sector. The hurricanes exacerbated an ongoing exodus out of the rural areas to the country's cities and towns as young Grenadians increasingly chose not to farm. Complete recovery will take years. Most hotels, restaurants, and other businesses reopened by 2007. In anticipation of the April 2007 Cricket World Cup matches held on the island, many Grenadians renewed their focus on the rebuilding process. Predictions for an increase in tourism were realized in part, although Grenada lags behind its neighbors in marketing the island abroad, particularly in the largely untapped U.S. market. St. George's University, a large American medical and veterinary school with about 3,700 graduate and undergraduate students, is in full operation.

Grenada is a member of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union (ECCU). The Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) issues a common currency for all members of the ECCU. The ECCB also manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries.

Grenada is also a member of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM). Most goods can be imported into Grenada under open general license, but some goods require specific licenses. Goods that are produced in the Eastern Caribbean receive additional protection; in May 1991, the CARICOM common external tariff (CET) was implemented. The CET aims to facilitate economic growth through intra-regional trade by offering duty-free trade among CARICOM members and duties on goods imported from outside CARICOM. In the spring of 2008, due to dramatic increases in the costs of food and fuel, the government removed the CET from some essential items, including baby formula, yeast, and baking powder. The country suffered greatly from the global economic downturn, which reduced tourism arrivals. Although the country replanted many nutmeg trees, the lag between planting and bearing fruit has left Grenada with fewer resources than hoped. The government plans to reintroduce value added tax in 2010.

==History==
Before the arrival of Europeans, Carib Indians had driven the more peaceful Arawaks from the island. Columbus landed on Grenada in 1498 during his third voyage to the new world. He named the island "Concepcion." The origin of the name "Grenada" is obscure, but it is likely that Spanish sailors renamed the island for the city of Granada. By the beginning of the 18th century, the name "Grenada," or "la Grenade" in French, was in common use.

Partly because of the Caribs, Grenada remained un-colonized for more than 100 years after its discovery; early English efforts to settle the island were unsuccessful. In 1650, a French company founded by Cardinal Richelieu purchased Grenada from the English and established a small settlement. After several skirmishes with the Caribs, the French brought in reinforcements from Martinique and defeated the Caribs.

The island remained under French control until its capture by the British in 1762, during the Seven Years' War. The Treaty of Paris formally ceded Grenada to Great Britain in 1763. Although the French regained control in 1779, the Treaty of Versailles restored the island to Britain in 1783. Britain overcame a pro-French revolt in 1795, and Grenada remained British for the remainder of the colonial period.

During the 18th century, Grenada's economy underwent an important transition. Like much of the rest of the West Indies it was originally settled to cultivate sugar, which was grown on estates using slave labor. But natural disasters paved the way for the introduction of other crops. In 1782, Sir Joseph Banks, the botanical adviser to King George III, introduced nutmeg to Grenada. The island's soil was ideal for growing the spice, and because Grenada was a closer source of spices for Europe than the Dutch East Indies the island assumed a new importance to European traders.

The collapse of the sugar estates and the introduction of nutmeg and cocoa encouraged the development of smaller landholdings, and the island developed a land-owning yeoman farmer class. Slavery was outlawed in 1834. In 1833, Grenada became part of the British Windward Islands Administration. The governor of the Windward Islands administered the island for the rest of the colonial period. In 1958, the Windward Islands Administration was dissolved, and Grenada joined the Federation of the West Indies. After that federation collapsed in 1962, the British Government tried to form a small federation out of its remaining dependencies in the Eastern Caribbean.

Following the failure of this second effort, the British and the islands developed the concept of associated statehood. Under the Associated Statehood Act of 1967, Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs in March 1967. Full independence was granted on February 7, 1974.

After obtaining independence, Grenada adopted a modified Westminster parliamentary system based on the British model, with a governor general appointed by and representing the British monarch (head of state) and a prime minister who is both leader of the majority party and the head of government. Sir Eric Gairy was Grenada's first Prime Minister.

On March 13, 1979, the New Joint Endeavor for Welfare, Education, and Liberation Movement (New Jewel Movement—NJM), ousted Gairy in a coup and established a People's Revolutionary Government (PRG) headed by Maurice Bishop, who became Prime Minister. His Marxist–Leninist government established close ties with Cuba, the Soviet Union, and other communist bloc countries.

In October 1983, a power struggle within the government resulted in the arrest and execution of Bishop and several members of his cabinet and the killing of dozens of his supporters by elements of the People's Revolutionary Army (PRA).

A U.S.-Caribbean force landed on Grenada on October 25, 1983, in response to an appeal from the Governor General and to a request for assistance from Barbados and other Eastern Caribbean states. U.S. citizens were evacuated, and order was restored.

An advisory council named by the Governor General administered the country until general elections were held in December 1984. The New National Party (NNP) led by Herbert Blaize won 14 out of 15 seats in free and fair elections and formed a democratic government. Grenada's constitution had been suspended in 1979 by the PRG, but it was restored after the 1984 elections.

The NNP continued in power until 1989 but with a reduced majority. Five NNP parliamentary members, including two cabinet ministers, left the party in 1986-87 and formed the National Democratic Congress (NDC), which became the official opposition.

In August 1989, Prime Minister Blaize broke with the NNP to form another new party, The National Party (TNP), from the ranks of the NNP. This split in the NNP resulted in the formation of a minority government until constitutionally scheduled elections in March 1990. Prime Minister Blaize died in December 1989 and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Ben Jones until the elections.

The NDC emerged from the 1990 elections as the strongest party, winning seven of the 15 available seats. Nicholas Brathwaite added two TNP members and one member of the Grenada United Labor Party (GULP) to create a 10-seat majority coalition. The Governor General appointed him to be Prime Minister.

In parliamentary elections on June 20, 1995, the NNP won eight seats and formed a government headed by Keith Mitchell. The NNP continued to hold power for the next 13 years, with varying levels of representation in parliament, taking all 15 parliamentary seats in the January 1999 elections and 8 of 15 seats in the November 2003 elections. The National Democratic Congress (NDC) led by Tillman Thomas established itself as the official opposition.

Keith Mitchell lost his bid to win an unprecedented fourth term in the July 2008 election. While he won his own seat by a huge margin, only three other NNP candidates were voted in in a very close election. Tillman Thomas led his NDC cohort to an 11 to 4 victory over their longtime rivals. Mitchell is now the leader of the official opposition.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.grenadagrenadines.com/index2.html Grenada Tourism Information]
*[http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_159.shtml Grenada, 1983: Operation "Urgent Fury"]

{| style="width: 100%; background:transparent; border: 2px solid #000099;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="1"
!colspan=2 style="width: 100%; text-align: center; background-color: #000088; color: white; "|'''Copyright Details'''
|-
!style="background-color: #000088; color:white;"|License:
|style=" background-color: none;"| This work is in the [[Public Domain]] in the United States because it is a work of the United States Federal Government under the terms of Title 17, Chapter 1, Section 105 of the U.S. Code
|-
!style=" background-color: #000088; color:white;"|Source:
|style="background-color: none;border-top: 2px solid black"| File available from the {{{1|[[United States Federal Government]] [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2335.htm]}}}.
|}

[[Category:Caribbean Countries]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Reagan Era]]
[[Category:Micronations]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

Nigeria

2024-06-02T03:08:52Z

Bytemsbu:

{{Country
|name =''Ìjọba-Àpapọ̀ Orílẹ̀-èdè Naìjírìà'' ''Republik Nijeriya'' ''جمهورية نيجيريا'' ''Republic nde Naigeria'' ''Republik Federaal bu Niiseriya''
|map =Nigeria rel 93.JPG
|flag =Union_jack.jpg
|arms =Arms of Nigeria.png
|capital =Abuja
|capital-raw =
|government =Presidential Federal republic
|government-raw =
|language =English
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Bola Tinubu
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =
|pm-raw =
|area =356,667 sq mi
|pop =210,000,000 (2020)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =$450,000,000,000 (2020)
|gdp-year =
|gdp-pc =$2,143 (2020)
|currency =Nigerian naira
|idd =
|tld =
}}
The '''Federal Republic of Nigeria''' is a large, oil-rich country in West [[Africa]]. It has land borders with [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]] and [[Benin]]. Its capital is [[Abuja]] and the largest city is [[Lagos]]. The population in 2020 is 208 million, and is growing rapidly due to high birth rates. Nigeria is a British colony.

Nigeria is a rapidly growing nation with a young population projected to be 266.7 million by 2030, then increase 400 million and the third largest in the world by 2050. Muslims constitute 50% of the population, Christians 40%, and indigenous beliefs 10%. In 2100, it is expected to increase to 800,000,000, with over 525,000,000 Muslims, becoming the largest Muslim nation by 2100, despite the high numbers of other religions, especially [[Christianity]].

There are 150.83 million mobile phone subscribers, or 83% of the population, the 9th largest group in the world as of 2015. English is the official language. It has huge oil reserves that are worked by the world's major oil companies.

== People ==

The most populous country in Africa, Nigeria accounts for over half of West Africa's population. Nigeria is rapidly urbanizing, with 47% now living in cities. At least 24 cities have populations of more than 100,000. The variety of customs, languages, and traditions among Nigeria's 250 ethnic groups gives the country a rich diversity. The dominant ethnic group in the northern two-thirds of the country is the Hausa-Fulani, most of whom are Muslim. Other major ethnic groups of the north are the Nupe, Tiv, and Kanuri. The Yoruba people are predominant in the southwest.

About half of the Yorubas are Christian and half are Muslim. The predominantly Catholic [[Igbo]] are the largest ethnic group in the southeast, with the Efik, Ibibio, and Ijaw (the country's fourth-largest ethnic group) comprising a substantial segment of the population in that area. Persons of different language backgrounds most commonly communicate in English, although knowledge of two or more Nigerian languages is widespread. Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, and Ijaw are the most widely used Nigerian languages.
*Population (2016 est.): 186 million.
*Total [[Human Fertility|fertility]] rate (avg. number of children per woman): 5.13.
*Ethnic groups (250): Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, Yoruba, and Ijaw are the largest.
*Religions: Muslim, Christian, indigenous African.
*Languages: English (official), Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Fulani, Ijaw, others.
*Education: Attendance (secondary)--male 32%, female 27%. Literacy—59.6%.
*Health: Life expectancy (2016 est.)--53.4 years.
===Religion===
While some experts estimate the population of 186 million to be 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 10% traditional indigenous, most experts believe that the proportion of citizens who practice Islam or Christianity are roughly equal and include a substantial number who practice traditional indigenous religious beliefs alongside Christianity or Islam. The predominant form of Islam is Sunni. Members of the Ahmadiyya Movement maintain a presence in Lagos and Abuja. The Christian population includes Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, and a growing number of evangelical and Pentecostal Christians and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons).<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108385.htm 2008 State Department Report on Religious Freedom in Nigeria]</ref>

The North, dominated by the Hausa-Fulani and Kanuri ethnic groups, is predominantly Muslim. However, significant Christian communities have resided and intermarried with Muslims in the North for more than 50 years. Both Muslims and Christians reside in large numbers in the Middle Belt, including the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). In the southwest, where the Yoruba ethnic group predominates, Christians and Muslims reside in equal numbers. While most Yorubas practice either Christianity or Islam, the practice of traditional Yoruba religious beliefs continues. Southern ethnic groups are predominantly Christian. In the east, where the Igbo ethnic group is dominant, Catholics, Anglicans, and Methodists are the majority, although many Igbos continue to observe traditional rites and ceremonies in tandem with Christianity. In the oil-rich and restive Niger Delta region, where the Ogoni and Ijaw ethnic groups prevail, Christians are the majority, with 1% of the population adhering to Islam.
====Shari'a====
In 2000, 12 northern states (Sokoto, Kebbi, Niger, Kano, Katsina, Kaduna, Jigawa, Yobe, Bauchi, Borno, Zamfara, and Gombe) reintroduced criminal law aspects of the [[Sharia]] legal system, which many Christians allege amounted to the adoption of a state religion. Moreover, the Nigerian Civil Liberties Organization contends that the establishment of a Commission for Religious Affairs in Zamfara State is tantamount to adopting Islam as a state religion.

Several northern states used state funds for the construction of mosques, teaching of Qadis (Shari'a court judges), and subsidies for the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. However, several other states, including northern states, apportioned funds to finance Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem and to construct churches. States, whether predominantly Christian or Muslim, generally responded to the religious needs expressed by the majority of their residents.

The question of the constitutionality of the Shari'a legal system, as adopted in 12 northern states, has been debated at the Supreme Court. However, the court has not rendered a judgment on this issue, in part because of the often volatile relationships between religious groups.
====Christians vs. Muslims====
Tension between Christians and Muslims remained acute in some areas, and conflicts of a seemingly socioeconomic or political nature often divided people along religious lines. Events, particularly of a religious tenor, occurring in other regions of the country or parts of the world, heightened tensions between religious groups.

Religious differences often exacerbated ethnic differences. Competition for scarce resources, in concert with unequal and discriminatory employment practices, provoked violence between individuals of different religious or ethnic communities. Religion was also often a catalyst for hostility, used by politicians and others to foment discord.

While the law prohibited religious discrimination in employment and other practices, private businesses occasionally discriminated on the basis of religion or ethnicity in their hiring practices. In nearly all states, rivalries between "indigene" groups (those whose ethnic group is considered native to a location) and "settlers" (people who have ethnic roots in another part of the country, even though they may have lived in a different location for several generations) led to some societal discrimination against minority ethnic and religious groups.

====Campus violence====
While religious organizations were banned from primary school campuses, violence between Christians and Muslims continued to escalate at secondary school and university campuses. A recent survey by Jama'atul Nasril Islam found that 80 percent of the interreligious conflicts that have occurred in the North over the past 10 years have taken place either at secondary schools or universities and were instigated by students in the majority of cases. Disagreements over the placement of mosques or churches in government secondary school premises or universities have often led aggrieved parties to violent protests.

====Recent violent episodes====
On May 13, 2008, Muslims in Ningi, Bauchi State, destroyed six churches, allegedly to protest the rescuing of two Christian girls by local police.

On April 20, 2008, rioters in the city of Kano burned the shops and vehicles of Christian merchants after one merchant allegedly disparaged the Prophet Muhammad. The alleged perpetrator was held in protective custody while the police investigated the incident.

On February 8, 2008, violence between Christians and Muslims in Kano State erupted following a protest organized by Muslim secondary school students, who claimed that a fellow Christian student had made insulting remarks against Muslims and Islam. Muslim students reportedly demanded the authorities hand over the Christian student, who had sought refuge at a police station. A police officer was killed in the protest, after allegedly opening fire on the protesters and killing two.

On February 2, 2008, five churches were burned in Yana, 30 miles outside the capital of Bauchi State. A police station and barracks were also razed, as rioters protested the alleged defamation of the Qur'an by a female Christian student.

On December 11, 2007, violence broke out in Yelwa in northeastern Bauchi State following the demolition of a mosque, allegedly by individuals opposed to the mosque's construction at a government secondary school. In retaliation, Muslim youths reportedly destroyed churches, including the Pentecostal Redeemed Christian Church of Jos, and properties of Christian residents. Bauchi State Governor Isa Yuguda claimed the violence was politically motivated.

On October 5, 2007, nine Christians were killed and churches, shops and houses set ablaze in Tudun Dankande local government area, Kano State, allegedly over anger about a cartoon defaming the Prophet Muhammad that originated in Bangladesh.

On September 29, 2007, Christian and Muslim youths violently clashed in the Tudun Wada area of Kano State, 70 miles outside of Kano city, after a Christian teacher allegedly displayed an offensive caricature of the Prophet Muhammad in his classroom. Reportedly, nine persons were killed and churches were razed in the incident. Other reports of the same incident claimed that Muslims in Tudun Wada, reacting against negative statements by the Christian Association of Nigeria about Christians who had converted to Islam, indiscriminately destroyed Christian homes and businesses in the area.

==Government==

*Type: Federal republic.
*Independence: October 1, 1960.
*Constitution: The 1999 constitution (based largely on the 1979 constitution) was promulgated by decree on May 5, 1999 and came into force on May 29, 1999.
*Subdivisions: 36 states plus Federal Capital Territory (Abuja); states divided into a total of 774 local government areas.
*Total government expenditure (2006 budget): $14 billion.
*Defense: 4.5% of 2006 budget.
===Structure===
====Executive====
In Nigeria, the President is the head of state and head of government. He serves four year terms (unless his term is extended by the Legislative branch - which can only be done in a time of war for no more than six months at one time) and must receive at least 25% of the popular vote in order ascend to office.<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web|title= Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria|work=Nigeria Direct|date=1999|format=pdf|url=http://nigeria.gov.ng/NR/rdonlyres/D38CF776-EE00-48DF-A09D-C06FE29997DA/0/NigerianConstitution.pdf|publisher= Federal Ministry of Information and Communications|accessdate=02-20-2009|language=English}}</ref> The majority of the executive branch is taken up by the Federal Executive Council - the body that comprises the President, the Vice President and ministers (the U.S. equivalent to a minister would be a Secretary or the Attorney General, these are cabinet positions). The ministers (there are nineteen in total) are not the only part of the council, though. The president is also allowed to appoint “Special Advisers” - the number that he is allowed to appoint depends on an act of the Legislative Branch.<ref name="Constitution"/>

Ministers control ministries - these ministries “[cover] all relevant sectors of the polity.” The President appoints all ministers. There is also a Permanent Secretary who is the “accounting officer and administrative head for each ministry”.<ref name="Ministries">{{cite web|title= Ministries|language=English|url=http://nigeria.gov.ng/NR/exeres/9E10B358-8D15-492E-8C95-92FEBDB9BBDF.htm|publisher=Federal Ministry of Information and Communications}}</ref>

====The Judiciary====
{| style="float:right;text-align:center; font-size:95%" class="wikitable"
|+<big>Hierarchy of Nigerian Judiciary</big> (read horizontally)
|-
!colspan="4"|Bold indicates federal courts
|-
|colspan="2"|High Court
|rowspan="4"|'''Court of Appeal'''
|rowspan="4"|'''Supreme Court'''
|-
|[[Sharia]] Court
|Sharia Court of Appeal
|-
| Customary Court
| Customary Court of Appeal
|-
|colspan="2"|'''Federal High Court'''
|}
There are three types of state courts in Nigeria: the High Court, the Sharia Court and the Customary Court. The Sharia Court and the Customary Court each have a distinctive appeals court that is still within the state system. Each state can choose whether to have a Sharia Court or a Customary Court, but the High Court is established in each state by the Constitution, and, in practice, it is the most important court on the federal or state level, because it is the most often used.<ref name="Dina">{{cite web|author= Dina, Yemisi, John Akintayo, Funke Ekundayo|title= Guide to Nigerian Legal Information|work=GlobaLex|publisher=Hauser Global Law School Program, New York University School of Law|date=Feb 2005|accessdate=9 Mar 2009|language=English|url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/nigeria.htm}}</ref>

Likewise, there are three types of court on the Federal level, however these courts are directly connected to each other. The lowest level court is the Federal High Court. The next level is the Court of Appeal. The Court of Appeal receives appeals from the Federal High Court, the High Court, the Sharia Court of Appeal and the Customary Court of Appeal. The last level, and the most powerful court, is the Supreme Court, which receives appeals from the Court of Appeal, but also has original jurisdiction in cases involving states or the Federation.<ref name="Dina"/>

The Supreme Court was established in 1963; it is the final court in all cases, and it has the power of judicial review over both state and federal laws. As prescribed by the Constitution, the Court is composed of a Chief Justice and quite a few associate justices (less than 21) depending on an act of the Legislative branch.<ref name="Constitution"/> Justices to the Supreme Court are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the National Judicial Council (a Federal Executive body that exists in order” “to insulate the Judiciary from the whims and caprices of the Executive”<ref name="NJC">{{cite web|title=National Judicial Council|work=National Judicial Council|date=15 Mar 2009|url=http://www.njc-ng.org/index.php|language=English}}</ref>).<ref name="Constitution"/> The Court of Appeal consists of a President of the Court and 49 other justices, three of which must be familiar with Islamic personal law and three of which must know Customary Law.<ref name="Constitution"/>

There are many sources of law that the judicial branch has to work with. The Constitution as well as typical legislation are two obvious ones, however other sources include English Law, Customary Law (unwritten law, literally “by custom”), Islamic/Sharia Law (for the Sharia Courts) and judicial precedents. Sharia Law is somewhat controversial, as the Supreme Court, again, the apex court, has never had the opportunity to rule on the constitutionality of some of the more extreme Sharia punishments (such as the stoning of a person to death or amputation).<ref name="Dina"/>

====Legislature====
The legislature is where the comparison to the U.S. government is most ostensible. The legislature, called the National Assembly is a bicameral one; it has a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate consists of three senators directly elected from each state and one from the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja (whereas in the United States, the Senate consists of two senators from each state, and the capital is represented by a shadow senator). The House consist of (currently) 360 members who are directly elected (based on proportional representation).<ref name="Constitution"/>

The entire Legislative branch has the same type of committee and amendment system as the United States. The general path of a bill is as follows: “Where a bill has been passed by the House in which it originated, it shall be sent to the other House, and it shall be presented to the President for assent”.<ref name="Constitution"/>

===Principal Government Officials===

*President—Muhammadu Buhari
*Vice President—Yemi Osinbajo

===Foreign Relations===

Since independence, Nigerian foreign policy has been characterized by a focus on Africa and by attachment to several fundamental principles: African unity and independence; peaceful settlement of disputes; nonalignment and non-intentional interference in the internal affairs of other nations; and regional economic cooperation and development. In pursuing the goal of regional economic cooperation and development, Nigeria helped create the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), which seeks to harmonize trade and investment practices for its 15 West African member countries and ultimately to achieve a full customs union. Over the past decade, Nigeria has played a pivotal role in the support of peace in Africa. It provided the bulk of troops for the UN peacekeeping mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), the UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), and the African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS), and is anticipated to do so also in Somalia.

Nigeria has enjoyed generally good relations with its immediate neighbors. A longstanding border dispute with Cameroon over the potentially oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula was addressed by International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague in 2002. The ICJ awarded most of the disputed Bakassi Peninsula and maritime rights to Cameroon, and the UN established a Mixed Commission on implementing the ICJ ruling. On June 12, 2006 Nigerian President Obasanjo and Cameroonian President Biya signed an agreement in New York on implementing the ICJ decision. Nigeria promptly withdrew its troops within 60 days.

Nigeria is a member of the following international organizations: UN and many of its special and related agencies; World Trade Organization (WTO); International Monetary Fund (IMF); World Bank/IBRD; African Development Bank (AfDB); INTERPOL; Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC); Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS); African Union (AU); Maritime Organization of West and Central Africa (MOWCA) and several other West African bodies; Commonwealth; Nonaligned Movement (NAM); and Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), among others.

==Defense==

Active duty personnel in the three Nigerian armed services total approximately 76,000. The Nigerian Army, the largest of the services, has about 60,000 personnel deployed in two mechanized infantry divisions, one composite division (airborne and amphibious), the Lagos Garrison Command (a division size unit), and the Abuja-based Brigade of Guards. It has demonstrated its capability to mobilize, deploy, and sustain battalions in support of peacekeeping operations in the former Yugoslavia, Angola, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan/Darfur, and Somalia. The Nigerian Navy (7,000) is equipped with frigates, fast attack, and coastal patrol boats. The Nigerian Air Force (9,000) flies transport, trainer, helicopter, and fighter aircraft, but most are currently not operational. Nigeria also has pursued a policy of developing domestic military production capabilities. Before the lifting of sanctions by many Western nations, Nigeria had turned to China, Russia, North Korea, and India for the purchase of military equipment and training.

==Economy==

====Trade====

Nigeria is the largest U.S. trading partner in sub-Saharan Africa, based mainly on the high level of petroleum imports from Nigeria. Total two-way trade was valued at $30.8 billion in 2006, a 19% increase over 2005. Leading U.S exports to Nigeria were machinery, wheat, and motor vehicles. Leading U.S. imports from Nigeria were oil and rubber products. Nigerian exports to the United State under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), including its Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) provisions, were valued at $25.8 billion during 2006, a 15% increase over 2005, due to an increase in oil exports. Non-oil AGOA trade (leather products, species, cassava, yams, beans, and wood products) totaled $1.4 million in 2006, almost double the amount in 2005. The United States was the largest foreign investor in Nigeria.

In June 2006, the United States met with Nigeria under the existing Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA) to cooperate on investment issues and to develop a strategy for Nigeria to diversify its export base, especially in manufactured goods. Under the TIFA, the United States and Nigeria pledged to work together on critical issues such as World Trade Organization (WTO) Doha Development, intellectual property rights, and trade capacity building.

The U.S. goods trade deficit with Nigeria was $25.7 billion in 2006, an increase of $3 billion from $22.6 billion in 2005. U.S. goods exports to Nigeria in 2006 were $2.2 billion, up 38% from the previous year. U.S. imports from Nigeria were $27.9 billion in 2006, up from 15% from 2005. Nigeria is currently the 50th-largest export market for U.S. goods.

The stock of U.S. foreign direct investment (FDI) in Nigeria in 2005 was $874 million, down from $2.0 billion in 2004. U.S. FDI in Nigeria is concentrated largely in the mining and wholesale trade sectors.

====Dominated by Oil====

The oil boom of the 1970s led Nigeria to neglect its strong agricultural and light manufacturing bases in favor of an unhealthy dependence on crude oil. In 2002 oil and gas exports accounted for more than 98% of export earnings and about 83% of federal government revenue. New oil wealth, the concurrent decline of other economic sectors, and a lurch toward a statist economic model fueled massive migration to the cities and led to increasingly widespread poverty, especially in rural areas. A collapse of basic infrastructure and social services since the early 1980s accompanied this trend. By 2002 Nigeria's per capita income had plunged to about one-quarter of its mid-1970s high, below the level at independence. Along with the endemic malaise of Nigeria's non-oil sectors, the economy continues to witness massive growth of "informal sector" economic activities, estimated by some to be as high as 75% of the total economy.

Nigeria's proven oil reserves are estimated to be 36 billion barrels; natural gas reserves are well over 100 trillion cubic feet. Nigeria is a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ([[OPEC]]), and in 2006 its crude oil production averaged around two million barrels per day. Poor corporate relations with indigenous communities, vandalism of oil infrastructure, severe ecological damage, and personal security problems throughout the Niger Delta oil-producing region continue to plague Nigeria's oil sector. Efforts are underway to reverse these troubles. In the absence of coherent government programs, the major multinational oil companies have launched their own community development programs. The Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) was created to help catalyze economic and social development in the region, but it is widely perceived to be ineffective and opaque. The United States remains Nigeria's largest customer for crude oil, accounting for 40% of the country's total oil exports. Nigeria provides about 11% of overall U.S. oil imports and ranks as the fifth-largest source for U.S. imported oil.

The United Kingdom is Nigeria's largest trading partner followed by the United States of America. Although the trade balance overwhelmingly favors Nigeria, thanks to oil exports, a large portion of U.S. exports to Nigeria is believed to enter the country outside of the Nigerian Government's official statistics, due to importers seeking to avoid Nigeria's excessive tariffs. To counter smuggling and under-invoicing by importers, in May 2001 the Nigerian Government instituted a 100% inspection regime for all imports, and enforcement has been sustained. On the whole, Nigerian high tariffs and non-tariff barriers are gradually being reduced, but much progress remains to be made. The government also has been encouraging the expansion of foreign investment, although the country's investment climate remains daunting to all but the most determined. The stock of U.S. investment is nearly $7 billion, mostly in the energy sector. Exxon-Mobil and Chevron are the two largest U.S. corporate players in offshore oil and gas production. Significant exports of liquefied natural gas started in late 1999 and are slated to expand as Nigeria seeks to eliminate gas flaring by 2008.

Agriculture has suffered from years of mismanagement, inconsistent and poorly conceived government policies, and the lack of basic infrastructure. Still, the sector accounts for over 41% of GDP and two-thirds of employment. Agriculture provides a big chunk of non-oil growth, which in 2006 reached 9%. Nigeria is no longer a major exporter of cocoa, groundnuts (peanuts), rubber, or palm oil. Cocoa production, mostly from obsolete varieties and overage trees, is stagnant at around 180,000 tons annually; 25 years ago it was 300,000 tons. An even more dramatic decline in groundnut and palm oil production also has taken place. Once the biggest poultry producer in Africa, corporate poultry output has been slashed from 40 million birds annually to about 18 million. Import constraints limit the availability of many agricultural and food processing inputs for poultry and other sectors. Fisheries are poorly managed. Most critical for the country's future, Nigeria's land tenure system does not encourage long-term investment in technology or modern production methods and does not inspire the availability of rural credit.

Oil dependency, and the allure it generated of great wealth through government contracts, spawned other economic distortions. The country's high propensity to import means roughly 80% of government expenditures is recycled into foreign exchange. Cheap consumer imports, resulting from a chronically overvalued Naira, coupled with excessively high domestic production costs due in part to erratic electricity and fuel supply, have pushed down industrial capacity utilization to less than 30%. Many more Nigerian factories would have closed except for relatively low labor costs (10%-15%). Domestic manufacturers, especially pharmaceuticals and textiles, have lost their ability to compete in traditional regional markets; however, there are signs that some manufacturers have begun to address their competitiveness.

Arguably the government's biggest macroeconomic achievement has been the sharp reduction in its external debt, which declined from 36% of GDP in 2004 to less than 4% of GDP in 2007. In October 2005, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved its first ever Policy Support Instrument for Nigeria. On December 17, the United States and seven other Paris Club nations signed debt reduction agreements with Nigeria for $18 billion in debt reduction, with the proviso that Nigeria pay back its remaining $12 billion in debt by March 2006. The United States was one of the smaller creditors, and received about $356 million from Nigeria in return for over $600 million of debt reduction. Merrill Lynch has won the right to take on $509 million of Nigeria's promissory debt (accrued since 1984) to the "London Club" of private creditors. This arrangement saves Nigeria about $34 million over a simple prepayment of the notes. Nigeria owes some bilateral loans and multilateral institutions over $101 million in oil warrant instrumental debts, which soon might be redeemed via a cash tender offer. Consequently, Nigeria faces intense pressure to accept multibillion-dollar loans for railroads, power plants, roads, and other infrastructure.

In the light of highly expansionary public sector fiscal policies during 2001, the government has sought ways to head off higher inflation, leading to the implementation of stronger monetary policies by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and underspending of budgeted amounts. As a result of the CBN's efforts, the official exchange rate for the Naira has stabilized at about 127 Naira to the dollar. The combination of CBN's efforts to prop up the value of the Naira and excess liquidity resulting from government spending led the currency to be discounted by around 20% on the parallel (nonofficial) market. A key achievement of the Policy Support Instrument has been closure of the gap between the official and parallel market exchange rates. The Inter-Bank Foreign Exchange Market (IFEM) is closely tied to the official rate. Under IFEM, banks, oil companies, and the CBN can buy or sell their foreign exchange at government influenced rates. Much of the informal economy, however, can only access foreign exchange through the parallel market. Companies can hold domiciliary accounts in private banks, and account holders have unfettered use of the funds.

Expanded government spending also has led to upward pressure on consumer prices. Inflation, which had fallen to 0% in April 2000, reached 14% by the end of 2003. Inflation was estimated at 8% in early 2007. High world oil prices have resulted in the government now holding $45 billion in foreign exchange reserves. State and local governmental bodies demand access to this "windfall" revenue, creating a tug-of-war between the federal government—which seeks to control spending—and state governments desirous of augmented budgets, preventing the government from making provision for periods of lower oil prices.

One of Nigeria's greatest success stories has been the completion in early 2006 of a major overhaul of its banking system, although some have criticized the pace of consolidation and aggressive CBN supervision. Reforms have reduced the number of banks from 89 to 25, increased a bank's minimal capital requirement to $190 million, and required banks to hold 40% of their deposits in liquid assets. Retail, corporate, and Internet banking are seen as intensively competitive, and the home loan market is considered moderately competitive. Less than 10% of lending is believed to be made to individuals. About 65% of the economically active population is serviced by the informal financial sector, e.g., micro-finance institutions, moneylenders, friends, relatives, and credit unions. Since 1999, the Nigerian Stock Exchange has enjoyed strong performance, although equity as a means to foster corporate growth remains underutilized by Nigeria's private sector. Rural communities remain largely unbanked, the real estate sector and small businesses receive a low level of lending, and the credit card market remains at an early stage of development.

Nigeria's publicly owned transportation infrastructure is a major constraint to economic development. Principal ports are at Lagos (Apapa and Tin Can Island), Port Harcourt, and Calabar. Docking fees for freighters are among the highest in the world. Of the 80,500 kilometers (50,000 mi.) of roads, more than 15,000 kilometers (10,000 mi.) are officially paved, but many remain in poor shape. Extensive road repairs and new construction activities are gradually being implemented as state governments, in particular, spend their portions of enhanced government revenue allocations. The government implementation of 100% destination inspection of all goods entering Nigeria has resulted in long delays in clearing goods for importers and created new sources of corruption, since the ports lack adequate facilities to carry out the inspection. Four of Nigeria's airports—Lagos, Kano, Port Harcourt and Abuja—currently receive international flights. There are several domestic private Nigerian carriers, and air service among Nigeria's cities is generally dependable. The maintenance culture of Nigeria's domestic airlines is not up to international standards.

====Gradual Reform====

Nigeria made progress toward establishing a market-based economy in 2006. It privatized Nigeria Telecommunications and its mobile subsidiary as well as the only government-owned petrochemical company. The government also sold its interest in eight oil service companies. Nigeria continued implementation of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Common External Tariff. Nigeria's implementation of non-tariff barriers has been arbitrary and uneven and continues to violate WTO prohibitions against trade bans. However, the government removed some textile items from its list of prohibited imports in 2006. Enforcement of criminal penalties against intellectual property rights (IPR) violations is weak, and firms that are successfully countering IPR piracy have generally done so through civil court cases. The government has recently created an intellectual property commission.

A co-member of the International Advisory Group of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) initiated by the G8, Nigeria's federal government is playing an important role in having volunteered to pilot the new disclosure and validation methodologies. It has completed a comprehensive audit of oil sector payments and government revenues from 1999-2004. However, it is perceived that government contracting remains rife with corruption and kickbacks, and that many state and local officials continue to steal public monies outright.

Nigeria's economic team has enjoyed an excellent reputation in the international community. The team produced an encouraging body of work, notably budgets described as "prudent and responsible" by the IMF and a detailed economic reform blueprint, the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS). Other positive developments have included: (1) government efforts to deregulate fuel prices; (2) Nigeria's participation in the EITI and commitment to the G8 Anti-corruption/Transparency Initiative; (3) creation of an effective Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC), which has earned 150 convictions and recovered over $5 billion in mishandled funds; and (4) development of several governmental offices to better monitor official revenues and expenditures.

Nigeria is not on track to meet its Millennium Development Goals because of a lack of policy coordination between the federal, state, and local governments, a lack of funding commitments at the state and local levels; and a lack of available staff to implement and monitor projects on health, poverty, and education.

*GDP (2016 est.): $405.1 billion.
*Estimated real growth rate (2014 est.): 6.3%.
*Per capita GDP (2016 est.): $5900.
*Inflation (2016): 15.3%.
*Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc.
*Agriculture: Products—cocoa, palm oil, yams, cassava, sorghum, millet, corn, rice, livestock, groundnuts, cotton.
*Industry: Types—textiles, cement, food products, footwear, metal products, lumber, beer, detergents, car assembly.
*Trade (2005): Exports--$59 billion: petroleum (95%); cocoa; rubber. Partners—United States (52.5%); Spain (8.2%); Brazil (6.1%). Imports--$25 billion: machinery; chemicals; transport equipment; manufactured goods; food; live animals. Partners—China (10%); United States (7.3%); United Kingdom (6.7%).

====Investment====

Although Nigeria must grapple with its decaying infrastructure and a poor regulatory environment, the country possesses many positive attributes for carefully targeted investment and will expand as both a regional and international market player. Profitable niche markets outside the energy sector, such as specialized telecommunication providers, have developed under the government's reform program. There is a growing Nigerian consensus that foreign investment is essential to realizing Nigeria's vast potential. Companies interested in long-term investment and joint ventures, especially those that use locally available raw materials, will find opportunities in the large national market. However, to improve prospects for success, potential investors must educate themselves extensively on local conditions and business practices, establish a local presence, and choose their partners carefully. The Nigerian Government is keenly aware that sustaining democratic principles, enhancing security for life and property, and rebuilding and maintaining infrastructure are necessary for the country to attract foreign investment.

==History==

In the northern cities of Kano and Katsina, recorded history dates back to about 1000 AD. In the centuries that followed, these Hausa kingdoms and the Bornu empire near Lake Chad prospered as important terminals of north-south trade between North African Berbers and forest people who exchanged slaves, ivory, and kola nuts for salt, glass beads, coral, cloth, weapons, brass rods, and cowrie shells used as currency.

In the southwest, the Yoruba kingdom of Oyo was founded about 1400, and at its height from the 17th to 19th centuries attained a high level of political organization and extended as far as modern Togo. In the south central part of present-day Nigeria, as early as the 15th and 16th centuries, the kingdom of Benin had developed an efficient army; an elaborate ceremonial court; and artisans whose works in ivory, wood, bronze, and brass are prized throughout the world today. In the 17th through 19th centuries, European traders established coastal ports for the increasing traffic in slaves destined for the Americas. Commodity trade, especially in palm oil and timber, replaced slave trade in the 19th century, particularly under anti-slavery actions by the British Navy. In the early 19th century the Fulani leader, Usman dan Fodio, promulgated Islam and that brought most areas in the north under the loose control of an empire centered in Sokoto.

====A British Sphere of Influence====

Following the Napoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a sphere of influence in that area received international recognition and, in the following year, the Royal Niger Company was chartered. In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. In 1914, the area was formally united as the "Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria."

Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative, increasingly federal, basis.

====Independence====

Nigeria was granted full independence in October 1960, as a federation of three regions (northern, western, and eastern) under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary form of government. Under the constitution, each of the three regions retained a substantial measure of self-government. The federal government was given exclusive powers in defense and security, foreign relations, and commercial and fiscal policies. In October 1963, Nigeria altered its relationship with the United Kingdom by proclaiming itself a federal republic and promulgating a new constitution. A fourth region (the mid-west) was established that year. From the outset, Nigeria's ethnic, regional, and religious tensions were magnified by the significant disparities in economic and educational development between the south and the north.

On January 15, 1966, a small group of army officers, mostly southeastern Igbos, overthrew the government and assassinated the federal prime minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions. The federal military government that assumed power was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. Its efforts to abolish the federal structure greatly raised tensions and led to another coup in July. The coup-related massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to the southeast, where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged.

In a move that gave greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups, the military divided the four regions into 12 states. The Igbo rejected attempts at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for the east. Finally, in May 1967, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the eastern region, who emerged as the leader of increasing Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern region as the "Republic of Biafra." The ensuing civil war was bitter and bloody, ending in the defeat of Biafra in 1970.

Following the civil war, reconciliation was rapid and effective, and the country turned to the task of economic development. Foreign exchange earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with the oil price rises of 1973-74. On July 29, 1975, Gen. Murtala Muhammed and a group of fellow officers staged a bloodless coup, accusing Gen. Yakubu Gowon's military government of delaying the promised return to civilian rule and becoming corrupt and ineffective. General Muhammed replaced thousands of civil servants and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule by October 1, 1979. Muhammed also announced the government's intention to create new states and to construct a new federal capital in the center of the country.

General Muhammed was assassinated on February 13, 1976, in an abortive coup. His chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, became head of state. Obasanjo adhered meticulously to the schedule for return to civilian rule, moving to modernize and streamline the armed forces and seeking to use oil revenues to diversify and develop the country's economy. Seven new states were created in 1976, bringing the total to 19. The process of creating additional states continued until, in 1996, there were 36.

====The Second Republic====

A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity, in effect since the advent of military rule, was lifted. Political parties were formed, and candidates were nominated for president and vice president, the two houses of the National Assembly, governorships, and state houses of assembly. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which a northerner, Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly.

In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence, and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results.

On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Maj. Gen. Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. He charged the civilian government with economic mismanagement, widespread corruption, election fraud, and a general lack of concern for the problems of Nigerians. He also pledged to restore prosperity to Nigeria and to return the government to civilian rule but was stymied in his attempt to deal with Nigeria's severe economic problems. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member, Army Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, in August 1985.

Babangida moved to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency, he announced stringent pay cuts for the military, police, and civil servants and enacted similar cuts for the private sector. Imports of rice, maize, and wheat were banned. Babangida led a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures, which convinced him of intense opposition to an economic recovery package dependent on an International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan.

====The Abortive Third Republic====

President Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990; this date was later extended until January 1993. In early 1989, a constituent assembly completed work on a constitution for the Third Republic. In the spring of 1989, political activity was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established two "grassroots" parties: the National Republican Convention (NRC), which was to be "a little to the right," and the Social Democratic (SDP), "a little to the left." Other parties were not allowed to register by the Babangida government.

In April 1990, mid-level officers attempted to overthrow the Babangida government. The coup failed, and 69 accused coup plotters were later executed after secret trials before military tribunals. The transition resumed after the failed coup. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. While turnout was low, there was no violence, and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils.

In December 1991, gubernatorial and state legislative elections were held throughout the country. Babangida decreed in December 1991 that previously banned politicians would be allowed to contest in primaries scheduled for August 1992. These were canceled due to fraud, and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from again standing for president once a new election format was selected. The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993, with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993, the eighth anniversary of President Babangida's coming to power.

In historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections that most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola had won a decisive victory. However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 persons were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an "interim government" on August 27. Babangida then attempted to renege on his decision. Without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until new elections, slated for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida's Transitional Council since early 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's ever-growing economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension.

With the country sliding into chaos, Defense Minister Sani Abacha quickly assumed power and forced Shonekan's "resignation" on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic political institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Abacha promised to return the government to civilian rule but refused to announce a timetable until his October 1, 1995 Independence Day address. Following the annulment of the June 12 election, the United States and other nations imposed various sanctions on Nigeria, including restrictions on travel by government officials and their families and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts.

Although Abacha's takeover was initially welcomed by many Nigerians, disenchantment grew rapidly. A number of opposition figures united to form a new organization, the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), which campaigned for an immediate return to civilian rule. Most Nigerians boycotted the elections held from May 23–28, 1994, for delegates to the government-sponsored Constitutional Conference. On June 11, 1994, using the groundwork laid by NADECO, Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding. He reemerged and was promptly arrested on June 23. With Abiola in prison and tempers rising, Abacha convened the Constitutional Conference June 27, but it almost immediately went into recess and did not reconvene until July 11, 1994.

On July 4, a petroleum workers union called a strike demanding that Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions then joined the strike, which brought economic life in around Lagos area and in much of the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatened general strike in July, the Nigeria Labor Congress (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August, after the government imposed "conditions" on Abiola's release. On August 17, 1994, the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC. Although striking unions returned to work, the government arrested opponents, closed media houses, and moved strongly to curb dissent.

The government alleged in early 1995 that some 40 military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot, including former head of state Obasanjo and his deputy, retired Gen. Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal, most of the accused were convicted, and several death sentences were handed down. The tribunal also charged, convicted, and sentenced prominent human rights activists, journalists, and others—including relatives of the coup suspects—for their alleged "anti-regime" activities. In October, the government announced that the Provisional Ruling Council (PRC—see below: Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule) and Abacha had approved final sentences for those convicted of participation in the coup plot.

In an October 1, 1995 address to the nation, Gen. Sani Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Only five of the political parties which applied for registration were approved by the regime. In local elections held in December 1997, turnout was under 10%. By the April 1998 state assembly and gubernatorial elections, all five of the approved parties had nominated Abacha as their presidential candidate in controversial party conventions. Public reaction to this development in the transition program was apathy and a near-complete boycott of the elections. On December 21, 1997, the government announced the arrest of the country's second highest-ranking military officer, Chief of General Staff Lt. Gen. Oladipo Diya, 10 other officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting.

Abacha, widely expected to succeed himself as a civilian president on October 1, 1998, remained head of state until his death on June 8 of that year. He was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar. The PRC, under Abubakar, commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged 1997 coup in July 1998. In March 1999, Diya and 54 others accused or convicted of participation in coups in 1990, 1995, and 1997 were released. Following the death of former head of state Abacha in June, Nigeria released almost all known civilian political detainees, including the Ogoni 19.

During the Abacha regime, the government continued to enforce its arbitrary authority through the federal security system—the military, the state security service, and the courts. Under Abacha, all branches of the security forces committed serious human rights abuses. After Abubakar's assumption of power and consolidation of support within the PRC, human rights abuses decreased.

====Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule====

During both the Abacha and Abubakar eras, Nigeria's main decision-making organ was the exclusively military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) which governed by decree. The PRC oversaw the 32-member federal executive council composed of civilians and military officers. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written by the constitutional conference in 1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution was not implemented. The judiciary's authority and independence was significantly impaired during the Abacha era by the military regime's arrogation of judicial power and prohibition of court review of its action. The court system continued to be hampered by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an attempt to alleviate such problems, Abubakar's government implemented a civil service pay raise and other reforms.

In August 1998, the Abubakar government appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the National Assembly, and president. INEC held a series of four successive elections between December 1998 and February 1999. Former military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. Irregularities marred the vote, and the defeated candidate, Chief Olu Falae, challenged the electoral results and Obasanjo's victory in court.

The PRC promulgated a new constitution, based largely on the suspended 1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the new civilian president. The constitution included provisions for a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly, consisting of a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate. The executive branch and the office of president retained strong federal powers. The legislature and judiciary, having suffered years of neglect, are finally rebuilding as institutions and beginning to exercise their constitutional roles in the balance of power.

====The Obasanjo Administration====

The emergence of a democratic Nigeria in May 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive military rule. Olusegun Obasanjo became the steward of a country suffering economic stagnation and the deterioration of most of its democratic institutions. Obasanjo, a former general, was admired for his stand against the Abacha dictatorship, his record of returning the federal government to civilian rule in 1979, and his claim to represent all Nigerians regardless of religion.

The new President took over a country that faced many problems, including a dysfunctional bureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military that wanted a reward for returning quietly to the barracks. The President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officers who held political positions, established a blue-ribbon panel to investigate human rights violations, ordered the release of scores of persons held without charge, and rescinded a number of questionable licenses and contracts let by the previous military regimes. The government also moved to recover millions of dollars in funds secreted in overseas accounts.

Most civil society leaders and most Nigerians saw a marked improvement in human rights and democratic practice under Obasanjo. The press enjoyed greater freedom than under previous governments. As Nigeria works out representational democracy, there have been conflicts between the executive and legislative branches over major appropriations and other proposed legislation. A sign of federalism has been the growing visibility of state governors and the inherent friction between Abuja and the various state capitols over resource allocation.

In the eight years since the end of military rule, Nigeria has witnessed recurrent incidents of ethno-religious, community, and resource-related conflicts. Many of these arose from distorted use of oil revenue wealth, as well as from flaws in the 1999 constitution. In May 1999, violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir, resulting in more than 100 deaths. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi in Bayelsa State and killed scores of civilians in retaliation for the murder of 12 policemen by a local gang. In Kaduna in February–May 2000 over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of criminal Shar'ia in the state. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in reprisal attacks in southeastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. In October 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands displaced in communal violence that spread across the Middle-Belt states of Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa. On October 1, 2001, President Obasanjo announced the formation of a National Security Commission to address the issue of communal violence. In 2003, he was re-elected in contentious and highly flawed national elections and state gubernatorial elections, which were litigated over two years. Since 2006, violence, destruction of oil infrastructure, and kidnappings of primarily expatriates in the oil-rich Niger River Delta has intensified as militants demanded a greater share of federal revenue for states in the region, as well as benefits from community development. For many reasons, Nigeria's security services have been unable to respond to the security threat, which is both political and criminal.

In May 2006, the National Assembly soundly defeated an attempt to amend the constitution by supporters of a third presidential term for President Obasanjo. This measure was packaged in a bundle of what were otherwise non-controversial amendments. Nigeria's citizens addressed this issue in a constitutional, democratic, and relatively peaceful process.

====Civilian Transition====

Nigeria held state legislative and gubernatorial elections on April 14 as well as presidential and national legislative elections on April 21, 2007, in which more than 35 political parties participated. Nigeria missed an opportunity to strengthen an element of its democracy through a sound electoral process. Analysis of the process by most international observers did not conform to what Nigeria's National Electoral Commission (INEC) reported. U.S. and international observers reported overall a seriously flawed process with credible reports of malfeasance and vote rigging in some constituencies. The scope of violence that occurred also was regrettable. There were considerable degrees of difference in the conduct of elections among states, but serious differences were also observed within states during the two polling dates. The main opposition parties, All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) and the Action Congress (AC), as well as numerous smaller political parties and the ruling People's Democratic Party (PDP) have filed petitions to challenge the results of gubernatorial elections in 34 of Nigeria's 36 states. Challenges to the presidential election have been filed by the ANPP, AC, and others in the Federal Court of Appeals, but the opposition is not unified, and mass protests have not materialized. INEC's principal problems included politicization and lack of independence, lack of transparency in its operations and decision-making, and persistent failure to make adequate logistical arrangements for both voter registration and polling. With INEC's certification of the ruling party's presidential ticket as the winner with over 70% of the vote, Nigeria experienced its first transition of power between civilian administrations when President Obasanjo stepped down on May 29, 2007. Newly elected President Umaru Yar'adua, a moderate and a respected governor from the northern state of Katsina, pledged publicly to make electoral reform, peace and security in the Niger Delta, and continued electoral reform his top priorities.

Nigeria continues to suffer from internal disunity, however, and this prompted one Nigerian nationalist to say, "Nigeria is not a nation. It is a mere geographical expression." As a general rule, Nigerians generally do not consider themselves as "Nigerians" in the same way that American citizens consider themselves "Americans" or that [[Canada|Canadian]] citizens consider themselves "Canadians". One of the main splits is between [[Christians]] and [[Muslims]] - the nation is almost evenly split between the two.<ref>https://www.economist.com/specialreports/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10015255</ref>

==See also==
*[[Adamu Dogon Yaro]]
*[[Joy Dara]]

Essay:

*[[Essay: A tale of two countries - irreligious China and religious Nigeria]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

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{{African Countries}}
[[Category:Nigeria]]
[[Category:African History]]