Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

State legislatures

2010-11-26T21:47:54Z

BishoiH:

Should be banned. We don't need no big guhverment tellin' us what to do... theys only gud for one thing... tellin' women what to do with their bodies...

Welfare

2010-11-26T21:34:24Z

BishoiH: Redirected page to Corporation

#REDIRECT [[Corporation]]

Theocracy

2010-11-26T21:32:30Z

BishoiH: Better

#REDIRECT [[Conservapedia]]

Theocracy

2010-11-26T21:26:26Z

BishoiH: Redirected page to User:Aschlafly

#REDIRECT [[User:Aschlafly]]

Augusto Pinochet

2010-11-26T09:04:26Z

BishoiH: removing leftist propaganda/slurs

[[Image:342px-Pinochet de Civil.jpg|right|thumb|Augusto Pinochet]]
General '''Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte''' (1915–2006) was a [[Chile]]an [[soldier]] and [[politician]] who became Chile's head of state from 1973 to 1990. He came to power as a member of ruling military council after the toppling of the [[Salvador Allende|Allende]] regime. US intelligence reports had implicated Allende in the assassination of political opponents,<ref>http://nixontapeaudio.org/chile/517-004.pdf</ref> while KGB files smuggled out of Russia by Vasily Mitrokhin show that Allende's regime received funds from the Soviet Union.<ref>http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/219461/pinochet-history/nro-symposium</ref> Both inside Chile and on the global arena Allende was reviled as having attempted to destroy Chile's democracy and supressing the freedoms of his people, and was formally condemned by Chile's parliament. <ref>“Declaration of the Breakdown of Chile’s Democracy,” Resolution of the Chamber of Deputies, Chile, August 22, 1973.</ref> The Chilean Chamber of Deputies Resolution of August 22, 1973, accused Allende of support of armed groups, torture, illegal arrests, muzzling the press, confiscating private property, and not allowing people to leave the country. In the infamous "Cuban Packages Scandal" that precipitated the coup, large quantities of weapons were sent from Castro's Cuba to arm pro-Allende terrorists in Chile.<ref>http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/219461/pinochet-history/nro-symposium</ref> Kissinger privately told Nixon that Allende might declare martial law.<ref>http://nixontapeaudio.org/chile/517-004.pdf</ref> By 1973, as a result of covert US aid to Chilean dissidents and financing of pro-democracy protestors, US intelligence indicated Allende would likely lose the next Chilean election if it was held.<ref>http://archive.frontpagemag.com/Printable.aspx?ArtId=15648</ref> According to ''The Wall Street Journal,'' faced with illegal seizures of farms and factories, of defiance of judicial orders, unchecked street violence and death threats against the judges themselves, the Supreme Court warned on May 26, 1973, in a unanimous and unprecedented message, that Chile faced "a peremptory or imminent breakdown of legality."<ref>http://www.lyd.com/noticias/violencia/what_really.html</ref> Volodia Teitelboim, the chief ideologue of the Communist Party in Chile, declared that if civil war came, "it probably would signify immense loss of human lives, between half a million and one million."<ref>http://www.lyd.com/noticias/violencia/what_really.html</ref> On September 11, 1973, Allende committed suicide as his regime was toppled by the military council, whom selected Pinochet to be next president until democracy could be restored peacefully.

Pinochet instituted free market reforms in Chile in the 1970s that resulted in lower [[inflation]] and an economic boom from 1976 to 1979. He held a [[plebiscite]] on his rule and 75% of the people affirmed their support for him and his reforms to provide greater economic freedoms and market opportunities for the population, and released state monopolised industries to open competition on the free-market, as well as privatising many state owned companies, and the social seucirty system. This gave the world the first [[private pension accounts]] system, which has been highly sucessful, and regarded as a model example of how privatised social security can increase economic choice, encourage fiscal responsibility and aid in smaller government. The US simultaneously pressured Chile to introduce a series of economic reforms, a process that escalated sharply in the eighties. This led to a period of rapid economic expansion and development without precedent in Latin America, in which growth averaged 7% annually, that came to be known as the "''miracle of Chile''" (it also included the region's greatest reductions in infant mortality<ref>Nick Eberstadt, The Poverty of Communism (Transaction Publishers, 1990), pp188,
196-206, 240-6, in which he discusses living standards in [[Communist]] [[Cuba]] versus Pinochet's Chile.</ref>). In turn, this allowed Chile to make a long-term transition to sustainable democratic rule that would have been inconceivable under Allende's [[socialism]].<ref>http://www.lyd.com/noticias/violencia/what_really.html</ref>

In 1981, to set out a timetable for transition to multiparty democracy, Pinochet introduced new constitution, which authorized him to serve as president for a further eight years, which then had to be followed by a plebiscite on his presidency.

As promised, President Pinochet held another plebiscite in October 1988 on the issue of whether he should continue as president. He was defeated by a vote of 55-43%, and subsequent free elections were won by the [[Christian]] Democrat Patricio Aylwin, who was installed as president on March 11, 1990.

Pinochet was a graduate of the [[School of the Americas]] at Fort Benning, [[Georgia]].

In 1998, the [[leftists]] who had long hated Pinochet arranged for his arrest while he was in supposed [[human rights]] violations that occurred in Chile while he was president. The stunt failed, and Pinochet was subsequently returned to Chile due to his ill health. He was later indicted and charged with [[kidnapping]] 19 supporters of Salvador Allende during the 1973 coup in which Pinochet took power. The Chilean [[Supreme Court]] suspended the prosecution in July 2002, again due to Pinochet's continuing poor health.

Pinochet died of a heart attack on December 10, 2006.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/10/world/americas/10cnd-pinochet-timeline.html?ex=1174449600&en=7b24f9d3e63ff60a&ei=5070 NYTimes</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pinochet, Augusto}}

Dictator

2010-11-25T01:23:24Z

BishoiH:

'''Dictator''' is originally the title of a [[magistrate]] in [[ancient Rome]] appointed by the Roman Senate|Senate to rule the state in times of emergency. In modern usage, it refers to an absolutist or autocratic ruler who assumes sole power over the state (though the term is normally not applied to an [[monarch|absolute monarch]]). Like the term [[Tyrant|tyrant]], and to a lesser degree autocrat, it was a respectable title in the ancient world, but has some come to be used almost exclusively as a non-titular term for oppressive, even abusive, despot who rules with no regard for any existing democratic structures, organs or other entities. Almost always marked by a resilient resistance to reality and rational thought. This enables the dictator to act in a manner otherwise impossible. As such, grave human rights violations, [[torture]], disappearances, pervasive surveillance and the repeal of existing [[human rights]] laws, become the norm in societies ruled by dictators. Summary execution is the punishment of choice for a wide variety of offenses, both criminal and political, under the rule of a dictator.

Dictators come to power in a variety of ways. They can be elected fairly and then refuse to give up power; they may seize control of the country in a [[coup d'etat]]; or they may be placed in power as the puppet of a stronger country that desires influence in the region. Alternatively, some countries such as the former [[Soviet Union]] are ruled by a single party which appoints a succession of dictators without regard for its people; this is known as a systemic dictatorship.

Since the nature of dictatorship is fundamentally at odds with the principals of [[democracy]], dictators are usually condemned by the international community. Consequently, many adopt tactics to try and give their regime an air of legitimacy, such as holding sham or coerced [[election]]s, or declaring a state of emergency in the country with the implication that democracy will be restored in due course (almost always an empty promise).

Notable dictators in world history have included [[Adolf Hitler]], Chancellor of Germany from 1933-45, [[Josef Stalin]], General Secretary of the Communist Party of the [[Soviet Union]] from 1928-53, [[Pol Pot]], head of the [[Khmer Rouge]] and ruler of [[Cambodia]] (or Kampuchea) from 1963-98, [[Mao|Mao Tzedong]], ruler of China from 1945-76, and Islam Karimov, current ruler of Uzbekistan since 1991, [[Kim Jong Il]] of [[North Korea]], and [[Muamar Ghaddafi]], long-time terrorist leader of [[Libya]].

Some rulers take on the traits of a dictator but have failed to secure totalitarian rule. Examples include [[Augusto Pinochet]] of Chile, and [[Fidel Castro]] of Cuba.

==See also==
*[[List of dictators]]

[[Category:Roman History]]
[[Category:Political Terms]]

Dictator

2010-11-25T01:22:52Z

BishoiH: remove liberal wealwords and redlinks

'''Dictator''' is originally the title of a [[magistrate]] in [[ancient Rome]] appointed by the Roman Senate|Senate to rule the state in times of emergency. In modern usage, it refers to an absolutist or autocratic ruler who assumes sole power over the state (though the term is normally not applied to an [[monarch|absolute monarch]]). Like the term [[Tyrant|tyrant]], and to a lesser degree autocrat, it was a respectable title in the ancient world, but has some come to be used almost exclusively as a non-titular term for oppressive, even abusive, despot who rules with no regard for any existing democratic structures, organs or other entities. Almost always marked by a resilient resistance to reality and rational thought. This enables the dictator to act in a manner otherwise impossible. As such, grave human rights violations, [[torture]], disappearances, pervasive surveillance and the repeal of existing [[human rights]] laws, become the norm in societies ruled by dictators. Summary execution is the punishment of choice for a wide variety of offenses, both criminal and political, under the rule of a dictator.

Dictators come to power in a variety of ways. They can be elected fairly and then refuse to give up power; they may seize control of the country in a [[coup d'etat]]; or they may be placed in power as the puppet of a stronger country that desires influence in the region. Alternatively, some countries such as the former [[Soviet Union]] are ruled by a single party which appoints a succession of dictators without regard for its people; this is known as a systemic dictatorship.

Since the nature of dictatorship is fundamentally at odds with the principals of [[democracy]], dictators are usually condemned by the international community. Consequently, many adopt tactics to try and give their regime an air of legitimacy, such as holding sham or coerced [[election]]s, or declaring a state of emergency in the country with the implication that democracy will be restored in due course (almost always an empty promise).

Notable dictators in world history have included [[Adolf Hitler]], Chancellor of Germany from 1933-45, [[Josef Stalin]], General Secretary of the Communist Party of the [[Soviet Union]] from 1928-53, [[Pol Pot]], head of the [[Khmer Rouge]] and ruler of [[Cambodia]] (or Kampuchea) from 1963-98, [[MaoZMao Tzedong]], ruler of China from 1945-76, and Islam Karimov, current ruler of Uzbekistan since 1991, [[Kim Jong Il]] of [[North Korea]], and [[Muamar Ghaddafi]], long-time terrorist leader of [[Libya]].

Some rulers take on the traits of a dictator but have failed to secure totalitarian rule. Examples include [[Augusto Pinochet]] of Chile, and [[Fidel Castro]] of Cuba.

==See also==
*[[List of dictators]]

[[Category:Roman History]]
[[Category:Political Terms]]

Islamism

2010-11-17T08:38:24Z

BishoiH: added img

[[image:Hitler mufti.jpg|right|thumb|450px|Political Islam has long had links with dictators and rogue states]]'''Islamism''' is a [[government]]al system, specifically a [[theocracy]], in which the government is based on [[Islam]], such as in [[Iran]] or [[Taliban]] era [[Afghanistan]]. More often the term "Islamic State" describes these systems.

More commonly "Islamism" is also used in reference to '''political Islam''', an anti-[[the west | western]], anti-[[Christian]], anti-Semitic and anti-democratic ideology spread by [[terrorism]] and guerilla warfare. [[Al Qaeda]], the [[Taliban]], [[Hamas]] and [[Hizbollah]] are typical Islamists. There is much in common between this form of Islamism is that of Islamic theocracy or an Islamic state, and many such states fund and assist, or encourage Islamist terror.

[[Edward Said]], author of ''Orientalism'', wrote:
:"For most of the [[Middle Ages]] and during the early part of the [[Renaissance]] in Europe, [[Islam]] was believed to be [[demon]]ic religion of [[apostasy]], [[blasphemy]], and obscurity. It did not seem to matter that [[Muslim]]s considered [[Mohammed]] a [[prophet]] and not a [[god]]; what mattered to [[Christian]]s was that Mohammed was a [[false prophet]], a sower of discord, a [[sensualist]], a [[hypocrite]], an agent of the [[devil]]....Real events in the real world made of Islam a considerable political force. For hundreds of years great Islamic armies and navies threatened [[Europe]], destroyed its outposts, colonized its domains..... Even when the world of Islam entered a period of decline and Europe a period of ascendancy, fear of '[[Mohammedanism]]' persisted. Closer to Europe than any of the other non-Christian religions, the [[Islamic world]] by its very adjacency evoked memories of its encroachments on Europe, and always, of its latent power again and again to disturb the West. Other great [[civilization]]s of the East - [[India]] and [[China]] among them - could be thought of as defeated and distant and hence not a constant worry. Only Islam seemed never to have submitted completely to [[the West]]; and when, after the dramatic oil-price rises of the early 1970s, the Muslim world seemed once more on the verge of repeating its early conquests, the whole West seemed to shudder."<ref> Covering Islam; book by Edward Said; P4-5; 1981</ref>

==Notes==
<references/>

=External links=

* [http://www.meforum.org/article/1870 Mohamed Sifaoui: "I Consider Islamism to Be Fascism" - Sifaoui: I certainly am one of the first Muslims to consider Islamism to be fascism].

* [http://europenews.dk/en/node/14088 Naser Khader a Danish Muslim, immigrant of Syrian background: Islamism is the racism of our time].

* [http://www.bahaindex.com/en/news/1-general-news/1459-radical-islamism-is-a-form-of-religio-racism-that-should-be-condemned-at-un-racism-conference-in-du Bahai forum: Radical Islamism, is a Form of Religio-Racism].

[[category:Islam]]
[[category:International Political Terms]]

José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero

2010-11-17T08:35:02Z

BishoiH: added img

[[Image:Zapatero.jpg|thumb|right]]
'''José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero''' (Born, August 4, 1960)is the current Prime Minister of [[Spain]]. He took office on April 17th, 2004 following the surprise victory of the [[socialist]], [[liberal]] Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) in the 2004 general elections, based on his promise to withdraw Spanish troops from Iraq, where they had been support the US in The War Against Terror. Three days before the election, the [[muslim]], [[islamist]] [[terror]] group [[Al Qaeda]] bombed the Madrid Cercanias network, murdering 191 people, an event which played into the hands of the [[liberal]] anti-war groups at the polls.

In 2005 Zapatero has legalised [[gay marriage]], and attempted to [[censor]] history by destroying statues of [[Francisco Franco]], a former dictator, and changing street and station names in Madrid. In 2007 he passed a law allowing transgender people to alter their identity documents to conceal their birth sex.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zapatero, Rodriguez}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[category:Spanish People]]
[[Category:Spain]]
[[Category:Socialists]]

King Abdullah II

2010-11-17T00:13:03Z

BishoiH: copyedit

[[Image:Abdullah2.jpg|thumb|right]]
'''King Abdullah II''' bin Al-Hussein the Hashemite "الملك عبدالله الثاني ابن الحسين", is the current ruler of the Hashemite Kingdom of [[Jordan]]. he succeeded his father [[king Hussein]], after his death in 1999. Like his father, he is a popular in Jordan and an ally of the united states and the [[United Kingdom]].

== Education and Career ==
King Abdullah studied in the United States in his early years, and later on attended [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]] and graduated to serve in the Jordanian military. He rose to become Major General in the army, and was responsible for creating SOCCOM for the Jordanian special forces.

== Reign ==
Abdullah became King after his father passed away in February of 1999. King Hussein decided to make him crown prince several weeks before he passed. King Abdullah carried on a pro economic/democracy reform policy and military modernization policy. He spoke before congress on march of 2007, and spoke about the importance of peace in the middle east.

==External links==

*[http://www.kingabdullah.jo/ Official website of his majesty King Abdullah II]

[[Category:Monarchs]]
[[Category:Jordan]]

Conservapedia:Image upload requests

2010-11-16T19:31:17Z

BishoiH:

<center><big><big>'''Place Current Requests At The Bottom Please!'''</big></big></center>
{{clear}}

[[Conservapedia:Image upload requests/Archive 1|Archive 1]]
[[Conservapedia:Image upload requests/Archive 2|Archive 2]]
[[Conservapedia:Image upload requests/Archive 3|Archive 3]] 
[[Conservapedia:Image upload requests/Archive 4|Archive 4]]
[[Conservapedia:Image upload requests/Archive 5|Archive 5]]
[[Conservapedia:Image upload requests/Archive 6|Archive 6]]

----

'''Image uploading is a privilege, not a right. See [[Conservapedia:User rights]]. Requests for image uploads can be placed here, or simply ask [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Special:ListUsers&group=Upload someone with upload rights] or [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Special:ListUsers&group=sysop&limit=100. any Administrator].'''

NOTE: '''Do NOT upload AP Photos''' (Copyright - [[Associated Press]]). We don't have Fair use rights to those images.
See also - [[Conservapedia:Copyright]].

Users without image upload privileges can specify specific locations for their requested images with {{tl|Image request}}, which adds articles to [[:Category:Articles in need of an image]].
[[Category:Conservapedia]]

==[[Federalist Papers]]==
* <s>Need new [[File:The Federalist book title page.jpg]], from U.S. Library of Congress image: [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/madison/images/vc16.jpg LOC-16], page shows year 1788 (MDCCLXXXVIII), proving papers printed as a book 1 year later. License: public domain, life of author plus 170 years (last to die: [[James Madison]] in 1836).</s>

[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Fed_Papers1787_Cover.jpg Here you go.] --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 03:13, 17 June 2010 (EDT)

==[[Aswan Dam]]==
<s>Need new [[File:Aswan Dam Lake Nasser.jpg]], from U.S. NASA astronaut photo ISS017-E-20975: [http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/images/ESC/small/ISS017/ISS017-E-20975.JPG NASA-975], photo (made by NASA personnel) shows [[Aswan High Dam]], lower [[Aswan Dam]], Lake Nasser, [[Philae Temple]] island, 1st cataract of the [[Nile]], [[Arabian Desert]], Libyan Desert, etc. No hurry on this.</s> -[[User:CVeritas|CVeritas]] 21:27, 17 June 2010 (EDT)

-Done: [http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Aswan.JPG] --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 13:13, 18 June 2010 (EDT)

==[[Joseph P. Lash]]==

<s>[http://www.geneaarchives.com/bacmresearch/affiliate/completeset/eroose2.jpg FBI memo] relating report from G-2 (Army Counterintelligence) claiming to have recorded a tryst between Communist youth leader Joseph Lash and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt</s> [[User:FOIA|FOIA]] 14:16, 15 July 2010 (EDT)
:Done --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 14:28, 15 July 2010 (EDT) [http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Eroose2.jpg]

==[[Ringo Starr]]==

<s>I need the image for an attempt to improve the [[Ringo Starr]] article.</s> {{Unsigned|Gamma287}}-- 14:08, 27 July 2010

:[http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Ringo_Starr.jpg Here you go.] --<big>[[User:TK|'''ṬK''']]</big>/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 17:57, 27 July 2010 (EDT)

== [[Essay:Best New Conservative Words]] ==
I generated ten graphs for [[Essay:Best New Conservative Words]].

<s>http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFfkfPe3wuI/AAAAAAAAAD4/OFZ-xI98ZYM/s1600/bcw-002.png</s>

<s>http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFfnWx0hLyI/AAAAAAAAAEA/6iZG4s7f2Zo/s1600/bcw-003.png</s>

<s>http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFfn-EOpthI/AAAAAAAAAEI/sowEllNnqmM/s1600/bcw-004.png</s>

<s>http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFgrC4KnBbI/AAAAAAAAAEQ/98_JyTvPyRM/s1600/bcw-005.png</s>

<s>http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFgrvASHDlI/AAAAAAAAAEY/afs_mOlJklM/s1600/bcw-006.png</s>

<s>http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFgsPGXeERI/AAAAAAAAAEg/VrgIuZGbKOY/s1600/bcw-007.png</s>

<s>http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFgtI62GVBI/AAAAAAAAAEo/Jn46EbkGL24/s1600/bcw-008.png</s>

<s>http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFguBbXwegI/AAAAAAAAAEw/yGefBit2yl8/s1600/bcw-009.png</s>

<s>http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFgvQJGurSI/AAAAAAAAAE4/COavGxsW6Sk/s1600/bcw-010.png</s>

I would appreciate if they could be named as stated, i.e., bcw-001.png, bcw-002.png, etc.

I forgot one, sorry:

<s>http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_3Me9X7ZKI14/TFfi_t9bqdI/AAAAAAAAADw/tv412vyGi0E/s1600/bcw-001.png</s>

[[User:RonLar|RonLar]] 13:25, 3 August 2010 (EDT)

:All uploaded. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 13:33, 3 August 2010 (EDT)

Thanks! [[User:RonLar|RonLar]] 13:34, 3 August 2010 (EDT)

== [[Uncyclopedia]] ==

Hi. Please upload http://images1.wikia.nocookie.net/__cb20090115235635/uncyclopedia/images/b/bc/Wiki.png for fair use in the Uncyclopedia article. Thanks! [[User:Keepscases|Keepscases]] 16:55, 14 August 2010 (EDT)

== [[Rick Scott]] ==
<s>[http://www.flickr.com/photos/scottforflorida/4517644139 For use on Rick Scott's article. This is the same Creative Commons image used at Wikipedia.]</s> [[User:DMorris|DMorris]] 15:05, 2 September 2010 (EDT)

:Done [http://www.conservapedia.com/File:Rick_Scott.jpg] Sorry for the delay in uploading. I will put in the page for you.--[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 13:20, 16 November 2010 (EST)

==White House Photostream Images==

<s>Please upload the following official White House photos:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/4891369859/

http://www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/3860767412</s>

For use on the [[List of Obama First Family Vacations]] article.

:Done [http://www.conservapedia.com/File:4891369859.JPG] [http://www.conservapedia.com/File:3860767412.JPG] --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 13:15, 16 November 2010 (EST)

==[[Tin(II) oxide]]==
Have <s>a</s>some "homemade" public domain images that I would like to upload. It is on my computer. Thanks, --[[User:LanthanumK|L]][[User talk:LanthanumK|K]] 11:55, 16 November 2010 (EST)
:Send to our email account and I will upload. --[[User:Jpatt|Jpatt]] 13:16, 16 November 2010 (EST)
::Will do --[[User:LanthanumK|L]][[User talk:LanthanumK|K]] 13:20, 16 November 2010 (EST)
:::A few more are there than just this photo. I think that all will be useful here. --[[User:LanthanumK|L]][[User talk:LanthanumK|K]] 13:31, 16 November 2010 (EST)

==Political and historical figures==
[http://i1098.photobucket.com/albums/g375/BishoiH/hitler_mufti.jpg Mufti of Jerusalem], historical copyright expired 
[http://i1098.photobucket.com/albums/g375/BishoiH/zapatero.jpg Zapatero] Fair use, not AP 
[http://i1098.photobucket.com/albums/g375/BishoiH/Castro.jpg Castro] Fair use, not AP

Islamism

2010-11-16T18:48:27Z

BishoiH:

'''Islamism''' is a [[government]]al system, specifically a [[theocracy]], in which the government is based on [[Islam]], such as in [[Iran]] or [[Taliban]] era [[Afghanistan]]. More often the term "Islamic State" describes these systems.

More commonly "Islamism" is also used in reference to '''political Islam''', an anti-[[the west | western]], anti-[[Christian]], anti-Semitic and anti-democratic ideology spread by [[terrorism]] and guerilla warfare. [[Al Qaeda]], the [[Taliban]], [[Hamas]] and [[Hizbollah]] are typical Islamists. There is much in common between this form of Islamism is that of Islamic theocracy or an Islamic state, and many such states fund and assist, or encourage Islamist terror.

[[Edward Said]], author of ''Orientalism'', wrote:
:"For most of the [[Middle Ages]] and during the early part of the [[Renaissance]] in Europe, [[Islam]] was believed to be [[demon]]ic religion of [[apostasy]], [[blasphemy]], and obscurity. It did not seem to matter that [[Muslim]]s considered [[Mohammed]] a [[prophet]] and not a [[god]]; what mattered to [[Christian]]s was that Mohammed was a [[false prophet]], a sower of discord, a [[sensualist]], a [[hypocrite]], an agent of the [[devil]]....Real events in the real world made of Islam a considerable political force. For hundreds of years great Islamic armies and navies threatened [[Europe]], destroyed its outposts, colonized its domains..... Even when the world of Islam entered a period of decline and Europe a period of ascendancy, fear of '[[Mohammedanism]]' persisted. Closer to Europe than any of the other non-Christian religions, the [[Islamic world]] by its very adjacency evoked memories of its encroachments on Europe, and always, of its latent power again and again to disturb the West. Other great [[civilization]]s of the East - [[India]] and [[China]] among them - could be thought of as defeated and distant and hence not a constant worry. Only Islam seemed never to have submitted completely to [[the West]]; and when, after the dramatic oil-price rises of the early 1970s, the Muslim world seemed once more on the verge of repeating its early conquests, the whole West seemed to shudder."<ref> Covering Islam; book by Edward Said; P4-5; 1981</ref>

==Notes==
<references/>

=External links=

* [http://www.meforum.org/article/1870 Mohamed Sifaoui: "I Consider Islamism to Be Fascism" - Sifaoui: I certainly am one of the first Muslims to consider Islamism to be fascism].

* [http://europenews.dk/en/node/14088 Naser Khader a Danish Muslim, immigrant of Syrian background: Islamism is the racism of our time].

* [http://www.bahaindex.com/en/news/1-general-news/1459-radical-islamism-is-a-form-of-religio-racism-that-should-be-condemned-at-un-racism-conference-in-du Bahai forum: Radical Islamism, is a Form of Religio-Racism].

[[category:Islam]]
[[category:International Political Terms]]

Tom DeLay

2010-11-16T17:57:12Z

BishoiH: support for economic freedoms and christian values

[[Image:Tomdelay.jpg|right|thumb|Congressman DeLay speaking at a Department of Transportation event]]

'''Tom DeLay''' (born 1947 as Thomas Dale DeLay ) is an American politician from Sugarland, Texas, near Houston. He served in the [[House of Representatives]] from 1984 to 2006, representing the 22nd district in Texas. A leading Republican, he was the [[House Majority Leader]] from 2003 to 2005, and was the most aggressive and powerful member of Congress, and gave the GOP house members unprecedented unity and cohesion in pursuing a [[conservative]], [[Christian]] vision through his tactic of "growing the vote" and seeking to build bridges with centrist Republicans through his "catch and release" tactics. DeLay fell victim of a [[partisan]] political witchhunt by opponents and [[mainstream media]] outlets.

==Israel==
Critics of DeLay have taken to calling him "AIPAC's man in Congress."<ref>[http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Talk:Thomas_D._DeLay AIPAC's "man"], SourceWatch, Talk:Thomas D. DeLay, retrieved 06/13/07.</ref><ref>[http://timescorrespondents.typepad.com/baker/2006/04/justice_delayed.html#comment-15942285 Timesonline], retrieved 06/13/07.</ref><ref>[http://www.democrats.org/a/2005/10/tom_delay_im_st.php#comments001959 democrats.org], retrieved 06/13/07.</ref> AIPAC is the American Israeli Poltical Action Committee, a lobbying group in support of Israel. On January 1, 2003, Leader Tom DeLay was invited to address the [[Israeli]] [[Knesset]]. Leader Delay remarked,

{{Cquote|The solidarity between the United States and Israel is deeper than the various interests we share. It goes to the very nature of man, to the endowment of our G-d-given rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness... We know our victory in the [[war on terror]] depends on Israel’s survival. And we know Israel’s survival depends on the willingness of free nations – especially our own – to stand by all endangered democracies in their time of need...In short, it is the position of the people of the United States, as expressed by their representatives in Congress, that Israel’s fight is our fight...The common destiny of the United States and Israel is not an artificial alliance dictated by our leaders. It is a heartfelt friendship between the citizens of two democracies at war, bound by the solidarity of freedom. Brothers and sisters of Israel: Be not afraid. The American people stand with you. <ref>[http://www.tampabayprimer.org/index.cfm?action=articles&drill=viewArt&art=947 Speech of Congressman Tom DeLay at the Knesset], January 01, 2003.</ref>}}

==Support for economic freedoms==
DeLay was given a 100/100 scorecard by the US Chamber of Commerce and the American Conservative Union, and was consistently one of staunchest advocates of market based solutions, economic freedom and American industry. Speaking of the American free enterprise system, he said:

{{Cquote|You represent everything that is good about what we are trying to do in America and leading the world in the free-market system"}}

==Support for the pro-life movement and Christian values==
Delay was and remains a committed to [[Christian]] values, and remembers his desperate fight to save the life of [[Terri Schiavo]] as the highlight of his political career. Delay personally spearheaded the campaign to secure federal intervention in the struggle to defend life, and was personally shocked at the decision of Shiavo's husband to starve her death, an act he decried as "barbarism". Delay's great and principled stance cost him greatly, when the [[liberal]] led persecution of him violated his privacy by releasing details of the tragic end of his fathers life to the mass media.

==Partisan witchhunt==
DeLay resigned (under Republican House rules) his leadership position when partisan motivated indictments were brought against him in Texas. In 2010, all federal charges were dropped. It has been reported the charges were brought by a Ronnie Earle, the Travis County District Attorney who is a member of the [[Democratic Party]].<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/28/AR2005092800270.html</ref> This partisan prosecutor has succeeded in using the law to slow down the trial in the court system.

==Dancing with the Stars==
DeLay has been selected to appear in the ninth season of the ABC show "Dancing with the Stars". <ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/insidecover/us_tv_dancing_with_the_stars/2009/08/17/248606.html 'Dancing With the Stars' Includes Tom Delay, AP, August 17,2009]</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==

*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000217 Official biography]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Delay, Tom}}

[[Category:Former United States Representatives]]
[[Category:Republican Party]]
[[Category:Conservatives]]

José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero

2010-11-16T16:57:46Z

BishoiH: Merged with existing stub

'''José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero''' (Born, August 4, 1960)is the current Prime Minister of [[Spain]]. He took office on April 17th, 2004 following the surprise victory of the [[socialist]], [[liberal]] Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) in the 2004 general elections, based on his promise to withdraw Spanish troops from Iraq, where they had been support the US in The War Against Terror. Three days before the election, the [[muslim]], [[islamist]] [[terror]] group [[Al Qaeda]] bombed the Madrid Cercanias network, murdering 191 people, an event which played into the hands of the [[liberal]] anti-war groups at the polls.

In 2005 Zapatero has legalised [[gay marriage]], and attempted to [[censor]] history by destroying statues of [[Francisco Franco]], a former dictator, and changing street and station names in Madrid. In 2007 he passed a law allowing transgender people to alter their identity documents to conceal their birth sex.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zapatero, Rodriguez}}

[[Category:Heads of State]]
[[category:Spanish People]]
[[Category:Spain]]
[[Category:Socialists]]

Jose Zapatero

2010-11-16T16:53:02Z

BishoiH: Redirected page to José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero

#REDIRECT [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]]

Spain

2010-11-16T16:15:05Z

BishoiH: Corrected infobox - Zapatero is PM not president. Spain is monarchy. Update econ/pop data

{{Country
|name =''Reino de España''
|map =Spain rel82.jpg
|map2 =Spain location.png
|flag =Flag of Spain.png
|arms =Spanish arms.png
|capital =Madrid
|capital-raw =
|government =Constitutional Monarchy
|government-raw =
|language =Spanish
|king =Juan Carlos I
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =José L. Rodríguez Zapatero
|pm-raw =
|area =195,364 sq mi
|pop =46,030,109
|pop-basis =2010
|gdp =$1.464 trillion
|gdp-year =2009
|gdp-pc =$31,946
|currency =Euro
|idd =
|tld =
}}
'''Spain''' is a country located on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], bordered by [[Portugal]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[west]], [[Gibraltar]] to the [[south]], the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the east, [[France]] and [[Andorra]] to the [[north]]. [[Portugal]] is located on the same peninsula.

Spain is the winner of the 2010 [[World Cup]].

 
[[File:Spain World Cup.jpg|left|340px]]

 
==People==
[[Image:Sorolla The Jota (Aragon ).jpg|thumb|left|The Jota (Aragon) by [[Joaquín Sorolla]]]]
Spain's population density, lower than that of most European countries, is roughly equivalent to New England's. In recent years, following a longstanding pattern in the rest of Europe, rural populations are moving to cities. Urban areas are also experiencing a significant increase in immigrant populations, chiefly from North Africa, [[America (continent)|America]], and Eastern Europe. Distinct ethnic groups within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, and Galicians. They compromise 91% of the population, 8% are Eastern European immigrants and North Africans number roughly 1%.

Spain has no official religion. The constitution of 1978 disestablished the [[Roman Catholic Church]] as the official state [[religion]], while recognizing the role it plays in Spanish society. More than 90% of the population is at least nominally Catholic. Among the remaining population, there are about 1.2 million evangelical Christians and other Protestants (2006 est.), 1 million Muslims (2006 est.) and 48,000 Jews (2006 est.).

====Educational System====
About 70% of Spain's student population attends public schools or universities. The remainder attend private schools or universities, the great majority of which are operated by the Catholic Church. Compulsory education begins with primary school or general basic education for ages 6-14. It is free in public schools and in many private schools, most of which receive government subsidies. Following graduation, students attend either a secondary school offering a general high school diploma or a school of professional education (corresponding to grades 9-12 in the United States) offering a vocational training program. The Spanish university system offers degree and post-graduate programs in all fields--law, sciences, humanities, and medicine--and the superior technical schools offer programs in engineering and architecture.

==Government and Political Conditions==
[[Image:Cantabria Santoña.jpg|thumb|240px|Santoña, Cantabria.]]
Parliamentary democracy was restored following the death of General [[Francisco Franco]] in 1975, who had ruled since the end of the civil war in 1939. The 1978 constitution established Spain as a parliamentary monarchy, with the prime minister responsible to the bicameral Cortes (Congress of Deputies and Senate) elected every 4 years. On February 23, 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes and tried to impose a military-backed government. However, the great majority of the military forces remained loyal to King Juan Carlos, who used his personal authority to put down the bloodless coup attempt.

In October 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE), led by [[Felipe Gonzalez]], swept both the Congress of Deputies and Senate, winning an absolute majority. Gonzalez and the PSOE ruled for the next 13 years. During that period, Spain joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Community.

In March 1996, [[Jose Maria Aznar]]'s Popular Party (PP) won a plurality of votes. Aznar moved to decentralize powers to the regions and liberalize the economy, with a program of privatization, labor market reform, and measures designed to increase competition in selected markets. During Aznar's first term, Spain fully integrated into European institutions, qualifying for the European Monetary Union. During this period, Spain participated, along with the United States and other NATO allies, in military operations in the former Yugoslavia. President Aznar and the PP won reelection in March 2000, obtaining absolute majorities in both houses of parliament.

After the terrorist attacks on the U.S. on September 11, 2001, President Aznar became a key ally in the fight against terrorism. Spain backed the military action against the Taliban in [[Afghanistan]] and took a leadership role within the European Union (EU) in pushing for increased international cooperation on terrorism. The Aznar government, with a rotating seat on the UN Security Council, supported the intervention in [[Iraq]].

Spanish parliamentary elections on March 14, 2004 came only three days after a devastating terrorist attack on Madrid commuter rail lines that killed 191 and wounded over 1,400. With large voter turnout, PSOE won the election and its leader, Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero, took office on April 17, 2004. Carrying out campaign promises, the Zapatero government immediately withdrew Spanish forces from Iraq but has continued to support Iraq reconstruction efforts. The Zapatero government has supported coalition efforts in Afghanistan, including maintaining troop support for 2004 and 2005 elections, supported reconstruction efforts in Haiti, sent troops to UNIFIL in Lebanon, and cooperated on counterterrorism issues and many other issues of importance to the U.S.

In 2005, the Spanish Parliament approved a same-sex marriage bill.

===Local Government===
The 1978 constitution authorized the creation of regional autonomous governments. By 1985, 17 regions covering all of peninsular Spain, the Canaries, and the Balearic Islands had negotiated autonomy statutes with the central government. In 1979, the first autonomous elections were held in the Basque and Catalan regions, which have the strongest regional traditions by virtue of their history and separate languages. Since then, autonomous governments have been created in the remainder of the 17 regions. The central government continues to devolve powers to the regional governments, which will eventually have full responsibility for health care and education, as well as other social programs.

Spain is divided into [[political subdivisions of Spain|seventeen autonomous communities]] and two autonomous cities ([[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], which are in [[Morocco]]). The seventeen autonomous communities are further divided into fifty provinces.

===Terrorism===
[[File:ETA.jpg|thumb|Mural with the anagram of Batasuna.]]
The Government of Spain is involved in a long-running campaign against Basque Fatherland and Liberty ([[ETA]]), a [[terrorist]] organization founded in 1959 and dedicated to promoting [[Basque]] independence. ETA targets Spanish security forces, military personnel, Spanish Government officials, and politicians of the Popular Party and the Socialist Party (PSOE.) The group has carried out numerous bombings against Spanish Government facilities and economic targets, including a car bomb assassination attempt on then-opposition leader Aznar in 1995, in which his armored car was destroyed but he was unhurt. The Spanish Government attributes over 800 deaths to ETA terrorism since its campaign of violence began. In recent years, the government has had more success in controlling ETA, due in part to increased security cooperation with [[French]] authorities.

In November 1999, ETA ended a cease-fire it declared in September 1998. Following the end of that ceasefire, ETA conducted a campaign of violence and has been blamed for the deaths of some 46 Spanish citizens and officials. Each attack has been followed by massive anti-ETA demonstrations around the country, clearly demonstrating that the majority of Spaniards, including the majority of Spain's Basque populace, have no tolerance for continued ETA violence. In March 2006, ETA declared another ceasefire, which it ended in June 2007. The government continues to pursue vigorous counterterrorist policy and has worked closely with its international allies to foil several suspected ETA attacks.

Spain also contends with a resistance group, commonly known as GRAPO. GRAPO is an urban left-wing terrorist group that seeks to overthrow the Spanish Government and establish a Marxist state. It opposes Spanish participation in NATO and U.S. military presence in Spain and has a long history of assassinations, bombings, and kidnappings mostly against Spanish interests during the 1970s and 1980s.

In a June 2000 communique following the explosions of two small devices in Barcelona, GRAPO claimed responsibility for several terrorist attacks throughout Spain during the past year. These attacks included two failed armored car robberies, one in which two security officers died, and four bombings of political party offices during the 1999/2000 election campaign. In 2002 and 2003, Spanish and French authorities were successful in hampering the organization's activities through sweeping arrests, including some of the group's leadership.

Al Qaeda is known to operate cells in Spain. On March 11, 2004, only three days before national elections, 10 bombs were detonated on crowded commuter trains during rush hour. Three were deactivated by security forces and one was found unexploded. Evidence quickly surfaced that jihadist terrorists with possible ties to the al Qaeda network were responsible for the attack that killed 191 people. Spanish investigative services and the judicial system have aggressively sought to arrest and prosecute suspected al Qaeda members and actively cooperate with foreign governments to diminish the transnational terrorist threat. A Spanish court convicted 18 individuals in September 2005 for their role in supporting al Qaeda, and Spanish police disrupted numerous Islamist extremist cells operating in the country. The trial against 29 people for their alleged participation in the Madrid March 11, 2004 terrorist attack started in February 2007, and was declared ready for judgment at the end of June. One of the 29 was absolved during the trial. The prosecutor asked for sentences as high as 30,000 years of jail for some of them. The court is expected to issue the sentence sometime in October 2007.

===Principal Government Officials===
*Chief of State, Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces--King Juan Carlos I
*President of the Government (Prime Minister)-- [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]]
*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Miguel Angel Moratinos
*Ambassador to the United States--Carlos Westendorp y Cabeza

===Foreign Relations===
After the return of democracy following the death of General Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.
[[File:Monumento a Alfonso XII parque del Buen Retiro.jpg|thumb|Monument to Alfonso XII, Madrid.]]
As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a major participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond Western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political cooperation mechanism.

With the normalization of diplomatic relations with Israel and Albania in 1986, Spain virtually completed the process of universalizing its diplomatic relations. The only country with which it now does not have diplomatic relations is North Korea.

Spain has maintained its special identification with Latin America. Its policy emphasizes the concept of Hispanidad, a mixture of linguistic, religious, ethnic, cultural, and historical ties binding Spanish-speaking America to Spain. Spain has been an effective example of transition from authoritarianism to democracy, as shown in the many trips that Spain's King and Prime Ministers have made to the region. Spain maintains economic and technical cooperation programs and cultural exchanges with Latin America, both bilaterally and within the EU.

Spain also continues to focus attention on North [[Africa]], especially on Morocco. This concern is dictated by geographic proximity and long historical contacts, as well as by the two Spanish enclave cities of [[Ceuta]] and Melilla on the northern coast of Africa. While Spain's departure from its former colony of Western Sahara ended direct Spanish participation in Morocco, it maintains an interest in the peaceful resolution of the conflict brought about there by decolonization. These issues were highlighted by a crisis in 2002, when Spanish forces evicted a small contingent of Moroccans from a tiny islet off Morocco's coast following that nation's attempt to assert sovereignty over the island.

Meanwhile, Spain has gradually begun to broaden its contacts with Sub-Saharan Africa. It has a particular interest in its former colony of Equatorial Guinea, where it maintains a large aid program.

In relations with the Arab world, Spain has sought to promote European-Mediterranean dialog. Spain strongly supports the EU's "Barcelona Process" which seeks to expand dialog and trade between Europe and the nations of North Africa and the Middle East, including Israel. It is seen by some as too greatly favoring the European Union. Other proposals are on the table, including one put forward by French President Nicolas Sarkozy in 2007. The latest meeting on the Barcelona initiative was held on November 29, 2005.

Spain has been successful in managing its relations with its two European neighbors, France and Portugal. The accession of Spain and Portugal to the EU has helped ease some of their periodic trade frictions by putting these into an EU context. Franco-Spanish bilateral cooperation is enhanced by joint action against Basque ETA terrorism. Ties with the United Kingdom are generally good, although the question of [[Gibraltar]] remains a sensitive issue.

==Economy==
Spain's accession to the European Community--now European Union (EU)--in January 1986 required the country to open its economy to trade and investment, modernize its industrial base, improve infrastructure, and revise economic legislation to conform to EU guidelines. In doing so, Spain increased gross domestic product (GDP) growth, reduced the public debt to GDP ratio, reduced unemployment from 23% in 1986 to 8.47% in first quarter 2007, and reduced [[inflation]] to under 3%. The fundamental challenges remaining for Spain include decreasing unemployment further, reforming labor laws lowering inflation, and raising per capita GDP.

Following peak growth years in the late 1980s, the Spanish economy entered into recession in mid-1992. The economy recovered during the first Aznar administration (1996-2000), driven by a return of consumer confidence and increased private consumption, although growth has slowed in recent years. Unemployment remains a problem at 8.47% (2007, first quarter), but this still represents a significant improvement from previous levels. Devaluations of the peseta during the 1990s made Spanish exports more competitive, but the strength of the euro since its adoption has raised recent concerns that Spanish exports are being priced out of the range of foreign buyers.

Following the financial problems starting in the [[USA]] the economy of Spain had serious problems. These were handled very badly by the socialist government then in power.

==History==
see [[History of Spain]]

==The leisure activities==

The national activity of Spain is the [[bullfighting]].

[[File:Goya Jovellanos 1798.jpg|200px|center|Melchor de Jovellanos by [[Francisco de Goya]], 1798.]]

== External links ==

*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sp.html Spain] CIA - The World Factbook.
*[http://www.okspain.org/ The Tourist Office of Spain]

==References==
<references/>

{{Copyright Details (US Government)}}

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:NATO members]]
[[Category:EU Members]]
[[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]
[[Category:Spain]]
[[Category:Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Spanish History]]

Sharia law

2010-11-11T22:44:02Z

BishoiH: /* Divorce laws */

'''Sharia''' or '''Shari'a''' is the body of [[Islamic]] law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on [[Muslim]] principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical [[Qur'an]]; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of [[Allah]] by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.
[[File:Sharia.jpg|right|300px]]
Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.

There is not a strictly codified uniform set of laws pertaining to Sharia. It is more like a system of devising laws, based on the Qur'an, Hadith and centuries of debate, interpretation and precedent.

Before the 19th century, legal theory was considered the domain of the traditional legal schools of thought. Most [[Sunni]] Muslims follow Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafii, while most [[Shia]] Muslims follow Jaafari (Hallaq 1997, Brown 1996, Aslan 2006).

Laws and practices under Sharia:

===Marriage laws===
* The Muslim man who is not currently a fornicator can only marry a Muslim woman who is not currently a fornicatress or a chaste woman from the people of the book.
* The Muslim woman who is not currently a fornicatress can only marry a Muslim man who is not currently a fornicator.
* The Muslim fornicator can only marry a Muslim fornicates.
* The Muslim fornicates can only marry a Muslim fornicator.
* Men can marry up to four wives, but only if they are treated equally. Those who do not consider themselves capable of maintaining just behavior between wives, should refrain from this practice.
* The woman cannot marry without the consent of her guardian. If she marries, her husband becomes her new guardian.
* The guardian may choose a suitable partner for a virgin girl, but the girl is free to contest and has the right to say 'no'.
* The guardian cannot marry the divorced woman or the widow if she didn't ask to be married.
* The number of husbands is limited to one.
* "Do not marry unless you give your wife something that is her right." It is obligatory for a man to give bride wealth (gifts) to the woman he marries.[5]

===Divorce laws===
* A woman who wishes to be divorced usually needs the consent of her husband. However, most schools allow her to obtain a divorce without her husband's consent if she can show the judge that her husband is mistreating her, failing to support her financially, or is impotent. If the husband consents she does not have to pay back the dower.{{fact}}
* Men have the right of unilateral divorce. A divorce is effective when the man tells his wife that he is divorcing her.
* Men may also reverse their decision and unilaterally reinstate the marriage. They can do this up to three times. On the third declaration of divorce, it is "permanent" and cannot be revoked. He can only remarry her after this time if she has been wed to another man and subsequently divorced.
* A divorced woman of reproductive age must wait three months before marrying again to ensure that she is not pregnant. Her ex-husband should support her financially during this period.{{fact}}
* Under certain circumstances (abuse, for instance), the wife may ask a judge to separate the couple.
* These are guidelines; Islamic law on divorce is different depending on the school of thought.

===Other laws===
* Dancing and other forms of "fun" entertainment are forbidden

===The penalty for theft===
*In accordance with the Qur'an and several hadith, theft is punished by imprisonment or amputation of hands or feet, depending on the number of times it was committed and depending on the item of theft.
===The penalty for adultery===
*In accordance with hadith, stoning to death is the penalty for married men and women who commit adultery. For unmarried men and women, the punishment prescribed in the Qur'an and hadith is 100 lashes.

==Nigeria==
In [[Nigeria]] in 2000, 12 northern states (Sokoto, Kebbi, Niger, Kano, Katsina, Kaduna, Jigawa, Yobe, Bauchi, Borno, Zamfara, and Gombe) reintroduced criminal law aspects of the Sharia legal system, which many Christians allege amounted to the adoption of a state religion. Moreover, the Nigerian Civil Liberties Organization contends that the establishment of a Commission for Religious Affairs in Zamfara State is tantamount to adopting Islam as a state religion.

Several northern states used state funds for the construction of mosques, teaching of Qadis (Shari'a court judges), and subsidies for the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. However, several other states, including northern states, apportioned funds to finance Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem and to construct churches. States, whether predominantly Christian or Muslim, generally responded to the religious needs expressed by the majority of their residents.

The question of the constitutionality of the Shari'a legal system, as adopted in 12 northern states, has been debated at the Supreme Court. However, the court has not rendered a judgment on this issue, in part because of the often volatile relationships between religious groups.

== United States ==
Many financial institutions in the United States are using [[sharia-compliant finance]], or SCF. Problems presented by SCF include that it enables racketeering, antitrust activity, securities fraud, consumer fraud and material support for terror.<ref>David Yerushalmi, Esq., Civil Liability and Criminal Exposure for U.S. Financial Institutions and Businesses Engaged in Shariah-Compliant Finance (http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/Modules/NewsManager/Center%20publication%20PDFs/Shairias%20Black%20Box%20(D%20Yerushalmi).pdf ).(Caution: large file).</ref> The Treasury Department has been co-sponsoring seminars on sharia-compliant finance with Harvard Law School's Islamic Finance Project in preparation for new projects to be undertaken by the department under [[President of the United States|President]] [[Barack Obama]]<ref>[http://www.christianworldviewnetwork.com/article.php/4162/Brannon-Howse/ COALITION TO STOP SHARIAH TO PROTEST U.S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT'S EFFORTS TO PROMOTE SEDITIOUS SHARIAH-COMPLIANT FINANCE], press release, November 5, 2008.</ref>

There is a very small population of polygamist Muslims in the United States.<ref>Pauline Bartolone, ''[http://newsinitiative.org/story/2007/07/27/for_these_muslims_polygamy_is For these Muslims, polygamy is an option]'', San Francisco Chronicle, August 5, 2007.</ref>

==United Kingdom ==
In 2008, the [[Department for Work and Pensions]] in the [[United Kingdom]] revised its policies to provide for extra welfare benefits for men who have married more than one wife, as permitted by sharia law.<ref>Jonathan Wynne-Jones, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/1577395/Multiple-wives-will-mean-multiple-benefits.html Multiple wives will mean multiple benefits], ''Telegraph'', April 18, 2008.</ref>

==Further reading==
*'''Pendlebury, Richard''' ''Sharia UK: What exactly does it mean?'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=512973&in_page_id=1770 Daily Mail]. Accessed 9 February 2008
[[Category:Islam]]
*'''Barton, Fiona''', '''McBride, Alex''' ''A brutal beating and justice meted out in a humble back street cafe: how sharia law already operates in Britain'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=513218&in_page_id=1770 Daily Mail]. Accessed 9 February 2008

== Notes ==
<references/>

Ayn Rand

2010-11-11T22:06:16Z

BishoiH: expanded and edited to remove leftist anti-capitalist bias.

[[Image:Jhyu65.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ayn Rand. A great philosopher and writer who developed the [[Objectivism | Objectivist]] school of thought]]

'''Ayn Rand''' ("Ayn" rhymes with "mine"), born '''Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum''' (1905-1982) was a [[Russian]]-born [[philosopher]], screenwriter, [[atheist]], and novelist, who began her career in Hollywood. She used her novels to promote her philosophy, known as [[Objectivism]]. Her best-known novels are [[Atlas_Shrugged|''Atlas Shrugged'']] and ''[[The Fountainhead]]''.

She is a highly political author, with her novels often serving as political messages. She advocated minimal government interference (known by the name Minarchism) in business and strongly objected to socialism and nationalism. Combined, more than twelve million copies of her two best-known novels have been sold in the U.S. alone, whilst her opposition to state economic intervention has made her works and philosophy popular with the [[TEA Party]] movement.<ref>''Ayn Rand stars at Denver stimulus ‘tea party’ protest'', Colorado Independent, Wendy Norris - 2/28/09 - [http://coloradoindependent.com/23026/ayn-rand-stars-at-denver-stimulus-tea-party-protest] </ref>

== Ayn Rand as an American ==
Though she grew up in Russia, Rand was a true American, and firm believer in the fundamental goodness of [America], it's place in the world, and the [American Dream].
 
''"I can say—not as a patriotic bromide, but with full knowledge of the necessary metaphysical, epistemological, ethical, political and esthetic roots—that the United States of America is the greatest, the noblest and, in its original founding principles, the '''only''' moral country in the history of the world."'' - Ayn Rand, Philosophy: Who Needs It
 
''"To the glory of mankind, there was, for the first and only time in history, '''a country of money'''—and I have no higher, more reverent tribute to pay to America, for this means: a country of reason, justice, freedom, production, achievement. For the first time, man’s mind and money were set free, and there were no fortunes-by-conquest, but only fortunes-by-work, and instead of swordsmen and slaves, there appeared the real maker of wealth, the greatest worker, the highest type of human being—the self-made man—the American industrialist."'' - Ayn Rand, For The New Intellectual
 
''"A European is disarmed in the face of a dictatorship: he may hate it, but he feels that he is wrong and, metaphysically, the State is right. An American would rebel to the bottom of his soul. . . . Defiance, not obedience, is the American’s answer to overbearing authority."'' - Ayn Rand, Philosophy: Who Needs It
 
''"If you ask me to name the proudest distinction of Americans, I would choose—because it contains all the others—the fact that they were the people who created the phrase “to '''make''' money.” No other language or nation had ever used these words before; men had always thought of wealth as a static quantity—to be seized, begged, inherited, shared, looted or obtained as a favor. Americans were the first to understand that wealth has to be created."'' - Ayn Rand, For The New Intellectual

==Philosophy==
{{Main|Objectivism}} 
Following the publishing of Atlas Shrugged, Rand immediately attract a strong following based on her opposition to [[collectivism]], and reasoned support for freedom, liberty and the free market, and many of her followers today are avowed [[Libertarians]]. Rand often called herself a "radical for capitalism," by which she meant the pure, true ''laissez-faire'' variety, rather than [[Socialist]] "mixed economies".

Doubtless, Rand's most famous and influential follower is [[Alan Greenspan]] (b. 1926), the longer-serving head of the [[Federal Reserve]] from 1987-2006, as well as a great economic thinker.

Rand's objectivism is critical of religion, regarding it as existing in opposition to reason and objective thinking. Nonetheless, she acknowledged a huge debt to religious practice, and recognised religious thought as the forerunner of modern philosophy and science.

''"You must remember that religion is an early form of philosophy, that the first attempts to explain the universe, to give a coherent frame of reference to man’s life and a code of moral values, were made by religion, before men graduated or developed enough to have philosophy."''
- Ayn Rand<ref>Interview in ''Playboy'' Magazine (1964)</ref>

==Quotes==
"We are fast approaching the stage of the ultimate inversion: The stage where the government is free to do anything it pleases, while the citizens may act only by permission – which is the stage of the darkest periods of [[human]] history, the stage of rule by brute force."<ref>http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=45735 WorldNetDaily.com Should Democratic Party merge with Communist Party?, August 12, 2005</ref>

==Works==
*''We the Living''
*''[[Anthem (book)|Anthem]]''
*''The Fountainhead''
*''Atlas Shrugged''
*''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal''
*''The Romantic Manifesto''
*''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution''
*''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]''

==References==
* Burns, Jennifer. ''Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right'' (2009), standard scholarly history, by a conservative historian. [http://www.amazon.com/Goddess-Market-Rand-American-Right/dp/0195324870/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1256927458&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
*Doherthy, Brian. ''Radicals for Capitalism a Freewheeling History of the Modern Libertarian Movement.'' (2007), popular history.
* Gladstein, Mimi Reisel. ''The Ayn Rand Companion'' (1984) 130 pp. good starting point
* Heller, Ann C. ''Ayn Rand and the World She Made'' (2009)
* Kirsch, Adam. "Ayn Rand’s Revenge" [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/01/books/review/Kirsch-t.html?nl=books&emc=booksupdateema1 ''New York Times Sunday Book review'' Nov. 1, 2009]
* Uyl, Douglas J. Den, and Douglas B. Rasmussen, eds. ''The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand'' (1984) 235 pp.; dense essays by professional philosophers

====References====
<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer Ayn Rand Institute]
*[http://www.ARIwatch.com ARI Watch] — argues that the above misrepresents Ayn Rand.
*[http://www.ios.org/ The Atlas Society — home of The Objectivist Center]
*[http://wiki.objectivismonline.net/wiki/Main_Page Objectivism Wiki]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rand, Ayn}}

[[Category:Women Authors]]
[[Category:Atheists]]
[[Category:Libertarianism]]
[[Category:Cold War]]

Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp

2010-11-11T21:09:03Z

BishoiH: reworded to remove leftist weasel words and link

[[Image:050127 guantanamo hmed 12p hmedium.jpg|right|thumb|300px]]
The '''Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp''' is a military [[prison]] of the [[United States of America]] on the southeastern tip of the island of [[Cuba]]. In this prison, [[Islamist]] [[terrorists]] are interred to prevent hem from carrying out terrorist attacks against the the [[West]].<ref>"The Supreme Court [ruled] that the U.S. government has the power to hold American citizens and foreign nationals without charges or trial, [but] detainees can challenge their treatment in U.S. courts."[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,123996,00.html Mixed Rulings on Terror Detention Policies] [[Fox News]], June 28, 2004</ref> The [[liberal]] organization [[Center for Constitutional Rights]] is organizing attorneys to file [[habeas corpus]] petitions in the Washington, D.C., federal court on behalf of the detainees at Guantanamo Bay.<ref>[http://www.ccr-ny.org/v2/reports/report.asp?ObjID=pQOvjcVXXK&Content=406 First post-Supreme Court habeas petitions filed on behalf of detainees at Guantanamo Bay], [[Center for Constitutional Rights]], 2004.</ref>

On April 2, 2007, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] denied appeals by a group of detainees of this camp, with the majority stating that it would be inappropriate to rule until the group had exhausted other remedies.<ref>[[Withdraw of Jurisdiction Upheld - Original Work|Supreme Court rules against detainees]]</ref><ref>Congressional Research Service Report [http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL33180.pdf Enemy Combatant Detainees: Habeas Corpus Challenges in Federal Court], updated April 6, 2007.</ref>

== Guantanamo Bay ==

Guantanamo Bay is a coastal area on southeastern [[Cuba]] occupied and controlled by the United States government pursuant to a 1903 Lease Agreement with the newly independent Republic of Cuba subsequent to the Spanish-American War. The Agreement established that:<ref name="rasul">''Rasul v. Bush'', 542 U.S. 466 (2004) (quoting lease).</ref>

:"the United States recognizes the continuance of the ultimate sovereignty of the Republic of Cuba over the [leased areas]," but "the Republic of Cuba consents that during the period of the occupation by the United States . . . the United States shall exercise complete jurisdiction and control over and within said areas."

In 1934 the United States and Cuba entered into another treaty that provided that, absent an agreement to modify or abrogate the lease, it would remain in effect "[s]o long as the United States of America shall not abandon the . . . Naval Station of Guantanamo."<ref name="rasul" />

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/ Naval Station Website]
*[http://www.jtfgtmo.southcom.mil/ Joint Task Force Website]
*[http://www.defenselink.mil/news/May2006/d20060515%20List.pdf List of detainees at Guatanamo Bay]
*[http://www.defenselink.mil/home/features/Detainee_Affairs/ US Dept of Defence site]

[[Category:United States]]
[[Category:Military]]

Inclination

2010-10-17T21:40:12Z

BishoiH: Created page with 'In mathematics ''inclination'' is the difference in angle between two given planes or axes. In common usage, inclination generally refers to a degree of slope.'

In mathematics ''inclination'' is the difference in angle between two given planes or axes. In common usage, inclination generally refers to a degree of slope.

Islam

2010-10-16T17:53:14Z

BishoiH: expanded shariah, FGM.

[[File:Madina Haram at evening .jpg|center|800px|thumb|Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], [[Saudi Arabia]], the site of [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] tomb.]]
'''Islam''' is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]], a seventh century [[Arab]] merchant, prophet and the founder of the religion. The word "Islam" means "submission" (to Allah) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

A follower of Islam is called a "[[Muslim]]" or "Moslem", a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older terms "Mohammedan" and "Muhammedan" ("follower of Muhammad"), have fallen out of use.<ref> Additional archaic terms for Muslims include "Hagarene", and "Saracen". Saracen as a term for Muslims was limited to the Crusade era, although it makes frequent re-appearances in pre-modern polemics. Hagarene was a more common term in pre-modern works, as it denotes the biblical connection of Hagar the mother of Ishmael who is reported as the patriarch of Islam. Additional names for Muslims in pre-modern and Medieval works are generally derived from misspellings.</ref>

==Theology==
There are no clergy, but there are religious teachers, or Imams, who have their followings. All Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) last and greatest [[prophet]]. The teachings of Muhammad are transmitted through the [[Qur'an]], the Hadith, and the Sunnah. The Sunnah is a general term for "the life and doings of the Prophet", which all Muslims are called on to replicate. The faith teaches that the Archangel [[Gabriel]] appeared to Muhammad in a cave reciting verbatim a revelation from Allah. The first word that Gabriel says to Muhammad is "Iqra" or "Recite/Poclaim",which is found in the 96th Sura of the Qur'an.

Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an (or Koran) to Muhammad. The key miracle of Islam comes from the historical condition of the illiterate and uneducated Muhammad, as the Qur'an is composed in an erudite and complex form of Arabic prose and poetry<ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The Qur'an was not written down in a systemised fashion until a decade after Muhammad died, preferable transmission being through oral recenscion.The Qur'an is considered to be the pure and holy word of God, uncreated and eternal. In Islamic theology the term uncreated is very important, as it implies that there is no author for the Qur'an, only the delivering ot the word to Muhammad who delivered it to the Sahab and the Salaf (The Companions and the Pure), who delivered it to the scribe delegated to record it in the reign of the Caliph Uthman bin Affan.
==Origins==
Like Christianity and Judaism, Islam originated in the Middle East. Islam claims to trace its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets that followed as recorded in the lost books of the Tawrat and Injil.

Based upon this belief, the Bible, Old and New Testament, is believed to have become corrupted through the translations and misinterpretations accumulated over several millenia. The criticism of the Torah centers around the reconstruction of the existing Biblical text required after the "Babylonian captivity". The criticism of the New Testament centers in the many disputed gnostic texts which contradict the orthodox biblical canon. Interestingly, Islamic jurisprudence accepts that the Injil was complete and whole up until the revelation of Muhammad. Therefore there is some inconsistency in the claims made against the New Testament. For more information, see [[The Bible versus the Qur'an]].
[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], one of the holy cities of Islam.]]

==Today==
Islam is the worlds second largest religion, with over 1.6 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to conversions, high birth rates, and redefinitions of the term 'Muslim'. Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but cannot keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

==Historical Background==

According to Islamic belief, in approximately 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], located in the Hijaz (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] (or Jibreel) to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgment day.

The message to Muhammad was to be God's last and fullest revelation, a direct copy of the Umm Al Khitab, the mother of all books located in heaven next to God; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or the city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Muhammad's forces, composed of the sahaba (companions) from Mecca ,and the Ansar (allied tribes from Yathrib) started attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632.
[[File:Islam750.jpg|thumb|590px]]

Tribal elders in a traditional council called the "Shura" elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through conquest and negotiation into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], South-east and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

The Muslim armies conquered and superseded the ancient Sassanid and Byzantine empires which had ruled before. Within a generation of Muhammad's death Muslim armies occupied an empire stretching from the Nile river to the far off Iranian province of khorasan. Reasons for the rapid conquest are varied and obscure. The Arab armies were more akin to tribal war bands raiding and settling where and when they could. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been at war for centuries. The constant simmering conflict between Constantinople and Persia reached a climax in the early 7th century. The Sassanids conquered briefly Egypt and the Levant threatening the central Byzantine heartland of Anatolia. Under the military reforms of the emperor Heraclius, the Byzantine army consolidated and counter attacked, recapturing all that they had lost and capturing the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 628.

This brief end of the Roman-Persian wars disrupted the frontier areas which had predicated their economies on raiding and mercenary activities. Two major areas in Arabia were directly affected. The Lackmid tribe and the Gassanid tribe both acted as mercenaries for the Persians and Romans. The official religion of both tribes analogically mirrored that of their overseers. Monophysite Christianity was common, particularly of the Jacobite sect. The death of Muhammad and the subsequent Ridda wars occupied these warrior tribes until the reign of Caliph Umar. Additionally, there was great religious unrest in the levant and Egypt. These areas resented the ruinous taxes and the harsh orthodoxy imposed by the emperor in Constantinople.

The same climate was present in the Sassanid realm with the rise of the dualism of the Manicheans. Under the Caliph Umar ,the Arab tribes which had concluded the infighting following the death of Muhammad were allowed to raid into the Byzantine and Sassanid fronteirs. The weakened state of both regimes from both military and economic exhaustion and religious unrest made them fertile picking grounds for the tribal warbands. The Arabs were chiefly successful in holding these areas in that they upheld a lightweight regime of low taxes based in the Islamic laws and distant government. Rather than employing an army of bureaucrats and nobility, the early Arab empire was more favorable towards maintaining the existing government structures under the leadership of Arab tribes. In this atmosphere it is hardly surprising to note the reports from both Muslim and Christian sources of peaceful capitulation and invitation of the invading forces.

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name possibly derived from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Qur'an as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salman Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.

The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Qur'an that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. The Qur'an is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Qur'an as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.

Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Qur'an and able to offer commentaries on Qur'anic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Qur'an or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Qur'an, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''[[Salat]] (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners. It is hard to know the truth. Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Qur'an and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise. Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Qur'an, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Qur'an and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.

====Women in Islam====

In pre-Islamic times women's rights were defined by tribal laws which differed amongst the tribes. Some women had absolute equity and the ability to hold power, while some women were treated worse than chattel; bride prices, unlimited polygamy, and female infanticide were a common theme. Islamic law standardised the situation on the Arabian peninsula, at a level slightly above the lowest,granting women limited rights an distinct legal individuals, a restricted right to divorce, and required her not to directly object to a marriage contract in order for it to have validity. It also limited polygamy to a maximum of four wives at any one time, though the use of "temporary" marriage in effect rendered this restriction meaningless. That was over a thousand years ago and there has been little progress since. The reality of traditional Sharia law as applied in the modern era has shocked the modern conscience. <ref>Linda Rae Bennett, ''Women, Islam and Modernity'' (2005)</ref>.

Women are treated as inferiors to men in almost every regard. For example, women are required to cover the head and body in public, by wearing the hijab. Hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and western street clothes may be acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque [[Burqa]] was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Pakistan are the most significant Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of restrictive garb, though cultural pressure in most Islamic countries lives women little choice but to submit to the dictat of hijab. [[Honor killing]] is winked at.

Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.

Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.

Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, though these are the countries were traditional Islam is strongest. They point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, ignoring the efforts of traditionalists in Turkey to end the freedoms women enjoy.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Whilst Muslim men control and oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities, Islamic apologists defend some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect women from predatory men.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the [[Dome of the Rock]] mosque. According to the Qur'an (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are prohibited from drinking alcoholic beverages, and from collecting interest on financial transactions.

===Female Genital Mutilation and Honour Killings===
FGM (also known as female circumcision) is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" condition for a woman, and act to carry out. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, though not in Coptic Egypt as some Islamic apologists claim. Another pagan practice practice continued in Islamic countries is [[honor killing]], in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that "dishonored" the family through supposedly, "promiscuous" behaviour. This "promiscuous" activity often includes women from Islamic societies living in the West aspiring to a Western/Christian lifestyle. The "honor killing" is more ancient, and pagan in origin, but tolerated and practised more or less openly in many Muslim societies, and is totally keeping with Shariah law, at least in regards to adultery, in that the woman should be killed.

==Islam and Christianity==
see [[Dhimma]]

While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the Resurrection, they consider Him and His mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshipping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that non-believers will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified (same as similar statements in the Bible and the Torah):

{{cquote|Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."
}}
::(Qur'an 5:73-75)

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], historical evidence shows that the god Allah was originally a pagan lunar god worshiped in Mesopotamia and the Levant,<ref>[http://www.biblebelievers.org.au/moongod.htm Alah - The Moon God]</ref><ref>[http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam/]</ref>, though Muslims deny this, poitning out that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, and repeat the Qur'anic claim that Allah is the God of [[Abraham]], as worshipped by Christians and Jews.<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]], amongst others]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Most Islamic scholars regard Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established during the early stages of the Islamic Empire, though a few scholars also believe contemporary legal cases can and should shape the law, though such thinkers may be subject to ridicule and even threats from Islamists.

Sharia law proscribes often brutal punishments for acts, that, in the western world, are relatively minor. For example, under sharia law, converting from Islam is punishable by death,<ref>[http://www.ntpi.org/html/whyoppose.html]</ref> whilst women found guilty of adultery is punishable by stoning to death, which often includes many rape victims, as Sharia courts often regard a rape victim as guilty of adultery unless she can provide four witnesses to the act of rape.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6148590.stm</ref> In cases involving the death penalty of corporal punishment, methods of carrying out the punishment are often barbaric, and include public beheading, chopping off of the hand, and flogging.<ref>http://saudiwoman.wordpress.com/2009/08/25/punishment-in-saudi-arabia/</ref> Many Islamist groups have been attempting to have Shariah courts set up in European countries, initially to rule over civil cases between Muslims in Europe.<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,422661,00.html</ref>

==Terminology==
Additional archaic terms for Muslims include , but are not limited to, "Hagarene" and "Saracen". The term Hagarene was more common in post-crusade Europe as it made specific reference to the biblical mother of Ishmael. Ishmael in the Muslim faith plays an analogous theological role to Isaac.{{citation needed}} Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, (1992)</ref>

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

<ref>''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back] </ref>

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]
==Further reading==
* Armour, Rollin. ''Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-Christianity-West-Troubled-History/dp/1570754071/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]
* Armstrong, Karen. ''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-Modern-Library-Chronicles/dp/081296618X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Berkey, Jonathan P. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Formation-Islam-Religion-Society-600-1800/dp/0521588138/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Campo, Juan Eduardo. ''Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2009), basic introduction
* Esposito, John J. ''The Oxford History of Islam'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-Islam-John-Esposito/dp/0195107993/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Glasse, Cyril. ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' ( 2nd ed. 2008)
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East'' (2001), by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-People-Events-Middle/dp/0812695186/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, Richard C. et al. ''Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World'' (2003), more advanced
* Newby, Gordon. ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-Encyclopedia-Islam-Gordon-Newby/dp/1851682953/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342942&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Robinson, Chase F. ed. ''The New Cambridge History of Islam'' (Volume 1) (2009), summarizes advanced scholarship
* Ruthven, Malise, and Azim Nanji. ''Historical Atlas of Islam'' (2004)
* Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. (1992)
* Sonn, Tamara and Mary Williamsburg. ''A Brief History of Islam'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Blackwell-Histories-Religion/dp/1405109009/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Infidels-History-Conflict-Between-Christendom/dp/0812972392/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Qur'an online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta (Hadith collection) online in English]
* Congressional Research Service, "Islam: A Primer", Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain and the source of part of this article [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]

Islam

2010-10-15T23:55:46Z

BishoiH: /* Islam and Paganism */ - added refs. Seperated historical evidence from Islamic apologist claims.

[[File:Madina Haram at evening .jpg|center|800px|thumb|Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], [[Saudi Arabia]], the site of [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] tomb.]]
'''Islam''' is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]], a seventh century [[Arab]] merchant, prophet and the founder of the religion. The word "Islam" means "submission" (to Allah) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

A follower of Islam is called a "[[Muslim]]" or "Moslem", a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older terms "Mohammedan" and "Muhammedan" ("follower of Muhammad"), have fallen out of use.<ref> Additional archaic terms for Muslims include "Hagarene", and "Saracen". Saracen as a term for Muslims was limited to the Crusade era, although it makes frequent re-appearances in pre-modern polemics. Hagarene was a more common term in pre-modern works, as it denotes the biblical connection of Hagar the mother of Ishmael who is reported as the patriarch of Islam. Additional names for Muslims in pre-modern and Medieval works are generally derived from misspellings.</ref>

==Theology==
There are no clergy, but there are religious teachers, or Imams, who have their followings. All Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) last and greatest [[prophet]]. The teachings of Muhammad are transmitted through the [[Qur'an]], the Hadith, and the Sunnah. The Sunnah is a general term for "the life and doings of the Prophet", which all Muslims are called on to replicate. The faith teaches that the Archangel [[Gabriel]] appeared to Muhammad in a cave reciting verbatim a revelation from Allah. The first word that Gabriel says to Muhammad is "Iqra" or "Recite/Poclaim",which is found in the 96th Sura of the Qur'an.

Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an (or Koran) to Muhammad. The key miracle of Islam comes from the historical condition of the illiterate and uneducated Muhammad, as the Qur'an is composed in an erudite and complex form of Arabic prose and poetry<ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The Qur'an was not written down in a systemised fashion until a decade after Muhammad died, preferable transmission being through oral recenscion.The Qur'an is considered to be the pure and holy word of God, uncreated and eternal. In Islamic theology the term uncreated is very important, as it implies that there is no author for the Qur'an, only the delivering ot the word to Muhammad who delivered it to the Sahab and the Salaf (The Companions and the Pure), who delivered it to the scribe delegated to record it in the reign of the Caliph Uthman bin Affan.
==Origins==
Like Christianity and Judaism, Islam originated in the Middle East. Islam claims to trace its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets that followed as recorded in the lost books of the Tawrat and Injil.

Based upon this belief, the Bible, Old and New Testament, is believed to have become corrupted through the translations and misinterpretations accumulated over several millenia. The criticism of the Torah centers around the reconstruction of the existing Biblical text required after the "Babylonian captivity". The criticism of the New Testament centers in the many disputed gnostic texts which contradict the orthodox biblical canon. Interestingly, Islamic jurisprudence accepts that the Injil was complete and whole up until the revelation of Muhammad. Therefore there is some inconsistency in the claims made against the New Testament. For more information, see [[The Bible versus the Qur'an]].
[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], one of the holy cities of Islam.]]

==Today==
Islam is the worlds second largest religion, with over 1.6 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to conversions, high birth rates, and redefinitions of the term 'Muslim'. Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but cannot keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>

==Historical Background==

According to Islamic belief, in approximately 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], located in the Hijaz (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] (or Jibreel) to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgment day.

The message to Muhammad was to be God's last and fullest revelation, a direct copy of the Umm Al Khitab, the mother of all books located in heaven next to God; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or the city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Muhammad's forces, composed of the sahaba (companions) from Mecca ,and the Ansar (allied tribes from Yathrib) started attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline. After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam. The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632.
[[File:Islam750.jpg|thumb|590px]]

Tribal elders in a traditional council called the "Shura" elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through conquest and negotiation into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], South-east and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].

The Muslim armies conquered and superseded the ancient Sassanid and Byzantine empires which had ruled before. Within a generation of Muhammad's death Muslim armies occupied an empire stretching from the Nile river to the far off Iranian province of khorasan. Reasons for the rapid conquest are varied and obscure. The Arab armies were more akin to tribal war bands raiding and settling where and when they could. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires had been at war for centuries. The constant simmering conflict between Constantinople and Persia reached a climax in the early 7th century. The Sassanids conquered briefly Egypt and the Levant threatening the central Byzantine heartland of Anatolia. Under the military reforms of the emperor Heraclius, the Byzantine army consolidated and counter attacked, recapturing all that they had lost and capturing the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon in 628.

This brief end of the Roman-Persian wars disrupted the frontier areas which had predicated their economies on raiding and mercenary activities. Two major areas in Arabia were directly affected. The Lackmid tribe and the Gassanid tribe both acted as mercenaries for the Persians and Romans. The official religion of both tribes analogically mirrored that of their overseers. Monophysite Christianity was common, particularly of the Jacobite sect. The death of Muhammad and the subsequent Ridda wars occupied these warrior tribes until the reign of Caliph Umar. Additionally, there was great religious unrest in the levant and Egypt. These areas resented the ruinous taxes and the harsh orthodoxy imposed by the emperor in Constantinople.

The same climate was present in the Sassanid realm with the rise of the dualism of the Manicheans. Under the Caliph Umar ,the Arab tribes which had concluded the infighting following the death of Muhammad were allowed to raid into the Byzantine and Sassanid fronteirs. The weakened state of both regimes from both military and economic exhaustion and religious unrest made them fertile picking grounds for the tribal warbands. The Arabs were chiefly successful in holding these areas in that they upheld a lightweight regime of low taxes based in the Islamic laws and distant government. Rather than employing an army of bureaucrats and nobility, the early Arab empire was more favorable towards maintaining the existing government structures under the leadership of Arab tribes. In this atmosphere it is hardly surprising to note the reports from both Muslim and Christian sources of peaceful capitulation and invitation of the invading forces.

==Divisions Within Islam==
Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.

The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.

There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name possibly derived from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.

==Religious Guidance==
During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Qur'an as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salman Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.

The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written Qur'an that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today. The Qur'an is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Qur'an as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.

Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.

====Clergy====
Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Qur'an and able to offer commentaries on Qur'anic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.

Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Qur'an or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Qur'an, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.

===Five Pillars of Islam===
*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.

*'''[[Salat]] (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]].

*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].

*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.

*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.

==Other Aspects of Islam==
[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
====Jihad====
Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.

====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners. It is hard to know the truth. Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.

====People of the Book====
Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Qur'an and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise. Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Qur'an, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Qur'an and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.

====Women in Islam====

In pre-Islamic times women's rights were defined by tribal laws which differed amongst the tribes. Some women had absolute equity and the ability to hold power, while some women were treated worse than chattel; bride prices, unlimited polygamy, and female infanticide were a common theme. Islamic law gave women rights they had never had in the ancient world; namely, inheritance, ownership, legal standing (however diminished it is in Sharia law), education rights, and the ability to divorce. That was over a thousand years ago and there has been little progress since. The reality of traditional Sharia law as applied in the modern era has shocked the modern conscience. <ref>Linda Rae Bennett, ''Women, Islam and Modernity'' (2005)</ref>.

Women are treated as inferiors to men. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Qur'an 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is imposed as a protection of female status. Hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and western street clothes may be acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque [[Burqa]] was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of restrictive garb. [[Honor killing]] is winked at.

Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.

Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.

Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, though these are the countries were traditional Islam is strongest. They point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, ignoring the efforts of traditionalists in Turkey to end the freedoms women enjoy.

Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men control and oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect women from predatory men.

====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.

At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the [[Dome of the Rock]] mosque. According to the Qur'an (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.

====Restrictions====
Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are prohibited from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect interest.

====Non-Muslim Practices====
Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Qur'an, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is [[honor killing]], in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribalistic pagan in origin.

==Islam and Christianity==
see [[Dhimma]]

While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the Resurrection, they consider Him and His mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshipping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>

The Qur'an states that non-believers will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified (same as similar statements in the Bible and the Torah):

{{cquote|Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.

Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).
They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).
Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."
}}
::(Qur'an 5:73-75)

However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) as a founding prophet.

==Islam and Paganism==

Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], historical evidence shows that the god Allah was originally a pagan lunar god worshiped in Mesopotamia and the Levant,<ref>[http://www.biblebelievers.org.au/moongod.htm Alah - The Moon God]</ref><ref>[http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam/]</ref>, though Muslims deny this, poitning out that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, and repeat the Qur'anic claim that Allah is the God of [[Abraham]], as worshipped by Christians and Jews.<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>

==Sharia==
[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.

Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}

Sharia law is used in many modern Islamic theocracies and prescribes very harsh treatments for acts, that, in the western world, are relatively minor. For example, under sharia law, converting from Islam is punishable by death.<ref>[http://www.ntpi.org/html/whyoppose.html]</ref>
==Terminology==
Additional archaic terms for Muslims include , but are not limited to, "Hagarene" and "Saracen". The term Hagarene was more common in post-crusade Europe as it made specific reference to the biblical mother of Ishmael. Ishmael in the Muslim faith plays an analogous theological role to Isaac.{{citation needed}} Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, (1992)</ref>

==Ex-Muslims==
[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>

<ref>''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain'' [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back] </ref>

== See also ==
[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
*[[Arab American]]
*[[Islamic republic]]
*[[Qur'an]]
*[[Ramadan]]
==Further reading==
* Armour, Rollin. ''Islam, Christianity, and the West: A Troubled History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-Christianity-West-Troubled-History/dp/1570754071/ref=sr_1_32?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-32 excerpt and text search]
* Armstrong, Karen. ''Islam: A Short History'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-Modern-Library-Chronicles/dp/081296618X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Berkey, Jonathan P. ''The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Formation-Islam-Religion-Society-600-1800/dp/0521588138/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342713&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]
* Campo, Juan Eduardo. ''Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2009), basic introduction
* Esposito, John J. ''The Oxford History of Islam'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-Islam-John-Esposito/dp/0195107993/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Glasse, Cyril. ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' ( 2nd ed. 2008)
* Lewis, Bernard. ''Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East'' (2001), by leading conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Islam-History-People-Events-Middle/dp/0812695186/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
* Martin, Richard C. et al. ''Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World'' (2003), more advanced
* Newby, Gordon. ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Concise-Encyclopedia-Islam-Gordon-Newby/dp/1851682953/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342942&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Robinson, Chase F. ed. ''The New Cambridge History of Islam'' (Volume 1) (2009), summarizes advanced scholarship
* Ruthven, Malise, and Azim Nanji. ''Historical Atlas of Islam'' (2004)
* Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. (1992)
* Sonn, Tamara and Mary Williamsburg. ''A Brief History of Islam'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Blackwell-Histories-Religion/dp/1405109009/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342302&sr=1-12 excerpt and text search]
* Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''Infidels: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Infidels-History-Conflict-Between-Christendom/dp/0812972392/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1259342525&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

==External links==
*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Qur'an online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta (Hadith collection) online in English]
* Congressional Research Service, "Islam: A Primer", Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain and the source of part of this article [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Islam]]

Western alliance

2010-10-14T21:32:56Z

BishoiH: fixed ref error

The '''West''', in economic terms, includes the [[United States]], the industrialized nations of [[Europe]], modern [[Japan]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. Although Japan is in the [[Far East]], it modeled itself after Europe in the late 19th cnetury during the [[Meiji Restoration]].<ref> After World War II, the United States gave Japan additional assistance in modernizing its business practices; see [[W. Edwards Deming]].</ref> The former British colonies of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] are westernized nations. Western culture includes concepts such as [[accountability]], [[democracy]], [[freedom]], [[personal responsibility]], and a free market ([[capitalist]]) economic system. Coincidentally, "The West", although a never clearly defined terms, mostly, if not entirely, comprises the countries with the highest standards of living and best governance in the world. Most, though all countries considered in "The West" are also [[Christian]].

Militarily, the West consists of the United States, its allies and its friends.
* the [[Anglo-American Alliance]]
* [[America and Israel]]
* [[America and South Korea]]

South Korea is strongly allied with the United States, both politically and economically.

In the [[Cold War]] (1947-91), the West opposed the Soviet Union and its satellites, as well as Communist China. The main military alliance in the West was--and still is--[[NATO]], formed in 1949.
==Further reading==
* Gress, David. ''From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Plato-NATO-Idea-West-Opponents/dp/0743264886/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235002096&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

{{reflist}}
* Rosenberg, Nathan, and L.E. Birdzell Jr. ''How The West Grew Rich: The Economic Transformation of the Industrial World'' (1987) [http://www.amazon.com/How-West-Grew-Rich-Transformation/dp/0465031099/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235002160&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

[[category:Cold War]]

Western alliance

2010-10-14T21:32:12Z

BishoiH: expanded a little, western culture/ideals

The '''West''', in economic terms, includes the [[United States]], the industrialized nations of [[Europe]], modern [[Japan]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. Although Japan is in the [[Far East]], it modeled itself after Europe in the late 19th cnetury during the [[Meiji Restoration]].<ref> After World War II, the United States gave Japan additional assistance in modernizing its business practices; see [[W. Edwards Deming]].</ref> The former British colonies of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] are westernized nations. Western culture includes concepts such as [[accountability]], [[democracy]], [[freedom]], [[personal responsibility]], and a free market ([[capitalist]]) economic system. Coincidentally, "The West", although a never clearly defined terms, mostly, if not entirely, comprises the countries with the highest standards of living and best governance in the world. Most, though all countries considered in "The West" are also [[Christian]].

Militarily, the West consists of the United States, its allies and its friends.
* the [[Anglo-American Alliance]]
* [[America and Israel]]
* [[America and South Korea]]

South Korea is strongly allied with the United States, both politically and economically.

In the [[Cold War]] (1947-91), the West opposed the Soviet Union and its satellites, as well as Communist China. The main military alliance in the West was--and still is--[[NATO]], formed in 1949.
==Further reading==
* Gress, David. ''From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/Plato-NATO-Idea-West-Opponents/dp/0743264886/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235002096&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rosenberg, Nathan, and L.E. Birdzell Jr. ''How The West Grew Rich: The Economic Transformation of the Industrial World'' (1987) [http://www.amazon.com/How-West-Grew-Rich-Transformation/dp/0465031099/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235002160&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

[[category:Cold War]]

Muhammad

2010-10-12T14:36:55Z

BishoiH: Added new subheading, removed Islamic apologist obfuscation

[[File:Mohammad.jpg|right|200px]]
'''Muhammad''' (or '''Mohammed''' or (archaic) '''Mahomet'''), A.D. 570-632) was the founder of [[Islam]], one of the world's major religions.

Regarded by devout [[Muslim]]s as [[Allah]]'s final and greatest [[prophet]], Muhammad claimed Allah's [[revelation]]s, via the angel [[Gabriel]], that [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]] had grown corrupt, and that Muhammad was to restore the religion God intended.

In accordance with the Islamic [[hadith]], it is considered proper to add an honorary phrase of "sallalahu aleyhi wasallam (or SAW)," meaning "Peace Be Upon Him (or PBUH)," after speaking Muhammad's name. Many consider Muhammad to be one of the greatest and influential men to ever walk the earth, an example being the [[Christian]] author Michael Hart placing the Prophet Muhammad as number one, most influential human of all time, saying:

<blockquote>
'''''My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world's most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels. Of humble origins, Muhammad founded and promulgated one of the world's great religions, and became an immensely effective political leader.''''' <ref>http://www.amaana.org/ismailim.html</ref>
</blockquote>

== Images ==
Representations of the Prophet are well known from early on, but are not very common. While some Muslims hold beliefs that it is against Islam to make images of the Prophet, others have more relaxed attitudes, and among Shia Muslims, such pictures are common, and much liked. <ref>[http://www.hf.uib.no/religion/popularikonografi/default_eng.html Department of Archaeology, History, Cultural Studies and Religion (AHKR), University of Bergen.]</ref>
== Life of Muhammad==
The Prophet Muhammad, was from Abrahamic decent, he was descending through his son [[Ismael]], who under God's orders, was left in the Arabian desert with only a little food and water, the spot this occurred is now called [[Mecca]], today over 3 million Muslims annually re-enact the frantic running of Ismael's mother Hager as she looked for water, in which Ismael hit the ground with his foot causing a spring of water to flow forth, still flowing today it's known of the Well of [[Zam Zam]].

Muhammad was orphaned at the age of six, his father Abdullah died before he was born, his Mother, Aminah, died soon after, leaving him with his Grandfather Abdul Muttalib, who died when he was six. He was then raised by his uncle (son of Abdul Muttalib) [[Abu Talib]], a powerful man among the Quraysh tribe who loved Muhammad more than anyone. [[Muhammad]] grew up, never to take part in pagen rituals. He despised the actions, and began a tradition of fasting, in the caves of Mecca every annual pilgrimage; the pagans at the time believed in [[Allah]], and the [[Hajj]], from the times of Ismael, however they later added more gods to the one God [[Allah]]. Lexically speaking, Allah comes from the word Ilah in [[Arabic]], with the Definite article Al placed in front, making it "Al-Llah", translating as "The One God". This is why [[Islam]] was tolerated from the start, by most because Muhammad never introduced a new God, he spoke of the God of Abraham, Jesus and Moses.

Muhammad was respected in Medina, he would frequently solve disputes, he was nicknamed Al-Amin, or The truthful one, and was well loved by all. He was never known to lie, cheat, or steal, all common practices by the pagans of his time. Everyone, including his enemies, like [[Abu Jahl]] had acknowledged his lineage to noble prophets such as Ismael, and Abraham, and this was never disputed among anyone.

When he was about 40 years old, Muhammad's early revelations, from the Angel [[Gabriel]] spoke of a need to return to the [[monotheism]] of [[Abraham]]; however, [[Muhammad]] upon seeing the Angel [[Gabriel]] was unsure of himself and rushed to his house terrified. He told his wife Khadija of the events, and she assured him God wouldn't let this happen to such a humble man. Khadija later went on to see her uncle, a Christian Scholar, who after reviewing his religious texts, claimed [[Muhammad]] was the next prophet, (it is important to note, these texts are not the texts of today, as the Christians of Mecca and the Arabs were not Pauline Christians or Roman Christians) this as well as the Jews in Medina, who were also expecting a new prophet; albeit a prophet from the Jewish tribe, [[Muhammad]]'s prophet-hood was an unpleasant surprise to many of them hence they rejected him. In this way, at an early age, Muhammad saw himself as reviving an ancient faith, a perceived correction to [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], and restoring his people to what he saw as their rightful position as the true founders and heirs of monotheism. In these revelations, submission to the will of God - [[Allah]] - was critical. Muhammad's fledgling religion continued to develop throughout his life, through periodic revelations often relating directly to events currently facing his new faith.

The faith caught on slowly, winning only a few converts in Mecca (the first being his wife, Khadija). In 622 A.D, under increased pressure and ostracism from elders in Mecca, Muhammad began the [[hijra]], an organized exodus of his followers from Mecca to the city of [[Medina]]. [[Muslims]] date the formation of their religion to the ''hijra'' itself, even beginning their dating system at this point.

Muhammad was first introduced to the people of [[Medina]], when frequent wars were broken out between Jewish tribes and Arab tribes, Muhammad was sent for as a mediator between the two, most Jews spoke highly of Muhammad, accepting him as the next Prophet, although some disliked that he was not of the decent of Moses or Bani Israel. When Muhammad came to Medina, most problems were resolved, and it's hailed as a success. One important battle; which shed light on Muslim-Jewish tensions, was [[The Battle of the Trench]], although there was a pact called [[The Constitution of Medina]], one that gave all religions freedom, and protective status under the Muslims, from Muslims or invaders, one Jewish tribe [[Bani Qurayza]] didn't help defend the city. However they allowed in Huyayy ibn Akhtab, a man exiled by Muhammad because of a dispute between Bani Qurayza and Bani Nadir, who encouraged Bani Qurayza to attack the Muslims, and help the invaders, so Muhammad would be defeated once and for all. However their plot was found out, and the pact was broken. This incident led to the execution of approximately 700 Jewish men<ref>Guillaume, p. 461-464</ref> from the tribe.

The execution was described as follow by Ibn Ishaq:
<blockquote>
Then they surrendered, and the apostle confined them in Medina in the quarter of d. al-Harith, a woman of B. al-Najjar. Then the apostle went out to the market of Medina (which is still its market today) and dug trenches in it. Then he sent for them and struck off their heads in those trenches as they were brought out to him in batches. Among them was the enemy of Allah Huyayy b. Akhtab and Ka`b b. Asad their chief. There were 600 or 700 in all, though some put the figure as high as 800 or 900. As they were being taken out in batches to the apostle they asked Ka`b what he thought would be done with them. He replied, 'Will you never understand? Don't you see that the summoner never stops and those who are taken away do not return? By Allah it is death!' This went on until the apostle made an end of them. Huyayy was brought out wearing a flowered robe in which he had made holes about the size of the finger-tips in every part so that it should not be taken from him as spoil, with his hands bound to his neck by a rope. When he saw the apostle he said, 'By God, I do not blame myself for opposing you, but he who forsakes God will be forsaken.' Then he went to the men and said, 'God's command is right. A book and a decree, and massacre have been written against the Sons of Israel.' Then he sat down and his head was struck off.<ref>Guillaume, p. 461-464</ref>
</blockquote>

==Marriage to Aisha==
A controversial (outside out of Islam) point of Muhammad's life was his "marriage" to [[Aisha bint Abi Bakr|Aisha]], daughter of [[Abu Bakr]], who was just six years old at the time of "engagement".<ref>''Sahih Bukhari'' 5:58:234</ref><ref>Sahih Muslim 8:3311</ref> The marriage was consummated when Aisha was nine years old and began puberty.<ref> D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40</ref> The narratives describing her age at marriage as six are narrated by Aisha herself.

== After Muhammad's Death ==
Muhammad's death at an early age caused the splintering of his religion into new sects, over the question of succession. The groups called themselves the [[Sunnis]] and the [[Shiite|Shi'as]]. Many attribute this split to the high degree to which authority was centered in the powerful character of Muhammad himself: without his powerful personality, the movement could not survive intact.<ref>[[Bernard Lewis]], ''What Went Wrong''</ref>, however this depiction is not accurate in some lights. The [[Shi'as]] came into the picture much later than the death of Muhammad, and were first a nuisance group thought to be started by a Jew by the name of [[Abdullah ibn Saba]] who was burned at the stake by [[Abu Bakr]] for proclaiming [[Ali]] was God. Note that [[Ali]] disagreed with the punishment, because fire is a punishment only for [[Allah]].

The failure or splintering of movements, such as personality cults, built around a charismatic leader is a recurring sociological problem, often studied by psychologists, and referred to as the problem of the [[routinization of charisma]].<ref>Maximillian Weber, ''Theory of Social and Economic Organization,'' in the chapter "The Nature of Charismatic Authority and its Routinization," see also Len Oakes, "Prophetic Charisma: The Psychology of Revolutionary Religious Personalities"</ref>.

==See Also==
*[[Islam]]
*[[Muhammad cartoons controversy]]

== References ==

<references/>

== Notes ==

HIR | Muhammad's massacre of the Jewish tribe Banu Qurayzah [http://www.hirhome.com/islam/art.htm]

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Religious People]]
[[Category:Muslims]]

Free market

2010-10-12T14:25:27Z

BishoiH: command economy/planned economy

A '''free market''' is a term in [[economics]] that refers to an economy operating with little to no interference on the part of a government. This type of economic philosophy is the backbone to the system of [[capitalism]], and is sometimes referred to by the [[French]] phrase "laissez-faire," meaning to "let be." Free markets are largely dependent on the process of [[supply and demand]], where prices are determined by the amount of the product in the market, as well as the number of consumers who wish to purchase that product. The market will punish business whose practices are not beneficial, as consumers will take their business elsewhere. [[Communism]] and [[socialism]] are the antithesis of the '''free market'''.

The opposite of a free market is a command economy (called a "planned economy" by [[socialists]]), in which the government manipulates all economic activity for the theoretical central planning of the economy, either through regulation or seizure of private property, though this is known to cause disaterous effects, both triggering and prolonging recessions, such as the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] (triggered by state manipulations of the financial sector) or the [[Great Depression]] (exacerbated into a decade long slump by FDR's "[[New Deal]]").

A ''[[mixed economy]]'' contains both private-owned and state-owned enterprises or that combines elements of capitalism and socialism, or a mix of market economy and command economy. For example, the UK is said to have a free market economy in almost all goods and services but retains a bureaucratic socialised healthcare regime. This is justified on the grounds that it will ensure that British subjects have access to health care which is supported out of state coffers. A similar system is provided by Canada, whose citizens sometimes cross the border to the U.S. to get decent medical treatment; in some cases these patients will be reimbursed by the government. Economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] warned however of mixing a [[planned economy]] with a competitive economy, "a mixture of the two means that neither will work." <ref>Friedrich A. Hayek, [http://www.iea.org.uk/files/upld-publication43pdf?.pdf ''Road to Serfdom'',] Reader's Digest Condensed Version, April 1945, pg. 38.</ref>

[[Milton Friedman]] said,

:The most important single central fact about a free market is that no exchange takes place unless both parties benefit. [http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/m/miltonfrie173375.html]
== See also ==
*[[Austrian economics]]
==References==
<references/>

[[Category:economics]]

Privatization

2010-10-12T00:01:37Z

BishoiH: Removed anti-free-market, left wing bias

'''Privatization''' is the act of opening up previously state-owned corporations, assets, service or economic sector to private enterprise, though it can also be used to refer to public private partnerships, such as operating concessions, or Build Operate Transfer schemes. Privatization has been encouraged by the [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] in both wealthy and developing nations since the [[Second World War]], but particularly since the 1980's. It is mostly responsible for the transformation of poor quality public services delivered in a top-down authoritarian manner to customer-focused, flexible, innovative, more efficient and transparent services, as well as unlocking the potential of private sector profit-focused investment that have transformed services such as water and telecoms in the developing world.

As well as proving economic and quality of life benefits to citizens in developing countries, it is a major factor in improving [[rule of law]], [[accountability]], transparency, [[democracy]] and personal freedoms, by integrating the economies of developing countries with those of the west, thus leading to greater incentives to reconcile regulatory, legal and political standards, as well as encouraging the local population to accept [[responsibility]] for development of their country, through participating in an opening market and thus directly affecting the way these services are provided by exercising their consumer choice in service provision, and by making stock investments in publicly traded, rather than state monopolist utilities.

Some privatization programs have been strangled by excessive state regulation that has prevented them becoming honest, successful private ventures. For instance, the [[Dulles Greenway]] in Virginia has not turned a profit, <ref>Northern Virginia Transportation Alliance, [http://www.nvta.org/content.asp?sl=459&contentid=1767 Dulles Greenway]</ref> due to excessive government regulation, and the fact that the state distorts free-market mechanisms by operating "free" roadways funded from taxpayers money.

Many leading economists, such as [[Murray Rothbard]], hold that all government services can and should be privatized, with citizens and businesses contracting directly with private firms for protection.<ref>Rothbard, Murray. [http://mises.org/rothbard/newlibertywhole.asp For a New Liberty]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Outside Links ==
* [http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/oecon/chap12.htm US Info at state.gov]

[[Category: Economics]]

Arabic numerals

2010-06-21T22:02:34Z

BishoiH: direction of reading - plus changed "Arab countries" - some use Arabic writing but are not Arab.

'''Arabic numerals''' are the number system most commonly used in the world: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.

The term "Arabic numeral" is a misnomer that originated in 1847. The more accurate term is "Hindu-Arabic numeral", as the origin of the numerals is [[Hinduism]] in [[India]] between 400 B.C. and A.D. 400. The only connection with Arabs is that they communicated this system to [[Europe]] in the A.D. 900s, through Arabian [[mathematics|mathematicians]]. Most Arabs did not use these Indian numerals.

Note that Hindu-Arabic numerals include zero (0): Asian Indians were the first to discover and use this concept.

Westerners such as King John of England learned about Hindu-Arabic numerals as early as A.D. 1200, but there was resistance to converting from the Roman numeral system. It was not until the early 1500s, around the same time as the [[Reformation]], that Hindu-Arabic numerals became widely used in Western Europe.

==Numerals in the Arab World==
Despite the name as "Arabic numerals", the numerals used in the Arabic writing system are notably different, except for the "1" and "9".<ref name="Apic">
"Numeral pictograms" (of 10 Arab digit symbols), image:
[http://www.arabicnumerals.net/images/numrightleft.jpg ANjpg].
</ref>
In fact, an Arab 5 is designated by "o" which looks like zero, while zero is designated by a heavy dot "•". The basic ten digit symbols are as follows: <ref name=Apic/>
{| cellpadding=0
|
:: Number: 
| 0  || 1  || 2  || 3  || 4  || 5  || 6  || 7  || 8  || 9  || (the Arabic numerals)
|-
|
:: Arabic:
|•|| I|| Γ|| Ґ|| <big>ε</big>|| o|| 7|| V|| <big>^</big>|| 9 || (numerals in the Arab World)
|}
Note how the Arab 6 looks like a seven ("7"). In typical usage, the Arab numeric symbols are more curved (than shown above), similar to the curvature of letters in the Arabic alphabet.<ref name=Apic/>
Some examples:  6004 = 7 • • <big>ε</big>  or  year 2010 = Γ • I • . Those numerals are believed to be derived from hand-signing of numbers, such as 5 (symbol "o") being the circle of touching the thumb to the fingertips.<ref name="ANnet">
"Origin of the Arabic Numerals", Adel S. Bishtawi,
[http://www.arabicnumerals.net/chapter_1.html AN-chap1].
</ref>

It is also worth noting that in Arabic writing, numbers are written left-to-right (as they are in the west), whilst words are written right to left.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Mathematics]]

Silver Ring Thing

2010-06-14T12:43:02Z

BishoiH: refs

'''Silver Ring Thing''' is a US-based sexual [[abstinence]] campaign aimed at promoting pre-marital [[chastity]] amongst adolescents and young adults. Founded in 1996, and until 2006 in receipt of US Government financial support, it campaigns through rallies at which young men and women pledge to abstain from pre-marital [[sexual intercourse]]. This pledge is demonstrated by the wearing of a [[silver]] [[purity ring]].

In 2006 the SRT concept was exported to the [[United Kingdom]] using broadly the same formula. However due to the more [[liberal]] and [[Atheism | atheistic]] culture of British society, the campaign met a cool, and sometime suspicious reception. A high profile legal case concerning the right to wear an SRT chastity ring to a school was over-turned by the courts, and the SRTs involvement in the case<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6900512.stm</ref> - along with that the fact it happened in Horsham, where the UK arm of the campaign is based<ref>http://www.silverringthing.org.uk/aboutus_ukteam.asp</ref> - along with it's [[Christian]] ethnic, led to the campaign being treated with suspicion by many in Britain.

== External Links ==
*[http://www.silverringthing.com/home.asp Silver Ring Thing's home page]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sexuality]]
[[Category:Abstinence Campaigns]]

Silver Ring Thing

2010-06-14T12:40:48Z

BishoiH: SRT in the UK - rejected by atheists

'''Silver Ring Thing''' is a US-based sexual [[abstinence]] campaign aimed at promoting pre-marital [[chastity]] amongst adolescents and young adults. Founded in 1996, and until 2006 in receipt of US Government financial support, it campaigns through rallies at which young men and women pledge to abstain from pre-marital [[sexual intercourse]]. This pledge is demonstrated by the wearing of a [[silver]] [[purity ring]].

In 2006 the SRT concept was exported to the [[United Kingdom]] using broadly the same formula. However due to the more [[liberal]] and [[Atheism | atheistic]] culture of British society, the campaign met a cool, and sometime suspicious reception. A high profile legal case concerning the right to wear an SRT chastity ring to a school was over-turned by the courts, and the SRTs involvement in the case<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6900512.stm</ref> - along with that the fact it happened in Horsham, where the UK arm of the campaign is based - along with it's [[Christian]] ethnic, led to the campaign being treated with suspicion by many in Britain.

== External Links ==
*[http://www.silverringthing.com/home.asp Silver Ring Thing's home page]

[[Category:Sexuality]]
[[Category:Abstinence Campaigns]]

Iriomote Cat

2010-06-09T15:20:39Z

BishoiH: ref

The '''Irimote Cat''' (''Felis iriomotensis'') is a small wild feline indigenous to the Japanese island of Irimote, in the Yaeyama archipelago, itself the southern-most extension of the Ryukyu island chain.

The species is critically endangered, with only around 100 living examples, and is a "living fossil", a unique very early form of the Felidae family that is otherwise extinct. The Irimote Cat is believed to have first settled on Irimote when the island was still connected to mainland China, and survived into modern times due to to it's geographical isolation.<ref>http://web-japan.org/atlas/nature/nat22.html</ref>

{{reflist}}

Iriomote Cat

2010-06-09T15:19:58Z

BishoiH: wanted article

Kurs

2010-06-08T23:12:08Z

BishoiH: redlink fixed

'''Kurs''' is an ancient town and centre of the Coptic faith in Upper [[Egypt]]. The town is located roughly 25km upstream (south) of the famous city of [[Nag hammadi | Nag Hammadi]] and is home to the famous Deir Dogirdh Kitaab monastery, established by the great and pious Saint [[Pakhom]] in 4th century, one of the oldest in Upper Egypt, and noted for it’s grand architecture. The city is the site of a major moulid on the festival day of the great saint on May 9th, and many pious Christians from Egypt and all over the world pour into the city to honour the saint. Because of this, the city also has many large churches, and is home to some of the few bookmakers who can still produce traditional Coptic bound Bibles and sacred texts.

The city is also notable for being the centre in Egypt for the breeding of purebred Saluki hunting dogs of very fine build and temperament. Due to this, a local town custom known as ركوب الكلب (“Riding the Dog”) of the river is to sit a young male toddler on the finest of the stud dogs and to lead the dog down to the river, whilst he is showered with ears of wheat and lillies.

[[Category:Egypt]]

Kurs

2010-06-08T23:11:00Z

BishoiH: Created page with ''''Kurs''' is an ancient town and centre of the Coptic faith in Upper Egypt. The town is located roughly 25km upstream (south) of the famous city of Nag Hammadi and is ho…'

'''Kurs''' is an ancient town and centre of the Coptic faith in Upper [[Egypt]]. The town is located roughly 25km upstream (south) of the famous city of [[Nag Hammadi]] and is home to the famous Deir Dogirdh Kitaab monastery, established by the great and pious Saint [[Pakhom]] in 4th century, one of the oldest in Upper Egypt, and noted for it’s grand architecture. The city is the site of a major moulid on the festival day of the great saint on May 9th, and many pious Christians from Egypt and all over the world pour into the city to honour the saint. Because of this, the city also has many large churches, and is home to some of the few bookmakers who can still produce traditional Coptic bound Bibles and sacred texts.

The city is also notable for being the centre in Egypt for the breeding of purebred Saluki hunting dogs of very fine build and temperament. Due to this, a local town custom known as ركوب الكلب (“Riding the Dog”) of the river is to sit a young male toddler on the finest of the stud dogs and to lead the dog down to the river, whilst he is showered with ears of wheat and lillies.

[[Category:Egypt]]

Ayn Rand

2010-06-08T18:53:23Z

BishoiH: added caption to image

[[Image:Jhyu65.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ayn Rand. A great philosopher and writer who developed the [[Objectivism | Objectivist]] school of thought]]

'''Ayn Rand''' ("Ayn" rhymes with "mine"), born '''Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum''' (1905-1982) was a [[Russian]]-born [[philosopher]], screenwriter, [[atheist]], and novelist, who began her career in Hollywood. She used her novels to promote her philosophy, known as [[Objectivism]]. Her best-known novels are [[Atlas_Shrugged|''Atlas Shrugged'']] and ''[[The Fountainhead]]''.

She is a highly political author, with her novels often serving as political messages. She advocated minimal government interference (known by the name Minarchism) in business and strongly objected to socialism and nationalism. Combined, more than twelve million copies of her two best-known novels have been sold in the U.S. alone.

==Philosophy==
{{Main|Objectivism}}

Ayn Rand attracted a following based on her opposition to [[collectivism]], as articulated in her novels, particularly ''Atlas Shrugged''. Her followers today tend to be [[libertarians]] and predominantly unmarried men, many of whom are drawn to a self-indulgent lifestyle consistent with Rand's philosophy. Rand often called herself a "radical for capitalism," by which she meant the pure, ''laissez-faire'' variety. Rand had very little in common with [[conservatives]] except for a mutual opposition to communism and socialism. Rand has also been accused of being a rape apologist for her rape scene in ''The Fountainhead''.

Rand's most famous and powerful follower was [[Alan Greenspan]] (b. 1926), long-time head of the Federal Researve System (1987-2006).

Rand's philosophy was anti-Christian to the point of even declaring that "faith, as such, is extremely detrimental to human life: it is the negation of reason."<ref>http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=media_topic_religion%</ref> Such an anti-faith perspective [[atheism and morality|necessarily led]] to the [[moral relativism]] seen among her followers. For example, the movement she founded supports an "absolute right" to [[abortion]] at any time during pregnancy,<ref>http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5105</ref> including partial-birth abortion. Ayn Rand's philosophy and followers also support a "right" to have same-sex marriage, and opposed California's [[Proposition 8]] defining marriage as between one man and woman.<ref>http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=21821</ref>

Rand was an [[atheism|atheist]] and opponent of traditional family values, who personally adhered more to [[Hollywood Values]] than conservative ones.<ref>http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html</ref> She was a strident opponent of altruism. As far back as 1957, [[Whittaker Chambers]] denounced the “wickedness” of ''Atlas Shrugged'' in ''National Review,'' and Dr. Gabe Vertin derided her "senseless self-agrrandizement."

==Quotes==
"We are fast approaching the stage of the ultimate inversion: The stage where the government is free to do anything it pleases, while the citizens may act only by permission – which is the stage of the darkest periods of [[human]] history, the stage of rule by brute force."<ref>http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=45735 WorldNetDaily.com Should Democratic Party merge with Communist Party?, August 12, 2005</ref>

==Works==
*''We the Living''
*''[[Anthem (book)|Anthem]]''
*''The Fountainhead''
*''Atlas Shrugged''
*''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal''
*''The Romantic Manifesto''
*''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution''
*''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]''

==References==
* Burns, Jennifer. ''Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right'' (2009), standard scholarly history, by a conservative historian. [http://www.amazon.com/Goddess-Market-Rand-American-Right/dp/0195324870/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1256927458&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
*Doherthy, Brian. ''Radicals for Capitalism a Freewheeling History of the Modern Libertarian Movement.'' (2007), popular history.
* Gladstein, Mimi Reisel. ''The Ayn Rand Companion'' (1984) 130 pp. good starting point
* Heller, Ann C. ''Ayn Rand and the World She Made'' (2009)
* Kirsch, Adam. "Ayn Rand’s Revenge" [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/01/books/review/Kirsch-t.html?nl=books&emc=booksupdateema1 ''New York Times Sunday Book review'' Nov. 1, 2009]
* Uyl, Douglas J. Den, and Douglas B. Rasmussen, eds. ''The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand'' (1984) 235 pp.; dense essays by professional philosophers

====References====
<references/>

==External Links==
*[http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer Ayn Rand Institute]
*[http://www.ARIwatch.com ARI Watch] — argues that the above misrepresents Ayn Rand.
*[http://www.ios.org/ The Atlas Society — home of The Objectivist Center]
*[http://wiki.objectivismonline.net/wiki/Main_Page Objectivism Wiki]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rand, Ayn}}

[[Category:Women Authors]]
[[Category:Atheists]]
[[Category:Libertarianism]]
[[Category:Cold War]]

Privatization

2010-06-08T17:08:51Z

BishoiH: copyedit

Pakhom

2010-06-08T16:05:44Z

BishoiH: Created page with 'Pakhom was a saint and great abba, who created the Christian tradition of koinobitic monastic life, which is now followed by monastic orders all over the world. He is honoure…'

Pakhom was a [[saint]] and great abba, who created the Christian tradition of koinobitic monastic life, which is now followed by monastic orders all over the world. He is honoured on May 9th throughout [[Egypt]].

Abba Pakhom was born in 292 in [[Luxor]]. His parents were Egyptian [[pagans]], though even as a youth he mocked the [[idolatry]] and placating of statues that they engaged in, which he found worthy of contempt. When he was 20 years old, he was conscripted by the Roman occupiers, and held captive away from his home town with many others. It was here that local Christians, charitable and fearing of the [[God]], would daily bring food and comforts to the inmates. The righteousness and piety of their actions grabbed his soul, and Pakhom vowed to learn more about the faith when he was free. The God heard his solemn vow, As fate would have it, and Pakhom get was freed from serving the Roman occupiers without ever having to fight, and was baptised into the true faith in the year 314, and learned of the aesthetic custom, learning of the great saint Palaemon and came to be his follower in 317.

Pakhom initially lived and served the God in the eremitic tradition, but the God had another calling for him, and commanded that he organise the holy men of the Larves, who could not stand the rigours or the eremite, and created with them the koinobitic monastry of Tabenna in 323. The Holy men of the Larves saw the shepherd of the God in Pakhom, and recognised him as Abba.

By the will of the God his mission was sucessful, and established seven more koinobitic monastries by his own hand, in the Valley or desert regions of Upper Egypt, and by the time of his flight to Heaven, more than 3000 monasteries shone out across Egypt.

Pakhom was always aware of the God, and never vain, and thus never sought to become a priest, though he did tender to the faith of local farmers and shepherds, till his flight to Heaven the 9th May 348.

[[Category:Saints]]

Welfare

2010-06-08T12:13:49Z

BishoiH: added quote and replaced image

[[Image:Hitler.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Every advocate of the welfare state and of planning is a potential dictator.]]
'''Welfare''' is a set of government programs paid for by the taxpayers that provide social or financial support programs specific sectors of the population deemed to be vulnerable, either financially, socially or physically. However, welfare programs can also be extended to much wider segments of the population, such as [[universal healthcare]] systems, [[vaccination]] programs etc. Some elements are opposed by [[libertarian]]s and [[conservative]]s.

<center>'''''"Every advocate of the welfare state and of planning is a potential dictator." ''''' 
- Ludwig von Mises, renowned economist and philsopher</center>

==Welfare in the United States==
Welfare expenditures in the United States have been growing for many years. The welfare system was established by President [[Franklin Roosevelt]], and extended by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] as part of the [[Great Society]]. Opponents say that, since 50% of Americans pay over 96% of the taxes, <ref>Jackson, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.taxfoundation.org/publications/show/250.html]</ref> welfare is a [[socialist]] policy. Supporters may cite the supposed effectiveness of Roosevelt's policies to help end the Great Depression.<ref>http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/depression/overview.htm</ref> Welfare also comes in the forms of [[food stamp]]s, free school lunches, and [[Medicaid]].

==Corporate Welfare==
This is a pejorative term used to describe business loans, subsidies, bailouts, and tax breaks, or a government providing a closed bid contract to a favoured company. The term is especially for these actions when directed toward large corporations, and especially in favoured sectors such as finance, energy, defence and motor industries.

== Welfare Reform in the US==
In the [[United States]], Conservative legislators passed the [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996]], which ended the AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) and radically changed the US welfare system. Tighter restrictions were placed on the eligibility and manner of receiving public aid in order to discourage families (mainly single, divorced, or widowed mothers with children)<ref>[http://futureofchildren.org]</ref> from remaining idle (outside of the work force). For instance, recipients are required to find employment within two years of receiving aid, and a single family could receive aid for a total of five years. If a mother gives birth to a child while on public assistance, states are allowed to establish "family caps" in order to deny further benefits the family may have been eligible for before the reform<ref>Washington Post [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/welfare/welfare.htm#new]</ref>. Legal immigrants have also been made ineligible for any Social Security Income (SSI)<ref>Cornell University Law School</ref><ref>[http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/welfare]</ref>.

== Welfare and Welfare Reform in Egypt ==
The Egyptian welfare system is significantly different. Rather than specific programs aimed at helping vulnerable individuals or families, the government prefers to maintain price controls and subsidies, as [[poverty]] is regarded as the most serious social issue, and is widespread. Staple goods such as bread, cooking oil and fuel are all blanket subsidised, that is supplied at the subsidised price to the entire population, with no form of means testing employed. Although this is more expensive than a more targeted means-tested approach, it is administratively simpler, a major factor in a country where the civil service often has limited resources, and limited computerisation.

The government also implements non-financial programs, including [[family planning]] (which has succeeded in halving population growth, but still faces many challenges), subsidised basic medical care at the village level, [[vaccination]] programs, and agricultural assistance programs. The government also provides more sophisticated medical services through a network of public hospitals, though care is not free at point of access and facilities are generally less sophisticated than in private hospitals, though geographic coverage is much more extensive.

Attempts to reform the system, by reducing subsidises overall has been proposed many times by the government, and limited cuts have taken place, but there exists huge public resistance to deeper reform, especially amongst the poor, who comprise a huge percentage of the population. At present, there are no plans to drastically alter the provision of medical services, and most reform efforts are aimed at reform of the blanket subsidies on basic goods, and agricultural programs.

== Finding welfare ==
Welfare in the U.S. is administered at the county level. Search terms include welfare, social services, public assistance, and food stamps plus the name of the county. Like before the internet, phone books and yellow pages can be searched as well.

== See also ==
*[[Essay:Greatest Conservative Legislation]]
*[[Capitalism]]
*[[Social democracy]]
* [[Welfare State]]
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Government Programs]]
[[Category:Social Problems]]
[[Category:Welfare State]]

Freedom

2010-06-08T11:35:40Z

BishoiH: US flag symbolic of freedom and liberty

[[image:USflag.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The flag of the [[United States]], a nation founded upon principles of personal freedom, has become a symbol of freedom and liberty in a wider sense]]

'''Freedom''' is the state of being free or at liberty rather than in confinement or under physical restraint. More specifically, it can mean:

*Ability to act freely: a state in which somebody is able to act and live as he or she chooses, without being subject to any undue restraints or restrictions.
*Release from captivity or slavery: release or rescue from being physically bound, or from being confined, enslaved, captured, or imprisoned.
*The condition of being free; the power to act or speak or think without externally imposed restraints.
*Exemption: immunity from an obligation or duty.
*Civil liberty, as opposed to subjection to an arbitrary or despotic government.
*The right to enjoy all the privileges or special rights of citizenship, membership, etc., in a community or the like.

The desire for freedom was one of the founding principles of the United States of America. Today, freedom still stands proudly at the top of a list of aspirations for Americans. All Americans, no matter their creed or the color of their skin agrees that: "we shall have an association in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all".
<center>{{cquote|'''<big>"Freedom incurs responsibility. That is why many men fear it."</big> -- [[George Bernard Shaw]]'''}}</center>

== Freedom & St Paul's Letter to the Galatians ==

John Hanneman wrote, "Inner freedom has to do with the very essence of our being." This "inner freedom" is the theme of [[St Paul]]'s letter to the [[Galatians]].

The [[Greek]] words for freedom appear 36 times in the [[New Testament]]. Paul uses them 28 times in his letters, and 10 times in Galatians alone. The purpose of this letter is clear: to explain how [[Christians]] have been released from the law and been given freedom in [[Christ]], how the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit]] has replaced the [[Torah]] in our lives.

Galatians reveals why people struggle so much with law. It identifies the key ingredient to becoming free, and how people can enjoy freedom in Christ. Paul writes: {{Bible quote|It is for freedom that Christ has set us free.|book=Galatians|chap=5|verses=1|version=NIV}}
In his word of greeting in the introduction, he says: {{Bible quote|Grace to you and peace from [[Father God|God our Father]], and the Lord Jesus Christ, who gave Himself for our sins, that He might deliver us out of this present evil age, according to the will of God the Father.|book=Galatians|chap=1|verses=3-4|version=NASB}} Here the [[apostle]] defines what he means by freedom. Following his wish for "grace and peace," he uses two phrases that capture for Christians the two ways they are free as a result of their relationship with God.

The first phrase is that the Lord Jesus Christ "gave Himself for our sins." Here the Apostle is describing our freedom from slavery to the power of [[sin]]. This is the great doctrine of [[justification]]. We are born into sin, separated from God, but this separation can be overcome because God sent His Son Jesus to die on the cross for our sins. Through this [[atonement]], all of our sins, past, present, and future, have been paid for - all we need do is put our [[faith]] in Christ. John Stott comments: "The death of Jesus Christ was primarily neither a display of [[love]], nor an example of heroism, but a sacrifice for sin."<ref>http://www.speraindeo.org/julread.html</ref><ref>http://www.pbcc.org/sermons/hanneman/968.html</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External Links==
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/freedom/ What Liberals Say - Category: Freedom], [[Accuracy In Media]]

[[Category:Bible Study]]

Socialism

2010-06-08T11:25:13Z

BishoiH: added quotes by great thinkers about socialism

[[Image:Hitler.jpg|thumb|350px|right|One of the most well known socialist parties of the 20th century was the [[National Socialist German Workers Party]] (NAZI) which was headed by the [[evolution|evolutionary racist]] [[Adolf Hitler]]<ref>http://mises.org/daily/1937</ref><ref>http://creation.com/darwinism-and-the-nazi-race-holocaust</ref><ref>http://www.hourofthetime.com/socialist.htm</ref> ]]
'''Socialism''', [[liberals]] will say, is an economic system with state ownership or control of the all the major means of production and distribution of goods and services<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/socialism Meriam-Webster]</ref>. Because some businesses still are privately owned, ipso facto, the United States is not a socialistic government. "That definition is confuted by the earliest theoretical writings on socialism. In France, Henri de Saint-Simon, in the first decades of the 1800s, and his pupil and colleague [[Auguste Comte]], in the 1820s and 30s, along with [[Robert Owen]] contemporaneously in England, ''stated that the essential feature of what Owen called socialism is government regulation of the means of production and distribution."'' <ref>[http://www.thomasbrewton.com/index.php/weblog/once_again_what_is_socialism/ Thomas E. Brewton; Once Again: What Is Socialism?]</ref>

When the government controls the volume of money and its economic applications, it has the economy in a stranglehold. When government controls education so that nothing other than secular socialism may be taught, as Saint-Simon advocated, it controls the future destiny of a nation.

Not until the birth of the [[Soviet Union]] after the [[Communist Revolution]] did the idea become generally accepted that socialism meant government seizing ownership of the economy. ''Experience in 19th and 20th century [[France]], [[England]], and [[Germany]], however, made it clear that regulatory control by government bureaucrats is sufficient to implement socialism.'' <ref>[http://www.thomasbrewton.com/index.php/weblog/once_again_what_is_socialism/ What is Socialism?]</ref>

In [[Communism]] (the primary variant of socialism) the central goal is to establish a "worker's paradise"-an ideal state with perfect equality.

In practice the socialist government owns the banks, railroads, farmlands, factories, and stores, and is the only employer, or at least controls the regulation of production and distribution. The central goal is to destroy the "evils of capitalism" by government ownership or control of the means of production, usually with one party controlling the government on behalf of the working class.

The socialist system never manages to establish this "paradise" because management for the benefit of the employees leads to featherbedding and lack of investment or economic growth, at the expense of consumers. Collective farming (operating farms like factories) sharply reduced the food supply. The most thoroughgoing efforts by Communist regimes turned into authoritarian dictatorships. The government controls all investments, production, distribution, income, and prices, as well as all organizations, schools, news media and formerly private societies. Churches and labor unions are suppressed or controlled by the government. Socialism is the antithesis of [[capitalism]], because it opposes private ownership of capital or land, and rejects the free market in favor of central planning. It also rejects "civil society" and makes sure that all organizations are controlled by the government.

Theoretically, socialist regimes can have multiple parties. In practice there is only one political party, and it controls the government. The leaders of the party choose the government officials and set all policies for the nation and for cities and localities. Opposition parties are not allowed access to the media or to meeting halls or to funding, and their leaders are often arrested as "enemies of the people."

As a political ideology based on the redistribution of wealth, socialism stresses the privileges of the many over the rights of the few, but in practice when socialist economic principles are forced onto a nation by a totalitarian government a new Upper Class appears which is much better off than the Lower Class.
{{cquote|'''<big>Socialism is a philosophy of failure, the creed of ignorance, and the gospel of envy. Its inherent virtue is the equal sharing of misery.</big> - Winston Churchill''' <ref>[http://www.quotesdaddy.com/quote/280995/winston-churchill/socialism-is-a-philosophy-of-failure-the-creed-of Churchill; Quotesdaddy.com]</ref>}}

=Contradictory Goals of Socialism=

Socialism's stated purpose is to eliminate the huge gap between the highest and lowest classes of society. Their bitter complaint has been that the upper class exploits its dominance to gain privileges and wealth, while the lower class must suffer tyranny and poverty.<ref>"all socialists agree that a socialist economy must be run for the benefit of the vast majority of the people rather than for a small aristocratic, plutocratic, or capitalist class." [http://www.experiencefestival.com/socialism_-_an_economic_system] </ref> This obsession with class paradoxically creates a group of people with a vested interest in seeing class differences remain (socialist politicians, community organizers, ''etc.''); if by some means the class system actually ''were'' destroyed, these people would be out of a job.

Another essential goal of most socialist thinkers has been to eliminate [[Capitalism]],<ref>"... one of the fundamental goals of the socialist movement throughout history has been the abolition of capitalism" [http://www.experiencefestival.com/socialism_-_opposition_and_criticisms_of_socialism_arguments_for_and_against A Wisdom Archive on Socialism - Opposition and criticisms of socialism; arguments for and against]</ref>
on the grounds that only "social control" of the economy can prevent abuses such as feudalism, monopoly, cartels, etc.

But experiments on both a moderate and a grand scale have shown that socialism's main purpose has been undermined by its unremitting opposition to free market economics. In its drive to eliminate capitalism, it has overlooked the fact that general prosperity is vouchsafed by [[economic freedom]], and that [[free market]] economics improves the lot of the poor much more quickly and permanently than any system of central economic control.

The real aim of socialists is probably personal: why else would socialists want to create programs which encourage Dependency? Well, it fits into their lust for power.
People who want to control others need people who are willing to be controlled.
Independent, proactive people do not fit into the socialist Power Model. That is why the first thing Marx wanted to remove from the economy was the Profit Motive: it gives people an incentive to make their own decisions!

=Types of Socialism=

There are three main kinds of Socialism, all of them are built on the premise of government control of the means of production.

==Leninism==
[[Image:Backrdv12n2.jpg|right|400px|thumb|The Russian caption reads, "Long live the great unbeatable flag of Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin!"]]

Marxist Socialism, or '''Leninism''', as revised by Lenin and practiced in the pre-Stalin Soviet Union, was the Socialistic theory developed by Vladimir Lenin during his rise to power. Lenin defined socialism as a transitional stage between capitalism and communism.<ref>"In striving for socialism, however, we are convinced that it will develop into communism", Lenin, State and Revolution, Selected Works, Progress publishers, Moscow, 1968, p. 320. (End of chapter four)</ref> Leninism is totalitarian, with no [[democracy]] and all decision made by the leaders of the Communist party. Lenin saw the Communist Party as an "elite" that was committed to ending capitalism and instituting socialism in its place and attaining the power by any means possible, including revolution. Lenin was quite mild on the belief, believing that, though controlling of resources was important, the people's will comes first.

Though Bolshevik Russia was far more prosperous than its former Tsardom, Lenin's death in 1924 sparked the overthrowal of his Marxist-Leninism and the imposition of Stalinism, the violent, totalitarian belief that went entirely against Lenin's ideas (many of Lenin's works were censored by Stalin post-1924).

==Democratic Socialism==
The second form (sometimes called "Revisionism") prevailed in Western Europe down to the 1970s, and is typified by the British Labour Party. It was democratic and closely linked to labor unions that had real power. The goal was for the government to own ("nationalize") major industries such as coal mining, railways, steel making, shipbuilding, airlines, and banking. Small businesses remained private. The idea was that labor unions controlled the government and therefore unions controlled working conditions and wages for the benefit of workers, regardless of the damage to long-term economic growth.

The Socialists were well organized and after 1918 they bitterly fought the breakaway faction that became the [[Communist]] movement. In recent years major Socialist parties (in Europe and Canada) have largely dropped the long-standing demands for state ownership of the means of production and have mostly accepted capitalism. However they remain tied to labor unions and favor liberal policies regarding high taxes and public spending. Conservatives have been negative toward the economics of the second form of socialism, but they have praised its vigorous anti-Communism. Conservatives complain socialists use government power to redistribute wealth.

In countries such as [[Sweden]], a form of [[democratic socialism]] has been much more successful, leading to high [[social equity]] and a burgeoning economy, as well as general [[content]]. Although this acts as a drag on the economy, in democratic countries of the industrialized west, some socialist ideas have been put into practice with varying degrees of success.{{fact}}

==Communal Socialism==
The third form of Socialism has nothing to do with Marx or government ownership, and emphasizes the importance of the community over the individual. Usually it means small communities sharing most of their possessions. The most famous examples are the religious [[Shakers]] of the 19th century (a conservative group), and the new-left communes that briefly existed in the 1960s and 70s.

==Controversy==
''This section confuses "interpretation" with "debate".''

The ideology of '''Socialism''' is subject to a variety of interpretations. From a conservative perspective, Marxist socialism is an economic system whereby the means of production are seized and monopolized by the government sometimes without compensation to the builders of the [[capital]]. Investments, production, distribution, income, prices, and economic justice are administered by a government [[nomenklatura]] that regulates the transfer of money, goods (including capital goods), and services primarily through taxation, regulation and aggressive institutionalized coercion.

However, some socialists reject this description. Democratic socialists advocate a system of governance based on the principles of [[solidarity]], [[equality]] and [[liberty]], viewing these principles as interconnected. They believe increased socio-economic equality is associated with increased practical freedom to fulfill human potential. In many countries, such as Britain, socialist movements have been built on Christian, democratic and co-operative bases, embracing the notion that individuals should 'treat others as they would wish to be treated', and arguing that all individuals have a moral responsibility for the welfare of other members of their society. Socialism seeks to prioritize human welfare over other goals, such as profit and wealth accumulation by elites; it views increased redistribution of wealth as vital to securing greater freedom and happiness for the bulk of the people. Though this rosy picture of socialism is appealing to many, it ignores what Hayek called "the road to serfdom." Though in theory socialism is an idealized, egalitarian form of economics, in practice it means rule by labor bosses who minimize individualism and economic growth in the name of equality and benefits for the working class.

[[Marx, Karl|Karl Marx]] considered socialism to be a transitory stage between capitalism and communism. In his view, socialism is summed up by the expression: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." A major criticism of socialism is that it infringes individual rights in favor of the populace. In a very real sense, politics in the western world throughout the 20th century was shaped by the conflict between socialist and capitalist governmental policies.

Although socialist parties are common in Europe, the leading examples all currently embrace some free enterprise, individual property rights and certain other aspects of capitalism although leading European Socialists are very critical of America. In many European countries socialism has been changing to [[Social democracy]].

==Key elements==

As a political ideology based on the expropriation of wealth, socialism stresses the privileges of the nomenklatura over the rights of workers and earners. Many of the most notoriously oppressive dictatorships have been socialist, such as the [[Soviet Union]] and China under Mao Zedong. Private wealth was seized and the owners executed.
===Welfare state===
As an economic theory, democratic socialism calls for equalization of incomes, through taxation of private wealth coupled with welfare state spending. The [[nationalization]] of major industries is primarily a device to allow the unionized workers to control their own wages and working conditions, cutting out the capitalistic owners.

State [[pension]]s and unemployment insurance were not brought in by Socialists--they were first introduced by arch-conservative Chancellor [[Bismark]] in Germany in the 1870s. In Britain they were introduced about 1910 by [[Winston Churchill]] and [[David Lloyd George]] of the [[Liberal Party]], and in the U.S. were part of Democratic President, Franklin D. Roosevelt's,[[New Deal]] in the 1930s. Welfare state ideas such as [[universal health care]], and state control of key industries have been common throughout the developed world in the modern era. However, the United States has always rejected socialism as an ideological position, with a few exceptions such as the [[TVA]].

===Religion===
Some forms of socialism have often been [[atheistic]] in character, and many leading socialists (most prominently Karl Marx) have been critical of the role of religion - and conservative religion in particular - which they criticize for lending support to an unjust social order. Other Socialists have been Christians, and there has been considerable interplay between Christian and Socialist ideas. [[Christian socialists]] have asserted that early Christian communities, in particular, displayed certain traits, such as the holding of possessions in common,<ref>Acts 2:44: "Everyone was filled with awe, and many wonders and miraculous signs were done by the apostles. All the believers were together and had everything in common. Selling their possessions and goods, they gave to anyone as he had need."</ref> the rejection of conventional sexual mores and gender roles, the provision for communal education, etc., that could be considered similar to socialism. See, for instance, Arnold Toynbee, the British historian, has responded to this,
:"the Marxian excerpt from a Christian Socialism is an experiment which is doomed to failure because it has denied itself the aid of the spiritual power which alone is capable of making Socialism a success. ….'Christianity', they say, 'is the opiate of the People'; and, in the [[Soviet Union]]… Christianity or of any other theistic religion have been debarred… from admission to membership of the All-Union Communist Party. In fact, Communism has been definitely and militantly anti-Christian. Thus the campaign against Christianity which is to-day an integral part of the propaganda of [[Marxian Socialism]] is a challenge to the living generation of Christians …we latter-day Christians may still turn a Marxian attack upon Christianity to good account … a re-awakening of the Christian social conscience has been the one great positive practical achievement of Karl Marx" <ref>Arnold Toynbee, ''A Study of History'', Annex II to Vol. V, Part C (i) (c) 2, p. 585-586, Marxism, Socialism, and Christianity.</ref>

====New Testament socialism====
The earliest Christians were decidedly living in a manner consistent with basic aims of socialism, albeit with critical requirements and distinctions from its secularist expressions. Luke 14:33 requires the forsaking of all one has if one will be a disciple of Christ, and while this is not shown to necessarily always require the literally forsaking of all,<ref>Lk. 19:8,9; Acts 16:14,15; 1Cor. 11:22; 2Tim. 4:13</ref> Acts 2:44 states that the communal believers "had all things common". Acts 4:32-5:11 also describes community redistribution of property, and details the Divine punishment of a husband and wife for hypocrisy, in keeping proceeds from the sale of a piece of property while openly pretending that they gave it all, as others voluntarily did.<ref>Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Whole Bible, 5:1-11)</ref>

However, forsaking all is shown to be that of first surrendering oneself and life to the God of the Bible, and placing all at His disposal,<ref>Matthew Henry (1662 - 1714), ''Commentary on the Whole Bible'', Lk. 14:25-35</ref><ref>Archibald Thomas Robertson, ''WORD PICTURES IN THE NEW TESTAMENT'', Lk. 14:33</ref> with literal giving as a result being as He directs, and voluntary. (2Cor. 8,9)
{{cquote|Every man according as he purposeth in his heart, so let him give; not grudgingly, or of necessity: for God loveth a cheerful giver. And God is able to make all grace abound toward you; that ye, always having all sufficiency in all things, may abound to every good work: (2 Corinthians 9:7-8)}}

While the early organic community provides a noble model of communal life, and of a "seminary" type experience, it was also soon dispersed by persecution (thus greatly expanding the church: Acts 8:1-5; 11:19), and it is later indicated that believers retained ownership of property after conversion. (Lk. 19:8,9; Acts 16:14,15; 1Cor. 11:22; 2Tim. 4:13) Rich Christians are evidenced to have been part of the early church, but were not mandated by the church itself to give all they had away, but to be lowly in mind, and to be ready and willing to distribute, in faith and surrender to God. (1Tim. 6:17-19)

Moreover, in both Testaments capitalism is clearly supported,<ref>Gary North, ''Capitalism and the Bible''</ref> and indolence is not subsidized, but penalized by poverty, while diligence in work is rewarded by its fruits. (Prov. 6:6-11; 13:4; 20:4; 2 Thes. 3:10-12; 1 Tim. 5:17-18) Although holy widows over 60 years old who were without familial support were taken in by the church, a man is clearly required to provide for his own family, if able. (1Tim. 5:2ff)

While the success of the early church as an organic community is often invoked in support of modern socialism, and many communes of the 1960s evoked the Bible, the early organic church was a result of the supernatural work of the Holy Spirit among believers, while the "administrators" were humble servants who were examples of self-sacrifice, and who worked with their own hands as needed, (1Cor. 4:9-16) and whose authority was established by manifest Divine attestation, including the pro-active exercise of church discipline being only by supernatural or otherwise spiritual means, not carnal force.<ref>Acts 2:43; 5:5,9,10; 1Cor. 4:19-21; 2Cor. 13:2,3; 2Thes. 3:14,15; 2Tim. 4:2</ref>

In addition other distinctions, without the unique changes and influence resulting from faith and full surrender to Christ from all the community, and His anointing upon the work, attempts to mimic the communal life of Christians have failed.

As one critic of modern-day socialism states:
<blockquote>Socialism, unfortunately, completely disregards Biblical teaching about the fallen nature of human beings and assumes that human beings will act in a morally upright fashion if their basic needs are met. This is at the heart of why socialistic systems never work: because human nature does not work in this fashion.<ref>[http://www.dakotavoice.com/2009/06/capitalism-and-socialism-in-light-of-the-bible Bob Ellis, ''Capitalism and Socialism in Light of the Bible''] Dakota Voice, June 23rd, 2009</ref></blockquote>

== Britain, the Labor Party and Socialism ==

At its inception, the [[Labour Party]] borrowed socialist ideas by committing itself to a program of nationalization under 'Clause 4' of their Constitution, but was always fundamentally committed to the British system of parliamentary government. Clause 4 was formally dropped after the election of [[Tony Blair]] as Party leader, signaling the creation of 'New' Labour.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/21/newsid_2515000/2515825.stm</ref> The British governments of 1945-1950 and 1950-1951 under [[Clement Attlee]] implemented the nationalization of several industries and utilities, including coal, steel, water, railways and electricity. Former owners of nationalized industries were compensated. The best known example is the nationalization of health care to create the [[National Health Service]] (NHS). This made - literally overnight - health care "free" at the point of delivery for everybody in Britain, and it remains so today.

In the 1980s under Conservative Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] most of the nationalized industries were returned to the private sector, and public housing has been sold to the residents. These conservative decisions were endorsed by the "New Labour" of Tony Blair, to the annoyance of elderly radicals who fondly remember the poverty and inefficiencies of the old system.

== Criticism of socialism ==

[[Friedrich Hayek]] and [[Ludwig von Mises]] were important critics of socialism, particularly regarding what is known as the Socialist Calculation Debate. Hayek and Mises argued that a socialist economy would face information constraints that would prevent even well intentioned planners from efficiently allocating resources. That is, the planners would not know how much a battleship or a hospital cost, and could not efficiently allocate resources among different choices. This criticism should be considered as compatible with, but independent of, criticisms based on [[Public choice theory]] that bring into consideration the incentives of political actors.

Svetlana Kunin, who lived in the Soviet Union until 1980 explains how the system worked:
<blockquote>
Life in the USSR modeled the socialist ideal. God-based religion was suppressed and replaced with cultlike adoration for political figures....Only the ruling class of communist leaders had access to special stores, medicine and accommodations that could compare to those in the West. The rest of the citizenry had to deal with permanent shortages of food and other necessities, and had access to free but inferior, unsanitary and low-tech medical care.
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
USSR, 1959: I am a "young pioneer" in school. History classes remind us that there is a higher authority than their parents and teachers: the leaders of the Communist Party.
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
Those who left Russia found a different set of values in America: freedom of religion, speech, individual pursuits, the right to private property and free enterprise....These opportunities let the average immigrant live a better life than many elites in the Soviet Communist Party...
</blockquote>

<blockquote>
The slogans of "fairness and equality" sound better than the slogans of capitalism. But unlike at the beginning of the 20th century, when these slogans and ideas were yet to be tested, we have accumulated history and reality.<ref>[http://www.investors.com/NewsAndAnalysis/SpecialReport.aspx?id=512665 ''The Perspective Of A Russian Immigrant''], ''Investors Business Daily,'' 09/10/2009 </ref>
</blockquote>

==Past Socialist Countries==
===Chile===
Marxist socialist leader [[Salvador Allende]] was popularly elected in Chile in 1970 in a minority government run by the Popular Unity Party. Allende's economic policy, known as the Vuskovic Plan, sought to achieve transition to socialism. The Vuskovic Plan involved nationalization of large foreign enterprises, land redistribution to farmers, and redistribution of income. The majority in Parliament never supported it and the plan was never carried out as Allende was overthrown by the military.

==Other Socialist Countries (Current )==
===[[Cuba]]===
Communist leader [[Fidel Castro]] violently overthrew the Cuban government in the 1950's and has declared Cuba to be Communist since then. Today, Cuba faces copious economic problems and the people lack their Fundamental Rights. ([[Raul Castro]] now runs the country, having taken it over from his ailing brother Fidel.)

===North Korea===

North Korea's form of communism is in the form of "Juche" - a doctrine established by Kim Il Sung and carried on by current leader Kim Jong Il. Although it is investing heavily in nuclear weapons and long-range missiles, extreme poverty on the verge of starvation is the fate of the people, who are very tightly controlled. The country has little to no electrical power at night outside the capital, which can be verified by looking at nighttime satellite photos. <ref>http://epod.usra.edu/archive/epodviewer.php3?oid=87488</ref>

===Venezuela===

The socialist policies of president-for-life Hugo Chavez have destroyed the economy of that oil-rich nation. In 2009, he seized the Venezuelan operations of U.S. based Cargill in order to tighten his grip on the shrinking food supply in his country. <ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/venezuela/4938993/Venezuelas-Hugo-Chavez-tightens-state-control-of-food-amid-rocketing-inflation-and-food-shortages.html</ref>

==Quotes==
Some quotes on socialism by historical figures and great thinkers.

"Socialism is a philosophy of failure, the creed of ignorance, and the gospel of envy, its inherent virtue is the equal sharing of misery."

-- [[Winston Churchill]]

"I've always doubted that the socialists had a leg to stand on intellectually"

-- [[Friedrich Hayek]]

"The trouble is with socialism, which resembles a form of mental illness more than it does a philosophy"

-- L. Neil Smith

"Socialists cry "Power to the people", and raise the clenched fist as they say it. We all know what they really mean — power over people, power to the State."

-- [[Margaret Thatcher]]

== See also ==

*[[Conservapedia:Anti-socialism Project]]

==Bibliography==
* Busky, Donald F. ''Communism in History and Theory: From Utopian Socialism to the Fall of the Soviet Union'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Communism-History-Theory-Utopian-Socialism/dp/027597748X/ref=sr_1_24?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232396722&sr=1-24 excerpt and text search]
* Dougherty, Jude P. "Socialist Man: A Psychological Profile," ''Modern Age'' Volume 46, Number 1-2; Winter/Spring 2004 [http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_1-2/dougherty.pdf online edition], a conservative critique
*Laslett, John, ed. ''Failure of a Dream: Essays in the History of American Socialism'' (1984)
* Lindemann, Albert S. ''A History of European Socialism'' (1984)
* Lipset, Seymour Martin, and Gary Marks. ''It Didn't Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States'' (2001), Lipset was a leading conservative scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Didnt-Happen-Here-Socialism-Failed/dp/0393322548/ref=sr_1_21?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1232396722&sr=1-21 excerpt and text search]
* Malia, Martin. ''Soviet Tragedy: A History of Socialism in Russia'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Soviet-Tragedy-History-Socialism-Russia/dp/0684823136/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228761853&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]
* Muravchik, Joshua. ''Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism'' (2003) by conservative historian [http://www.amazon.com/Heaven-Earth-Rise-Fall-Socialism/dp/1893554783/ref=sr_1_21?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228761601&sr=1-21 excerpt and text search]
* Novak, Michael. ''Capitalism and Socialism: A Theological Inquiry '' (1988) [http://www.amazon.com/Capitalism-Socialism-Theological-Michael-Novak/dp/0844721549/ref=sr_1_19?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228761601&sr=1-19 excerpt and text search], bu leading conservative scholar
* Nove, Alec. ''An Economic History of the USSR 1917-1991'' (3rd ed. 1993)
* Pipes, Richard. ''Communism: A History'' (2003), by a leading conservative
* Suny, Ronald Grigor. ''The Soviet Experiment: Russia, the USSR, and the Successor States.'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24265044# online edition]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mises.org/etexts/hayekintellectuals.pdf The Intellectuals and Socialism], By F.A. Hayek, ''The University of Chicago Law Review'', (Spring 1949), pp. 417-420, 421-423, 425-433.
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109587/socialism Socialism] Encyclopædia Britannica.
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/socialism/ What Liberals Say - Category: Socialism], [[Accuracy In Media]]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_countries]

[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Marxist terminology]]

Capitalism

2010-06-08T11:12:06Z

BishoiH: /* Quotes */

[[Image:Tokyo Stock Exchange.jpg|thumb|Tokyo Stock Exchange]]
'''Capitalism''', also called a '''free market economy''' is an economic system based on private ownership and entrepreneurship. The investment of capital, and production, distribution, income, and prices are determined not by government (as in [[socialism]]) but through the operation of a competitive market where decisions are voluntary and private rather than regulated and mandated by government (see [[law of supply and demand]]).

==Overview==
One self-regulating feature of capitalism is competition, which helps maintain fair market value for goods and services. However, ''unrestrained'' or ''pure'' capitalism may sometimes create a positive feedback loop in which a small number of individual accumulations of capital grow ever larger, eventually becoming so few as to limit effective competition, thus ceasing to strictly be free-market capitalism. In this regard, pure capitalism is unstable. Modern political systems have developed regulation mechanisms in an attempt to render capitalism more stable, including anti-trust regulation, trade tariffs, etc.

Since the fall of [[communism]], and the advent of information technology, capitalism is becoming increasingly widespread.

[[Adam Smith]] described the operation of capital accumulation through the productive powers of labor as such,

{{Cquote|Whatever a person saves from his [[revenue]] he adds to his [[capital]], and either employs it himself in maintaining an additional number of productive hands, or enables some other person to do so, by lending it to him for an interest, that is, for a share of the profits. As the capital of an individual can be increased only by what he saves from his annual revenue or his annual gains, so the capital of a society, which is the same with that of all the individuals who compose it, can be increased only in the same manner. <ref>Adam Smith, ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', [http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN.html Book II, Chapter 3, Paragraph 15,] ''Of the Accumulation of Capital, or of Productive and Unproductive Labour'', First Edition 1776.</ref>}}
[[Image:Eco Pillars.jpg|right|400px|thumbnail|The [[free enterprise]] system in [[America]] before [[liberals]], [[Republican in name only|rinos]], and/or members of the [[progressive movement]], such as President [[Barack Obama]], eroded America's [[economics|economic]] freedom and prosperity. Recently, President Barack Obama [[Obamunism|created massive Federal government debt.]] ]]
Smith goes on to describe how the productive powers of labor employed by the owner of a capital allow laborers to reproduce with a profit the value of their maintenance, over and above their own consumption, which then allows for an additional set of hands to be employed. <ref>Adam Smith, ''Wealth of Nations'', Book II, Chapter 3, Paragraph 22.</ref> Smith observes labor is the original purchase price for all the wealth of the world,

{{Cquote|The real price of every thing, what every thing really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. What every thing is really worth to the man who has acquired it, and who wants to dispose of it or exchange it for something else, is the toil and trouble which it can save to himself, and which it can impose upon other people. What is bought with money or with goods is purchased by labour, 2<ref>'Everything in the world is purchased by labour.'—Hume, 'Of Commerce,' in Political Discourses, 1752, p. 12</ref> as much as what we acquire by the toil of our own body. That money or those goods indeed save us this toil. They contain the value of a certain quantity of labour which we exchange for what is supposed at the time to contain the value of an equal quantity. Labour was the first price, the original purchase-money that was paid for all things. It was not by gold or by silver, but by labour, that all the wealth of the world was originally purchased; and its value, to those who possess it, and who want to exchange it for some new productions, is precisely equal to the quantity of labour which it can enable them to purchase or command. <ref>Adam Smith, ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', [http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN.html Book I, Chapter 5, Paragraph 2,] ''Of the Real and Nominal Price of Commodities'', First Edition 1776.</ref>}}

Real wealth consists not in money, but in the things money will exchange for,

{{Cquote|In order to put industry into motion, three things are requisite; materials to work upon, tools to work with, and the wages or recompense for the sake of which the work is done. Money is neither a material to work upon, nor a tool to work with; and though the wages of the workman are commonly paid to him in money, his real revenue, like that of all other men, consists, not in money, but in the money's worth; not in the metal pieces, but in what can be got for them. <ref>Adam Smith, ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', [http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN7.html Book II, Chapter 2, Paragraph 37,] ''Of Money Considered as a particular Branch of the General Stock of the Society, or of the Expence of Maintaining the National Capital '', First Edition 1776.</ref>}}

Since wealth does not consist in money, gold, or silver, and labor is the original purchase price, Smith explains how the capitalist system is then put into motion, complete with natural incentives, only Smith does not use the word "capital" here to describe what is needed. Smith explains how a "store of goods", or "stock sufficient to maintain" the original capitalist entrepreneur is necessary;

{{Cquote|When the stock which a man possesses is no more than sufficient to maintain him for a few days or a few weeks, he seldom thinks of deriving any revenue from it. He consumes it as sparingly as he can, and endeavours by his labour to acquire something which may supply its place before it be consumed altogether. His revenue is, in this case, derived from his labour only. This is the state of the greater part of the labouring poor in all countries.

But when he possesses stock sufficient to maintain him for months or years, he naturally endeavours to derive a revenue from the greater part of it; reserving only so much for his immediate consumption as may maintain him till this revenue begins to come in. His whole stock, therefore, is distinguished into two parts. That part which, he expects, is to afford him this revenue, is called his capital. The other is that which supplies his immediate consumption <ref>Adam Smith, ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', [http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN7.html Book II, Chapter 1, Paragraphs 1 & 2,] ''Of the Division of Stock '', First Edition 1776.</ref>}}

The [[division of labor]] is the necessary condition that gives rise to the productive powers of labor that allows for large scale economic growth. By "division of labor", Smith is referring to "specialization of labor", where each worker acquires specific knowledge to apply to a specific task.

{{Cquote|In that rude state of society in which there is no division of labour, in which exchanges are seldom made, and in which every man provides everything for himself, it is not necessary that any stock should be accumulated or stored up beforehand in order to carry on the business of the society. Every man endeavours to supply by his own industry his own occasional wants as they occur. When he is hungry, he goes to the forest to hunt; when his coat is worn out, he clothes himself with the skin of the first large animal he kills: and when his hut begins to go to ruin, he repairs it, as well as he can, with the trees and the turf that are nearest it.

But when the division of labour has once been thoroughly introduced, the produce of a man's own labour can supply but a very small part of his occasional wants. The far greater part of them are supplied by the produce of other men's labour, which he purchases with the produce, or, what is the same thing, with the price of the produce of his own. But this purchase cannot be made till such time as the produce of his own labour has not only been completed, but sold. A stock of goods of different kinds, therefore, must be stored up somewhere sufficient to maintain him, and to supply him with the materials and tools of his work till such time, at least, as both these events can be brought about.

As the accumulation of stock must, in the nature of things, be previous to the division of labour, ...in order to give constant employment to an equal number of workmen, an equal stock of provisions, and a greater stock of materials and tools than what would have been necessary in a ruder state of things, must be accumulated beforehand. <ref>Adam Smith, ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', [http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN7.html Book II, Introduction, Paragraphs 1, 2, & 3] ''Of the Nature, Accumulation, and Employment of Stock,'', First Edition 1776.</ref>}}
{{Cquote|When the division of labour has been once thoroughly established, it is but a very small part of a man's wants which the produce of his own labour can supply. He supplies the far greater part of them by exchanging that surplus part of the produce of his own labour, which is over and above his own consumption, for such parts of the produce of other men's labour as he has occasion for. Every man thus lives by exchanging, or becomes in some measure a merchant, and the society itself grows to be what is properly a commercial society. <ref>Adam Smith, ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', [http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN7.html Book I, Chapter 4, Paragraphs 1] ''Of the Origin and Use of Money'', First Edition 1776.</ref>}}

==Capitalism and Society==
[[Image:Ludwig von Mises.jpg|thumb|100px|Ludwig von Mises]]
Historically, capitalism has fostered freedom and an increase in the standard of living and human rights, and vice versa. Societies that have tried non-capitalist systems inevitably fall into tyranny.

For example, [[Venezuela]], while not a perfect country before [[Hugo Chavez]], had freedom and wealth unprecedented in its history. As Chavez has nationalized industries, he has also centralized power for himself, becoming a dictator.

Capitalist societies also generally have higher standards of living compared to their non-capitalist counterparts in terms of per capita GDP, education, healthcare, and poverty rates. [[China]], for instance, has been growing extremely prosperous since it began opening its economy to capitalism in the 1980s.

== Quotes ==

“Historical evidence speaks with a single voice on the relation between political freedom and a free market. I know of no example in time or place of a society that has been marked by a large measure of political freedom, and that has not also used something comparable to a free market to organize the bulk of economic activity.”

"Underlying most arguments against the free market is a lack of belief in freedom itself."
--[[Milton Friedman]], Capitalism and Freedom, 1962.

"If an exchange between two parties is voluntary, it will not take place unless both believe they will benefit from it. Most economic fallacies derive from the neglect of this simple insight, from the tendency to assume that there is a fixed pie, that one party can gain only at the expense of another."

--[[Milton Friedman]], Free to Choose

“Capitalism is essentially the economic system of poor people. That’s what allowed the people that came from humble origins of the world to have economic rights the way only nobility and the high bourgeoisie had it before. So capitalism is essentially a tool for poor people to prosper.”

--Hernando de Soto, PBS Interview, March 30-31, 2001

(cf: [http://www.americansolutions.com/General/?Page=026a3bda-755c-45d8-84d3-c68eef294612 Values - Free Enterprise])

"The only real cure for poverty is production". [[Henry Hazlitt]], from ''Man vs. the Welfare State''.

"The first condition for the establishment of perpetual peace is the general adoption of the principles of laissez-faire capitalism."

--Ludwig von Mises, The Ultimate Foundation of Economic Science

"There are two methods, or means, and only two, whereby man's needs and desires can be satisfied. One is the production and exchange of wealth; this is the economic means. The other is the uncompensated appropriation of wealth produced by others; this is the political means."

-- Albert Jay Nock, Our enemy, the State

"Businessmen are the symbol of a free society — the symbol of America."

-- Ayn Rand

== See also ==
*[[Austrian economics]]
*[[Capital]]
*[[Free Enterprise]]
*[[Ludwig von Mises]]
*[[Enterprise]]
*[[Planned economy]]
*[[Socialism]]
*[[Welfare State]]

==External links==
*[http://www.capmag.com Capitalism Magazine]
*[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/capitalism/ What Liberals Say - Category: Capitalism], [[Accuracy In Media]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Libertarianism]]

Valencia

2010-05-31T23:26:04Z

BishoiH: expanded

'''Valencia''' is the third largest city in spain, located on the Mediterranean coast. It is noted for it's spectacular Fallas festival, te largest of it's kind. It is also the capital of the Communidad Valencia autonomous community. The province is bordered to the north by [[Catalonia]], and to the south by Murcia, being subdivided into (north to south) Castelleon, Valencia and Alicante provinces. The region is noted for it's citrus fruits, which are famous throughout Europe. The province is also home to the largest palm plantation in Europe (and one of the largest in the world), in Elche, which likely dates back to the Carthaginian era (5th century BC). It is now a UNESCO world heritage site.

[[Category:Spain]]

Free market

2010-05-31T14:11:04Z

BishoiH:

A '''free market''' is a term in [[economics]] that refers to an economy operating with little to no interference on the part of a government. This type of economic philosophy is the backbone to the system of [[capitalism]], and is sometimes referred to by the [[French]] phrase "laissez-faire," meaning to "let be." Free markets are largely dependent on the process of [[supply and demand]], where prices are determined by the amount of the product in the market, as well as the number of consumers who wish to purchase that product. The market will punish business whose practices are not beneficial, as consumers will take their business elsewhere.

The opposite of a free market is a [[command system]], in which the government regulates all businesses for the theoretical central planning of the economy, although this has been shown to have negative effects. Economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] warned however of mixing a [[planned economy]] with a competitive economy, "a mixture of the two means that neither will work." <ref>Friedrich A. Hayek, [http://www.iea.org.uk/files/upld-publication43pdf?.pdf ''Road to Serfdom'',] Reader's Digest Condensed Version, April 1945, pg. 38.</ref>

A ''[[mixed economy]]'' contains both private-owned and state-owned enterprises or that combines elements of capitalism and socialism, or a mix of market economy and command economy. For example, the UK is said to have a free market economy in almost all goods and services but retains a bureaucratic socialised healthcare regime. This is justified on the grounds that it will ensure that British subjects have access to health care which is supported out of state coffers. A similar system is provided by Canada, whose citizens sometimes cross the border to the U.S. to get decent medical treatment; in some cases these patients will be reimbursed by the government.

Milton Friedman said,

:The most important single central fact about a free market is that no exchange takes place unless both parties benefit. [http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/m/miltonfrie173375.html]
== See also ==
*[[Austrian economics]]
==References==
<references/>

[[Category:economics]]

Objectivism

2010-05-31T14:06:58Z

BishoiH: Added further reading/biblio.

[[Objectivism]] (Latin ''ob-'' out of and ''iacio'' I am throwing, and Greek '''-ισμος''' or ''-ismos'' the doing of a thing) is a school of philosophy developed by [[Ayn Rand]] that holds that things in the natural world exist independently of anyone's perception of them or efforts (or lack of effort) to understand them. Objectivism also holds that ''nothing'' is provably real that one cannot ''demonstrate'' independently of one person's percept of it.

== History of Objectivism ==
Objectivism as a formal discipline began with [[Ayn Rand]], a Russian-born émigrée to the United States. Ayn Rand attended The University of Petrograd where she studied philosophy and history. She graduated in 1924. In her work, showed more than a passing familiarity with the great philosophers of ancient Western civilization. The ancient philosopher she respected the most was [[Aristotle]].

By far the most complete expression of Objectivism in a single volume is in her novel, and most famous work, ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''<ref name=Atlas>[[Ayn Rand|Rand, Ayn]]. ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. New York: Random House Publishers, 1957, 1168 pages, cloth. ISBN 0394415760</ref>. However, her philosophy found expression in innumerable essays, whichwere published in a number of newsletters and magazines that she edited from time to time, primarily ''The Objectivist Newsletter'', ''The Objectivist'', and ''The Ayn Rand Letter'', many of which have no been collected in ''The Letters of Ayn Rand''<ref>Rang, Berliner and Peikoff (1997), '''The Letters of Ayn Rand''', Plume Publishing</ref>. Many of her working notes have also been collated, edited and published in ''The Journals of Ayn Rand''<ref>Rand, Peikoff and Harriman (1999), '''The Journals of Ayn Rand''', Plume Publishing</ref>. These compilations have made it far easier for the aspiring student of philosophy to gain insight not only into Rand's revolutionary philosophy, but also into the formation of the philosophy, the question she asked and avenues she explored.

During her life she attracted as dedicated following of students, including such names as the former chairmen of the Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan, Nathaniel Branden, a leading psychotherapist, the writer, Barbara Branden, and Leonard Peikoff, who went on to become a leading philosopher in his own right.

Since her death in 1982, other students of hers, most notably [[Leonard Peikoff]] have continued to support the development and study of Objectivism through the the Ayn Rand Institute, as well as through editing and publishing Rand's own works that would otherwise have been lost or hard to study. The Atlas Society performs a similar function, and counts Nathan Branden amongst it's most influential thinkers.

== The Fundamental Tenets of Objectivism ==
Objectivism attempts to be a "unified theory of everything worth thinking about." As such it addresses prominent issues in [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[Political philosophy]], and [[aesthetics]].

=== The Central Axiom and its Corollaries ===
Objectivism starts with a simple [[axiom]]: ''existence exists''<ref name=Atlas/>, often summed up as the intentionally tautologous 'A=A'. To grasp that axiom is to realize two other, corollary axioms:

# Something exists that someone perceives.<ref name=Atlas/>
# Someone exists who possesses ''consciousness'', which is the faculty of perceiving what exists.<ref name=Atlas/>

=== Metaphysical Axioms and Theorems ===
Objectivism continues with a number of other corollaries:

# A is A.<ref name=Atlas/> This is also known as the Law of Identity and suggests a similar law in [[formal logic]]. But more than that, the Law of Identity holds that A has certain properties, or ''attributes'', that distinguish it incontrovertibly from B or C. If a thing has no attributes, then it is a nonentity--it does not and cannot exist.
# Consciousness exists--the Law of Consciousness. But consciousness implies something independent of consciousness. What one perceives, one does not invent--and furthermore, a thing exists whether one perceives it or not.

From these axioms, several [[theorem]]s necessarily follow, among them the Law of Non-Contradiction. Aristotle stated it thus: "the same attribute cannot at the same time belong and not belong to the same subject in the same respect." Objectivism states it more simply: ''contradictions do not exist.'' Therefore, if one encounters a contradiction, one should check the assumptions he has made, because at least one of them is false.

=== Epistemology ===
[[Epistemology]] (from [[Greek]] words roughly meaning "the word stands on something") deals with what a human being knows and how he knows it. Objectivism states that perception is only the beginning. Perception is sensation extended over time, and perception becomes knowledge only through ''measurement.'' On the other hand, one forms a ''concept'' of something by developing a list of attributes ''without'' the measurements of them. Apply the measurements, and instead of a concept one has an object that fits the concept.

One important result of pure Objectivism is that what one cannot perceive, one cannot know--and what no one has perceived, no one need admit the existence of. Indeed, [[Nathaniel Branden|Branden]]<ref name=BrandenBenHaz>[[Nathaniel Branden|Branden, Nathaniel]]. [http://www.nathanielbranden.com/catalog/articles_essays/benefits_and_hazards.html The Benefits and Hazards of the Philosophy of Ayn Rand]. Association for Humanistic Psychology, 1984.</ref> observed that Objectivism teaches that <blockquote>(A)ny form of irrationalism, supernaturalism, or mysticism, (and) any claim to a nonsensory, nonrational form of knowledge, is to be rejected.</blockquote>

This includes [[God]], a Concept that almost no Objectivist has ever accepted. This might be Objectivism's greatest weakness: that it will not admit that which one cannot perceive directly, but which has affected ''something else'' that one perceives, and that in a measurable way.

=== Ethics ===
[[Ethics]] is about values. What is value? From ''Atlas Shrugged''<ref name=Atlas/>:<blockquote>"Value" is what one acts to gain and/or keep; "virtue" is how one acts to gain or keep it.</blockquote>

The central contribution of Objectivism to ethics is the definition of morality. Again from ''Atlas Shrugged''<ref name=Atlas/>:<blockquote>"Value" presupposes an answer to the question, "Of value to whom, and to what?" "Value" presupposes a ''standard''...A code of values accepted by choice is a code of morality.</blockquote>

Objectivism then declares that the only moral code proper to man has ''man's life'' as its standard of value. Rand, Peikoff, and other students of Objectivism have always drawn a stark contrast between this standard and the standard of those they regarded as their opponents: "the greatest good for the greatest number."

However, most emphatically, this does '''not''' mean that Objectivism extols what most people mean by ''selfishness''. Objectivism regards that sort of "selfishness" as shortsighted and non-rational. Objectivism requires that a person ''choose'' to be rational in his thinking, and should work to enhance his self-interest ''after determining what that interest is through rational and logical analysis.''

Objectivism makes at least two definitions that non-adherents might find harsh and symptomatic of [[Logical fallacy#Overgeneralization|overgeneralization]]:

# "Sacrifice" is the giving away of a greater value in favor of a lesser value or a non-value.<ref name=Atlas/>
# "Altruism" is sacrifice, as defined above, for the sake of persons other than oneself.

Actually, what Objectivism calls ''sacrifice'', other schools of philosophy call ''waste''. Sacrifice, according to these other schools, is actually the giving of a great value for another, still greater value. Furthermore, the definition of ''altruism'' indicates that no man should be obliged, let alone forced, to care or act for the sake of other people.

In only one context does Objectivism lay any obligation on its adherents to act for the sake of another, and that is in an ''emergency'', that is, an immediate life-threatening casualty event or condition.

Rand, Peikoff, and other adherents to Objectivism held that their greatest objection was to the use of force in social relationships. This leads directly to the Objectivist theory of politics.

=== Politics ===
[[Political philosophy|Politics]] (from the [[Greek]] '''πολις''' a city, from the organization of [[Greece|Greek]] civilization around independent city-states) is the philosophy of [[government]]--the need for it, its proper sphere, and the obligations of its subjects. The central axiom of Objectivist politics is that<blockquote>Force is permissible ''only'' in retaliation and ''only'' against those who initiate its use.<ref name=Atlas/></blockquote>

This is the Law of Retaliation, or ''Lex talionis'' in [[Latin]].

Thus a government ought not compel charity--and in this context, ''compulsion'' is the application of force to induce another person toward an action he might not otherwise take. Nor should the government compel anyone to associate with those with whom he would prefer not to associate. Freedom of association is very important in Objectivist politics.

Objectivism holds that an individual has a fundamental right to life--but this "right to life" means the right to live one's life as his self-interest dictates, not the right to expect someone else either to protect his life or to guarantee his survival.

From these principles, the only economic system with which Objectivism has any sympathy is [[capitalism]], with its emphasis on the rights of the individual. Objectivism rejects the [[welfare state]] as an improper exercise of the government's police power. (But Objectivism also would object strenuously to the body of special tax incentives and other legal provisions and regulations often called "[[corporate welfare]]." Objectivism holds that every individual, and by extension every business, must stand or fall on his, her, or its own merits.)

However, Objectivism also holds that the government ought to reserve to itself a [[monopoly]] on the exercise of force, when necessary, in retaliation against the initiators of force. As a repeated theme in Rand's novels and essays, a government ought to confine itself to three major functions:

# The police power--to protect against criminals.
# The military power--to protect against invasion from without.
# The judicial power--to protect contracts from breach or fraud, and to provide a forum for the settlement of disputes without resort to force.

From the above, one may conclude that Objectivism rejects the [[code duello]] as an improper feature of society, and even as an attribute of [[anarchy]]. In fact, Rand herself specifically stated that government must be a [[monopoly]], because any "competitive [[economy]]" of government would inevitably lead to a state not much different from gang warfare.

However, Rand herself advocated many things the support for which, from a strict read of Objectivism, is doubtful. She repeatedly stated, in a number of essays and in at least one magazine interview, that <blockquote>Just as the [[United States]] had the right to invade [[Nazi]] [[Germany]], so the United States has the right to invade [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Soviet Russia]] or any other slave pen.</blockquote> She justified this aggressive foreign policy stance by drawing up a set of four evil policies that, if any country engaged in all of the same, would make it liable for invasion by a society that did not do these things:

# Execution without a proper, fair trial
# Detention without charge
# Denial of the right of dissatisfied subjects to emigrate
# Censorship

By "censorship" Rand meant not only restrictions on political speech, but in fact any restriction on any form of artistic expression--even on forms of expression that she explicitly despised and suggested that any rational being would despise.

By her theory, then, if people were at least free to leave a society that executed people without trial, then if they did not leave, no country ought to be obliged to relieve their suffering by invasion. But if they ''could not'' leave, then their country would be liable for invasion, because they could not rationally help themselves. The freedom of emigration follows from the freedom of association--and the obligation, such as it was, of other nation-states and their militaries to come to such people's aid follows from the Objectivist ethic of emergencies, defined above.

Of course, any country that invades or otherwise attacks another, either directly or through surrogates, lays itself open to a counterinvasion by the country so attacked. This follows from the principle of the Law of Retaliation defined above.

=== Aesthetics ===
[[Art]], according to Objectivism, serves a need to allow man to ''perceive'' directly that which normally he can only ''conceive''. Art, in short, makes things real. An [[artist]] is any person who presents abstract concepts in concrete ways.

Objectivism's take on art is simple: art should uplift, and present uplifting things. The favorite school of art among students of Objectivism is [[Romantic realism]], the name that Rand gave to a school of art that emphasizes human reason and ideals and primarily portrays people striving to do great deeds, rather than suffering great disasters--in short, being ''proactive'' rather than ''reactive''. Good art, in other words, celebrates that which Objectivism itself celebrates: the ideal rational man. Forms of art that which emphasized emotion over reason, and especially anything that divorced emotion from reason, earned the consistent disdain of Rand and her colleagues. Similarly, Objectivism decries any form of art that shows human beings being reactive and slaves to emotion.

Pornography excited an interesting reaction. Objectivists detested it, on the grounds that sex was too important an activity for public display. But they feared censorship even more, on the ground that a government that stopped prurient content could stop political speech all the more easily. (Neither [[Ayn Rand]] nor any of her associates ever commented on such strictly private efforts as the [[Hays office]].)

== Controversies ==
[[Nathaniel Branden]], Rand's closest-ever associate and confidant, set forth in 1984 a number of defects in Objectivist philosophy, or at least Rand's theory and practice of it:

# A tendency to confuse "reason" with "the reasonable," essentially a problem in informal logic.
# The encouragement of its students to repress all emotion as somehow unworthy, all in the name of being proactive rather than reactive.
# A tendency toward "moralizing," or condemning others for not adhering to a strict emotional discipline.
# The [[Logical fallacy#Conflation|conflation]] of "sacrifice" with benevolence.
# Emphasizing philosophical premises to an unhealthy degree, leading to an often unwarranted judgment of ''character'' by the criterion of ''belief''.
# A dogmatic, inflexible approach to philosophy and its various disciplines, leading to the inability to forgive a mistake in philosophical formulation or application.

In this last context, Branden specifically decried Rand's conclusion that "no woman should aspire to be [[President of the United States of America]]." Rand did say that, and her justification of that stance flowed directly, oddly enough, from her theory of sex.

(In this context, Rand had no patience with the proponents and practitioners of [[feminism]] that were contemporary to her. She once said of them, with questionable justice, that they complained about the sexual objectification of women, when those who complained the loudest were "clearly in no such danger." Yet on the other hand, she regarded homemakers as "uninteresting women," and then suggested that some of them were "[[monster]]s" for advocating, for example, the prohibition of [[abortion]] and restrictions on [[contraception]].)

Rand's surviving friends tend to dismiss Branden's criticism as [[Logical fallacy#Argumentum ad hominem|argumentum ad hominem]] (or perhaps more accurately, ''argumentum ad feminam'') arising out of the rather brutal break-up of Rand and Branden's eighteen-year association. But those arguments tend to commit the same [[logical fallacy]] whereof they accuse Branden. Branden's wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]] presents perhaps the most balanced treatment of the Rand-Branden Affair and the ensuing controversy.

Objectivism's unabashed advocacy of capitalism often led to repeated charges that Objectivism was the ally of "big business." (In fact, on the occasion of a 1980 political demonstration called "Big Business Day," ''The Objectivist Forum'' commented quite wryly on the irony of the spectacle of hundreds of anti-business conventioneers using the services of "big business" to attend an event intended to advocate increased regulation of the largest corporations merely because they ''were'' large.) But Branden said quite clearly that the executives of large business companies ''were not'' friendly to Objectivism, because Objectivism advocates a market completely free not only of onerous taxes but also of the myriad special protections that some businesses tended to win from [[Congress]] against their competitors.

For decades, Rand did not appear to excite much enduring controversy, mainly because those who did not hold to her philosophy, or to the political theory that flows from it, generally preferred to ignore her. An early exception was the famous (some say infamous) review of Rand's ''magnum opus'', ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', by [[Whittaker Chambers]].<ref name=Chambers>[[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers, Whittaker]]. [http://www.nationalreview.com/flashback/flashback200501050715.asp Big Sister Is Watching You]. ''[[National Review]]'', December 28, 1957. Republished on [http://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review Online], January 5, 2005.</ref> Chambers "[[Atlas Shrugged (criticism)#Whittaker Chambers|panned]]" this novel severely and charged that Rand, and by extension Objectivism ''per se'', owed more to the harsh, "conquering-man" philosophy of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] than to Aristotle. He also charged that Rand, in her relentless attack upon the [[Communism|Communist]] philosophy of [[Karl Marx]], had almost become that which she professed to despise. Specifically, he suggested that while Marx advocated a [[Socialism|socializing]] elite, Rand advocated a technocratic one, to which all less technically adept men must bow. Chambers' objections mirror those of Branden to the "moralizing" and dogmatic tone of much of Rand's material, in both that novel and her later essays.

But in light of the election and increasingly [[socialism|socialistic]] policy pronouncements and recommendations of [[Barack Obama]] and his administration, Rand's ideas are (as of April 2009) undergoing a serious re-examination. [[Tax Day Tea Party]] participants reported seeing signs saying, "Ayn Rand Was Right" and "Stop Spending, or Atlas Will Shrug." The Ayn Rand Institute reports that sales of ''Atlas Shrugged'' tripled in February 2009 as compared to February 2008. They attribute this brisk increase in sales directly to the recognition by many of Barack Obama and his associates as antitypes of the [[Literary type#Villain|villains]] in the novel, and of his policies as antitypes of some of the more egregious policies of [[Mr. Thompson]] and some of other characters. [[Directive 10-289]] springs especially to mind.

== Can Objectivism develop further? ==
This question is [[Conservapedia:Can Objectivism develop beyond Ayn Rand's original formulation?|debatable]]. Branden asserted that Objectivism was "flawed", but nonetheless found its emphasis on logic and of an independent reality important and beneficial. Applying the principles of Objectivist philosophy to ones own life offers undoubted advantages to physical and mental quality of life, which applying such principles to politics leads to economic growth, greater personal and economic freedoms and a more healthy society. Nonetheless, no philosophy can remain static, and with many greater American thinkers dedicated to advancing the philosophy of Objectivism, the field is extremely dynamic and constantly evolving, and the world provides new opportunities for applying Objectivist principles.

In regarding to life science, Rand correctly realised that the the theory of [[evolution]] as more than an hypothesis. She did not acept [[Creationism|creation]] as a fact, due to it not being directly percieavble and measurable, but Rand also refused to endorse evolution, because she believed she did not have the required scientific knowledge to make an informed judgment.<ref name=poisonwell>Hsieh, Diana Mertz, [http://www.dianahsieh.com/blog/2005/07/poisoning-well.html Poisoning the Well], 24 March 2007</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

== See Also ==
* [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_pobs Objectivism] from the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]
* [http://www.ios.org/ The Atlas Society -- home of The Objectivist Center]
* [http://wiki.objectivismonline.net/ The Objectivism Wiki]
* [http://www.importanceofphilosophy.com/ The Importance of Philosophy]
* [[Logic]]

[[Category:Philosophical systems]]

Subway

2010-05-30T23:41:13Z

BishoiH: added cities

For the sandwich restaurant, see [[Subway (restaurant)]]

A '''Subway''' is the North American term for a rapid transit system that runs underground for much or all of its route. Outside North America, they may be known as an underground, metro, or mass transit railway. Subways require large populations to run efficiently and run at a "grade separation" from other vehicles and run frequently. This means that they exist in the largest cities.

The first subway was opened in [[London]] in 1863, (where it is called the "[[Underground]]") although many more major cities now have subways systems. The [[Boston]] subway opened in 1901 and the [[New_York_City|New York]] subway first opened in 1904.

==List of cities with subways==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+
'''Subways of the World'''
|-
! City !! System Name
|-
|[[Barcelona]], [[Spain]]|| Barcelona Metro
|-
|[[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Beijing Metro
|-
|[[Berlin]], [[Germany]] || U-Bahn
|-
|[[Bilbao]], [[Spain]] || Metro Bilbao
|-
|[[Boston]], [[United States]]|| Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (or "T")
|-
|[[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] || Budapest Metro
|-
|[[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] || Metro
|-
|[[Changchun]], {[People's Republic of China|China]] || Changchun Metro / LRT
|-
|[[Chicago]], [[United States]]|| Chicago "L"
|-
|[[Chongqing]],[[People's Republic of China|China]] || Chongqing Metro
|-
|[[Dalian]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Dalian Metro
|-
|[[Edmonton]], [[Canada]]|| Light Rail Transit (LRT)
|-
|[[Glasgow]], [[United Kingdom]]|| Glasgow Subway
|-
|[[Guangzhou]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Guangzhou Metro
|-
|[[Hong Kong]], [[People's Republic of China|China]]|| 地铁 Mass Transit Railway (MTR)
|-
|[[Kazan]], [[Russia]] || Kazan Metro
|-
|[[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]] || RapidKL
|-
|[[London]], [[United Kingdom]]|| [[London Underground|Underground (official)]] Tube (colloquial)
|-
|[[Los Angeles]], [[United States]]|| Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority
|-
|[[Madrid]], [[Spain]]|| Madrid Metro
|-
|[[Marseille]], [[France]]|| Métro de Marseille
|-
|[[Montreal]], [[Canada]]|| Metro de Montréal
|-
|[[Moscow]], [[Russia]]||Moscow Metro
|-
|[[Nanjing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Nanjing Metro
|-
|[[Nizhniy Novgorod]], [[Russia]] || Nizhniy Novgorod Metro
|-
|[[Newcastle]], [[United Kingdom]]|| Metro
|-
|[[New York City]], [[United States]]|| Subway
|-
|[[Novosibirsk]], [[Russia]] || Novosibirsk Metro
|-
|[[Washington DC]], [[United States]]|| [[Metrorail]]
|-
|[[Paris]], [[France]] || Métropolitain (abbreviated Métro)
|-
|[[Philadelphia]], [[United States]]||SEPTA
|-
|[[Pyongyang]], [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]||Pyongyang Metro
|-
|[[Samara]], [[Russia]] || Samara Metro
|-
|[[San Francisco Bay Area]] , [[United States]]|| [[Bay Area Rapid Transit]] (BART)
|-
|[[Sankt Peterberg]], [[Russia]] || Sankt Peterberg Metro
|-
|[[Seville]], [[Spain]] || Metro de Sevilla
|-
|[[Shenzhen]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || 深圳地铁 Shenzhen Metro
|-
|[[Shanghai]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Shanghai Metro
|-
|[[Shenyang]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Shenyang Metro
|-
|[[Singapore]] || Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
|-
|[[Tehran]], [[Iran]]||Tehran Metro
|-
|[[Tianjin]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Tianjin Metro
|-
|[[Toronto]], [[Canada]] || Toronto subway and RT
|-
|[[Valencia]], [[Spain]] || Metrovalencia
|-
|[[Volgograd]], [[Russia]] || Skorostnoy
|-
|[[Wuhan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Wuhan Metro
|-
|[[Xi'an]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] || Xi'an Metro (aka Xi'an Subway)
|-
|[[Yekaterinburg]], [[Russia]] || Yekaterinburg Metro

[[Category: Railroads]]
[[Category:Urban History]]

London Underground

2010-05-30T23:04:11Z

BishoiH: Met. line

[[Image:London Underground.jpg|thumb|right|A sign for the underground in London England.]]
The '''London Underground''' (often referred to as "The Tube") is London's [[Subway|underground railway system]]. Many lines in the outskirts are at or above ground level.

It is comprised of 11 lines - Bakerloo, Central, Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, Jubilee, Metropolitan, Northern, Piccadilly (serves [[London Heathrow Airport|Heathrow Airport]]), Victoria and Waterloo & City lines.

The London underground is the oldest subway system in the world.

==Bakerloo Line==
A deep level line, it is one of the five lines that serves destinations south of the Thames, running from Elephant & Castle to Harrow & Wealdstone. Most of the subterranean section was built in the 19th century at the same time as one of the cities main sewers, after which it is named. It is also one of the few stations to have a fully underground terminus, at Elephant and Castle. A long stretch of the northern section of the route runs on the Watford DC line, and shares the track with heavy rail commuter services. There are much talked about but unfunded plans to extend the tunnels south-east to Lewisham and take over the Hayes branch line.

==Central Line==
A deep level line, the Central runs though the very centre of the City of London east to west, and is the longest line on the network by some margin. It is one of the most important lines on the network, and one of the most varied. A major bottleneck is the oldest subterranean section between Liverpool Street and St. Paul's where the narrow tunnels (11ft6" wide in parts) and extremely tight turns drastically reduces the operating speed of trains. However the line received massive investment in the early 90's, and an automatic "driverless" system (though an operator is still present in the cab at all times) means services can operative with a service interval of every 1-2minutes. At the time of the redevelopment, the little used Ongar extension, far beyond London boundaries in rural Essex and operated as a separate, very basic shuttle service, was abandoned. Subsequent overcrowding of the current terminus in Epping has led to proposals to redevelop the extension to the same standards as the rest of the line and reopen it to through trains from the rest of the line. The line runs from Ruislip in the north-western edge of Greater London to Epping in Essex. A short branch also serves Ealing in inner west London.

==Circle Line==
The Circle line is a "virtual" line on the system that has no actual track. It's coloured yellow on the map and, contrary to it's name, actually forms a spiral shape.

==District Line==
This line is one of the most complex on the system. It is a sub-surface line that as built via cut and cover methods, causing massive disruption to city inhabitants, and thus many delays in construction, as it passes through areas belonging to wealthy landowners who resisted its development. It runs east to west, passing through the southern edge of the city centre, immediately north of the Thames. Like the Bakerloo line, some of it's alignment follows a sewerage system built at the same time known as the Embankment, from which one station takes it's name. It runs from a single eastern terminus at Upurminister to Earls Court, where a short single track spur leads to Olympia and Edgeware Road. The line also continues west, where one branch heads to Wimbledon, following a heavy rail alignment with separate tracks. This branch is runs at maximum capacity and is a major bottleneck. Another branch runs to Ealing, and a final route heads further west still, before turning south to Richmond, sharing tracks with heavy rail on the final southern alignment. The Richmond-Gunnersbury section of this route was to be withdrawn and capacity released to allow a branch of the new Crossrail line to serve Richmond, but residents blocked the proposal, fearing government intervention and micromanagement of the Crossrail project will leave it unfinished or badly delayed, and leave Richmond residents with no mass transit service.

==Hammersmith & City Line==
A sub-surface line built via cut and cover, the route of this line encompasses the oldest sections of the network, dating to the 1860's. Today its one of the least crowded lines on the network, as most of it's route is also served by other lines on shared track. It runs on a north east to south west alignment, running from Barking in the east, to Hammersmith in the west. Despite the name, the line only skirts the historic Square Mile of the City of London, stopping at Liverpool Street, Farringdon and Moorgate, roughly following the alignment of the Roman era boundary of the city for this stretch. The Barking to Aldgate East stretch of the route is shared with the District Line, and Liverpool Street to Baker Street is shared with the Metropolitan Line. The Shepherds Bush line is coloured pink on the map, in reference to the artistic and gay friendly Shepherd's Bush area, which it serves. Along with the District Line, it will be one of the first Underground lines to receive air conditioned trains.

==Jubilee Line==
The newest line on the network, with the Stanmore to Charing Cross section opening in the 1970's. The southern/eastern section from Green Park to Stratford opened in 1999, in time for the Millennium Dome exhibition in North Greenwich. The Charing Cross section closed at this point, to allow for the new alignment, although the (now) branch line is kept in fully serviceable condition and has been proposed as a possible routing for a future DLR service. The new section of the line is radically different to the older 70's section, and every other line on the Underground. It has platform screen doors on the subterranean stations, and extremely large, futuristic stations featuring smooth brushed metal and smooth, minimalist concrete architectural style. the stations are designed to allow easy upgrading of the service and to handle much higher passenger volumes. The station at Canary Wharf, in the new financial district has been likened to a cathedral, whilst the station at North Greenwich can handle 20,000 passengers per hour. The line is the only one to have a direct interchange with all other Underground lines. When first proposed in the 70's, it was to be called the Fleet line after an underground London river, and was originally to be coloured grey, in association with the Royal Navy. It was changed to the Jubilee name prior to opening, to celebrate the Silver Jubilee of HRH Queen Elizabeth II, and the grey shade was altered to silver.

==Metropolitan Line==
The Metropolitan line is the oldest line on the network, and the oldest subterranean urban rail system in the world, with the first stretches opening in 1863. The line has altered and expanded drastically over the years, and is very differnt to other LU lines. It is unique in that signifcant stretches of the route are quad-tracked, allowing several "speeds" of service, with fast and semi-fast trains bypassing certain stations. It is also mostly above ground, with only 6 out of over 41 miles being in tunnel. Also, unlike all other lines except the W&C, it does not cross through and out the city centre, terminating at Aldgate, within zone 1. The line also has the most remote station on the network, at Chesham, more than 25 miles from Charing Cross, the official centre of London. It also has the longest distance between two stops, between Chehsam and Chalfont & Latimer, almost 4 miles apart. It is the line on the LU network to serve zones 7 to 9, which lie outside of Greater London. The line layout is complex, having no less than four branches, with one shared with the Picadilly line (the Uxbridge branch),and another (Amersham branch) with mainline rail services, whilst the lightly used (and poorly served). The line colour is a brown/purple colour, known as "Corporate Magenta" by TFL.

Trains on the line are currently a highly unusual design, featuring entirely lateral 3+2 high backed seating, used on no other LU line. This is due to the long journey times with infrequent stops, so provides maximum seating space at the expense of overall passenger capacity. The line is one of the quietest on the network, and is mostly used for long distance suburban journeys, and with it's mix of "fast" and "slow" trains shares more in common with suburban commuter rail than mass transit. When the existing 1960's era stock is phased out in the next few years, the line will receive the standard new air conditioned sub surface stock, which will be shared across several lines and feature a more conventional arrangement.

==External Link==
*[http://tfl.gov.uk/tube Official Website]

[[Category: Transportation]]

Russia

2010-04-16T15:33:38Z

BishoiH:

{{Country
|name =''Российская Федерация Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''
|map =Russia rel94.jpg
|map2 =Russia location.png
|flag =Flag of Russia.png
|arms =Arms of the Russian Federation.png
|capital =Moscow
|capital-raw =
|government =Semi-Presidential Federal republic
|government-raw =
|language =Russian
|king =
|queen =
|monarch-raw =
|president =Dmitry Medvedev
|president-raw =
|chancellor =
|chancellor-raw =
|pm =Vladimir Putin
|pm-raw =
|area =6,592,800 sq mi
|pop =141,400,000 (2007)
|pop-basis =
|gdp =
|gdp-year =$979 billion (2006)
|gdp-pc =$6,856 (2006)
|currency =ruble
|idd =
|tld =
}}
Ваша статья - хуйня. Вы ничего не понимаете в русских.

'''Russia''' (formally the '''Russian Federation''' (Russian: Российская Федерация, ''Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''), is the largest country by area (17,075,200 square kilometers) and has the sixth largest population. Its history stretches back over a thousand years, with rule by the Czars until 1917, and by the Communists, 1918-1991 under the name of the [[Soviet Union]]. Russia had an extensive empire built up over hundreds of years, almost all of which broke away in 1991. The capital is [[Moscow]].

Russia is theoretically a federation of constituent governments. In reality, it has a highly centralized government, largely due to former President (now Prime Minister) [[Vladimir Putin]]. Putin has nationalized the nation's oil and gas companies, seized foreign investments, imprisoned top businessmen, and brought an autocratic, anti-democratic style that resembles--in milder form--the czars and Soviets. Thanks to oil revenue, it has the money to pursue an aggressive foreign policy, which is mildly hostile to the United States and to [[NATO]].
==Geography==
*Area: 17 million sq. km. (6.5 million sq. mi.); about 1.8 times the size of the United States.
*Cities: Capital--Moscow (pop. 8.3 million). Other cities--St. Petersburg (4.6 million), Novosibirsk (1.4 million), Nizhniy Novgorod (1.3 million). Numerous other cities over 1 million inhabitants.
*Terrain: Broad plain with low hills west of Urals; vast coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; uplands and mountains (Caucasus range) along southern borders.
*Climate: Huge variation from humid sub-tropical in Krasnodar krai, to desert/semi-desert in the Altai republic, and arctic tundra in north eastern Siberia, which is one of the coldest areas on the planet.

==Religion==
In practice, only a minority of citizens actively participated in any religion. Many who identified themselves as members of a religious group participated in religious life rarely or not at all. There is no one set of reliable statistics that breaks down the population by denomination, and the statistics below are compiled from government, polling, and religious group sources.<ref> According to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108468.htm U.S. State Department, "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"]</ref>

Approximately 100 million citizens are Russian Orthodox. Muslims, with a population estimated between 14 million and 23 million, form the largest religious minority. The majority of Muslims live in the Volga-Ural region and the North Caucasus, although Moscow, St. Petersburg, and parts of Siberia also have sizable Muslim populations. There are an estimated one million Buddhists, the majority of whom live in the traditionally Buddhist regions of Buryatiya, Tuva, and Kalmykiya. According to the NGO Slavic Center for Law and Justice, Protestants make up the second largest group of Christian believers, with 3,500 registered organizations and more than 2 million followers. The Roman Catholic Church estimated that there are 600,000 Catholics, most of whom are not ethnic Russians. There are an estimated 250,000 Jews, the majority of whom live in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In some areas, such as Yakutiya and Chukotka, pantheistic and nature-based religions are practiced independently or alongside other religions.

According to the annual report from the Human Rights Ombudsman, the Ministry of Justice had registered 21,963 religious organizations as of January 1, 2008, 993 fewer than January 2006. The registered religious groups (with the number of registered organizations) include Russian Orthodox (12,586), Muslim (3,815), Protestant (several denominations totaling 3,410), Jehovah's Witnesses (402), Jewish (286), Orthodox Old Believers (283), Roman Catholic (240), Buddhist (200), and other denominations.

===Religion in schools===
The federal Government does not require religious instruction in schools, but it continues to allow public use of school buildings after hours for the ROC to provide religious instruction on a voluntary basis. Several regions offer a course on Orthodox Christianity in public schools, and five oblasts or regions (Kaluga, Tver, Bryansk, Smolensk, and Voronezh) have a mandatory class on the "Fundamentals of Orthodox Culture." Students may avoid the Belgorod Oblast voluntary course only if their parents provide and pay for an alternative course. The course is offered as an elective in several other regions. In regions where the class is not mandatory, in practice students may be compelled to take it where schools do not provide alternatives.

Some regions offer a class on "History of Religion," a proposal that the Minister of Education had suggested but did not introduce nationally. Although the Ministry of Education rejected continued publication and dissemination of a controversial textbook that detailed Orthodox Christianity's contribution to the country's culture, some schools continued to use the text. The textbook contained descriptions of some religious groups that members of those groups found objectionable. The Congress of Religious Associations in the Tyumen region appealed to the Governor and regional department of education to allow input from other religious groups into the religious culture curriculum, claiming that the course currently contains only the viewpoint of the ROC.

===Discrimination===
The regions of Kabardino-Balkariya and Dagestan have laws banning extremist Islamic "Wahhabism," but there were no reports that authorities invoked these laws to deny registration to Muslim groups. The former president of the Kabardino-Balkaria republic ordered the closure of six of seven mosques in Nalchik, the region's capital, in 2004. One was reopened in 2007, while the others remained closed and were suffering from disrepair and vandalism.

The 2002 Law on Extremism, amended in July 2006, can affect religious groups, particularly Muslim groups, by criminalizing a broad spectrum of speech and activities.

Many nontraditional denominations frequently complained that they were unable to obtain venues for worship. Because they were small and often newly established, they typically lacked the necessary resources to buy or rent facilities on the open market and must rely on government assistance. Because they are nontraditional, they frequently met opposition from the traditional communities and often were unable to find government officials who were willing to assist them in renting state-owned property. There were multiple reports of religious organizations who were not allowed to renew leases on public or private buildings. Increased competition for space in a growing economy and increasing real estate prices led many owners (public and private) to lease property to higher paying tenants, and in some cases, religious groups were refused outright at any price. Representatives of numerous Protestant groups spoke about increasing difficulty in extending existing leases or signing new leases for worship premises, the majority of which are still state-controlled. Some religious groups, particularly Jehovah's Witnesses, but also the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Pentecostal congregations, and the Evangelical Christian Missionary Union, reported that local authorities in recent years denied them permission to acquire land on which to construct places of worship. Authorities continued to deny construction permits to several groups.

The Word of Life Christian Church in Kaluga region continued to face great difficulties trying to build its church. In June 2007 a court ruled in favor of the church and invalidated the Kaluga's mayoral decree to confiscate the church's property. In October 2007 the court denied the city's appeal. Local authorities, however, continued to harass the church. On July 4, 2007, the police seized a computer and documents, reportedly to find information on the church's secondary school. After seizing a list of the church's members, the police called the members and summoned them to the prosecutor's office for questioning about the school.

The Sochi mayor's office continued to deny the Muslim community authorization to build a new mosque; the current premises are inadequate to accommodate the membership. Officials allotted land several times but never transferred it to the Muslim community. According to the regional government, authorities can allocate land for a mosque only after a public opinion survey indicates that the proposed location would not cause conflict.

Religious news sources claimed that authorities acting under the influence of the ROC sometimes prevented Orthodox churches not belonging to the ROC, including the True Orthodox, from obtaining or maintaining buildings for worship.

After the 1997 Law changed the visa regime for religious and other foreign workers, nontraditional religious groups reported problems receiving long-term visas. In October 2007 the Government introduced new visa rules that allow foreigners (including religious workers) with business or humanitarian visas to spend only 90 of every 180 days in the country. According to religious experts, these rules were not aimed at religious workers, but the effect has been to severely restrict religious groups that rely upon foreign religious workers. The Roman Catholic Church, which relies almost exclusively on priests from outside the country, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, with more than four hundred foreign missionaries, have been particularly hard hit by this provision. While foreign religious workers seem able to acquire visas with few problems, the 90-day limit on their stay in the country limits their ability to work and significantly increases their expenses. Although registered religious organizations have the option to sponsor foreign workers and missionaries on work visas (which do not have 90-day or 180-day limits), this is a complicated process that places significant financial and administrative burdens on the organizations.

Many religious groups were unable to regain property confiscated in the Soviet era and acquire new property. The Moscow-based SOVA Center said the property restitution problem was most prevalent among Muslim and Protestant groups.

==Demography==
In a major [[demography|demographic]] catastrophe, population indicators in Russia dramatically worsened after 1990: the number of [[death]]s exceeds the number of [[birth]]s, [[life expectancy]] is drastically decreasing, the number of [[suicide]]s has increased, and there are 240 abortions per 100 live births. Every year since 1992 the country has lost 400,000 to 650,000 population and the current total of 142 million is [[projection|projected]] to fall to 100 million by 2050.

In the 1990s, life expectancy in Russia fell an astonishing six years. [[Statistical analysis]] indicates that one-quarter of the increase in [[mortality]] was due to an increase in [[alcohol consumption]] and one-quarter was a consequence of [[stress]] due to economic uncertainty.<ref>Elizabeth Brainerd, and David M. Cutler, "Autopsy On An Empire: Understanding Mortality in Russia and the Former Soviet Union." ''Journal Of Economic Perspectives'' 2005 19(1): 107-130. Issn: 0895-3309 Fulltext: in Ebsco </ref>

Russia's population of 141.4 million (2007) is falling. Lower birth rates and higher death rates have reduced Russia's population at a nearly 0.5% annual rate since the early 1990s. Russia is one of few countries with a declining population (although birth rates in many developed countries have dropped below the long-term population replacement). Population decline is particularly drastic in Russia due to higher death rates, especially among working-age males. Cardiovascular disease, cancer, traffic injuries, suicide, alcohol poisoning, and violence are major causes of death. In a June 2006 speech to the Russian National Security Council, President Putin declared that Russia is facing a demographic crisis and called for measures to improve birth and mortality rates and increase population through immigration, primarily the return of Russian-speaking foreigners.

====HIV/AIDS====
Russia and Ukraine are said to have the highest growth rates of HIV infection in the world. In Russia HIV seems to be transmitted mostly by intravenous drug users sharing needles, although data is very uncertain. Data from the Federal AIDS Center shows that the number of registered cases is doubling every 12 months and is currently at 300,000 persons. When projections are made which allow for people in high-risk groups who have not been tested for the disease, estimates of the actual number of HIV-infected persons are approximately 3 million. The high growth rate of AIDS cases, if unchecked, will have negative economic consequences. Investment will suffer from the diversion of private and government funds to AIDS treatment. The effect on the labor force may be acute since about 80% of infected individuals in Russia are under 30 years of age.

===Ethnicity===
Most of the roughly 141 million Russians derive from the Eastern Slavic family of peoples, whose original homeland was probably present-day Poland. Russian is the official language of Russia and is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the language of such giants of world literature as [[Pushkin]], [[Tolstoy]], [[Dostoevsky]], [[Chekhov]], [[Pasternak]], and [[Solzhenitsyn]].
===Education===
Russia's educational system has produced nearly 100% literacy. About 3 million students attend Russia's 519 institutions of higher education and 48 universities, but continued reform is critical to producing students with skills to adapt to a market economy. Because great emphasis is placed on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is still generally of a high order. The number of doctors in relation to the population is high by American standards, although medical care in Russia, even in major cities, is generally far below Western standards. The unraveling of the Soviet state in its last decades and the physical and psychological traumas of transition during the 1990s resulted in a steady decline in the health of the Russian people. Currently Russia faces a demographic crisis as births lag far behind deaths. While its population is aging, skyrocketing deaths of working-age males due to cardiovascular disease is a major cause of Russia's demographic woes. A rapid increase in HIV/AIDS infections and tuberculosis compounds the problem. In 2007, life expectancy at birth was 59 for men and 73 for women. The large annual excess of deaths over births is expected to cut Russia's population by 30% over the next 50 years.
[[Image:Russian band in Pushkin.jpg|thumb|240px|Russian band in Pushkin.]]
===Labor force===
The Russian labor force is undergoing tremendous changes. Although well educated and skilled, it is largely mismatched to the rapidly changing needs of the Russian economy. Official unemployment has shrunken in recent years to 6.9%, and labor shortages have started to appear in some high-skilled job markets. Nonetheless, pockets of high unemployment remain and many Russian workers are underemployed. Unemployment is highest among women and young people. Following the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union and the economic dislocation it engendered, the standard of living fell dramatically. However, real disposable incomes have doubled since 1999, and experts estimate that the middle class ranges from one-fifth to one-third of the population. In 2006, 15.8% of the population lived below the subsistence level, in contrast to 38.1% in 1998.

===Statistics===
*Population (2007 est.): 141.4 million.
*Annual growth rate (2007 est.): -0.484% (population declining).
*Ethnic groups: Russian 79.8%, Tatar 3.8%, Ukrainian 2%, other 14.4%.
*Religion: Russian Orthodox, Islam, Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Protestant, Buddhist, other.
*Language: Russian (official); more than 140 other languages and dialects.
*Education (total pop.): Literacy--99.4%.
*Health: Life expectancy (2007 est.)--59.12 yrs. men, 73.03 yrs. women.
*Work force (73.88 million) (2006 est.): Production and economic services--84%; government--16%.
==Cities==
Moscow is Russia's capital and largest city (population 8.3 million). Moscow is also increasingly important as an economic and business center; it has become Russia's principal magnet for foreign investment and business presence. Its cultural tradition is rich, and there are many museums devoted to art, literature, music, dance, history, and science, as well as hundreds of churches and dozens of notable cathedrals.

The second-largest city in Russia is [[St. Petersburg]] (formerly '''leningrad'''), which was established by Tsar [[Peter the Great]] in 1703 to be the capital of the Russian Empire as part of his Western-looking reforms. The city was called Petrograd during World War I and Leningrad after 1924. In 1991, as the result of a city referendum, it was renamed St. Petersburg. Under the tsars, the city was Russia's cultural, intellectual, commercial, financial, and industrial center. After Lenin moved the capital back to Moscow in 1918, the city's political significance declined, but it remained a cultural, scientific, and military-industrial center. The Hermitage, formerly the Winter Palace of the tsars, is one of the world's great fine arts museums.

Russia has an area of about 17 million square kilometers (6.5 million sq. mi.); in geographic terms, this makes Russia the largest country in the world by more than 2.5 million square miles. But with a population density of about 22 persons per square mile (9 per sq. km.), it is sparsely populated, and most of its residents live in urban areas.

[[Image:Traffic in Moscow.jpg|thumb|Traffic in Moscow.]]

==Government and Political Conditions==
In the political system established by the 1993 [[constitution]], the [[president]] wields considerable executive power. There is no vice president, and the legislative branch is far weaker than the executive. The bicameral legislature consists of the lower house (State Duma) and the upper house (the Federation Council). The president nominates the highest state officials, including the [[prime minister]], who must be approved by the Duma. The [[president]] can pass decrees without consent from the [[Duma]]. He also is head of the armed forces and of the Security Council.

Duma elections were held most recently on December 7, 2003, and presidential elections on March 14, 2004. The pro-government party, United Russia, won close to half of the seats in the Duma. Combined with its allies, United Russia commands a two-thirds majority. The OSCE judged the Duma elections as failing to meet international standards for fairness, due largely to extensive slanted media bias in the campaign. [[Vladimir Putin]] was re-elected to a second four-year term with 71% of the vote in March 2004. The Russian constitution does not allow presidents to serve more than two consecutive terms. Next elections for the Duma occur in December 2007, and for President in March 2008.

Russia is a federation, but the precise distribution of powers between the central government and the regional and local authorities is still evolving. The Russian Federation consists of 89 regional administrative units, including two federal cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg. The constitution explicitly defines the federal government's exclusive powers, but it also describes most key regional issues as the joint responsibility of the federal government and the regional administrative units. In 2000, President Putin grouped the regions into seven federal districts, with presidential appointees established in Moscow and six provincial capitals. In March 2004, the Constitution was amended to permit the merger of some regional administrative units. A law enacted in December 2004 eliminated the direct election of the country's regional leaders. Governors are now nominated by the president and subject to confirmation by regional legislatures.

===Judicial System===
The Russian [[judicial system]] consists of the Constitutional Court, courts of [[general jurisdiction]], military courts, and arbitrage courts (which hear commercial disputes). The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation is a court of limited subject matter jurisdiction. The 1993 constitution empowers the Constitutional Court to arbitrate disputes between the executive and legislative branches and between Moscow and the regional and local governments. The court also is authorized to rule on violations of constitutional rights, to examine appeals from various bodies, and to participate in impeachment proceedings against the president. The July 1994 Law on the Constitutional Court prohibits the court from examining cases on its own initiative and limits the scope of issues the court can hear. The system of general jurisdiction courts includes the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, regional level courts, district level courts and justices of the peace.

The Duma passed a Criminal Procedure Code and other judicial reforms during its 2001 session. These reforms help make the Russian judicial system more compatible with its Western counterparts and are seen by most as an accomplishment in human rights. The reforms have reintroduced jury [[trials]] in certain [[criminal]] cases and created a more adversarial system of criminal trials that protect the rights of defendants more adequately. In 2002, the introduction of the new code led to significant reductions in time spent in detention for new detainees, and the number of suspects placed in pretrial detention declined by 30%. Another significant advance in the new Code is the transfer from the Procuracy to the courts of the authority to issue search and arrest warrants. There are rising concerns, however, that prosecutors have selectively targeted individuals for political reasons, as in the prosecution of Yukos Oil CEO Mikhail Khodorkovskiy.

In spite of the general tendency to increase judicial [[independence]] (for example, by recent considerable salary raise to judges), many judges still see their role not as of impartial and independent arbiters, but as of government officials protecting state interests. See below for more information on the commercial court/business law.

===Human Rights===
Russia is no longer Communist, but it is increasingly an authoritarian state where democracy is weak. It has an increasingly centralized political system, with power concentrated in the hands of [[Vladimir Putin]] and his choices for top offices. International observers concluded that the December 2007 State Duma election (for parliament) was not fair, and neither was the March 2, 2008, election for president.

[[Human rights]] problems and abuses continued in 2008, though at a far lower level than the days of Communism (which ended in 1991). Putin's human rights record remained poor in the North Caucasus, where governments in Ingushetiya and Dagestan faced increased opposition from disaffected social groups and insurgencies, and the Chechen government forcibly reined in the Islamist insurgency that replaced the separatist insurgency as the main source of conflict. Russian security forces engaged in killings, torture, abuse, violence, and other brutal or humiliating treatment.

Russia's [[human rights]] record remains uneven and has worsened in some areas in recent years. Despite significant improvements in conditions following the end of the Soviet Union, problem areas remain. In particular, the Russian Government's policy in Chechnya has been a cause for international concern. Although the government has made progress in recognizing the legitimacy of international human rights standards, the institutionalization of procedures to safeguard these rights has lagged. There are, however, some indications that the law is becoming an increasingly important tool for those seeking to protect [[human]] rights.

Some specific areas of human rights violations of the Soviet era continued on into the late 1990's and even have been reported up to 2002.
These involved experimentation on humans and the use of imported foreign forced labor, particularly from North Korea, to work in forestry in gulag type camps of Siberia (for Russian and other newspaper accounts, see [[KAL 007 Survivors and Gulags of Russia]]). Experimentation on humans have been noted by Russian rights activists in connection with certain medical facilities. The Serbsky Institute and Mental Hospital figuring in as a center for mind altering experiments receives startling confirmation from Emilia Cherkover, former Deputy of the Zelenograd Soviet and member of the Russian Federation Human Rights Commission. Cherkover maintains that, along with Vladivostok and Moscow prisons and the mental hospital in Oryal, microwave (psychotronic and electromagnetic application) experiments had been conducted on humans between 1989 and 1990 at the Serbsky Institute in Moscow (see [[The Stavitski Account]]).
[[Image:Human Rights.JPG|left]]
<blockquote>
Journalist Yury Vorobyovsky has been investigating the top secret program of "psychotronic" brainwashing techniques developed by the KGB and the Ministry for three years. He notes Emilia Cherkova's claim that there are over a million victims. Her group, Ecology and Living Environment had filed damages against the Federal Security Service (FSB). The newspaper reports, "there is strong evidence that some kind of psychotronic warfare program did exist in the Soviet period, and that the technology may be falling into the wrong hands" (From Moscow Times, 7-11-95).
</blockquote>
====Prisons====
The judiciary is often subject to manipulation by political authorities and is plagued by large case backlogs and trial delays. Lengthy pretrial detention remains a serious problem. Russia has one of the highest [[prison]] population rates in the world, at 685 per 100,000. There are credible reports of beating and torture of inmates and detainees by law enforcement and correctional officials. Prison conditions fall well below international standards. In 2001, President Putin pronounced a moratorium on the death penalty. There are reports that the Russian Government might still be violating promises they made upon entering the European Council, especially in terms of prison control and conditions.
====Chechnya====
[[Chechnya]] has seen continuing violations of international human rights and humanitarian law committed by Russian and pro-Moscow Chechen forces. Chechen rebels also have committed abuses as well as acts of terrorism. In [[Chechnya]], Ingushetiya, and Dagestan, security forces were involved in unlawful killings and politically motivated kidnappings. Chechen President Kadyrov continued his repressive control as federal forces withdrew. Federal and local security forces in Chechnya targeted families of suspected insurgents with impunity, and Kadyrov's private militia allegedly engaged in kidnapping and torture.<ref>see [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119101.htm Country Report 2008] </ref>

Human rights groups have criticized Russian officials concerning cases of Chechens disappearing while in custody. Chechen rebels have similarly been responsible for politically motivated disappearances. Russian authorities have introduced some improvements, including better access to complaint mechanisms, the formal opening of investigations in most cases, and the introduction of two decrees requiring the presence of civilian investigators and other nonmilitary personnel during all large-scale military operations and targeted search and seizure operations. Human rights groups welcome these changes but claim that most abuses remain uninvestigated and unpunished and may be spreading more broadly in the North Caucasus.
====Religion====
The Russian constitution provides for freedom of religion and the equality of all religions before the law, as well as the separation of church and state. Although Jews and Muslims continue to encounter prejudice and societal discrimination, they have not been inhibited by the government in the free practice of their religion. High-ranking federal officials have condemned anti-Semitic hate crimes, but law enforcement bodies have not always effectively prosecuted those responsible. The influx of foreign missionaries has led to pressure by groups in Russia, specifically nationalists and the Russian Orthodox Church, to limit the activities of these "nontraditional" religious groups. In response, the Duma passed a restrictive and potentially discriminatory law on religion in October 1997. The law is complex, with many ambiguous and contradictory provisions. The law's most controversial provisions distinguish between religious "groups" and "organizations" and introduce a 15-year rule, which allows groups that have been in existence for 15 years or longer to obtain accredited status. Senior Russian officials have pledged to implement the 1997 law on religion in a manner that is not in conflict with Russia's international human rights obligations. Some local officials, however, have used the law as a pretext to restrict religious liberty.
====Media====
Pressure from Putin's regime weakened freedom of expression and media independence, particularly of the major television networks. Five journalists were assassinated in 2008. As some print and Internet media reflected a widening range of views, the government restricted media freedom through direct ownership of media outlets, pressuring the owners of major media outlets to abstain from critical coverage, and harassing and intimidating journalists into practicing self-censorship. Local governments limited freedom of assembly, and police sometimes used violence to prevent groups from engaging in peaceful protest. The government limited freedom of association. The government restricted religious groups in some regions, and there were incidents of societal discrimination, harassment, and violence against religious minorities, including anti-Semitism..<ref>see [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119101.htm Country Report 2008] </ref>

Government pressure continued to weaken freedom of expression and the independence and freedom of some media, particularly major national television networks and regional electronic media outlets. A government decision resulted in the elimination of the last major non-state television network in 2003. National press is also increasingly in government hands or owned by government officials, narrowing the scope of opinion available. Self-censorship is a growing press problem. Unsolved murders of journalists, including the killing of respected investigative reporter Anna Politkovskaya in October 2006, have caused significant international concern and increased pressure on journalists to avoid subjects considered sensitive. In August 2007, authorities arrested several suspects in connection with the Politkovksaya case.
====Civil Society====
Enactment of a new law on foreign non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in 2006 was criticized in many quarters as a device to control [[civil society]], that is, private organizations. Implementing regulations appear to impose onerous paperwork reporting burdens on NGOs that could be used to limit or even suppress some of them. This law was used to shut down an NGO for the first time in January 2007 on the basis of extremism charges; however, most foreign NGOs have successfully re-registered. Domestic NGOs were not required to re-register, but are required to meeting new reporting requirements.

===Government Spending/Taxation===
[[Image:Putin..jpg|left|260px]]
The Russian federal budget has run growing surpluses since 2001, as the government has taxed and saved much of the rapidly increasing oil revenues. According to preliminary figures, the 2006 budget surplus was 7.4% of GDP on a cash basis. Although there are strong pressures to relax spending ahead of elections, the government has loosened its spending gradually, as the economy is running at near capacity and there are dangers of increasing inflation and rapid exchange rate appreciation. Spending increases to date have mostly been for increased salaries of government employees and pensions, but some money is also being dedicated to special investment funds and tax breaks to develop new industries in special economic zones. The government overhauled its tax system for both corporations and individuals in 2000-01, introducing a 13% flat tax for individuals and a unified tax for corporations, which improved overall collection. Business has put pressure on the government to reduce value added taxes (VAT) on oil and gas, but the government has postponed this discussion. Tax enforcement of disputes, particularly following the Yukos case, continues to be uneven and unpredictable.

A major focus of increased government spending has been the military, with large increases being spent on overhauling and updating equipment, as well as increasing salaries of military personnel, though a huge backlog of problems remain from the chaotic Yeltsin era and almost two decades of chronic underinvestment.

Much needed investment in national infrastructure, including railways and waterways, which are much more important in transportation in Russia than in the US and Europe has been insignificant, leading to bottlenecks that hamper growth and development. Telecoms and electricity production and distribution also remain run-down and outdated from the post-Soviet collapse. As a result of this, Russia remains dependent on energy exports for income, with the domestic economy effectively held back by capacity restraints or neglected facilities, a fact which has left Russia vulnerable to a collapse in fuel prices, such as that experienced at the beginning the global financial crisis, when crude oil prices dropped from over $100 per barrel to less than $60. Currently, Russian development of railways and highways in terms of new/renewed miles of route lies at around 1/10 that of China, despite having a much larger landmass.

===Foreign Relations===
In the years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia took important steps to become a full partner in the world's principal political groupings. On December 27, 1991, Russia assumed the permanent UN Security Council seat formerly held by the Soviet Union. Russia also is a member of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). Russia and the European Union (EU) signed a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement. It signed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Partnership for Peace initiative in 1994. The NATO-Russia Founding Act in 1997 and the NATO-Russia Council superseded that in 2002. Russia acquiesced (despite misgivings) in enlargement of NATO by members first of the former Warsaw Pact and most recently by the Baltic states that had been forcibly integrated into the Soviet Union.

Over the past several years Russia has increased its international profile, played an increasing role in regional issues, and been more assertive in dealing with its neighbors. The rise in energy prices has given it leverage over countries which are dependent on Russian sources. Russia continues to support separatist regimes in Georgia and Moldova.

===Relations with the United States===
The United States and Russia share common interests on a broad range of issues, including counterterrorism and the drastic reduction of our strategic arsenals. Russia shares our basic goal of stemming the [[proliferation]] of weapons of mass destruction and the means to deliver them. We are working with Russia to compel Iran to bring its nuclear programs into compliance with International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) rules and United Nations Security Council Resolution 1737. On North Korea, Russia is a participant in the Six-Party Talks aimed at the complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantling of North Korea's nuclear program. Russia also takes part in the Middle East Peace Process "Quartet" (along with the UN and the EU). Russia now interacts with NATO members as an equal through the NATO-Russia Council but without veto power over NATO decisions. During the past several years, Russia has intensified its efforts to combat trafficking in persons.

==Defense==
Russia's efforts to transform its Soviet-legacy military into a smaller, lighter and more mobile force continue to be hampered by an ossified military leadership, discipline problems and human rights violations, limited funding and demographics. Recent steps by the Government of Russia suggest a desire to reform. There has been an increased emphasis on practical training, and the government is introducing bills to improve the organization of the military.
[[Image:Cannon Russia.jpg|thumb|left|300px]]
Despite large increases in the budget, defense spending is still unable to sustain Russia's large military. Current troop strength, estimated at 1.1 million, is large in comparison to Russia's GDP and military budget, which continues to make the process of transformation to a professional army difficult. This is both the result of the Soviet legacy and military thinking, and Russian geography, which demands a sizeable force simply to patrol and maintain normal defensive readiness across Russia's huge, remote and sparsely populated territory. Furthermore, unrest in Russia's souther regions demands a substantial military force at a high level of readiness.

Russian military salaries are low. Though, the army provides all necessities, the quality of accomodation is low, though the situation has improved considerably since the Yeltsin era when the military establishment almost totally collapsed, and some soldiers actually starved when provisions to remote bases went undelivered for months on end. Problems with both discipline and brutal hazing remain common, however. HIV infection rates in the Russian army are estimated to be between two to five times higher than in the general population, and tuberculosis is a persistent problem both in and outside the military, affecting the fitness of recruits.

Although the available manpower (males 15-49) for the Russian Armed Forces was projected at 35.2 million in 2005, only approximately 11% of eligible males do military service. Moreover, military officials complain that new recruit cohorts are plagued by increasing incidences of poor education, communicable diseases and criminality.

The Russian Government has stated a desire to convert to a professional army, but implementation has been delayed repeatedly. Current plans envision a transition to a mixed force, in which professional soldiers fill the ranks of select units and conscription is gradually phased out. Some officials have talked of developing a non-commissioned officer corps to lead the professional army, but the military has yet to make any concrete decisions, due to internal political considerations and a backlog of other issues soaking up increased funding.

Russia continues to maintain a sizeable strategic nuclear force equipped with global reach, with land, sea and air based nuclear launch facilities, though maintenance issues continue to affect the readiness of the system due to a flight of skilled personnel from the military, and financial and organisation pressures in the post-Soviet era. For this reason, Russia has sought a renewed START treaty with the United States for a mutual reduction of strategic nuclear forces. This agreement was reached between Presidents Obama and Medvedev in April 2010.

==Economy==
[[Image:Historic Centre of St. Petersburg.jpg|thumb|260px|Historic Center of St. Petersburg.]]
At the end of March, 2009, the World Bank issued a grim forecast of the Russian Economy, projecting a 4.5% decline in the economy in 2009 and warning that 5.8 million Russians would fall into poverty unless the government shifts spending to poor families. It praised the government’s $85 billion anticrisis program, which stabilized Russia’s banks and prevented financial panic. But it said too little had gone to households — a hazard in a society where 37 million people, a quarter of the population, lives near the poverty line.<ref> Ellen Berry, "World Bank Grim on Russian Economy," [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/31/world/europe/31russia.html?ref=world ''New York Times'' Mar. 30, 2009]</ref>

The Russian economy underwent tremendous stress in the 1990s as it moved from a centrally planned economy to a free market system. Difficulties in implementing fiscal reforms aimed at raising government revenues and a dependence on short-term borrowing to finance budget deficits led to a serious financial crisis in 1998. Lower prices for Russia's major export earners (oil and minerals) and a loss of investor confidence due to the Asian financial crisis exacerbated financial problems. The result was a rapid and steep decline (60%) in the value of the ruble, flight of foreign investment, delayed payments on sovereign and private debts, a breakdown of commercial transactions through the banking system, and the threat of runaway inflation.

Still, Russia weathered the crisis well. In the 8 years following the financial crisis, GDP growth averaged just under 7% due to a devalued ruble, implementation of key economic reforms (tax, banking, labor and land codes), tight fiscal policy, and favorable commodities prices. Household consumption and fixed capital investments have both grown by about 10 percent per year since 1999 and have replaced net exports as the main drivers of demand growth. Inflation and exchange rates have stabilized due to a prudent fiscal policy (Russia has run a budget surplus since 2003). The government created a stabilization/rainy day fund ($127 billion in mid-2007), and has the third-largest foreign exchange reserves in the world (close to $420 billion in mid-2007) which should shelter it from commodity price shocks.

Russia's balance of payments moves from strength to strength. The current account balance grew from $58.6 billion in 2004 to $95.3 billion in 2006, almost entirely due to oil price increases. The capital account turned positive in 2006, with net inflow of $6.1 billion. In addition, net private capital flows in 2006 increased significantly to $40.9 billion, compared to an inflow of $0.1 billion in 2005 due to liberalization of the capital account in mid-2006. Foreign direct investment (FDI) flows dramatically improved in 2006 to an estimated $31 billion (inflows totaled $15.4 billion and $14.6 billion in 2004 and 2005, respectively). As of July 1, 2006, the ruble is convertible for both current and capital transactions. Russia prepaid its entire Soviet-era Paris Club debt of $22 billion in late 2006, pushing Russia's sovereign foreign debt down to $45 billion at the end of 2006, or about 5 percent of GDP. Russia's total public and private foreign debt at the end of 2006 was $310 billion, or 31 percent of GDP. Such a dramatic reversal to the macroeconomic situation is truly remarkable. Russia currently has a sovereign investment-grade rating from Standard and Poor's of BBB+.

Although the economy has begun to diversify, the government budget remains dependent on oil and gas revenues; consumption and investment are, however, contributing to an increasing share to GDP growth. While currently sheltered from external price shocks, the government realizes the need to intensify reforms that will promote new investment in aging infrastructure and continued productivity gains. The government believes it can do this by creating state-sponsored investment funds, special economic zones, and by exercising control of strategic enterprises (a draft law defining strategic sectors was submitted to the Duma in August 2007). Although investors are returning to Russia, excessive bureaucracy, corruption, insufficient and insufficiently enforced legislation, selective interpretation of laws (particularly tax laws), unclear limits and conditions on foreign investment, obsolete infrastructure, and stalled economic reforms still remain a problem. In 2005, the government announced reform programs in four priority areas (health, education, housing, and agriculture), but further work is needed on them as well as in financial regulation, civil service reform, and reform of government monopolies, such as railroads, gas, and electricity.
*GDP (2006): $989 billion.
*Growth rate (2006): 6.7%.
*Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, timber, furs, precious and nonferrous metals.
*Agriculture: Products--Grain, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, meat, dairy products.
*Industry: Types--Complete range of manufactures: automobiles, trucks, trains, agricultural equipment, advanced aircraft, aerospace, machine and equipment products; mining and extractive industry; medical and scientific instruments; construction equipment.
*Trade (2006): Exports--$304 billion: petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, woods and wood products, metals, chemicals. Major markets--EU, CIS, China, Japan. Imports--$165 billion: machinery and equipment, chemicals, consumer goods, medicines, meat, sugar, semi-finished metal products. Major partners--EU, U.S., NIS, Japan, China. U.S. exports--$4.7 billion. Principal U.S. exports (2006)--oil/gas equipment, meat, inorganic chemicals, tobacco, aircraft, medical equipment, autos/parts. U.S. imports--$19.8 billion. Principal U.S. imports (2006)--oil, aluminum, chemicals, platinum, iron/steel, fish and crustaceans, nickel, wood, and copper.

====Gross Domestic Product====
A strong expansion in domestic demand continues to drive GDP growth, despite a slowdown in manufacturing. GDP growth and industrial production for 2006 were 6.7% and 4.8%, respectively, relative to 6.4% and 5.7% in 2005. GDP growth is currently derived from non-tradable sectors, but investment remains concentrated in tradables (oil and gas). Construction was the fastest growing sector of the economy, expanding by 14% in 2006. The main private sector services--wholesale & retail trade, banking & insurance, and transportation & communications--showed strong growth of about 10%. In contrast, public sector services--education, health care, and public administration--lagged behind with only 2-4% growth in 2006. Recent productivity growth has still been strong in some parts of domestic manufacturing. Real disposable incomes grew by 10.2% in 2006, spurring considerable growth in private consumption.

====Monetary Policy====
Large balance of payments surpluses have complicated monetary policy for Russia. The Central Bank has followed a policy of managed appreciation to ease the impact on domestic producers and has sterilized capital inflows with its large budget surpluses. However, the Central Bank also has been buying back dollars, pumping additional ruble liquidity into the system. Given the rising demand for money, this has softened the inflationary impact, but these policy choices have complicated the government's efforts to lower inflation to the single digits. Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation was 9% in 2006 and 10.9% in 2005, having steadily decreased from 20.2% in 2000, due primarily to prudent fiscal policy and in 2006 lower world oil prices.

====Commercial Law====
Russia has a body of conflicting, overlapping and rapidly changing laws, decrees and regulations, which has resulted in an ad hoc and unpredictable approach to doing business. In this environment, negotiations and contracts from commercial transactions are complex and protracted. Uneven implementation of laws creates further complications. Regional and local courts are often subject to political pressure, and corruption is widespread. However, more and more small and medium businesses in recent years have reported fewer difficulties in this regard, especially in the Moscow region. In addition, Russian businesses are increasingly turning to the courts to resolve disputes. Russia's WTO accession process is also helping to bring the country's legal and regulatory regime in line with internationally accepted practices.

====Natural Resources====
The mineral-packed Ural Mountains and the vast oil, gas, coal, and timber reserves of Siberia and the Russian Far East make Russia rich in natural resources. However, most such resources are located in remote and climatically unfavorable areas that are difficult to develop and far from Russian ports. Nevertheless, Russia is a leading producer and exporter of minerals, gold, and all major fuels. Natural resources, especially energy, dominate Russian exports. Ninety percent of Russian exports to the United States are minerals or other raw materials.

====Industry====
[[Image:Tower Russia.JPG|thumb|right|180px]]
Russia is one of the most industrialized of the former Soviet republics. However, years of very low investment have left much of Russian industry antiquated and highly inefficient. Besides its resource-based industries, it has developed large manufacturing capacities, notably in metals, food products, and transport equipment. Russia is now the world's third-largest exporter of steel and primary aluminum. Russia inherited most of the defense industrial base of the Soviet Union, so armaments remain an important export category for Russia. Efforts have been made with varying success over the past few years to convert defense industries to civilian use, and the Russian Government is engaged in an ongoing process to privatize the remaining 9,222 state-owned enterprises, 33% of which are in the industrial manufacturing sector.
 
 
 
 

====Agriculture====
For its great size, Russia has relatively little area suited for agriculture because of its arid climate and inconsistent rainfall. Northern areas concentrate mainly on livestock, and the southern parts and western Siberia produce grain. Restructuring of former state farms has been an extremely slow process. Foreigners are not allowed to own farmland in Russia although long-term leases are permitted. Private farms and garden plots of individuals account for over one-half of all agricultural production.

====Investment/Banking====
Russia attracted an estimated $31 billion in FDI in 2006 (3.2% of GDP), up from $13 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) in 2005.Russia's annual FDI figures are now in line with those of China, India, and Brazil. However, Russia's per capita cumulative FDI still lags far behind such countries as Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic. The paradox is that Russia's challenging business climate, lack of transparency, and weak rule of law/corruption has taken a back seat to Russia's extraordinary macroeconomic fundamentals and the consumer and retail boom, which is providing double digit returns to investors and attracting new flows. Russian domestic investment is also returning home, as the foreign investment coming into Russia from havens like Cyprus and Gibraltar, is actually returning Russian capital . As of the end of 2006, loans to the financial sector were 57.2% of total banking sector assets. Retail loans amounted to $78.4 billion at the end of 2006, up from $41 billion at the end of 2005. Retail deposits increased to $144.1 billion from $95.7 billion over the same period. Also, currently deposits are fully insured up to $4,000 and an additional $12,000 is insured at 90%.

Although still small by international standards, the Russian banking sector is growing fast and is becoming a larger source of investment funds. To meet a growing demand for loans, which they were unable to cover with domestic deposits, Russian banks borrowed heavily abroad in 2006, accounting for two-thirds of the private-sector capital inflows in that year. Ruble lending has increased since the October 1998 financial crisis, and in 2006 loans were 63% of total bank assets, with consumer loans posting the fastest growth at 74% that same year. Fewer Russians prefer to keep their money outside the banking sector, the recent appreciation of the ruble against the dollar has persuaded many Russians to keep their money in rubles or other currencies such as the euro, and retail deposits grew by 65% in 2006. Despite recent growth, the poorly developed banking system, along with contradictory regulations across banking, bond, and equity markets, still makes it difficult for entrepreneurs to raise capital as well as to permit capital transfer from a capital-rich sector such as energy to capital-poor sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing and to diversify risk. Banks still perceive small and medium commercial lending as risky, and some banks are inexperienced with assessing credit risk, though the situation is improving. In 2003, Russia enacted a deposit insurance law to protect deposits up to 100,000 rubles (about $3,700) per depositor, and a bill is currently in the Duma, which if passed will increase this coverage to 190,000 rubles (about $7,000) per depositor.

====Trade====
The U.S. exported $4.7 billion in goods to Russia in 2006, a 21% increase from the previous year. Corresponding U.S. imports from Russia were $19.8 billion, up 29%. Russia is currently the 33rd-largest export market for U.S. goods. Russian exports to the U.S. were fuel oil, inorganic chemicals, aluminum, and precious stones. U.S. exports to Russia were machinery, meat (mostly poultry), electrical equipment, and high-tech products.

Russia's overall trade surplus in 2006 was $139 billion, up from $118 billion in 2005. World prices continue to have a major effect on export performance, since commodities--particularly oil, natural gas, metals, and timber--comprise 80% of Russian exports. Russian GDP growth and the surplus/deficit in the Russian Federation state budget are closely linked to world oil prices.

Russia is in the process of negotiating terms of accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). The U.S. and Russia concluded a bilateral WTO accession agreement in late 2006, and negotiations continue in 2007 on meeting WTO requirements for accession. Russia reports that it has yet to conclude bilateral agreements with Saudi Arabia and Georgia.

According to the 2005 U.S. Trade Representative's National Trade Estimate, Russia continues to maintain a number of barriers with respect to imports, including tariffs and tariff-rate quotas; discriminatory and prohibitive charges and fees; and discriminatory licensing, registration, and certification regimes. Discussions continue within the context of Russia's WTO accession to eliminate these measures or modify them to be consistent with internationally accepted trade policy practices. Non-tariff barriers are frequently used to restrict foreign access to the market and are also a significant topic in Russia's WTO negotiations. In addition, large losses to U.S. audiovisual and other companies in Russia owing to poor enforcement of intellectual property rights in Russia is an ongoing irritant in U.S.-Russia trade relations. Russia continues to work to bring its technical regulations, including those related to product and food safety, into conformity with international standards.

==History==
see [[History of Russia]]

== See also ==
*[[Gallery of Russian painting]]
* [[Soviet Union]]
*[[Korean Airlines Flight 007]] 1983 shootdown incident that intensified "2nd Cold War"

==Further reading==
===Guidebooks===
* ''Frommer's Moscow & St. Petersburg'' by Angela Charlton (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Moscow-St-Petersburg-Complete/dp/0470194030/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]
* ''Eyewitness: Russia'' by Kathleen Berton Murrell, (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Eyewitness-Russia-Kathleen-Berton-Murrell/dp/0789458802/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* ''Russia & Belarus'' (Lonely Planet Travel Guides) by Mark Elliott (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Russia-Belarus-Lonely-Planet-Travel/dp/1741042917/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239324359&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]
===Surveys===
* Goldman, Marshall I. ''Petrostate: Putin, Power, and the New Russia'' (2008), by a leading scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Petrostate-Putin-Power-New-Russia/dp/0195340736/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-5 extract and text search]
* Politkovskaya, Anna. ''Putin's Russia: Life in a Failing Democracy'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Life-Failing-Democracy/dp/0805082506/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-9 extract and text search]
* Service, Robert. ''A History of Modern Russia: From Nicholas II to Vladimir Putin'' (2005)
* Lucas, Edward. ''The New Cold War: Putin's Russia and the Threat to the West'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/New-Cold-War-Putins-Russia/dp/0230606121/ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1239323968&sr=1-12 extract and text search]

====references====
<references/>

==External Links==

[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html The World Fact Book]

[http://russiatrek.org Russian cities and regions guide]

[[Category:European Countries]]
[[Category:Asian Countries]]
[[Category:Russia]]
[[Category:Russian History]]
[[Category:Soviet Union]]

Nationalization

2010-04-15T21:00:20Z

BishoiH: /* World War II and after */

'''Nationalization''' means the permanent takeover of a private business by the government. Sometimes it is voluntary with full payment to the previous owners, and sometimes it is involuntary with no payment or worthless bonds.

[[Socialist]] governments nationalized industry in Britain, France and other countries after World War II. In most cases they have been privatized, that is returned to private ownership.

Temporary seizures during an emergency is not usually considered nationalization.
==History==
After World War II socialist governments came to power in several countries and set about nationalizing heavy industry, especially coal. The goal was not efficiency but to put the union leaders (who had a loud voice in socialist parties) in a position to dictate terms for the benefit of the workers, rather than the nation as a whole. In no case were the workers put in control, though [[Tito]] talked of that in Yugoslavia.

After World War II many Europeans wanted strong state action to insure economic development since they blamed the timidity and conservatism of private capital for the economic dislocations of the 1930s. Nationalization in Britain, concerted economic planning in France, and a low-key economic management in Germany all grew out of this same impulse. Many of the smaller nations also utilized central economic planning in some form. The common features of all the planning systems were an increase in cooperation between government and the private sector, and the guiding of the economy along selected growth lines. Economic planning became the province of the technocrats rather than of the political <ref> Sima Lieberman, "The Ideological Foundations of Western European Planning" ''Journal of European Economic History'' 1981 10(2): 343-371. </ref>

===Britain===
The history of British nationalization began with 1) program formation during the 1930s and World War II; 2) widespread implementation in 1945-47; 3) scaled-back activities in 1947-51; 4) stagnation and program retreat in 1951-79; 5) privatization under [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s government after 1979-1990; 6) Labour acceptance of privitization under [[Tony Blair]].
====Planning====
:''Main article : '''[[Economic planning]]'''''
In the years 1900-18 demands for nationalization were a byword of the British Left, especially socialist organizations. The dominant influences were Fabianism and syndicalism. The interwar period saw a number of demands for nationalization and redefinitions of proposals. However, the Labour governments of 1924 and 1929-31 failed to implement nationalization.

Since the end of the 19th century, British miners had loudly advocated the nationalization of mines. Before the 1930s the Miners' Federation supported a workers' control model; however, between 1931 and 1936, it abandoned this model of nationalization and adopted a public corporation model. Political pragmatism, efficiency, and the existence of a public corporation model induced the Miners' Federation to favor such a switch.

====World War II and after====
The mobilization of the national economy during World War II was immediately followed by the ascendancy of the Labour Party from 1945 to 1951. The Labour platform of nationalization, planning, and creation of a welfare state was translated into the nationalization of national and local transport, coal, oil and gas, electricity generation and distribution, iron and steel, automotive industries, aerospace, air and sea ports, and many other less high profile industries such as sugar distribution, hotel chains and the then fledgling semiconductor industry in the mid to late 1970s.

This program led to stagnation and inefficiencies in the economy that led to nationalized industries requiring grater and grater subsidies to stay in business, often despite the same sector in free-market countries booming at the same time. Such subsidies were sometimes disguised as market loans or investments. These inefficiencies played a large part in the labour defeat, and the beginning of conservative rule and Margaret Thatchers reforms at the close of the 1970's.

===Nationalization===
The guiding principle in [[nationalization]] was that industry would be operated just like a private business using "public corporations" and not directly by government departments. The old pre-1930 ideas of workers' control were rejected. The old management remained in place. The old owners received treasury bonds covering the full market value of their holdings. The role of labour was unchanged; collective bargaining remained the basis of negotiation with management and the right to strike was unaffected.

Nationalization was voted by Parliament for the Bank of England, the coal mining industry, hospitals, the iron and steel industry, communications, gas and electricity production, and railways. The owners were compensated. He began a comprehensive system of social security in 1948 with the National Insurance Act; the Industrial Injuries Act; the National Assistance Act (ending the old Poor Law); and the National Health Service Act, which provided free medical care for all.

The debate over iron and steel in 1947, however, marked the start of a retreat for the idea of nationalization. It confirmed the government's reluctance to move into manufacturing industry. Thereafter, there were no major new proposals until 1951, and the question did not return to the forefront of politics until after 1974. British nationalization operated in a very different political context and arose from somewhat different ideological roots than that in France or Austria for example, although in each country it was much affected by external financial pressures after 1945.

The postwar nationalization programme fell far short of the ideals of the leftists.

From 1951 to 1979 Britain experienced an economic decline while nationalizations increased and the [[welfare state]] was expanded. Significantly, however, a number of denationalizations also occurred during this time.

===Coal===
Most of Europe's coal mines passed into effective government control, with the British coal mines being nationalised under the control of the National Coal Board. The plan to nationalize the coal mines had been accepted in principle by owners and miners alike before the elections of 1945. The owners were paid £165,000,000. The government set up the National Coal Board to manage the coal mines; and it loaned it £150,000,000 to modernize the system.

The general condition of the coal industry has been unsatisfactory for many years, with poor productivity. In 1945 there were 28% more workers in the coal mines than in 1890, but the annual output was only 8% greater. Young people avoided the pits; between 1931 and 1945 the percentage of miners more than 40 years old rose from 35% to 43%, and 24,000 over 65 years old. The number of surface workers decreased between 1938 and 1945 by only 3,200, but in that same time the number of underground workers declined by 69,600, substantially altering the balance of labor in the mines. That accidents, breakdowns, and repairs in the mines were nearly twice as costly in terms of production in 1945 as they had been in 1939 was probably a by-product of the war.

Output in 1946 averaged 3,300,000 tons weekly. By summer 1946 it was clear that Britain was facing a coal shortage for the upcoming winter with stock piles 5 million tons too low. Nationalization exposed both a lack of preparation for public ownership and a failure to stabilize the industry in advance of the change. Also lacking were any significant incentives to maintain or increase coal production to meet demand.<ref>Mark Tookey, "Three's a Crowd? Government, Owners, and Workers During the Nationalization of the British Coalmining Industry 1945-47." ''Twentieth Century British History'' 2001 12(4): 486-510. Issn: 0955-2359 </ref>
===West Germany===
In Eastern Europe, the Communist governments nationalized all the mines and factories after 1945.

West Germany did not nationalize industry after 1945, even though the Labour party in Britain favored it and Britain controlled much of the industrial region. The American military governor, General Lucius Clay, apart from a basic distaste for socialization, opposed nationalization of the coal mines and of other basic industries on pragmatic grounds. One german state, controlled by the Socialists (SPD) passed a bill in North Rhine-Westphalia in 1948 to nationalize basic industries. The occupation powers vetoed it, reserving the decision for a future German parliament. But it was not only the Americans who stopped socialization. There was no overwhelming German popular support for nationalization. During the federal election of 1949 Socialist advocates could not offer a concept which was able to secure a national majority for their ideas, because of fears that they would hinder recovery. The ability to meet this concern - "Recovery Now!" - is what made the neo-liberalism of Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] and his economics minister [[Ludwig Erhard]] so appealing at the end of the forties.

Co-operation on coal trading was the impetus for forming the "European Coal and Steel Community" in 1951. Integrationists like French foreign minister [[Robert Schuman]] realized that coordinating the coal and steel markets of Germany, France, Italy and the Low Countries could lead to "spillover" in other policy areas; the ECSC indeed morphed into the [[EEC]] and [[European Union]].<ref> J. Gillingham, ''Coal, steel, and the rebirth of Europe, 1945-1955'' (1991); Derek W. Urwin, ''The Community of Europe: A History of European Integration since 1945.'' (1995)</ref>

==Privitization==
Privatization has been one of the central planks of economic and industrial policy pursued by British Conservative governments since 1979, and endorsed by [[Tony Blair]]'s Labour party as well.
===Railways===
see [[British Rail]]
===Shipbuilding===
The privatization on the state-owned entity British Shipbuilders (BS) was a major event. With the huge expansion of maritime industries between 1945 and 1975, British shipbuilding endured a sustained period of competitive and comparative failure, so that during the slump of the mid-1970s the industry was only saved from total failure by nationalization. British policy, however, had to act within the parameters of broader European Community (EC) legislation which was often contradictory, supporting the industry in the expectation of an upturn in demand while reducing capacity as markets remained weak. Subsidy and capacity reduction were supported by the Shipbuilding Intervention Fund (SIF), which attempted to bridge the price gap between European and Asian prices, and Counterpart Funding, designed to assist those areas where shipbuilding closed, but only on condition that no future shipbuilding be conducted.

In 1971 the Conservative government decided to close the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders Company and laid off 6,000 workers. Led by Communists, the workers continued to work, running the company themselves from July 1971 to November 1972. This strike-in-reverse, a work-in, became a powerful form of class struggle. It forced the government to reject plans for mass layoffs. All of the workers were able to keep their jobs. In 1975 the [[Labour Party]] under [[Harold Wilson]] nationalized the shipbuilding industry in response to the demands of the workers.

In the wake of nationalization BS established a tripartite divisional structure serving the merchant, warship, and offshore sectors. With the weak market continuing into the 1980s, both the merchant and offshore sectors were heavy loss-makers, whereas the warship sector enjoyed reasonable profits.

By 1984 privatization had been decided upon - initially, the warship yards were put up for sale - and BS had decided to pull out of the unprofitable offshore sector. Seven yards were privatized as warship yards; although this seemed (and did) meet a major criteria of injecting competitive tendering into the naval sector, the combined impact of the end of the Cold War and the inability of designated warship yards to access the SIF led to the closure of four of the yards by 1994. The merchant sector fared little better; under a tight financial regime a program of closures and dispersals was carried through between 1984 and 1989. This process was conducted against a background of criticism that the government favored closure. Moreover, there was concern that it had accepted EC Counterpart Funding as its only policy and had made little attempt to forecast either the size or nature of the market for British shipbuilding in the future. Of the 17 extant shipbuilding companies on the British mainland in 1979, only six remain open in 1996, while shipbuilding employment has fallen from 65,063 in 1979 to 12,100 in 1996. The stated aims of privatization - increasing efficiency, wider share ownership, and a reduction in public borrowing - have proven tenuous gains for British shipbuilding. <ref> Johnman, Lewis, "The Privatisation of British Shipbuilders" ''International Journal of Maritime History'' 1996 8(2): 1-31.</Ref>
====Airlines====
In the airline industry there was a mix of the two nationalized corporations (BOAC and BEA) and numerous privately owned operations that had evolved by late 1951. The planning includes the Civil Aviation Act of 1946, the Swinton Plan, the Labour blueprint "Wings for Peace", and the implications for independent airlines of the formation of British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), British European Airways Corporation (BEA), and British South American Airways (BSAA). The widespread participation of the independent airlines in the Berlin airlift persuaded the Labour government of the value of the privately owned airlines as a military transport reserve. The government thus allowed them to operate selected scheduled services as associates of BEA. Through 1949 and early 1950 the charter market, hampered by the inability to obtain more modern equipment, was unable to receive sufficient work at economic rates. By late 1950, however, with increased government use of charters for troop transports, the market began to recover.<ref> B. K. Humphreys, "Nationalization and the Independent Airlines in the United Kingdom, 1945-51." ''Journal of Transport History'' 1976 3(4): 265-281. </Ref>

In 1974 the Labour government nationalized all the airlines and merged them into British Airways. It was privatized by Thatcher in 1987.

{{Liberalism}}

==Further reading==
* Abromeit, Heidrun. ''British Steel: An Industry Between the State and the Private Sector.'' (1986). 328 pp.
* Ashworth, William. ''The History of the British Coal Industry, Volume 5, 1946-1982: The Nationalised Industry'' (1986)
* Foreman-Peck, James. ''Public and Private Ownership of British Industry, 1820-1990.'' (1994). 386 pp.
* Gourvish, Terry, and Mike Anson, ''British Rail, 1974-1997: From Integration To Privatisation,'' (2004) 700 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=vAlCWxoV1NYC&dq=%22british+rail%22&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpt and text search]
* Hannah, Leslie. ''Engineers, Managers, and Politicians: The First Fifteen Years of Nationalised Electricity Supply in Britain.'' (1982). 336 pp.
* Millward, Robert. "The 1940s Nationalizations in Britain: Means to an End or the Means of Production?" ''Economic History Review'' 1997 50 (2): 209-234.
* Millward, Robert and Singleton, John, eds. ''The Political Economy of Nationalisation in Britain, 1920-1950.'' (1995). 325 pp.
* Webster, Charles. ''The Health Services since the War. Vol. 1: Problems of Health Care: The National Health Service before 1957'' (1988), on nationalizing medicine in britain
====references====
<references/>

[[category:Economics]]
[[category:Socialism]]
[[category:Labor Unions]]
[[category:Business History]]

David Cameron

2010-04-15T16:23:55Z

BishoiH:

[[Image:674uyyhju.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''David Cameron''', born 9 October 1966, is the current leader of the British [[Conservative Party]]. According to the opinion polls, he is likely to be the next British [[Prime Minister]] after the next general election, which will be held on May 6th, 2010.

==Personal==

Cameron was born in [[London]], but spent his early years near Wantage in [[Oxfordshire]], [[England]], though his family's roots lie in [[Inverness]], [[Scotland]], and "Cameron" is well known in Britain as a Scottish name.

Cameron was educated at [[Eton College | Eton]], Britain's most prestigious public school (a "public school" in the UK referring to a privately run institution, as opposed to a "state school"), and at [[Brasenose College]], [[Oxford University|Oxford]], Britain's most ancient and prestigious university.

Cameron is self-described as "upper middle class", though his bloodline is noble, and he is a direct descendent of William IV, and thus a distant cousin of HRH Queen Elizabeth II. His family has historically been involved in finance and banking, with his great0great grandfather being head of HSBC in the late 19th century, and worked alongside the Rothchilds to finance the Russo-Japanese war. His leadership and indeed his own party are supported by businesses, as opposed to the liberal, socialist aligned Labour Party, led by the fellow Scotsman [[Gordon Brown]]; who are funded and largely controlled by the [[trade union]]s. Many intervening leaders have been middle-class ([[Edward Heath]], [[Margaret Thatcher]]) or even working-class ([[John Major]]).
His reluctance to discuss his past, citing the right to a private life before politics<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4340328.stm</ref> has led to class-based attacks on his education and ancestry from a small proportion of media sources and opposition MPs.

He has been married to Samantha since 1996, who is of direct noble bloodline, the daughter of 8th Baronet Sheffield, and descendent of Charles II. They have two sons and a daughter. Their eldest son, Ivan Cameron, died on February 25, 2009.<ref>[[BBC News]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7909562.stm Cameron's 'beautiful boy' dies]</ref>

==Political career==

Cameron's pre-parliamentary career included spells as a staffer for controversial Conservative politician [[Norman Lamont]] and as a PR executive.

Cameron was elected to Parliament as MP for Witney in Oxfordshire at the 2001 general election.

Cameron was elected leader of the [[Conservative Party]] in December 2005, succeeding [[Michael Howard]].

In late June 2007, at the end of then-Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]]'s final Prime Minister's Questions session in the [[House of Commons]], David Cameron led his opposition party in giving the outgoing leader a standing ovation.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1555758/Tony-Blair-steps-down-to-a-standing-ovation.html Tony Blair steps down to standing ovation] - Daily Telegraph, June 27, 2007</ref>

==Policies==

Cameron has attempted to move the Conservative party towards what is perceived by some to be the centre ground of British politics. While the party under his leadership has expressed support for some traditional elements of Conservative policy, such as the importance of the [[family]], Cameron has also expressed a passionate concern about [[global warming]]. He has suggested a move towards [[privatization]] within the strongly-socialist [[National Health Service]], in an attempt to combat the economic failures resulting from the flawed socialist ideas upon which the organisation is based. Designed and originated by the leftist [[Labour Party]], the organisation is notorious for its bureaucracy and the failure of its left-wing values in an economic sense.

Some traditional Conservatives, particularly those on the [[Thatcherism|Thatcherite]] wing of the party, have criticized Cameron for moving the party too far to the left. They point to surveys showing that many voters feel they no longer know what the Conservative Party stands for.<ref>http://www.yougov.com/archives/pdf/TEL060101018_1.pdf</ref> However, he has stated that he is "certainly a big [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]] fan, but I don't know whether that makes me a Thatcherite."<ref name="new identity">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4446864.stm "Cameron: Tories need new identity"], ''BBC News Online'', 17 November 2005, accessed 6 November 2006</ref> He has also described himself as a "liberal Conservative" (though "liberal" in British English does not have the same meaning as in the United States, and instead has the meaning of "centrist" or "moderate").<ref name="Rawnsley">Andrew Rawnsley, [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/focus/story/0,,1669957,00.html "'I'm not a deeply ideological person. I'm a practical one'"], ''Guardian Unlimited'', 18 December 2005, accessed 6 November 2006</ref> Some have gone so far as to claim that true conservatism is today represented in Britain not by the Conservative Party but by the [[UK Independence Party]]. On the other hand, the approval ratings of Cameron and his party continue to compare very favourably with those of the Labour Party and its leadership, which is undoubtedly unpopular.

Cameron has said: "My aim is to promote social justice, making sure that everyone has access to good schools, good healthcare and decent housing, take a lead in ending global poverty and do all we can to meet the great environmental threats of our age."<ref>http://www.conservatives.com/tile.do?def=david.cameron.about.page</ref> Some conservative politicians and commentators, notably [[Norman Tebbit]], have criticised him for prioritising issues of the environment and social justice over more traditionally Conservative policy areas, such as tax, immigration and foreign relations. Tebbit said: "Is he the party's [[Chairman Mao]] or [[Pol Pot]], intent on purging even the memory and name of [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcherism]] before building a new modern compassionate green globally aware party somewhere on the left side of the middle?"<ref name="g1">[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/conservatives/story/0,,1698576,00.html Tories must retake centre ground says Cameron], ''Guardian Unlimited'', 31 January 2006</ref> However, Cameron has responded extensively to such criticisms by pointing out that the economic and social problems faced by modern-day Britain are radically different from those faced in the past; he has argued that the Conservative Party needs to re-take the [[centrist|centre ground]] of politics from the [[Labour Party]].<ref name="bbc1">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4661024.stm Cameron denies 'betraying' Tories], BBC News, 30 January 2006</ref> He argued: "The change is not a betrayal. It is a recognition that the challenges faced by Britain are not the challenges of the 1970s. Social justice and economic efficiency are the common ground of British politics. We have to find the means of succeeding where the government has failed."<ref name="g1"/>

On August 16, 2008, Cameron followed President [[George Bush]] in criticising [[Russia]]'s invasion of [[Georgia]] during a visit to the war-torn region.<ref>[http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jl825geip9c65_-FTHTC_3wzMy0Q Cameron in Georgia slams 'invading' Russia]</ref>

==References==

<References/>

==See also==

* [[British politics]]
* [[Conservative Party]]

==External Links==
[http://www.mydavidcameron.com/ Cameron Election Campaign 2010]

{{DEFAULTSORT: Cameron, David}}

[[category:British Politics]]

London Underground

2010-04-02T20:35:04Z

BishoiH: H&C and Jubilee lines

[[Image:London Underground.jpg|thumb|right|A sign for the underground in London England.]]
The '''London Underground''' (often referred to as "The Tube") is London's [[Subway|underground railway system]]. Many lines in the outskirts are at or above ground level.

It is comprised of 11 lines - Bakerloo, Central, Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, Jubilee, Metropolitan, Northern, Piccadilly (serves [[London Heathrow Airport|Heathrow Airport]]), Victoria and Waterloo & City lines.

The London underground is the oldest subway system in the world.

==Bakerloo Line==
A deep level line, it is one of the five lines that serves destinations south of the Thames, running from Elephant & Castle to Harrow & Wealdstone. Most of the subterranean section was built in the 19th century at the same time as one of the cities main sewers, after which it is named. It is also one of the few stations to have a fully underground terminus, at Elephant and Castle. A long stretch of the northern section of the route runs on the Watford DC line, and shares the track with heavy rail commuter services. There are much talked about but unfunded plans to extend the tunnels south-east to Lewisham and take over the Hayes branch line.

==Central Line==
A deep level line, the Central runs though the very centre of the City of London east to west, and is the longest line on the network by some margin. It is one of the most important lines on the network, and one of the most varied. A major bottleneck is the oldest subterranean section between Liverpool Street and St. Paul's where the narrow tunnels (11ft6" wide in parts) and extremely tight turns drastically reduces the operating speed of trains. However the line received massive investment in the early 90's, and an automatic "driverless" system (though an operator is still present in the cab at all times) means services can operative with a service interval of every 1-2minutes. At the time of the redevelopment, the little used Ongar extension, far beyond London boundaries in rural Essex and operated as a separate, very basic shuttle service, was abandoned. Subsequent overcrowding of the current terminus in Epping has led to proposals to redevelop the extension to the same standards as the rest of the line and reopen it to through trains from the rest of the line. The line runs from Ruislip in the north-western edge of Greater London to Epping in Essex. A short branch also serves Ealing in inner west London.

==Circle Line==
The Circle line is a "virtual" line on the system that has no actual track. It's coloured yellow on the map and, contrary to it's name, actually forms a spiral shape.

==District Line==
This line is one of the most complex on the system. It is a sub-surface line that as built via cut and cover methods, causing massive disruption to city inhabitants, and thus many delays in construction, as it passes through areas belonging to wealthy landowners who resisted its development. It runs east to west, passing through the southern edge of the city centre, immediately north of the Thames. Like the Bakerloo line, some of it's alignment follows a sewerage system built at the same time known as the Embankment, from which one station takes it's name. It runs from a single eastern terminus at Upurminister to Earls Court, where a short single track spur leads to Olympia and Edgeware Road. The line also continues west, where one branch heads to Wimbledon, following a heavy rail alignment with separate tracks. This branch is runs at maximum capacity and is a major bottleneck. Another branch runs to Ealing, and a final route heads further west still, before turning south to Richmond, sharing tracks with heavy rail on the final southern alignment. The Richmond-Gunnersbury section of this route was to be withdrawn and capacity released to allow a branch of the new Crossrail line to serve Richmond, but residents blocked the proposal, fearing government intervention and micromanagement of the Crossrail project will leave it unfinished or badly delayed, and leave Richmond residents with no mass transit service.

==Hammersmith & City Line==
A sub-surface line built via cut and cover, the route of this line encompasses the oldest sections of the network, dating to the 1860's. Today its one of the least crowded lines on the network, as most of it's route is also served by other lines on shared track. It runs on a north east to south west alignment, running from Barking in the east, to Hammersmith in the west. Despite the name, the line only skirts the historic Square Mile of the City of London, stopping at Liverpool Street, Farringdon and Moorgate, roughly following the alignment of the Roman era boundary of the city for this stretch. The Barking to Aldgate East stretch of the route is shared with the District Line, and Liverpool Street to Baker Street is shared with the Metropolitan Line. The Shepherds Bush line is coloured pink on the map, in reference to the artistic and gay friendly Shepherd's Bush area, which it serves. Along with the District Line, it will be one of the first Underground lines to receive air conditioned trains.

==Jubilee Line==
The newest line on the network, with the Stanmore to Charing Cross section opening in the 1970's. The southern/eastern section from Green Park to Stratford opened in 1999, in time for the Millennium Dome exhibition in North Greenwich. The Charing Cross section closed at this point, to allow for the new alignment, although the (now) branch line is kept in fully serviceable condition and has been proposed as a possible routing for a future DLR service. The new section of the line is radically different to the older 70's section, and every other line on the Underground. It has platform screen doors on the subterranean stations, and extremely large, futuristic stations featuring smooth brushed metal and smooth, minimalist concrete architectural style. the stations are designed to allow easy upgrading of the service and to handle much higher passenger volumes. The station at Canary Wharf, in the new financial district has been likened to a cathedral, whilst the station at North Greenwich can handle 20,000 passengers per hour. The line is the only one to have a direct interchange with all other Underground lines. When first proposed in the 70's, it was to be called the Fleet line after an underground London river, and was originally to be coloured grey, in association with the Royal Navy. It was changed to the Jubilee name prior to opening, to celebrate the Silver Jubilee of HRH Queen Elizabeth II, and the grey shade was altered to silver.

==External Link==
*[http://tfl.gov.uk/tube Official Website]

[[Category: Transportation]]