Conservapedia - User contributions [en]

Boeing

2008-10-03T03:09:02Z

BillyR:

'''Boeing''' is short for ''The Boeing Company,'' which is currently the world's largest manufacturer of aircraft. It is headquartered in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]]. Founded in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]] by [[William Boeing]] in 1916, the company started manufacturing seaplanes.
 Boeing built huge numbers of bombers during [[World War II]] including some 12,000 [[B-17]] Flying Fortresses and 3,900 [[B-29]] Superfortresses. By the 1950s technology had advanced, and Boeing created the first successful passenger jet, the 707. Since then commercial Boeing aircraft have had a 7x7 designation. In the 1960s Boeing introduced the best-selling commercial aircraft, the [[737]], a short- or medium-range two-engined airliner. In January 1970 the [[747]] was introduced as the largest commercial aircraft of the time, further accelerating the jet age.
 Boeing was important company in [[Project_Apollo|Project Apollo]] as well as to the [[Space_shuttle|Space Shuttle]] Program, and was the first contractor for the [[International_Space_Station|International Space Station]].
 In the 1990s In 1996, Boeing acquired [[Rockwell]]’s aerospace and defense units. In August 1997, Boeing merged with [[McDonnell Douglas]] to form The Boeing Company.

Some of their notable designs:

*[[707]]
*[[727]]
*[[737]]
*[[747]]
*[[757]]
*[[767]]
*[[777]]
*[[787]]
*[[KC-135 Stratotanker]]
*[[B-17 Flying Fortress]]
*[[B-29 Superfortress]]
*[[B-52 Stratofortress]]
*[[B-2 Spirit]]
*[[B-3]]
*[[AH-64]]
*[[CH-47]]
*[[V-22 Osprey]]
*[[E-3 Sentry]]
[[category:technology]]

Deconstruction

2008-10-03T03:06:32Z

BillyR:

[[Image:800px-Crop Book of Isaiah 2006-06-06.jpg|thumb|300px|The Holy Bible]]
'''Deconstruction''' is the [[postmodern]] or post-structuralist technique for language and literary analysis, created by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, that denies the existence of a single meaning behind a set of symbols, such as a sentence. This is in contrast with most previous methods of understanding meanings, which assumed that there was a single concrete message intended by the author. The term is used in [[philosophy]], literary criticism, and the social sciences.

In pointing out that the manner in which symbols (or "signifiers") are understood is something that changes not only from culture to culture, but also person to person, deconstruction indicates that there is no essentially transcendental idea (or "signified") behind a symbol.<ref>Bressler, Charles. ''Literary Criticism'' 3rd ed. (Prentice Hall, Chicago, Illinois 2002) ISBN 978-0130333971.</ref> This is sometimes interpreted as there being ''no'' meaning at all, but this is a common misunderstanding. Further, some confuse deconstruction with another school of thought known as "reader response" criticism, in which emphasis is placed upon individual interpretation according to personal experiences.<ref>Noebel, David, ''Understanding the Times'' (Summit Ministries, Manitou Springs, Colorado 2006) ISBN 978-0936163000.</ref> In deconstruction, an approach which derives mostly from linguistic analysis, Derrida pointed out that the "actual" signified of any given signifier was often "undecidable," or incapable of being given a single interpretation independent from the individual understanding it. Derrida coined a number of the above terms, among others, to describe these phenomena.

In a contemporary [[essay]] entitled "The Death of the Author",<ref>Roland Barthes, ''The Death of the Author'', (Aspen 1968)</ref> [[France|French]] literary critic Roland Barthes argued in favor of deconstruction when he stated that the origin of a text is unimportant, and that only the interpretation of the [[reader]] matters. He declared that this personal interpretation frees the text from the [[tyranny]] of the intended meaning given it by the [[author]]. No matter what a writer writes, or what they mean to say through their writing, their words will never have a universal meaning, and will be understood in a thousand different ways by the readers. This was a landmark shift in thought, as previously many literary critics sought the "true" meaning of a text by attempting to analyze according to what the original author had thought. This shift has led to a modern dichotomy of thought in literary criticism, with new criticism, deconstruction, and other post-structuralist approaches contrasting with more traditional methods.

==Privileged Binaries and Différance==
Jacques Derrida wrote that history and language have always been traditionally full of privileged dualities of terms, such as order/chaos, high/low, and even good/bad. Among these has been the pairing of speaking/writing, which emphasized a historically logocentric (or speech-focused) approach to literature. In support of this, he indicates the vocal patterning which evidences itself amongst the written word, found within such literary devices as dialogue, which functions as an awkward attempt to mimic vocal exchanges via the written word, and accordingly is intrinsically less natural.

Derrida was not passing judgment on these concepts; he was notorious for not advocating any "solutions" or even any beliefs, often refusing to define deconstruction when asked. In his view, any definition would fall victim to the notion of what he termed "différance" (a pun on the French for "difference"), wherein no symbol can be described without resorting to further symbols to communicate, often further referencing more misleading binaries and leading into what he described as an endless "deferment" of meaning. Thus, the différance of a word is the conjunction of conflict between the signifier and signified; Derrida termed the substantive quality of this conflict as "trace," and deemed that definitions and accordingly understandings of the relationships between signifier and the signified had to undergo a process known as supplementation in order to be fully complete.

The interplay that occurs during the process of endless deferment in conventional [[linguistics]], while trying to track down the inner meaning of a given term, is referred to by deconstructionists as the hymen, in reference to the anatomical structure. The reference is an allusion to the fact that the structure is both inside and outside of the body at the same time, an apparent paradox and a contradiction of the Law of Identity proposed classically by [[Aristotle]] and held as an essential tenet of [[logical positivism]] within linguistics. This paradox has been most notably explored by author and philosopher Robert Pirsig in his works ''Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance'' and ''Lila''.

==Deconstruction in Other Areas==
Deconstruction can be interpreted as hostile to [[Christianity]]. The [[Bible]] was written with specific meaning and concrete teachings. Christians seek to discover the meaning of God's Word, and apply the Bible's truths to their lives.

[[Critical Legal Studies]] is deconstruction applied to [[Law]]. It involves dissecting and critiquing a law to find its subjective meaning, regardless of what it objectively states. Critical Legal Studies result in a view of law as tool to obtain what one wants. Susan Estich said, "You believe in principle; I believe in politics."<ref>Susan Estich in an online letter to Stuart Taylor Jr., www.slate.com/id/3628/entry/23734</ref> Deconstruction endangers law as we know it by rejecting standards of justice derived from religious moral absolutes and using law as a tool to beat political opponents into submission.<ref>Noebel, page 312</ref>

[[Harvard Law School]] in the late 1970s and 1980s was the home for several tenured professors who became advocates of [[Critical Legal Studies]] (or "crits"), such as Professor Duncan Kennedy.<ref>[http://duncankennedy.net/legal_history/index.html History of legal thought]</ref> By the late 1980s, however, a backlash among more traditional faculty there resulted in the denial of tenure to another adherent of that movement, causing the growth of the movement to halt.

<blockquote>
"We now know -- or have no excuse for not knowing -- that deconstruction is not a technique or a method, and hence that there is no question of "applying" it. We know that it is not a moment of carnival or liberation, but a moment of the deepest concern with limits. We know that it is not a hymn to indeterminacy, or a life-imprisonment within language, or a denial of history: reference, mimesis, context, historicity, are among the most repeatedly emphasized and carefully scrutinized topics in Derrida's writing. And we know -- though this myth perhaps dies hardest of all -- that the ethical and the political are not avoided by deconstruction, but are implicated at every step." Derek Attridge. <ref>[http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/deconstruction.php Deconstruction: Some Assumptions] Attridge, Derek, "Singularities, Responsibilities: Derrida, Deconstruction and Literary Criticism" in Critical Encounters: Reference and Responsibility in Deconstructive Writing ed. Cathy Caruth and Deborah Esch, pp 109-110</ref>
</blockquote>
==See Also==
*[[Postmodernism]]
*[[Deism]]
*[[Harold Bloom]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029711/deconstruction Deconstruction] Encyclopædia Britannica.
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/de/deconstr.html Deconstruction] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Postmodernism]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]
[[Category:Literature]]

Deconstruction

2008-10-03T02:50:09Z

BillyR:

[[Image:800px-Crop Book of Isaiah 2006-06-06.jpg|thumb|300px|The Holy Bible]]
'''Deconstruction''' is the [[postmodern]] or post-structuralist technique for language and literary analysis, created by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, that denies the existence of a single meaning behind a set of symbols, such as a sentence. This is in contrast with most previous methods of understanding meanings, which assumed that there was a single concrete message intended by the author. The term is used in [[philosophy]], literary criticism, and the social sciences.

In pointing out that the manner in which symbols (or "signifiers") are understood is something that changes not only from culture to culture, but also person to person, deconstruction indicates that there is no essentially transcendental idea (or "signified") behind a symbol.<ref>Bressler, Charles. ''Literary Criticism'' 3rd ed. (Prentice Hall, Chicago, Illinois 2002) ISBN 978-0130333971.</ref> This is sometimes interpreted as there being ''no'' meaning at all, but this is a common misunderstanding. Further, some confuse deconstruction with another school of thought known as "reader response" criticism, in which emphasis is placed upon individual interpretation according to personal experiences.<ref>Noebel, David, ''Understanding the Times'' (Summit Ministries, Manitou Springs, Colorado 2006) ISBN 978-0936163000.</ref> In deconstruction, an approach which derives mostly from linguistic analysis, Derrida pointed out that the "actual" signified of any given signifier was often "undecidable," or incapable of being given a single interpretation independent from the individual understanding it. Derrida coined a number of the above terms, among others, to describe these phenomena.

In a contemporary [[essay]] entitled "The Death of the Author",<ref>Roland Barthes, ''The Death of the Author'', (Aspen 1968)</ref> [[France|French]] literary critic Roland Barthes argued in favor of deconstruction when he stated that the origin of a text is unimportant, and that only the interpretation of the [[reader]] matters. He declared that this personal interpretation frees the text from the [[tyranny]] of the intended meaning given it by the [[author]]. No matter what a writer writes, or what they mean to say through their writing, their words will never have a universal meaning, and will be understood in a thousand different ways by the readers. This was a landmark shift in thought, as previously many literary critics sought the "true" meaning of a text by attempting to analyze according to what the original author had thought. This shift has led to a modern dichotomy of thought in literary criticism, with new criticism, deconstruction, and other post-structuralist approaches contrasting with more traditional methods.

==Privileged Binaries and Différance==
Jacques Derrida wrote that history and language have always been traditionally full of privileged dualities of terms, such as order/chaos, high/low, and even good/bad. Among these has been the pairing of speaking/writing, which emphasized a historically logocentric (or speech-focused) approach to literature. In support of this, he indicates the vocal patterning which evidences itself amongst the written word, found within such literary devices as dialogue, which functions as an awkward attempt to mimic vocal exchanges via the written word, and accordingly is intrinsically less natural.

Derrida was not passing judgement on these concepts; he was notorious for not advocating any "solutions" or even any beliefs, often refusing to define deconstruction when asked. In his view, any definition would fall victim to the notion of what he termed "différance" (a pun on the French for "difference"), wherein no symbol can be described without resorting to further symbols to communicate, often further referencing more misleading binaries and leading into what he described as an endless "deferment" of meaning. Thus, the différance of a word is the conjunction of conflict between the signifier and signified; Derrida termed the substantive quality of this conflict as "trace," and deemed that definitions and accordingly understandings of the relationships between signifier and the signified had to undergo a process known as supplementation in order to be fully complete.

The interplay that occurs during the process of endless deferment in conventional [[linguistics]], while trying to track down the inner meaning of a given term, is referred to by deconstructionists as the hymen, in reference to the anatomical structure. The reference is an allusion to the fact that the structure is both inside and outside of the body at the same time, an apparent paradox and a contradiction of the Law of Identity proposed classically by [[Aristotle]] and held as an essential tenet of [[logical positivism]] within linguistics. This paradox has been most notably explored by author and philosopher Robert Pirsig in his works ''Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance'' and ''Lila''.

==Deconstruction in Other Areas==
Deconstruction can be interpreted as hostile to [[Christianity]]. The [[Bible]] was written with specific meaning and concrete teachings. Christians seek to discover the meaning of God's Word, and apply the Bible's truths to their lives.

[[Critical Legal Studies]] is deconstruction applied to [[Law]]. It involves dissecting and critiquing a law to find its subjective meaning, regardless of what it objectively states. Critical Legal Studies result in a view of law as tool to obtain what one wants. Susan Estich said, "You believe in principle; I believe in politics."<ref>Susan Estich in an online letter to Stuart Taylor Jr., www.slate.com/id/3628/entry/23734</ref> Deconstruction endangers law as we know it by rejecting standards of justice derived from religious moral absolutes and using law as a tool to beat political opponents into submission.<ref>Noebel, page 312</ref>

[[Harvard Law School]] in the late 1970s and 1980s was the home for several tenured professors who became advocates of [[Critical Legal Studies]] (or "crits"), such as Professor Duncan Kennedy.<ref>[http://duncankennedy.net/legal_history/index.html History of legal thought]</ref> By the late 1980s, however, a backlash among more traditional faculty there resulted in the denial of tenure to another adherent of that movement, causing the growth of the movement to halt.

==See Also==
*[[Postmodernism]]
*[[Deism]]
*[[Harold Bloom]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029711/deconstruction Deconstruction] Encyclopædia Britannica.
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/de/deconstr.html Deconstruction] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Postmodernism]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]
[[Category:Literature]]

Deconstruction

2008-10-03T02:49:33Z

BillyR:

[[Image:800px-Crop Book of Isaiah 2006-06-06.jpg|thumb|300px|The Holy Bible]]
'''Deconstruction''' is the [[postmodern]] or post-structuralist technique for language and literary analysis, created by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, that denies the existence of a single meaning behind a set of symbols, such as a sentence. This is in contrast with most previous methods of understanding meanings, which assumed that there was a single concrete message intended by the author. The term is used in [[philosophy]], literary criticism, and the social sciences.

In pointing out that the manner in which symbols (or "signifiers") are understood is something that changes not only from culture to culture, but also person to person, deconstruction indicates that there is no essentially transcendental idea (or "signified") behind a symbol.<ref>Bressler, Charles. ''Literary Criticism'' 3rd ed. (Prentice Hall, Chicago, Illinois 2002) ISBN 978-0130333971.</ref> This is sometimes interpreted as there being ''no'' meaning at all, but this is a common misunderstanding. Further, some confuse deconstruction with another school of thought known as "reader response" criticism, in which emphasis is placed upon individual interpretation according to personal experiences.<ref>Noebel, David, ''Understanding the Times'' (Summit Ministries, Manitou Springs, Colorado 2006) ISBN 978-0936163000.</ref> In deconstruction, an approach which derives mostly from linguistic analysis, Derrida pointed out that the "actual" signified of any given signifier was often "undecidable," or incapable of being given a single interpretation independent from the individual understanding it. Derrida coined a number of the above terms, among others, to describe these phenomena.

In a contemporary [[essay]] entitled "The Death of the Author",<ref>Roland Barthes, ''The Death of the Author'', (Aspen 1968)</ref> [[France|French]] literary critic Roland Barthes argued in favor of deconstruction when he stated that the origin of a text is unimportant, and that only the interpretation of the [[reader]] matters. He declared that this personal interpretation frees the text from the [[tyranny]] of the intended meaning given it by the [[author]]. No matter what a writer writes, or what they mean to say through their writing, their words will never have a universal meaning, and will be understood in a thousand different ways by the readers. This was a landmark shift in thought, as previously many literary critics sought the "true" meaning of a text by attempting to analyze according to what the original author had thought. This shift has led to a modern dichotomy of thought in literary criticism, with new criticism, deconstruction, and other post-structuralist approaches contrasting with more traditional methods.

==Privileged Binaries and Différance==
Jacques Derrida wrote that history and language have always been traditionally full of privileged dualities of terms, such as order/chaos, high/low, and even good/bad. Among these has been the pairing of speaking/writing, which emphasized a historically logocentric (or speech-focused) approach to literature. In support of this, he indicates the vocal patterning which evidences itself amongst the written word, found within such literary devices as dialogue, which functions as an awkward attempt to mimic vocal exchanges via the written word, and accordingly is intrinsically less natural.

Derrida was not passing judgment on these concepts; he was notorious for not advocating any "solutions" or even any beliefs, often refusing to define deconstruction when asked. In his view, any definition would fall victim to the notion of what he termed "différance" (a pun on the French for "difference"), wherein no symbol can be described without resorting to further symbols to communicate, often further referencing more misleading binaries and leading into what he described as an endless "deferment" of meaning. Thus, the différance of a word is the conjunction of conflict between the signifier and signified; Derrida termed the substantive quality of this conflict as "trace," and deemed that definitions and accordingly understandings of the relationships between signifier and the signified had to undergo a process known as supplementation in order to be fully complete.

The interplay that occurs during the process of endless deferment in conventional [[linguistics]], while trying to track down the inner meaning of a given term, is referred to by deconstructionists as the hymen, in reference to the anatomical structure. The reference is an allusion to the fact that the structure is both inside and outside of the body at the same time, an apparent paradox and a contradiction of the Law of Identity proposed classically by [[Aristotle]] and held as an essential tenet of [[logical positivism]] within linguistics. This paradox has been most notably explored by author and philosopher Robert Pirsig in his works ''Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance'' and ''Lila''.

==Deconstruction in Other Areas==
Deconstruction can be interpreted as hostile to [[Christianity]]. The [[Bible]] was written with specific meaning and concrete teachings. Christians seek to discover the meaning of God's Word, and apply the Bible's truths to their lives.

[[Critical Legal Studies]] is deconstruction applied to [[Law]]. It involves dissecting and critiquing a law to find its subjective meaning, regardless of what it objectively states. Critical Legal Studies result in a view of law as tool to obtain what one wants. Susan Estich said, "You believe in principle; I believe in politics."<ref>Susan Estich in an online letter to Stuart Taylor Jr., www.slate.com/id/3628/entry/23734</ref> Deconstruction endangers law as we know it by rejecting standards of justice derived from religious moral absolutes and using law as a tool to beat political opponents into submission.<ref>Noebel, page 312</ref>

[[Harvard Law School]] in the late 1970s and 1980s was the home for several tenured professors who became advocates of [[Critical Legal Studies]] (or "crits"), such as Professor Duncan Kennedy.<ref>[http://duncankennedy.net/legal_history/index.html History of legal thought]</ref> By the late 1980s, however, a backlash among more traditional faculty there resulted in the denial of tenure to another adherent of that movement, causing the growth of the movement to halt.

==See Also==
*[[Postmodernism]]
*[[Deism]]
*[[Harold Bloom]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9029711/deconstruction Deconstruction] Encyclopædia Britannica.
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/de/deconstr.html Deconstruction] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07.

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Postmodernism]]
[[Category:Worldviews]]
[[Category:Literature]]

Homosexual belief system

2008-10-03T02:49:04Z

BillyR:

{{uncited}}

These are unique characteristics of the '''homosexual belief system''':

* [[censorship]] of any and all criticism of [[homosexuality]] as "[[hate speech]]"
* intense [[affirmative action]] in the form of preferential hiring and networking
* short-term outlook at the expense of the long-term future
* narcissistic in personality and relatively self-absorbed in outlook
* relatively prone to [[depression]], and even [[suicide]].
[[category:homosexuality]]

Legolas

2008-10-03T02:37:54Z

BillyR:

{{stub}}
'''Legolas''' is a fictional character in [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s [[Middle-earth]] world, appearing as a main character in ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''.

Legolas, son of King Thranduil, was an [[Elf (Middle-earth)|Elf]] from [[Mirkwood]]. He was initially sent to [[Rivendell]] to bring the news that [[Gollum]] had escaped from the Mirkwood elves' custody. Legolas joined the Fellowship of the Ring as its only Elven member. After the Breaking of the Fellowship, he went west with [[Aragorn]] and [[Gimli]] in search of the hobbits [[Meriadoc Brandybuck]] and [[Peregrin Took]]. He fought at the ''Battle of the Hornburg'', accompanied Aragorn on the way though the ''Paths of the Dead'', and fought in the ''Battle of the Pelennor Fields'' and the ''Battle of the Morannon''. After the War of the Ring, Legolas returned to [[Gondor]] with some of his people and founded an Elven colony in [[Ithilien]].<ref name = "ithiliencolony">"Legolas his friend also brought south Elves out of Greenwood, and they dwelt in Ithilien, and it became once again the fairest country in all the westlands." - J. R. R. Tolkien, ''The Lord of the Rings'', Appendix A, III Durin's Folk</ref> After Aragorn's death, Legolas left Middle-earth with Gimli in the year 120 of the Fourth Age.<ref name = "west-appa">"We have heard tell that Legolas took Gimli Glóin's son with him because of their great friendship, greater than any that has been between Elf and Dwarf." - J. R. R. Tolkien, ''The Lord of the Rings'', Appendix A, III Durin's Folk</ref><ref name = "west-appb">"Then Legolas built a grey ship in Ithilien, and sailed down Anduin and so over Sea; and with him, it is said, went Gimli the Dwarf." - J. R. R. Tolkien, ''The Lord of the Rings'', Appendix B The Tale of Years</ref>

== Adaptions ==
In [[Peter Jackson]]'s [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|film adaptations]] of ''The Lord of the Rings'', Legolas is played by actor [[Orlando Bloom]].

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Middle-earth]]

George Reid

2008-10-03T02:37:01Z

BillyR:

{{PM
|dob=25 February
|yob=1845
|birthplace=Renfrewshire, Scotland
|dod=12 September
|yod=1918
|wife=Flora Reid
|party-raw=(Free trade)
|succ={{Succession
|hdg=As Prime Minister
|start-date=18 August
|start-year=1904
|end-date=5 July
|end-year=1905
|prev=John Watson
|next=Alfred Deakin
}}
}}

The '''Rt Hon. George Houstoun Reid''' was [[Prime Minister]] of [[Australia]] for about ten months in 1904, following the resignation of [[John Watson]].
Reid resigned after losing support of the [[Protectionist Party]], and was replaced by [[Alfred Deakin]], who had previously been Australia's second Prime Minister.

Reid initially opposed [[Federation]] for Australia, but later changed his mind and supported it.

In 1910, he became Australia's first High Commissioner to the [[United Kingdom]]. After fulfilling that role for six years, he was offered a seat in the British [[House of Commons]], to which he was elected unopposed.

== Source ==
* National Museum of Australia, [http://www.nma.gov.au/education/school_resources/websites_and_interactives/primeministers/george_reid/ George Reid]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reid, George}}
{{Australian Prime Ministers}}

West

2008-10-03T02:36:10Z

BillyR:

'''West''' is a direction. It is the direction to the left of you when you look north and to the right of you when you look south. The sun sets in the west. In many [[Pagan]] religions, the west represents [[death]].

[[Category:Navigation]]

San Antonio, Texas

2008-10-03T02:35:28Z

BillyR:

'''San Antonio''' is a city in south central [[Texas]], approximately 140 miles northwest of the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and 150 miles northeast of the city of Laredo on the Mexican border. San Antonio covers 368.6 square miles, and is in the Bexar County. <ref> http://www.sachamber.org/relo/general_info.php</ref>

==Climate==
Generally the weather is warm and dry. The average temperatures range from the 50s in [[January]] to the mid 90s in the summer months of [[July]] and [[August]].

==Population==
The population is approximately 1,214,725 persons <ref> http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/4865000.html</ref> and comprised of the following racial groups: Hispanic (58.7%), White (31.8%), Other (19.3%), Black (6.8%), Two or more races (3.7%) and American Indian (1.3%). <ref>http://www.city-data.com/city/San-Antonio-Texas.html </ref>

==Government==
The City Government is comprised of the [[Mayor]] and a 10 member City Council. <ref>http://www.sanantonio.gov/council/ </ref> One member is appointed from each of the ten districts. The current Mayor, elected on on June 7, 2005 is Phil Hardberger. <ref> http://www.sanantonio.gov/mayor/</ref> The City Manager is currently Sheryl L. Sculley. <ref>http://www.sanantonio.gov/manager/</ref>

==Sports==
San Antonio is home to the [[San Antonio Spurs]] basketball team ([[NBA]]).

==Education==
San Antonio has many institutes of higher learning ranging from the community college level to Universities, including:

* San Antonio College - 1300 San Pedro Avenue, San Antonio, TX <ref>http://www.accd.edu/sac/sacmain/sac.htm</ref>
* Trinity University - One Trinity Place San Antonio, TX 78212-7200 <ref> http://www.trinity.edu/ </ref>
* St. Mary's University - One Camino Santa Maria, San Antonio, Texas 78228 <ref>http://www.stmarytx.edu/</ref>
* [[Texas A&M University]] - Kingsville System Center - 1400 W. Villaret Blvd. San Antonio, TX 78224 <ref> http://www.tamuk.edu/sanantonio/</ref>
* [[University of Texas]] at San Antonio - One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249 <ref>http://www.utsa.edu/</ref>

==Places of Interest==
* [[The Alamo]] - (Mission San Antonio de Valero) is the city's first [[Mission]], founded in 1718, and the place of the famous "Battle of the Alamo" on March 6, 1836 between residents and Mexican General [[Santa Anna|Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna]]'s army. <ref> http://www.alamocity.com/alamo/</ref>
* Casa Navarro State Historic Site - the old adobe home of Texas [[patriot]] José Antonio Navarro (1795–1871), is now an historical site dedicated to Mexican history and heritage of Texas.
* Natural Bridge Caverns
* Old Spanish Trail (3400 Fredericksburg Rd., San Antonio, TX)
* SeaWorld San Antonio
* The San Antonio [[Zoo]] & Aquarium

==References==
<references/>

==External Links==
* http://www.sanantoniocvb.com/visitors/attractions.asp#0010100 - San Antonio visitors Bureau
* http://www.naturalbridgecaverns.com/ - Natural Bridge Caverns
* http://www.alamocity.com/alamo/ - info on the Alamo
* http://www.seaworld.com/sanantonio/default.aspx - SaeWorld San Antonio
* http://www.sa-zoo.org/ - San Antonio Zoo and Aquarium
* http://www.city-data.com/city/San-Antonio-Texas.html - City data, San Antonio

[[Category:Texas Cities and Towns]]

Fireproof (film)

2008-10-03T02:34:15Z

BillyR:

{{stub}}
'''''Fireproof''''' is a 2008 film by [[Sherwood Pictures]] starring [[Kirk Cameron]]. It is the third film released by S[[herwood Baptist Church]] in Albany, [[Georgia]]. Produced on a budget of just $500,000,<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=fireproof.htm</ref> ''Fireproof'' rocketed into fourth-place its opening weekend, earning a prediction-surpassing $6,804,764.<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/weekend/chart/?yr=2008&wknd=39&p=.htm</ref>

==references==
<references/>

Fireproof (film)

2008-10-03T02:33:16Z

BillyR:

{{stub}}
'''''Fireproof''''' is a 2008 film by Sherwood Pictures starring Kirk Cameron. It is the third film released by Sherwood Baptist Church in Albany, Georgia. Produced on a budget of just $500,000,<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=fireproof.htm</ref> ''Fireproof'' rocketed into fourth-place its opening weekend, earning a prediction-surpassing $6,804,764.<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/weekend/chart/?yr=2008&wknd=39&p=.htm</ref>

==references==
<references/>

Fireproof (film)

2008-10-03T02:33:04Z

BillyR:

{{stub}}
'''''Fireproof''''' is a 2008 film by Sherwood Pictures starring Kirk Cameron. It is the third film released by Sherwood Baptist Church in Albany, Georgia. Produced on a budget of just $500,000 ,<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=fireproof.htm</ref> ''Fireproof'' rocketed into fourth-place its opening weekend, earning a prediction-surpassing $6,804,764.<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/weekend/chart/?yr=2008&wknd=39&p=.htm</ref>

==references==
<references/>

Fireproof (film)

2008-10-03T02:32:40Z

BillyR:

{{stub}}
'''''Fireproof''''' is a 2008 film by Sherwood Pictures starring Kirk Cameron. It is the third film released by Sherwood Baptist Church in Albany, Georgia. Produced on a budget of just $500,000 ,<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=fireproof.htm</ref> ''Fireproof'' rocketed into fourth-place its opening weekend, earning a prediction-surpassing $6,804,764.<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/weekend/chart/?yr=2008&wknd=39&p=.htm</ref>

<references/>

Fireproof (film)

2008-10-03T02:31:54Z

BillyR:

{{stub}}
'''''Fireproof''''' is a 2008 film by Sherwood Pictures starring Kirk Cameron. It is the third film released by Sherwood Baptist Church in Albany, Georgia. Produced on a budget of just $500,000 ,<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=fireproof.htm</ref> ''Fireproof'' rocketed into fourth-place its opening weekend, earning a prediction-surpassing $6,804,764.<ref>http://www.boxofficemojo.com/weekend/chart/?yr=2008&wknd=39&p=.htm</ref>

Cdesign proponentsists

2008-10-03T02:31:05Z

BillyR:

The term "'''cdesign proponentsists'''" was popularized by evolutionists during and after the [[Kitzmiller vs. Dover Area School District]] trial in [[Pennsylvania]] over the legitimacy of [[intelligent design]] as a science. A crucial{{fact}} piece of the trial's pro-intelligent design defense was the book [[Of Pandas and People]], a science textbook for middle and high school children. During the trial, previous copies of the book were subpoenaed for review. It was discovered that previous versions of the book had the words "creationist," "[[creationism]]" and other similar words and phrases in place of every use of the words "intelligent design" and similar words and phrases in later editions. In a single, isolated case, it was shown that the word "creationists" had been partially replaced with "design proponents," strangely resulting in "cdesign proponentsists".

([[John E. Jones III]]'s verdict was that intelligent design was the same as creationism and that Dover School Board's attempt to allow it to be taught in schools violated the Establishment Clause of the U.S. Constitution's First Amendment.<ref>[http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/kitzmiller/kitzmiller_342.pdf]</ref>)

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

[[category:law]]

Cdesign proponentsists

2008-10-03T02:30:24Z

BillyR:

The term "'''cdesign proponentsists'''" was popularized by evolutionists during and after the [[Kitzmiller vs. Dover Area School District]] trial in [[Pennsylvania]] over the legitimacy of [[intelligent design]] as a science. A crucial{{fact}} piece of the pro-intelligent design defense was a book called [[Of Pandas and People]], a science textbook for middle and high school children. During the trial, previous copies of the book were subpoenaed for review. It was discovered that previous versions of the book had the words "creationist," "[[creationism]]" and other similar words and phrases in place of every use of the words "intelligent design" and similar words and phrases in later editions. In a single, isolated case, it was shown that the word "creationists" had been partially replaced with "design proponents," strangely resulting in "cdesign proponentsists".

([[John E. Jones III]]'s verdict was that intelligent design was the same as creationism and that Dover School Board's attempt to allow it to be taught in schools violated the Establishment Clause of the U.S. Constitution's First Amendment.<ref>[http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/kitzmiller/kitzmiller_342.pdf]</ref>)

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

[[category:law]]

Ulster Unionism

2008-10-03T01:40:20Z

BillyR:

'''Ulster Unionism''' is a political term used to describe the proportion of the population of [[Northern Ireland]] (which encompasses most of [[Ulster]], hence the name) who wish to maintain the union between [[Great Britain]] and Northern Ireland. Unionism is opposed to unification of the island of Ireland as one national entity. The overwhelming majority of Ulster Unionists tend to be [[Protestant]], and similarly the overwhelming majority of Nationalists (that proportion of Northern Ireland who want closer ties with the Irish Republic) tend to be [[Roman Catholic]].

[[Category:Ireland]]

Duke Ellington

2008-10-03T00:37:31Z

BillyR:

[[Image:Duke-ellington.jpg|right|250px|thumb]]
'''Duke Ellington''' was a great American bandleader and pianist, not only a towering figure in [[jazz]], but often regarded as one the great composers of the [[20th century]].

He began his career in [[New York City]], with a residency at the [[Cotton Club]] from 1927 during which he developed the ideas of [[Don Redman]] and [[Fletcher Henderson]] and became instrumental in developing the [[Big Band]] sound that was to dominate the 1930s.

The contributions of lead trumpeter [[Bubber Miley]] helped define his 'jungle' sound in which the trumpet was made to 'speak' through skillful use of the mute, a style continued by Miley's successor [[Cootie Williams]].

Later, Ellington's band absorbed the influence of the more swinging [[Count Basie]] band, whilst remaining true to his original conception of advanced arrangements.
Many of his masterpieces were recorded around the time of [[World War Two]].

Ellington continued recording up until his death in 1974, still producing innovative music into his seventies.

[[Category:Musicians|Ellington, Duke]]

Count Basie

2008-10-03T00:36:50Z

BillyR:

'''William 'Count' Basie''' was one of the most important bandleaders of the [[swing]] era.

Initially a virtuosic [[stride]] pianist, he joined [[Bennie Moten]]'s band in 1930 - Moten, himself a pianist, allowed Basie to take over the piano chair, and it was with Basie on piano that the group recorded its seminal 1932 sides.

After Moten's death in 1935, Basie formed his own band with many of the same personnel. He recorded under his own name for the first time in 1936 - the driving rhythm section of [[Walter Page]], [[Jo Jones]] and [[Freddie Green]] transformed the way jazz was felt, whilst the economical, melodic solos of [[Lester Young]] provided an inspiration to the young musicians who would later develop [[bebop]].

Basie himself became known for a piano style that was sparse and whimsical, achieving great effect with just a few notes - this was in contrast to his earlier breathtaking two-fisted stride technique.

Basie's band went on to become one of the most popular of all big bands, achieving its greatest success in the 1950s after most other big bands were struggling in the face of competition from new jazz forms and rock'n'roll. In particular the album [[The Atomic Mr. Basie]] was highly successful.

Basie carried on working until his death in 1983.

[[Category:musicians]]

Nation (magazine)

2008-10-03T00:29:46Z

BillyR:

'''''The Nation''''' is a weekly [[magazine]] of opinion and reviews, first published in 1865.

''The Nation'' has always been a bastion of liberal and socialist thought and at times has been described as a Kremlin-directed Stalinist mouthpiece.{{fact|date=January 2008}} ''The Nation'' has had writers identified as Soviet spies in the [[Venona project]].

The current Editor and Publisher is [[Katrina vanden Heuvel]], succeeding the now "Publisher Emeritus" [[Victor Navasky]].

''The Nation'' publishes 48 weeks a year, printing letters to the editor (including responses by article writers), editorial positions, columns by regular commentators, book reviews, and the ''Nation'' cryptic crossword, which has been set by cryptographer Frank W. Lewis since just after the [[World War 2|Second World War]].

==See also==
*[[I.F. Stone]]
*[[Anna Louise Strong]]

[[category:publications]]

F-4 Phantom

2008-10-03T00:16:15Z

BillyR:

The '''F-4 Phantom II''' was a supersonic long-range all-weather fighter-bomber used by the [[United States]] military from 1960 to 1996. It was developed by McDonnell Douglas.

It was the fighter and fighter-bomber used by the United States Air Force, Navy and Marines during the Vietnam war. It was used both by the Navy [[Blue Angels]] demonstration team and the Air Force [[Thunderbirds]].

Some are still in service with other nations who bought them from the United States.

McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom

Type: Supersonic fighter bomber

Powerplant: Two General Electric J79-GE-10 afterburning turbojet

Performance: Top speed 1500 mph

Dimensions: Wingspan 38 ft. 4 in. Length 58 ft 2 in.

Armament: One 20 millimeter Vulcan cannon (E model only<ref>Although other models could carry external gun pods.</ref>), and either four [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] missiles and four [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles or 16,000 lb bombload.

==Phantoms over Israel==
The Phantom was first acquired by the Israeli Defense Forces in September 1969. Phantoms took part in the [[War of Attrition]], the [[Yom Kippur War]] (suffering heavy losses), and the 1982 war in [[Lebanon]]. The Phantom was used mainly as a fighter-bomber, although Israeli F-4s scored a total of 116.5 air-to-air kills.[http://home.att.net/~jBaugher1/f4_41.html] The Israeli name for the F-4 was the ''Kurnass'' (sledgehammer).

===War of Attrition===
Phantoms were thrown into combat almost as soon as they arrived. In late 1969, Israel was in middle of a conflict with [[Egypt]] that would later be known as the [[War of Attrition]]. The first Phantoms arrived on Sept 5, 1969, and the first operational mission of the Kurnass was a month and a half later, on October 22. The plane scored its first aerial victory for Israel three weeks later, when a Phantom of the 201 Squadron downed an Egyptian Mig-21 while on a combat air patrol.[http://www.iaf.org.il/Templates/Kills/FirstDown.IN.aspx?lang=EN&lobbyID=43&folderID=43&subfolderID=293&docfolderID=293&docID=1249&docType=ARTICLE]

One of the more prominent Phantom missions during the War of Attrition was on May 16, 1970. Eight F-4s, led by [[Six Day War]] veteran Aharon “Yalo” Shavit, flew to the Egyptian port of Ras Banas and sank an Egyptian destroyer in retaliation for the sinking of an Israeli patrol boat a few days earlier. It was the longest-range fighter-bomber mission taken by the IAF up to that time. Phantoms were also extensively used against Egyptian SAM sites that year in what became known as Electronic Summer, in Wild Weasel-type missions using tactics developed by American pilots in the [[Vietnam War]].

The War of Attrition ended with a negotiated ceasefire in August. Half a dozen Phantoms had been lost to SAMs and anti-aircraft fire, and IAF Phantoms had shot down six Egyptian aircraft (five Mig-21s and an Ilyushin jet bomber). The first loss of a Phantom in aerial combat happened on April 2, 1970, when a Syrian Mig-21 downed a Kurnass near Mt. Hermon.<ref>The pilot of the Mig was Bassam Hamshu, who became an ace in the Yom Kippur War and ended his career with seven confirmed victories, including another Phantom.</ref>

===The Yom Kippur War===
When the Egyptian and [[Syria]]n air forces attacked on October 6, 1973, Israeli Phantoms bore the brunt of the initial strikes. Kurness units were hard-pressed, but scored 23 air-to-air victories that day, over a quarter of their total for the entire conflict. In what was probably the first aerial battle of the war, two Kurnass crews from 119 Squadron defended their base from 28 Migs, destroying six Mig-17s and a Mig-21 between them. However, the other attackers managed to get through and bomb the base, cratering the runway and damaging facilities. Other Phantoms were scrambled to blunt the Arab ground advance, but ten of them were lost to SAMs and anti-aircraft fire in the first few hours. The F-4 made its biggest contribution for the day after dusk. With light fading, the Egyptians sent several Mi-8 helicopters loaded with commandos into the Sinai in an attempt to cause havoc in the Israeli rear areas. Two of these raids were smashed by Phantoms that shot down fourteen helicopters in all. One Kurnass crew accounted for five Mi-8s by themselves. IAF Mirages arrived later and destroyed more of the raiders.

Israeli commanders were confused at first by the sudden attack, so counterstrikes by the IAF over the next couple of days met with mixed success. Kurnasses shot down four Egyptian Mig-21s for no loss on the morning of October 7, but an attack on Syrian air defenses that afternoon was ineffective and cost the Israelis six more precious Phantoms. Another four were lost the next day (including one in air-to-air combat). In less than 72 hours, Israel had lost approximately one fifth of its Kurnass force and over a tenth of its Kurnass aircrews.

By the end of Day Four, however, the situation had stabilized. The Egyptian and Syrian offensives had been halted, and the IAF was able to poke holes in the SAM nets through which to attack. The F-4s were still hard-pressed, but only three were lost over the next four days. Over the same period, Kurnass crews shot down twelve Mig-21s and one Mig-17. Most of the fighting at this time took place over the Syrian front. After the first week of the war, the United States initiated Operation Nickel Grass, an emergency resupply program for Israel that replaced the planes lost in combat. When the war ended two weeks later, Israel, and its Kurnass force, was battered but still intact. In addition to the literally hundreds of ground targets destroyed, Israeli Phantoms shot down 85 Arab combat aircraft, mostly Mig-21s, for a kill-loss ratio in aerial combat of 17-1 during the war.<ref>This is particularly impressive considering that in most situations, Mig-21 air defense fighters were intercepting bomb-laden Phantoms. IAF Mirages had a similar kill ratio for the YKW, but most of their victories were in situations where Mirages on air defense intercepted bomb-laden Migs</ref>

===Post-Yom Kippur===
After the war ended, tensions were still high, and Phantoms saw combat again in the following year over both the Sinai and the Golan Heights, including aerial contests that ended with four Migs shot down. When Israel bought its first [[F-15 Eagle]]s in 1976, the Kurnass was edged out of the air-to-air niche, and Kurnass crews only scored two and a half more aerial victories after the Eagle was introduced. However, the Phantom’s role was expanded with the acquisition of RF-4Es for reconnaissance. Israeli Phantoms were heavily involved in the fighting in Lebanon in 1982, successfully attacking several Syrian SAM sites and PLO facilities.

By the mid-1980s, the Phantom was starting to get a little long in the tooth compared to the F-15, [[F-16]], and the newer Migs in service at the time with many Arab air forces. The Kurnass 2000 project was initiated to give the Phantom a new lease on life, and 130 planes were re-equipped with new avionics and modifications to the hydraulic and fuel systems. Kurnass 2000s have seen action in Lebanon.

==Notes==
<references/>

==Sources==
===Israel===
*''Rolling Thunder: Jet Combat from World War II to the Gulf War'', by Ivan Rendall, Dell Publishing, 1997
*''Israeli F-4 Phantom II Aces'', by Shlomo Aloni, Osprey Publishing, 2004
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/phantom.html JewishVirtualLibrary: F-4 Phantom II]

[[Category:Military]]
[[Category:Aircraft]]
[[Category:United States Air Force]]
[[Category:United States Navy]]

Kazakh people

2008-10-03T00:15:20Z

BillyR:

The '''Kazakhs''' are a [[Turkic people|Turkic]] ethnic group from [[Kazakhstan]], also found in [[Russia]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Mongolia]], and [[China]]. They are mainly [[Sunni]] [[Muslim]] and speak the [[Kazakh language]].

[[Category: Turkic Peoples]]

Zionism

2008-10-02T23:25:12Z

BillyR:

Zionism originally referred to a nationalist political movement dedicated to reestablishing the [[Israel|Jewish state]] in the British Mandate of [[Palestine]]; the term now connotes political support for the Jewish State. The movement was started in the late nineteenth century by [[Theodor Herzl]], and in 1948 the modern state of [[Israel]] was established on a piece of land granted by the [[United Nations]] with the support of [[Great Britain]], the nation which had formerly controlled the land under a [[League of Nations]] mandate.
Not all Jews are Zionists: Ultra-religious Jews, such as the [[Neturei Karta]] sect, are [[Anti-zionism|anti-Zionist]] for theological reasons. Recently, Zionism has gained influence among American Jews resulting in what some have dubbed the Israel Lobby. The term is used to refer to the numerous pro-Israeli interest groups such as the American Israel Public Affairs Committee which some believe to have an excessive amount of influence over US policy. Although many who are opposed to the Israel Lobby have a problem with the power of interest groups and lobbying organizations in general, not just the Israel Lobby.

==Opposition to Zionism==

The [[Palestinians]], many of whom lost - or fled - their homes during the unrest that followed the establishment of the Israeli state are among those opposed to its existence, as are many [[Arabs]] who are allied with them. Among Jews, the orthodox Neturei Karta group opposes Zionism as [[blasphemy]]. Zionism was formerly opposed by some European Jews who feared that the creation of a Jewish state would cause them to lose their influence (such as ownership of newspapers and real estate), as such control could not be exercised if many Jews migrated from Europe to Israel. Opposition also comes from some [[racist|anti-racists]], who oppose Zionism's promotion of Jewish racial identity.

In the often tendentious debates over the Arab-Israeli question many so called "anti-Zionists" claim that there is a distinction between opposition to Israel and [[Anti-Semitism]]. In practice, however, outside of a very small minority of Orthodox Jews who oppose Zionism for religious reasons, anti-Zionism almost always goes hand in hand with anti-Semitism.

== See also ==

*[[Yasser Arafat]]
*[[Menachem Begin]]

== Links ==

*[http://www.zionism-israel.com/ Zionism and Israel Information Center]
*[http://www.mideastweb.org/zionism.htm Zionism and the Creation of Israel]
*http://www.jewsnotzionists.org
*http://www.jewsagainstzionism.com

[[category:politics]]
[[Category:Israel]]

Zionism

2008-10-02T23:23:25Z

BillyR:

Zionism originally referred to a national-political movement to reestablish the [[Israel|Jewish state]] in the British Mandate of [[Palestine]]; the term now connotes political support for the Jewish State. The movement was started in the late nineteenth century by [[Theodor Herzl]], and in 1948 the modern state of [[Israel]] was established on a piece of land granted by the [[United Nations]] with the support of [[Great Britain]], the nation which had formerly controlled the land under a [[League of Nations]] mandate.
Not all Jews are Zionists: Ultra-religious Jews, such as the [[Neturei Karta]] sect, are [[Anti-zionism|anti-Zionist]] for theological reasons. Recently, Zionism has gained influence among American Jews resulting in what some have dubbed the Israel Lobby. The term is used to refer to the numerous pro-Israeli interest groups such as the American Israel Public Affairs Committee which some believe to have an excessive amount of influence over US policy. Although many who are opposed to the Israel Lobby have a problem with the power of interest groups and lobbying organizations in general, not just the Israel Lobby.

==Opposition to Zionism==

The [[Palestinians]], many of whom lost - or fled - their homes during the unrest that followed the establishment of the Israeli state are among those opposed to its existence, as are many [[Arabs]] who are allied with them. Among Jews, the orthodox Neturei Karta group opposes Zionism as [[blasphemy]]. Zionism was formerly opposed by some European Jews who feared that the creation of a Jewish state would cause them to lose their influence (such as ownership of newspapers and real estate), as such control could not be exercised if many Jews migrated from Europe to Israel. Opposition also comes from some [[racist|anti-racists]], who oppose Zionism's promotion of Jewish racial identity.

In the often tendentious debates over the Arab-Israeli question many so called "anti-Zionists" claim that there is a distinction between opposition to Israel and [[Anti-Semitism]]. In practice, however, outside of a very small minority of Orthodox Jews who oppose Zionism for religious reasons, anti-Zionism almost always goes hand in hand with anti-Semitism.

== See also ==

*[[Yasser Arafat]]
*[[Menachem Begin]]

== Links ==

*[http://www.zionism-israel.com/ Zionism and Israel Information Center]
*[http://www.mideastweb.org/zionism.htm Zionism and the Creation of Israel]
*http://www.jewsnotzionists.org
*http://www.jewsagainstzionism.com

[[category:politics]]
[[Category:Israel]]

Zell Miller

2008-10-02T23:15:50Z

BillyR:

'''Zell Miller''' was a [[Democratic Party|Deomcratic]] United States Senator from [[Georgia]]. He previously served as Lieutenant Governor and then Governor of the state of Georgia. He served one term in the Senate, where he was first appointed in 2000 to fill a vacant seat and then easily won a special election later that same year. A [[Conservative Democrat]], he became increasingly alienated from the Democratic Party's left-wing activist base during his term in the Senate. He resisted calls to change parties though, saying he was "born a Democrat and will die a Democrat". He then wrote the book ''A National Party No More'' about his differences with the modern Democratic Party leadership.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Miller, Zell}}
[[Category:United States Senators]]
[[Category:Democrat Governors]]
[[Category:Georgia Governors]]

Zell Miller

2008-10-02T23:15:42Z

BillyR:

'''Zell Miller''' was a [[Democratic Party|Deomcratic]]United States Senator from [[Georgia]]. He previously served as Lieutenant Governor and then Governor of the state of Georgia. He served one term in the Senate, where he was first appointed in 2000 to fill a vacant seat and then easily won a special election later that same year. A [[Conservative Democrat]], he became increasingly alienated from the Democratic Party's left-wing activist base during his term in the Senate. He resisted calls to change parties though, saying he was "born a Democrat and will die a Democrat". He then wrote the book ''A National Party No More'' about his differences with the modern Democratic Party leadership.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Miller, Zell}}
[[Category:United States Senators]]
[[Category:Democrat Governors]]
[[Category:Georgia Governors]]

Talk:Science and politics

2008-10-02T23:13:36Z

BillyR: New page: This strikes me as an odd article--I can't really contribute, knowing little about the topic, but it looks like a quote just sort of floating around with no context. Maybe someone with an ...

This strikes me as an odd article--I can't really contribute, knowing little about the topic, but it looks like a quote just sort of floating around with no context. Maybe someone with an STS background could flesh it out a bit? [[User:BillyR|BillyR]] 19:13, 2 October 2008 (EDT)

2008 Presidential Debates

2008-10-02T23:10:56Z

BillyR:

The '''2008 Presidential Debates''' are the debates that are occuring between Presidential candidates in the [[2008 Presidential Election]]. The [[Democrat]], Senator [[Barack Obama]], has debated the [[Republican]], Senator [[John McCain]] once in Oxford, [[Mississippi]]. <ref> http://www.newsmax.com/headlines/mccain_obama_debate/2008/09/26/134940.html </ref> Two more debates are planned between McCain and Obama and one between Senator [[Joseph Biden]] and Governor [[Sarah Palin]].

[[Category: Politics]]
[[Category: 2008 Presidential Candidates]]

Africa

2008-10-02T16:36:55Z

BillyR:

[[Image:Africa pol 2003.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Political boundaries of Africa]]
[[Image:Africa ref 2003.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shaded relief of Africa]]
'''Africa''' is the continental landmass to the southwest of Asia, with its only physical land connection being the [[Sinai Peninsula]] in [[Egypt]]; the remaining borders are the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the north, the [[Red Sea]] and [[Indian Ocean]] to the east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west.
==Land==
===Topography===
===Climate===
===Drainage===
===Flora===
===Fauna===
===Resources===
===Arable land===
==People==
===Ethnic groups===
===Languages===
===Religion===
===Education===
===Health===
===Demography===
==Economy and Commerce==
===Industry===
===Agriculture===
===Forestry===
===Fishing===
===Transportation===
===Trade===
== History ==
===Colonization===
European nations held the [[Berlin Conference]] in 1884-1885 in order to decide how to divide Africa in order to best suit their interests. No Africans were invited to the conference. Ethnic and cultural differences within Africa were ignored, and lines of demarcation were drawn to aid the [[Europe]]an nations in their quest to subjugate the continent and its peoples. All of Africa, except for [[Ethiopia]] (which resisted Italian control in 1896) and [[Liberia]], which would become a haven for those returning from slavery, was divided and colonized by the European nations. This colonization was an example of "white man's burden", the belief that the Africans were unable to develop civilization on their own and it was the role of Europeans to provide that.

[[Imperialism]] may be argued to have had both good and bad effects. The Europeans brought advances in technology, built hospitals, and improved the infrastructure, such as [[railroad]]s, [[telephone]]s, [[telegraph]]s, sanitation and other public works; this improved trade and communications and reduced disease. However, technological advances did not affect all areas equally. As Walter Rodney writes, colonialism found Africans practicing agriculture with a hoe, and left Africans practicing agriculture with a hoe.<ref>Walter Rodney, ''How Europe Underdeveloped Africa''. (Washington: Howard University Press, 1974. 219)</ref> Europeans also built schools which, along with teaching general education, also introduced European language, culture, and religion. Literacy improved. Europeans displaced some Africans from farming their lands and shifted them into working for European businesses, which resulted in loss of control of their lands and saw a reduction in food crops. African workers were also purchased and shipped to other territories outside of Africa. European national boundaries were a new concept for much of Africa which was accustomed to small tribal or village living and didn't understand how many such tribes and villages, which often warred with each other, could be put together under one national banner. This forced nationhood apart from African cultural groups and village life has continued to be a source of strife in African nations to this day.

== External links ==

*[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/africa.htm Africa]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Continents]]

Miles Davis

2008-10-02T16:25:39Z

BillyR:

'''Miles Davis''' was a [[jazz]] [[trumpet]] player, one of the most influential in the genre.

He began his career playing with [[Charlie Parker]] - however he had trouble adapting to the immense technical complexity of [[bebop]] and began to seek a style more suited to his soulful, melodic sensibility.

His development of [[cool jazz]], a relaxed antidote to the frenetic pace of bebop, was influential, but arguably he found his voice following his encounter with the works of theorist [[George Russell]]. Beginning with the album [[Milestones]] in 1957, he began to explore [[modal jazz]], a new approach to the idiom in which the chord structures were vastly simplified, allowing the soloist ample time to explore melodic ideas.

The apotheosis of this period came with 1959's [[Kind Of Blue]], on which he, with pianist [[Bill Evans]] and tenor saxophone player [[John Coltrane]], among others, created a haunting masterpiece. Most of the tracks are still popular at jazz jam sessions to this day.

For the next few years, he concentrated, in the studio at least, on albums with an orchestral backdrop provided by [[Gil Evans]] - an unfortunate corollary of this is that his work with Bill Evans' replacement [[Wynton Kelly]] is only documented on one studio album (Someday My Prince Will Come).

In the early sixties the personnel of his group changed significantly - the young [[Herbie Hancock]], [[Wayne Shorter]], [[Ron Carter]] and [[Tony Williams]] (just 17 on his first Davis album), developed the music into highly complex and virtuosic forms of expression, which, perhaps ironically, was far more technically complex than the bebop that Davis originally rebelled against.

Miles' 70s work remains controversial - some regard his absorbtion of rock idioms as a sell-out, others as a brave willingness to move with the times.

After a brief retirement at the end of the 1970s, Davis continued performing until his death in 1991.

[[Category:Musicians|Davis, Miles]]

Chris Leak

2008-10-02T16:22:03Z

BillyR: Making time-proof

'''Chris Leak''' is a [[National Football League]] quarterback for the [[Chicago Bears]]. He was the starting quarterback of the 2006 [[University of Florida]] football team, which won the BCS National Championship. Leak was named the Most Valuable Player of the game. He entered the [[National Football League]] as an undrafted free agent and signed with the [[Chicago Bears]] shortly after the [[2007 NFL Draft]].

{{DEFAULTSORT:Leak, Chris}}

[[Category:NFL players]]

Falun Gong

2008-10-02T16:21:03Z

BillyR:

'''Falun Gong''' is a Chinese "system of mind and body cultivation", according to founder Li Hongzhi. The teachings of Li stress high moral standards, respect for human life, and spiritual development.[http://www.falundafa.org/book/eng/flg_2006.htm]

Since 1999, the [[communism|communist]] government of the [[People's Republic of China]] has taken a harsh stance towards followers of Li, imprisoning many. Allegations of [[torture]] have been made by former prisoners.[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/hrcn1073.doc.htm]

==External links==
*Epoch Times Commentaries on the Communist Party - Part 5, [http://en.epochtimes.com/news/4-12-18/24972.html On the Collusion of Jiang Zemin and the Chinese Communist Party to Persecute Falun Gong], ''The Epoch Times'', Dec 18, 2004.

[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:China]]

General Motors

2008-10-02T16:02:31Z

BillyR:

'''General Motors''' (GM) automobile manufacturing company was founded in 1908 by William C. Durant, and rose to become one of the leading auto manufacturers in the [[United States]]. In 2006, over 9 million GM cars and trucks were sold. Some of the popular brands of autos produced and marketed by GM include:
*[[Buick]]
*[[Cadillac]]
*[[Chevrolet]]
*[[Pontiac]]
*[[Saab]]
*[[Saturn (car)|Saturn]]

GM headquarters is located in [[Detroit]], and the company manufactures cars and trucks in 33 countries, employing about 284,000 people globally.

General Motors was originally formed by joining several independent companies: the Olds Motor Vehicle Company, owned by Ransom E. Olds, (maker of the [[Oldsmobile]]); Cadillac Automobile Company owned by Henry M. Leland; Buick Motor Company, founded by David Dunbar Buick, and the Oakland Motor Car Co, the original maker of the Pontiac.

One former head of General Motors, John Z. DeLorean, went on to start his own car company, Delorean Motors, and manufactured the [[DeLorean]] car, famed for its role in the move "Back to the Future"

==See Also==
*[[General Motors Corp. v. Tracy]]
*[[United States v. General Motors Corp.]]

==References==

*http://www.gm.com/company/corp_info/history/
*http://www.nndb.com/company/018/000046877/
*http://www.ugs.com/about_us/press/press.shtml?id=5464

[[Category:United States Businesses]] [[Category:Commerce]][[Category:Cars]]

Harry Truman

2008-10-02T16:00:36Z

BillyR:

{{President|
|name=Harry S. Truman
|image=HTruman.jpg
|country=the United States
|seq=33
|party=Democratic
|term_start=April 12, 1945
|term_end=January 20, 1953<ref>http://home.comcast.net/~sharonday7/Presidents/AP060301.htm</ref>
|vp=None
|vp_dates=1945-1949
|2vp=Alben Barkley
|2vp_dates=1949-1953
|previous=Franklin D. Roosevelt
|next=Dwight D. Eisenhower
|seq2=34
|office2=vice
|party2=
|term2_start=January 20, 1945
|term2_end=April 12, 1945
|pres2=Franklin D. Roosevelt
|previous2=Henry A. Wallace
|next2=Alben W. Barkley
|birth_date=May 8, 1884
|birth_place=Lamar, MO
|death_date=December 26, 1972
|death_place=Kansas City, MO
|spouse=Bess Wallace Truman
|spouse2=
|religion=[[Baptist]]
}}

'''Harry S. Truman,''' (1884-1972) a [[liberal]] [[Democrat]] from [[Missouri]], was the president of the United States from 1945-1953, taking over when [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] died in April 1945. He took the decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in order to force Japan's surrender. Angered at the Soviet Union's seizure of eastern Europe, he moved away from FDR's [[détente]] to a policy of [[containment]], reinforced by the Truman Plan (1947) to resist Communist subversion, the [[Marshall Plan]] (1948-51) to rebuild and modernize western Europe's economies, and the [[NATO]] military alliance of 1949. Truman, advised by [[Dean Acheson]] and the State Department, set the strategic course for America's early conduct of the [[Cold War]].

Ignoring Asia, he later saw America's close ally China fall to the anti-American Communists under [[Mao Zedong]] in 1949; the US and China fought each other to a draw during the undeclared [[Korean War]], 1950-53. Truman fired his top general, [[Douglas MacArthur]], during this conflict and saw his popularity plunge.

As the war ended, the massive problem of reconverting the 45% of the economy devoted to war production baffled Truman. Listening to liberal advisors, he refused to end extremely unpopular price controls, and was unable to stop a massive wave of strikes in major industries in 1945-46. Voter dissatisfaction to the Republican capture of Congress in 1946; with Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] as the conservative Republican spokesman, Congress repealed many of the wartime restrictions on business and lowered taxes. Taft rewrote the labor laws in the [[Taft-Hartley Act of 1947]], balancing the rights of unions, management and the public interest; it became law over Truman's signature and remains in effect.

Truman began with very high popularity ratings, but they plunged to the lowest on record. Democrats were unable to stop his renomination in 1948, but the far left nominated FDR's vice president [[Henry A. Wallace]], and southern conservative Democrats nominated Dixiecrat [[J. Strom Thurmond]]. Observers almost unanimously expected victory for the Republican candidate, Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey]], liberal from New York. Total astonishment greeted Truman's stunning election victory, as he reassembled the [[New Deal Coalition]] for the fifth consecutive victory, pulling in on his coattails a Democratic Congress.

Although the Democrats organized Congress in 1949, the [[Conservative Coalition]] of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats was in control, and Truman was to pass any of his liberal [[Fair Deal|Fair Deal program]]. Nevertheless he he pursued civil rights through executive orders, especially a 1948 order to end racial discrimination in the military. Blacks remained in segregated units, but were to receive equal treatment. Truman's failures to deal with "Korea, Communism and Corruption" forced him to withdraw from reelection in 1952 and gave the Republicans an opportunity to crusade against him and elect [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1952.

Overshadowed at first by his predecessor, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], Truman established a reputation as a blunt, unsophisticated fighter for the common man, who took responsibility for his actions because, he said, "the buck stops here." His stunning reelection victory in 1948 baffled the experts and has inspired underdogs ever since. He is more popular in 2008 than ever. His policy positions make him a heroic icon for liberals.

==Early life==

Truman was born on a farm near Lamar, in western Missouri, and grew up on a farm near Independence, Missouri. His grandparents had been Confederate sympathizers who had been rounded up by the Union army in the Civil War.<ref> His middle initial, S, does not stand for anything, but was chosen because his parents could not decide whether to name him for his grandfather Shippe or for his grandfather Solomon.</ref> After graduating from high school in Independence, with good skills in history and music, he decided against college and became a bank clerk in Kansas City. Always a joiner, he was active in the Missouri National Guard. From 1906 to 1917 he managed his father's 600-acre farm at Grandview, Missouri. During World War I his National Guard regiment was mobilized in 1917, he entered the Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, sailing for France in 1917 as a lieutenant. Truman was soon promoted to captain in Battery D, 129 Field Artillery Battalion, 35th Division, A.E.F., and returned to the United States a major in 1919, after combat at St. Mihiel and in the Argonne offensive. He was in an artillery unit, and learned about gas warfare; he was never wounded, He married Elizabeth "Bess" Wallace on June 28, 1919; they had one daughter, Margaret, who married a ''New York Times'' editor. With an army buddy he invested his savings in a Kansas City haberdashery, but this venture was a failure.

==Pendergast machine==
Discouraged by his lack of business success and without funds, Truman sought the help of friends. His farm background, his war record, his Masonic connections, his Baptist Church affiliations, and his genial personality recommended him to [[Thomas J. Pendergast]], the Democratic political boss of Kansas City and much of western Missouri. Pendergast, an Irish Catholic, had a strong base among the Irish Catholics and used Truman to reach out to Protestants, farmers and veterans. He made Truman the overseer of highways for Jackson County.

In 1922 Truman was elected a county judge; needing some legal knowledge he studied nights for two years at Kansas City Law School; it was his only education beyond high school, although he read history. In the 1924 GOP landslide he was defeated for reelection, but in 1926 he was returned to office as presiding judge of the court, the duties of which also involved administrative supervision of many county expenditures, including $60 million for public works. He almost joined the [[Ku Klux Klan]], but withdrew his application when he realized his Irish Catholic allies bitterly opposed the KKK; Truman then campaigned against the Klan.
==Senate==
In 1934 Pendergast arranged for Truman's nomination as United States Senator on the Democratic ticket; he was elected in the democratic landslide as a supporter of Roosevelt and the New deal. His first term in office was uneventful, except for a failed effort to prevent the renomination of Maurice Milligan for U.S. District Attorney for the Western District of Missouri; Milligan had obtained the conviction of 35 Pendergast "ward leaders" for vote frauds.

===World War II===
He was reelected after a terrific battle in 1940. Truman gained national prominence for serving as chairman of the Truman Committee to investigate waste, fraud and inefficiency in government contracts. Its formal name was the Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program. He was an energetic and forthright supporter of the [[New Deal]] and won widespread party favor for his attacks on business malfeasance in war production. He forced changes in the aircraft and ship construction programs, and worked well with other border state Democrats, especially [[Alben Barkley]] of Kentucky, the Majority Leader.

===FDR picks a new vice president===
In 1944, after Vice-President [[Henry A. Wallace]] had been rejected by leading Democrats as too far to the left, Truman supported his friend former senator [[James F. Byrnes]] of South Carolina for that office. Catholics vetoed Byrnes, who had left that faith. Truman himself became Roosevelt's choice as a compromise vice presidential candidate, and the two were elected.

Roosevelt had been in ill-health since his return from the [[Teheran conference]]. At the 1944 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, DNC Chairman Bob Hannegan went for instructions to President Roosevelt's private railway car just before the July convention officially began. Roosevelt had decided to dump incumbent Vice-President [[Henry Wallace]]. Worried over dissension on the choice of a successor, Roosevelt told Hannegan: "Go on down there and nominate Truman before there's any more trouble. And clear everything with Sidney." <ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,791619,00.html "Clear everything with Sidney"], [[Time magazine]], Sep. 25, 1944.</ref> The President could not make the selection of Truman until [[Sidney Hillman]] <ref>''The Roosevelt Myth'', John T. Flynn, Fox and Wilkes, 1948, Book 2, Ch. 8, [http://www.rooseveltmyth.com/book/fdrmyth_Chapter_Eight___The_Shock_Troops.htm ''The Shock Troops of the Third New Deal'']</ref>, Director of the Political Action Committee for the Congress on Industrial Organizations (CIO) approved it. <ref> ''Roosevelt Myth'', Book 3, Ch. 10, [http://www.rooseveltmyth.com/book/fdrmyth_Chapter_Ten___Politics__Disease_.htm ''Politics, Disease and History''], Flynn, 1948.</ref> When Harry Truman walked into the smoke-filled room <ref>[http://www.booknotes.org/Transcript/index_print.asp?ProgramID=1109 ''Truman''], Interview with David McCullough, C-Span Booknotes, July 19, 1992. Retrieved August 6, 2007.</ref> of DNC at headquarters at the Stevens Hotel in Chicago, Soviet spies [[John Abt]], [[Lee Pressman]], and [[Nathan Witt]], were on hand." <ref>''The Yalta Betrayal'', Felix Wittmer, Claxton Printers, 1953, pg. 75.</ref>

==Presidency==
Roosevelt ignored Truman between the election in November 1944 and the inauguration in January; even as Vice president Truman was not consulted on national policies, and not informed of major decisions, nor of the atomic bomb. Although he realized Roosevelt's health was failing rapidly, he made no preparations for assuming the presidency and did not even build up a staff of advisors. Truman succeeded to the Presidency upon the death of FDR on April 12, 1945.

President Truman pledged that in office he would carry on the liberal domestic policies of Roosevelt. He distrusted most of FDR's cabinet and set about to assemble his own team.

===Winning World War II===

During his term as President, he presided over the conclusion of [[World War II]] in both [[Europe]] and [[Japan]].
On April 25 his telephoned speech opened the San Francisco Conference establishing the [[United Nations]]. A week later Germany surrendered, and from July 17 to August 2, 1945, Truman attended the [[Potsdam Conference]] with Britain's [[Winston Churchill]] (soon replaced by the new prime minister [[Clement Attlee]]) and [[Joseph Stalin]] of the Soviet Union.

===Atomic bomb===
The alternative Truman faced was to order use of the atomic bomb which might shock the Japanese into surrender, or order the planned invasion of Japan's home islands; casualty estimates for Americans ranged very widely. Casualty estimates for Japan ranged into the millions. Secretary of War [[Henry Stimson]] made the real decision: to drop atomic bombs on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. Japan immediately surrendered on terms that allowed Emperor [[Hirohito]] to stay on the throne and not be tried as a war criminal. Truman put General [[Douglas MacArthur]] in charge of occupying and controlling Japan; MacArthur remained in charge until the peace treaty was finally signed in 1951.

Truman kept control of the bomb in civilian hands--the Air Force and State Department did not even know how many bombs existed until 1948, when only eight had been built. The postwar military strategy was not built around nuclear weapons.

====Debating the decision====

=====Conservatives and liberals=====

In general, conservatives and liberals alike have applauded and supported the a-bomb decision because it shortened the war, and prevented hundreds of thousands or millions of casualties. The New Left or "revisionist" interpretation argues that the bomb was not necessary to end the war and that no invasion was necessary. They have no evidence to support that argument. They do have fragments of evidence that give weak support to the argument that one American goal was to intimidate the Soviet Union. The revisionists believe the US should have stayed friends with the Soviets, and that Truman was guilty for starting the Cold War (which they consider a bad thing). Morally the revisionists assume the USA was no better or worse than the Soviets--admitting to Soviet atrocities, they argue that socialism was morally superior to capitalism, which itself was a great evil the US intended to spread. In terms of the bomb, Secretary of State James Byrnes did make some offhand references to influencing Moscow, but his comments did not reflect the policy of the State Department or White House, and certainly not those of Stimson, who was by far the most important decision-maker.
Vice President Truman had been kept uninformed about the atomic bomb; he had little interest in military affairs and his chief military aide, General Harry Vaughan, was a drinking buddy likewise unfamiliar with what was happening in the war. Truman therefore relied entirely on his Secretary of War, [[Henry Stimson]]. At Potsdam he approved the atomic bomb targets selected by Stimson and, on the way home, he authorized the bombing of Hiroshima, Japan, August 6, 1945, and Nagasaki three days later.
====How the decision was made=====
The decision to drop the atomic bomb has been the focus of one of the most heated debates among both scholars and the public since 1945. After 1945 the debate was dominated by "traditionalist" scholars, who argued that the U.S. had no choice but to drop the bomb as a way to bring World War II to an end. The traditionalists were succeeded in the 1960s by "revisionists," who asserted that the dropping of the bomb was done to intimidate Stalin, not end the war. The leading revisionist historians emerged from the "new left" movement of the 1960s and rejected any notion of the moral superiority of America or capitalism to the Soviet Union. They thought the Cold War and containment were poor policies and generally favored détente, along the lines proposed by Henry Wallace. They include Gar Alperovitz, Barton J. Bernstein, Kai Bird, Diane Shaver Clemens, Bruce Cumings, Richard Freeland, Lloyd Gardner, Gabriel Kolko, Walter LaFeber, Thomas Paterson, Harvard Sitkoff, Ronald Steel, Athan Theoharis, and William A. Williams (the leader of the "Wisconsin School"). The revisionists are not monolithic, but they usually agree that Truman and his advisers were wrong whether the issue is the Cold War, Korea, or the atomic bomb. Revisionists had argued that Truman's goal at Potsdam was to prevent Soviet entry into the war against Japan, and the atomic bomb was used to scare them off. However in 1983 archivists discovered a letter Truman wrote to his wife from Potsdam on July 18, 1945: "I've gotten what I came for-- Stalin goes to war August 15 with no strings on it . . . I'll say that we'll end the war a year sooner now, and think of the kids who won't be killed! That's the important thing."<ref>''New York Times'' March 14, 1983. </ref>

In the 1990s, a more nuanced historical approach emerged searching for a middle ground, offering a number of more credible studies, essentially arguing that neither the traditional nor the revisionist interpretations were entirely satisfactory.<ref>J. Samuel Walker, "Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: a Search for Middle Ground." ''Diplomatic History'' 2005 29(2): 311-334. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>
==Domestic affairs==
===Reconversion of the economy to peacetime===
The process of reconversion to peacetime was rocky. It was impossible to bring soldiers home fast enough, and they and their families protected loudly. All war contract were canceled, shutting down munitions plants and throwing millions of workers (many of them women) out of jobs, just as the 12 million service members were coming home. Truman sought to retain price controls against the vehement opposition of business but yielded somewhat in the face of bitter popular opposition. Large-scale strikes disrupted the economy, especially a coal miners strike and a threatened nationwide strike by railroad workers. He threatened to draft the railroad workers and the strike was called off; unions began to oppose him but he regained union support by his later attempts to veto or repeal the [[Taft-Hartley]] labor relations law. Truman's opposition to tax cuts, his insistence on price controls, and his lack of aggressive support of labor programs weakened his party. To voters frustrated with shortages and controls, Truman seemed indecisive and inconsistent; his efforts to deal with a postwar wave of strikes managed to alienate both organized labor and those who wanted more restraints on unions. Voters who normally supported liberal and labor candidates stayed home, resulting in a Republican landslide in 1946, giving the GOP a majority in both houses of Congress. Ohio Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] became the main GOP spokesman in Congress, tangling often with Truman.
===Moving left===
Gradually Truman created his own administration, using the '''''Fair Deal''''' label to express its goals in domestic affairs. Truman systematically removed the Roosevelt cabinet and inner circle of advisors. The most dramatic episode was firing [[Henry A. Wallace]] in 1946 because of his outspoken criticism of the administration's foreign policy as too harsh on the Soviet Union. Liberals saw themselves in a struggle with conservatives for Truman's soul after the 1946 election. Linked to the President through top aide [[Clark Clifford]], these liberals included Oscar Ewing, former party official and director of the Federal Security Agency, Leon Keyserling, member of the President's Council of Economic Advisors, and David Morse, assistant secretary of labor. They embraced the memo plotting 1948 campaign strategy written by former Roosevelt adviser James Rowe, which urged Truman to "move to the left and focus on building a coalition of groups that centered on organized labor, liberals, and northern urban African Americans."<ref> The memo until 1991 was mis-attributed to Clifford, who passed it along to Truman.</ref> Liberals had national support from the Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), led by [[Walter Reuther]], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], Joseph Rauh, James Rowe, [[Reinhold Niebuhr]], [[Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.]], [[Hubert Humphrey]], and [[Ronald Reagan]]<ref> Reagan was an energetic liberal supporter of Truman. He moved to the right in the late 1950s.</ref> . The ADA was hostile to the Soviet Union, battled American Communists and fellow travelers like Wallace, and supported the purge of Communists from the [[CIO]] labor unions. Truman agreed with the ADA and moved left after 1946.<ref> Steven M. Gillon, ''Politics and Vision: the ADA and American Liberalism, 1947-1985'' (1987).</ref>

However he could not tolerate [[Henry A. Wallace]] and the far left, which had considerable Communist support. When Wallace, then Secretary of Commerce, in 1946 denounced Truman's tough stand against Stalin, Truman fired Wallace.

In 1947 Truman asked Congress for stand-by price controls, rationing, and bank and consumer credit control as parts of an anti-inflation program, but his ideas were ignored by the Republicans who controlled Congress. In his state of the union message of Jan. 7, 1948, Truman called for rent control, increased social security benefits, universal military training, national health insurance, and other social legislation. The next week he again asked for passage of his anti-inflation measures. In February 1948 he asked for civil-rights legislation, including a federal anti-lynching law, a federal fair employment practices commission, a permanent civil rights commission, and abolition of the poll tax--measures that enraged many Southern Democrats. None of his proposals became law. More successful was Truman's drive to increase the efficiency of the executive branch; he appointed a commission headed by former President [[Herbert Hoover]] which recommended numerous changes, including unification of the armed services.

===Civil Rights===
Disgusted by violence against black veterans in the deep South, Truman called for the extension of the wartime [[FEPC]] program that called for fair employment practices, but Congress refused and it ended. He created the Presidential Commission on Civil Rights in 1946 by executive order (with no congressional approval needed); it recommended desegregation of local public facilities and the removal of restrictive covenants that prevented blacks and Jews from purchasing houses in restricted neighborhoods. The Commission generated attention but no action.<ref> Steven F. Lawson, ed. ''To Secure These Rights: The Report of Harry S. Truman's Committee on Civil Rights.'' (2004)</ref> Indeed, Congress refused to pass any civil rights legislation before 1957. Truman therefore decided to use his executive powers, and focused on guaranteeing equal opportunity in the military and the civil service. The Army and Navy operated segregated units, and refused to be part of a "social experiment" in integration.<ref> Bernard C. Nalty, ''Strength For the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military'' (1986)</ref> The Air Force, however, was much more willing. Between 1941 and 1951 it went from a segregated force to the first truly integrated service. Key generals became convinced that segregation was a drag on efficiency, and the Air Force decided to integrate in April 1948. before Truman issued his famous Executive Order 9981 on July 26, 1948, calling for equal opportunity in all the armed services. It allowed segregation but called for "equality of treatment and opportunity." In the face of opposition from some high-ranking officers, the Air Force moved cautiously, but by 1951 the last black unit was dissolved and the Air Force was completely integrated.<ref> Alan L. Gropman, ''The Air Force Integrates, 1945-1964.'' (2nd ed 1998) [http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/Publications/Annotations/gropmanintegrates.htm online edition]. </ref> Order 9981 created the Fahy Committee to implement the new policy. Truman's order did not actually integrate the Army--it used segregated units during the Korean War--but it opened the way for integration in the early 1950s.<ref> Richard M. Dalfiume, ''Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces: Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939-1953.'' (1969)</ref> Public opinion was generally favorable except in the deep South (which voted against Truman in 1948).

==1948 election==
As the presidential election of 1948 approached, no one though Truman could be reelected. Truman's policies had alienated left right and center, but the party had no real alternative. Neither Roosevelt nor Truman had groomed a likely successor. Party leaders considered asking [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] to run, but he refused. Liberals led by Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota inserted a strong civil rights plank in the platform, causing a walkout of the deep South. Truman was renominated by default, with Barkley as the vice-presidential candidate. Truman thrilled the convention by announcing his plan to call the Republican-controlled Congress back into special session to "ask them to pass the laws to halt rising prices, to meet the housing crisis--which they say they are for in their platform." When this special session accomplished little, as Truman expected, it gave the president a chance to attack the "Do Nothing" Congress.

Both the left and right wings of the party split off and ran their own candidates. Henry Wallace, the candidate of the Progressive Party, was expected to divert labor, leftist and black votes, while [[J. Strom Thurmond]] was the "Dixiecrat" candidate whose supporters controlled the Democratic party in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina.<ref> Thurmond received only 15% of the vote in the other Southern states. Kari Frederickson, ''The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932-1968.'' (2001) </ref> Truman exploited his multiple opponents, driving a wedge between the liberals and the Communists who controlled the Wallace movement, and holding the line in the outer South. Most of all he exploited the difference between the conservative Republicans who controlled Congress, and the liberal Republican candidate [[Tom Dewey]]. Truman crusaded against the Republicans as evil rich men, blasting them as fascists and denouncing the 80th Congress for its failure to help the average citizen.<ref>''Time'' magazine reported that "His irresponsible implication that a vote for Thomas Dewey was a vote for fascism horrified his soberer followers." ''Time'' Jan 3, 1949 at [http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1948.html]</ref> "Give 'em hell" fury delivered in 275 speeches over 21,928 train-miles had more impact that Truman's promises of more money for federal housing, higher social security and unemployment benefits, free medical care for everyone, the continued subsidy of farm prices, and a fair deal for minorities. The pollsters misjudged the election, as did all the traditional pundits. Truman rallied enough of the [[New Deal Coalition]] to win by 2.2 million votes, and carry in a Democratic Congress on his coattails. The key farm states of the farm states of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Ohio that Dewey had carried in 1944 now switched to Truman, giving a solid victory in the electoral college of 303 for Truman, 189 for Dewey, 39 for Thurmond, and none for Wallace.<ref> Harold I. Gullan, ''The Upset That Wasn't: Harry S. Truman and the Crucial Election of 1948'' (1998); Gary A. Donaldson, ''Truman Defeats Dewey'' (1998) </ref>

==Second Term: Fair Deal==
During Truman's second term as president, he pressed for civil rights legislation, compulsory national health insurance, and other domestic measures that he called his "Fair Deal" program. Almost nothing was passed by Congress, which was controlled by the [[Conservative Coalition]]. His seizure of the steel industry to prevent a strike was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

In foreign affairs, Truman brought in [[Dean Acheson]] as Secretary of State, and promoted the Point Four program of aid to underdeveloped countries. The policy of containing Communism was operationalized by the creation, in 1949, of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to oversee the integration of the military forces of its member nations in Western Europe and North America. A further step was taken in 1951 with the establishment of the Mutual Security Agency to coordinate U.S. economic, technical and military aid abroad.
===Agriculture===
Truman won the farm vote in 1948 by charging the GOP shoved "a pitchfork in the farmer's back", but was unable to get new farm programs passed. His second secretary of agriculture, Charles F. Brannan promoted the Brannan Plan, intended to bring widespread changes to farm policy. Brannan proposed to replace market price supports with direct income payments to farmers. His plan set ceilings on the amount a farmer could receive and limited the program to farmers who did not exceed a set production mark. The Brannan Plan was supposed to foster the "family-sized farm" while providing affordable food for consumers. While Brannan could count on support from the left, especially the National Farmers Union (which was small), labor unions (which were powerful), and consumer groups (which were weak), he was opposed by leading farm economists and the national Farm Bureau (which was large) and the national Chamber of Commerce (representing business). The head of the Farm Bureau decried the plan as intrusive, a form of "creeping socialism," and expensive. The Farm Bureau, dominated by conservatives, resisted any curbs on full agricultural production. A bloc of Midwestern Republican and southern Democratic congressmen opposed replacing market mechanisms with outright government payments to farmers and setting limits on supports to individual farms. The Brannan Plan went nowhere and instead, the conservative farm bloc passed the Agricultural Act of 1949 with high price supports.<ref> See Dean (2006)</ref>

==National Security==
===Truman Doctrine and origins of Cold War===
In early 1947 the British government, which was socialist but anti-Communist, secretly told Washington its treasury was empty and it could no longer give military and economic aid to Greece or Turkey, requested the U.S. take over. Acheson convinced Truman to act quickly lest Greece be taken over by its communist partisans who were at the time strongly supported by the Soviet government working through the communist Bulgarian and Yugoslav governments. If Greece fell, Turkey would be helpless and soon the eastern Mediterranean would fall under Stalin’s control. In a dramatic message to Congress on March 12, 1947, President Truman said that the U. S. must take immediate and resolute action to support Greece and Turkey.<ref> Turkey did not have an insurrection, but it was such a bitter rival of Greece that it had to get money if Greece did.</ref> The Republican Congress, after extensive hearings, approved this historic change in U. S. foreign policy in a bill signed May 22, 1947. Thus was born the “Truman Doctrine.” Greece suppressed the insurgents; both Greece and Turkey joined NATO.<ref>
Joseph C. Satterthwaite, "The Truman Doctrine: Turkey," ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol. 401, (May, 1972), pp. 74-84 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1039114 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Recognition of Israel===
Truman usually followed the advice of the State Department in national security matters, largely ignoring the Pentagon and Congress. In the case of recognition of the independent state of Israel in 1948, however, he overruled the urgent pleas of the State Department and immediately recognized Israel. State had warned that recognition would anger the Arabs in the Middle East; Truman, howver, was more responsive to domestic politics, where support for Israel was widespread.<ref> Michael T. Benson, ''Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Harry-S-Truman-Founding-Israel/dp/0275958078/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221429694&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; for the State Departmenrt perspective see Evan M. Wilson, "The American Interest in the Palestine Question and the Establishment of Israel," ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol. 401, (May, 1972), pp. 64-73 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1039113 in JSTOR]</ref>

===Religion===
Truman, a Southern Baptist, sought religious allies in the Cold War. He tried to unite the world's religions in a spiritual crusade against communism, sending his personal representative to Pope [[Pius XII]] to coordinate not only with the Vatican but also with the heads of the Anglican, Lutheran, and Greek Orthodox churches. "If I can mobilize the people who believe in a moral world against the Bolshevik materialists," Truman wrote in 1947, "we can win this fight." Since the [[Roman Catholic Church]] was his strongest religious ally in the moral battle against international communism, Truman put Rome first in his global strategy, even trying to confer formal diplomatic recognition on the Vatican. At home, he received solid support from Catholics, who were a major element of the [[New Deal Coalition]], but overwhelming resistance from Protestants, especially Southern Baptists who rejected anything "popish." Truman's political-diplomatic effort to formalize a public, faith-driven, ecumenical international campaign failed.<ref> Elizabeth Edwards Spalding, "True Believers" ''Wilson Quarterly'' 2006 30(2): 40-44, 46-48. Issn: 0363-3276 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

===Loss of China===
[[Chiang Kai-shek]], America's wartime ally and head of the Nationalist forces in China, was caught between two wars—a war on China by [[Japan]] and a war with [[Mao Zedong]] and the Chinese Communists. The U.S. policy was to avoid a civil war and to threaten to withhold additional aid to the Nationalists unless they worked out a compromise. No compromise was possible, and Truamn refused to send in combat troops to fight the civil war. General [[George Marshall]], who spent a year in China as Truman's emissary, testified that combat aid might have prevented a Communist victory, but General David Barr's military mission to China was specifically instructed not to supply this kind of assistance. <ref>Military Situation in the Far East, Hearings before the Committee on Armed Services and the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate, 82nd Congress (Washington, 1951), p. 558.</ref> General [[Albert C. Wedemeyer]] recommended this approach in his report on his 1947 fact-finding mission, but Marshall personally suppressed the report. <ref>Tang Tsou, ''America's Failure in China, 1941-1945'', Chicago 1964, pg. 457.</ref> Chiang believed that the [[Truman Doctrine]] to [[Containment|contain]] the spread of [[International Communism]] directed from Moscow would be extended to China, and ordered an offensive as soon as word of the new policy reached him. <ref>Richard C. Thornton, ''China: A Political History, 1917-1980'', Boulder CO 1982, pg. 208.</ref>

[[Dean Rusk]], Assistant Secretary of State in charge of the Far Eastern Division, said on May 18,1951 what the critics had been saying,
{{Cquote|The independence of China is gravely threatened. In the Communist world there is room for only one master. . . . How many Chinese in one community after another are being destroyed because they love China more than they love [[Soviet Russia]]? The freedoms of the Chinese people are disappearing. Trial by mob, [[democide|mass slaughter]], banishment to [[slavery|forced labor]] in [[Manchuria]] and Siberia. . . . The peace and security of China are being sacrificed by the ambitions of the Chinese conspiracy. China has been driven by foreign masters into an adventure in foreign aggression.}}
John T. Flynn observes that critics of the [[FDR]] and Truman Administrations who had been saying this earlier were denounced as “[[Fascists]].”<ref>''While You Slept: Our Tragedy in Asia and Who Made It'', John T. Flynn, New York: The Devin-Adair Company, 1951, [http://www.mises.org/books/whileyouslept.pdf pg. 161] pdf.</ref> Rusk continued,
{{Cquote|We do not recognize the authorities in [[Peiping]] for what they pretend to be. It is not the government of China. It does not pass the first test. It is not Chinese. . . . We recognize the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist government of the Republic of China]] even though the territory under its control is severely restricted. <ref>Hearings before the Senate Committee on Armed Services and Committee on Foreign Relations (also known as the Mac Arthur Inquiry), June 2, 1951.</ref>…we believe it more authoritatively represents the views of the great body of the people of China, particularly their demand for independence from foreign control….That government will continue to receive important aid and assistance from the United States.}}

===Risks in Korea===
Conditions inviting the North Korean attack were created by the [[United Nations]] which issued a resolution for withdrawal of both Soviet and American troops. Troops began withdrawing September 15, 1948, leaving only about 7500 Americans lightly armed. This left in South Korea 16,000 Koreans and 7500 Americans, both groups lightly armed, against 150,000 fully armed North Korean Communists. General Roberts, head of the U. S. Military Mission said the South Koreans were not permitted to arm adequately.
The Korean part of Wedemeyer's report was suppressed. Wedemeyer said:
{{Cquote|American and Soviet forces . . . are approximately equal, less than 50,000 troops each, [but] the Soviet-equipped and trained North Korean People's (Communist) Army of approximately 125,000 is vastly superior to the United States-organized constabulary of 16,000 Koreans equipped with Japanese small arms. The North Korean People's Army constitutes a potential military threat to [[South Korea]], since there is strong possibility that the Soviets will withdraw their occupation forces and thus induce our own withdrawal."<ref>Hearings before the Senate Committee on Armed Services and Committee on Foreign Relations, June 6, 1951.</ref>}}

Wedemeyer warned that this would take place as soon as "they can be sure that the [[North Korea]]n [[puppet government]] and its armed forces . . . are strong enough . . . to be relied upon to carry out Soviet objectives without the actual presence of Soviet troops."
===Communists inside US===
The bipartisan statutory [[Moynihan Secrecy Commission]] concluded, "President Truman was almost willfully obtuse as regards American Communism." <ref>Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy. Senate Document 105-2. 103rd Congress. Washington, D.C. United States Government Printing Office. 1997. [http://www.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/04dpm.pdf Chairman's Forward, pg. XL] pdf.</ref>
===Foreign policy: détente to containment===
Truman had no knowledge or interest in foreign policy before becoming president, and depended on the State Department for foreign policy advice.<ref> By 1946 he had two valuable aides Clark Clifford and George Elsey.</ref> Truman shifted from FDR's détente to [[containment]] as soon as [[Dean Acheson]] convinced him the Soviet Union was a long-term threat to American interests. They viewed communism as a secular, millennial religion that informed the Kremlin's worldview and actions and made it the chief threat to American security, liberty, and world peace. They rejected the moral equivalence of democratic and Communist governments and concluded that until the regime in Moscow changed only American and Allied strength could curb the Soviets. Following Acheson's advice, Truman in 1947 announced the [[Truman Doctrine]] of containing Communist expansion by furnishing military and economic American aid to Europe and Asia, and particularly to Greece and Turkey. He followed up with the [[Marshall Plan]], which was enacted into law as the European Recovery Program (ERP) and led ultimately to [[NATO]], the North Atlantic Alliance for military defense, signed in 1949. On May 14, 1948, Truman announced recognition of the new state of [[Israel]], making the United States the first major power to do so.

==Korean War==
The [[Korean War]] began at the end of June 1950 when North Korea, a Communist country, invaded South Korea, which was under U.S. protection. Without consulting Congress Truman ordered General [[Douglas MacArthur]] to use all American forces to resist the invasion. Truman then received approval from the United Nations, which the Soviets were boycotting. UN forces managed to cling to a toehold in Korea, as the North Koreans outran their supply system. A counterattack at Inchon destroyed the invasion army, and the UN forces captured most of North Korea on their way to the Yalu River, Korea's northern border with China. Truman defined the war goal as [[rollback]] of Communism and reunification of the country under UN auspices. China intervened unexpectedly, drove the UN forces all the way back to South Korea. The fighting stabilized close to the original 38th parallel that had divided North and South. MacArthur wanted to continue the rollback strategy but Truman arrived at a new policy of containment, allowing North Korea to persist. Truman's dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur in April 1951 sparked a violent debate on U.S. Far Eastern policy, as Truman took the blame for a high-cost stalemate with 37,000 Americans killed and over 100,000 wounded.

Truman fired his ineffective defense secretary Louis Johnson, and brought back [[George Marshall]].
===NSC-68===
The top-secret [[NSC-68]] policy paper was the grounds for escalating the Cold War, especially in terms of spending on rearmament and building the hydrogen bomb. The integration of European defense was given new impetus by continued U.S. support of NATO, under the command of General Eisenhower. Truman committed the US to contain Communist expansion in Vietnam, where the Communists under [[Ho Chi Minh]] were trying to overthrow the French colonial regime. The State Department insisted that France give more autonomy to the Vietnamese. The US paid for about 80% of the French war costs. The problem was that the French were more interested in preserving their grandiose empire, and less interested in stopping Communism, while the US opposed colonial empires and saw Communism as the great threat to world peace and stability.

Following NSC-68, Truman's last four budgets saw expenditures on national security quadruple from $13 billion in 1950 to $50 billion in 1953.

===1952 election===
On the political front, revelation of scandals in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, in the Bureau of Internal Revenue and even the White House<ref> Truman's wife accepted an expensive deep freeze appliance in 1945; with General Vaughan as the fixer, the donor was given special privileges in Europe. </ref> opened the administration to attack.

Truman sought reelection in 1952 despite his dismal showing in the polls. He was defeated in the New Hampshire primary by Senator [[Estes Kefauver]] of Tennessee, and withdrew. Truman supported Illinois Governor [[Adlai Stevenson]]. Eisenhower won the GOP nomination and crusading against the Truman administration's failures regarding "Korea, Communism and Corruption," was elected in a landslide, ending 20 years of Democratic control of the presidency.

==Retirement==
Truman returned to his home in Independence, Missouri. He devoted himself to creating the Truman Library there; it was dedicated in July 1957 and is a part of the National Archives. With a staff of assistants he wrote his memoirs in two well-received volumes, gave many interviews, and intervened occasionally in Democratic national politics on behalf of liberal candidates such as [[Adlai Stevenson]].

He died on December 26, 1972.

==Evaluations==
Already by the 1960s he had become a hero to liberals and Democrats, nostalgic over the successes of the [[New Deal Coalition]] that sputtered and collapsed in the 1960s. Even Republicans came to forget the nasty days and celebrated Truman as the hero of the underdogs and the man who rebuilt Europe through the Marshall Plan and stood up to Communism through NATO.

Truman's reputation among scholars has gone from very low when he left office, to high after 1990. He is now widely considered to have been a tough-minded, decisive, and effective leader who ably guided the nation through the perilous waters of the early Cold War and whose policy of containment essentially laid the foundations for American "victory" in that prolonged conflict in 1989. For many historians, the down-to-earth Midwesterner now merits consideration as one of the greatest American presidents. In recent years presidential aspirants of both parties have claimed Truman as their own, especially if their election chances seem as hopeless as Truman's did in 1948. His reputation has been bolstered by scholarly biographies by Ferrell (1994), Hamby (1995), and especially McCullough's Pulitzer prize-winning popular biography (1992). The in-depth analysis by Leffler (1992), cautiously praised the Truman administration's essential wisdom in handling a myriad of problems.

While Truman's public image was headed up, his reputation among scholars declined in the 1970s. Kirkendall concluded in 1974 that negative appraisals of Truman and his administration "may in fact have become the dominant interpretation, at least among the younger scholars."<ref> Kirkendall, ''Truman Period as a Research Field: A Reappraisal 1972'' (1974) p 6</ref> In terms of foreign policy a strong negative view comes from Offner (2002) who argues that Truman was a "parochial nationalist" whose "uncritical belief in the superiority of American values and political-economic interests," conviction that "the Soviet Union and Communism were the root cause of international strife," and "inability to comprehend Asian politics and nationalism" intensified the postwar conflict between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, precipitated the division of Europe, and set Sino-American relations on a path of long-term animosity. Rather than being a great statesman who carefully weighed various policy alternatives, Offner asserts that Truman's myopia "created a rigid framework in which the United States waged long-term, extremely costly global cold war". As his title suggests, the Cold War was at best a Pyrrhic victory for the United States.<ref> Quotes from Offner (2002) p. xii</ref>

Truman became the model of the underdog who fights back and wins when the experts unanimously predict defeat. Gerald Ford, who had bitterly denounced Truman as a young Congressman proudly proclaimed the Missourian as his hero and conspicuously displayed a bust of Truman in the oval office after Ford became president in 1974. In the 1976 campaign both Ford and his Democratic rival, [[Jimmy Carter]], outdid one another in claiming to be cast from the Truman mold. By 1980 when the Gallup Poll asked "Of all the Presidents we've ever had, who do you wish were President?", Harry Truman finished an impressive third behind Kennedy and FDR.

====notes====

==Further reading: basic books and articles==
* Burnes, Brian. ''Harry S. Truman: His Life and Times'' (2003), popular biography [http://www.amazon.com/Harry-S-Truman-Life-Times/dp/0974000930/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193347436&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Dallek, Robert. ''Harry Truman'' (2008) short, popular biography by scholar. [http://www.amazon.com/Harry-Truman-Presidents-President-1945-1953/dp/0805069380/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221386001&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Donovan, Robert J. ''Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948'' (1977); ''Tumultuous Years: 1949-1953'' (1982) detailed 2-vol political history by well-informed journalist; well balanced
* Fleming, Thomas J. ''Harry S. Truman, President'' (1993) for middle school audience.
* Graff, Henry F., ed. ''The Presidents: A Reference History''. 2nd ed. 1996, 443–458. ISBN 0-684-80471-9; by leading scholar
* Hamby, Alonzo L. ''Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman'' (1995), the best scholarly biography; written by conservative historian who likes HST
* Hamby, Alonzo L. "An American Democrat: A Reevaluation of the Personality of Harry S. Truman," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' Vol. 106, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 33-55 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2152173 in JSTOR]
* Hamby, Alonzo L. "Truman, Harry S."; [http://www.anb.org/articles/07/07-00307.html; ''American National Biography'' Online Feb. 2000] by a leading conservative historian
* Kirkendall, Richard S. ''Harry S. Truman Encyclopedia'' (1990), very useful articles on people, events and policies in HST's career
* Kirkendall Richard S. "Harry S Truman a Missouri Farmer in the Golden Age," ''Agricultural History,'' Vol. 48, No. 4 (Oct., 1974), pp. 467-483 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3741384 in JSTOR]
* McCullough, David. ''Truman''. (1993), 1120 pp ISBN 0-671-86920-5 best-selling biography; moderate in tone; Pulitzer Prize [http://www.amazon.com/Truman-David-McCullough/dp/0671869205/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193347436&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McCullough, David. ''Harry S. Truman'', short essay [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/character/essays/truman.html online edition]
* Offner, Arnold A. ''Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War.'' (2002) 640pp, New LEft and hostile to HST; [http://books.google.com/books?id=P5tbHSsBS-AC&pg=PP1&dq=intitle:another+intitle:victory+inauthor:offner&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=pWo43stsPrIrtTfZXJicvWB3zCY excerpts and text search]
* [http://www.amazon.com/American-Experience-Truman/dp/B000BYRCG0/ref=pd_bbs_4/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=dvd&qid=1193347436&sr=8-4 ''American Experience: Truman'' (2006), from PBS]
* [http://www.amazon.com/Classic-President-Harry-Truman-Films/dp/B000JD7MV8/ref=sr_1_14/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=dvd&qid=1193347436&sr=8-14 "Classic President Harry S Truman Films: 1945-1965'' (2006) 40 newsreels, 101 minutes]

==Advanced bibliography==
These are secondary source by scholars; unless noted they are generally liberal and supportive of Truman.
===Biographies===
* Burnes, Brian. ''Harry S. Truman: His Life and Times'' (2003); popular biography; [http://www.amazon.com/Harry-S-Truman-Life-Times/dp/0974000930/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193347436&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Cochran, Bert. ''Harry S. Truman and the Crisis Presidency'' (19730, 432 pages; portrays a cynical courthouse politician
* Donovan, Robert J. ''Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948'' (1977); ''Tumultuous Years: 1949-1953'' (1982), good, detailed 2-vol political history by well-informed journalist
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''Harry S. Truman: A Life'' (1994), brief overview
* Fleming, Thomas J. ''Harry S. Truman, President'' (1993) for middle school audience.
* Gosnell, Harold Foote. ''Truman's Crises: A Political Biography of Harry S. Truman'' (1980)
* Graff, Henry F., ed. ''The Presidents: A Reference History''. 2nd ed. 1996, 443–458. ISBN 0-684-80471-9
* Hamby, Alonzo L. ''Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman'' (1995), very well received scholarly biography [http://www.amazon.com/Man-People-Truman-Oxford-Paperbacks/dp/0195124979/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193438333&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hamby, Alonzo L. "The Liberals, Truman, and the FDR as Symbol and Myth," ''Journal of American History,'' Vol. 56, No. 4 (Mar., 1970), pp. 859-867 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1917522 in JSTOR]
* Hamby, Alonzo L. "Truman, Harry S."; [http://www.anb.org/articles/07/07-00307.html; ''American National Biography'' Online Feb. 2000]
* Kirkendall, Richard S. ''Harry S. Truman Encyclopedia'' (1990)
* McCullough, David. ''Truman''. . ISBN 0-671-86920-5 best-selling biography; Pulitzer Prize [http://www.amazon.com/Truman-David-McCullough/dp/0671869205/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193347436&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Miller, Richard Lawrence. ''Truman: The Rise to Power'' (2002), critical evaluation emphasizing corruption of Pendergast machine

===Foreign policy===
* Appleman, Roy E. ''South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (June-November 1950)'' (United States Army in the Korean War) (1960); official U.S. Army history, [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/korea/20-2-1/toc.htm online version]
* Beisner, Robert L. ''Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War'' (2006), 800pp; a standard scholarly biography; covers 1945-53 only
* Benson, Michael T. ''Harry S. Truman and the Founding of Israel'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/read/15103137 online edition]
* Berger, Henry. "Bipartisanship, Senator Taft, and the Truman Administration," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' Vol. 90, No. 2 (Summer, 1975), pp. 221-237 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2148235 in JSTOR]
* Bernstein Barton J. "Roosevelt, Truman, and the Atomic Bomb, 1941-1945: A Reinterpretation," ''Political Science Quarterly,'' Vol. 90, No. 1 (Spring, 1975), pp. 23-69 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2148698 in JSTOR], influential New left essay
* Blair, Clay ''The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953'', Naval Institute Press (2003) revisionist study that attacks Truman and top Army leaders for near-criminal incompetence
* Divine, Robert A. "The Cold War and the Election of 1948," ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol. 59, No. 1 (Jun., 1972), pp. 90-110 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723%28197206%2959%3A1%3C90%3ATCWATE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C in JSTOR]
* Frazier, Robert. "Acheson and the Formulation of the Truman Doctrine" ''Journal of Modern Greek Studies'' 17#2 (1999), pp. 229-251 online at [[Project Muse]]
* Gaddis, John Lewis. "Reconsiderations: Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?" ''Foreign Affairs'' 1974 52(2): 386-402. ISSN 0015-7120
* Giangreco, D. M. "'A Score of Bloody Okinawas and Iwo Jimas': President Truman and Casualty Estimates for the Invasion of Japan," ''Pacific Historical Review,'' Vol. 72, No. 1 (Feb., 2003), pp. 93-132 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3642102 in JSTOR] shows Truman was indeed by very high invasion casualties
* Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi. ''Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan.'' (2005). 382 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Racing-Enemy-Stalin-Truman-Surrender/dp/0674016939/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193349212&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Hogan, Michael J. ''A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Cross-Iron-National-Security-19451954/dp/0521795370/ref=sr_1_34/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193347927&sr=8-34 excerpt and text search]
* Ivie, Robert L. "Fire, Flood, and Red Fever: Motivating Metaphors of Global Emergency in the Truman Doctrine Speech." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1999 29(3): 570-591. ISSN 0360-4918 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001303753 online edition]
* Lacey, Michael J. ed. ''The Truman Presidency'' (1989), major essays by scholars
* Matray, James I. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," ''Journal of American History,'' Vol. 66, No. 2 (Sep., 1979), pp. 314-333 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1900879 in JSTOR] Truman planned rollback of Communism in North Korea
* Merrill, Dennis. "The Truman Doctrine: Containing Communism and Modernity" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 2006 36(1): 27-37. ISSN 0360-4918
* Offner, Arnold A. "'Another Such Victory': President Truman, American Foreign Policy, and the Cold War." ''Diplomatic History'' 1999 23(2): 127-155. ISSN 0145-2096
* Ojserkis, Raymond P. ''Beginnings of the Cold War Arms Race: The Truman Administration and the U.S. Arms Build-Up'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/read/102018810 online edition]
* Pelz, Stephen. "When the Kitchen Gets Hot, Pass the Buck: Truman and Korea in 1950," ''Reviews in American History'' 6 (December 1978), 548-55. Online at Project MUSE
* Pierpaoli, Paul G. Jr.; ''Truman and Korea: The Political Culture of the Early Cold War.'' University of Missouri Press, 1999 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108668070 online edition]
* Smith, Geoffrey S. "'Harry, We Hardly Know You': Revisionism, Politics and Diplomacy, 1945-1954," ''American Political Science Review'' 70 (June 1976), 560-82. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0554(197606)70%3A2%3C560%3A%22WHKYR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 in JSTOR]
* Spalding, Elizabeth Edwards. ''The First Cold Warrior: Harry Truman, Containment, And the Remaking of Liberal Internationalism'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/First-Cold-Warrior-Containment-Internationalism/dp/0813123925/ref=sr_1_22/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193347812&sr=8-22 excerpt and text search]
* Wainstock, Dennis D. ''Truman, MacArthur, and the Korean War'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=23387043 online edition]
* Walker, J. Samuel. ''Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs against Japan'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=35245486 online complete edition]; [http://www.amazon.com/Prompt-Utter-Destruction-Truman-Against/dp/080785607X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193348187&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Walker, J. Samuel. "Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: A Search for Middle Ground" ''Diplomatic History'' April 2005 - Vol. 29 Issue 2 Pp 311-334 fulltext in [[EBSCO]]

===Domestic policy and politics===
* Bernstein Barton J. "The Truman Administration and the Steel Strike of 1946," ''Journal of American History,'' Vol. 52, No. 4 (Mar., 1966), pp. 791-803 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1894347 in JSTOR]
* Billington, Monroe. "Civil Rights, President Truman and the South," ''Journal of Negro History,'' Vol. 58, No. 2 (Apr., 1973), pp. 127-139 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716825 in JSTOR]
* Dean, Virgil W. "Charles F. Brannan and the Rise and Fall of Truman's 'Fair Deal' for Farmers." ''Agricultural History'' 1995 69(1): 28-53. Issn: 0002-1482
* Dean, Virgil W. ''An Opportunity Lost: The Truman Administration and the Farm Policy Debate.'' 2006. 275 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Opportunity-Lost-Truman-Administration-Policy/dp/0826216501/ref=sr_1_10/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193434622&sr=1-10 excerpt and text search]
* Derickson, Alan. "'Take Health from the List of Luxuries': Labor and the Right to Health Care, 1915-1949." ''Labor History'' 2000 41(2): 171-187. Issn: 0023-656x Fulltext: in Taylor and Francis, Swetswise, Ingenta, and [[Ebsco]]
* Donaldson, Gary A. ''Truman Defeats Dewey'' (1998)
* Farhang, Sean, and Ira Katznelson. "The Southern Imposition: Congress and Labor in the New Deal and Fair Deal," ''Studies in American Political Development'' (2005), 19: 1-30; [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=324401 online edition]
* Freeland, Richard M. ''The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism: Foreign Policy, Domestic Policy, and Internal Security, 1946-48'' (1989), revisionist; New left attack on Truman for being too anti-Communist
* Fried, Richard M. ''Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective.'' 1990. [http://www.questia.com/read/79027083 online complete edition]; [http://www.amazon.com/Nightmare-Red-McCarthy-Era-Perspective/dp/0195043618/ref=sr_1_11/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193514847&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Gardner, Michael R. ''Harry Truman and Civil Rights: Moral Courage and Political Risks.'' (2002) 296 pp.[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105233906 online edition]
* Hamby, Alonzo. ''Beyond the New Deal: Harry S. Truman and American Liberalism'' (1973), the most sophisticated biography; by a prominent conservative historian
* Hartmann, Susan M. ''Truman and the 80th Congress'' (1971) [http://www.questia.com/read/77360404 online edition]
* Heller, Francis H. ''Economics and the Truman Administration'' (1982) [http://www.amazon.com/Economics-Truman-Administration-Francis-Heller/dp/0700602178/ref=sr_1_9/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193434622&sr=1-9 excerpt and text search]
* Karabell, Zachary. ''The Last Campaign: How Harry Truman Won the 1948 Election'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Last-Campaign-Harry-Truman-Election/dp/0375700773/ref=sr_1_24/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=11973347812&sr=8-24 excerpt and text search]
* Koenig, Louis W. ''The Truman Administration: Its Principles and Practice'' (1956) [http://www.questia.com/read/8522614 online edition]
* Komarek de Luna, Phyllis. ''Public versus Private Power during the Truman Administration: A Study of Fair Deal Liberalism.'' Peter Lang, 1997. 253 pp.
* Lacey, Michael J. ed. ''The Truman Presidency'' (1989), major essays by scholars
* Lee, R. Alton. ''Truman and Taft-Hartley: A Question of Mandate.'' (1966) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99000111 online edition]
* Leuchtenburg, William E. ''The White House Looks South: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson.'' (2005). 668 pp.
* Levantrosser, William F. ed. ''Harry S. Truman: The Man from Independence'' (1986). 25 essays by scholars and Truman aides. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=23428395 online edition]
* McCoy, Donald. ''The Presidency of Harry S. Truman'' (1984), standard scholarly survey by conservative historian; [http://www.amazon.com/Presidency-Harry-S-Truman-American/dp/0700602550/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193514606&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* Marcus, Maeva ''Truman and the Steel Seizure Case: The Limits of Presidential Power'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/read/22816992 online edition]
* Phillips, Cabel. ''The Truman Presidency: The History of a Triumphant Succession'' (1966), by a journalist who interviewed many key players
* Pierpaoli, Paul G. Jr. ''Truman and Korea: The Political Culture of the Early Cold War.'' (1997). ISBN 0-8262-1206-9. focus on the homefront [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=16627966265512 online review]
* Ryan, Halford R. ''Harry S. Truman: Presidential Rhetoric'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27994601 online edition]
* Sitkoff, Harvard. "Harry Truman and the Election of 1948: The Coming of Age of Civil Rights in American Politics," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 37, No. 4 (Nov., 1971), pp. 597-616 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206548 in JSTOR]
* Theoharis, Athan. "The Truman Administration and the Decline of Civil Liberties: The FBI's Success in Securing Authorization for a Preventive Detention Program," ''Journal of American History,'' Vol. 64, No. 4 (Mar., 1978), pp. 1010-1030 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1890734 in JSTOR], leftwing attack on Truman for being too harsh on possible subversives
* Theoharis, Athan. ''The Truman Presidency: The Origins of the Imperial Presidency and the National Security State'' (1979), revisionist, New left attack on HST
* Theoharis, Athan. ''Seeds of Repression: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of McCarthyism'' (1977), New Left attack on HST for being so hostile to domestic Communists
* Thompson, Francis H. ''The Frustration of Politics: Truman, Congress, and the Loyalty Issue, 1945-1953.'' 1979. 246 pp.
* Vaughan, Philip H. "The Truman Administration's Fair Deal for Black America." ''Missouri Historical Review'' 1976 70(3): 291-305. Issn: 0026-6582

===Primary sources===
* Bernstein, Barton J., Ed. ''The Truman Administration: A Documentary History'' (1966); 2nd edition published as ''Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration'' (1970), revisionist
* [http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/publications/ERP/ Council of Economic Advisors, ''Economic Report of the President'' (annual 1947- )], complete series online; important analysis of current trends and policies, plus statistcial tables
* Ferrell, Robert H. ed. ''Dear Bess: The Letters from Harry to Bess Truman, 1910-1959'' (1983)
* Ferrell, Robert H. ed. ''Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman'' (1980).
* Merrill, Dennis. ed. ''Documentary History of the Truman Presidency, (1995- ) 35 volumes; available in some large academic libraries.
* Miller, Merle ''Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman'' (1974)
* Neal, Steve. ed. ''HST: Memories of the Truman Years.'' (2003)280pp; long excerpts from 20 oral history interviews (some of which are online at the Truman Library site).
* Neal, Steve. ed. ''Miracle of '48: Harry Truman's Major Campaign Speeches & Selected Whistle-Stops'' (2003); 43 speeches
* Truman, Harry S. ''Where the Buck Stops: The Personal and Private Writings of Harry S. Truman'' edited by Margaret Truman (1990) [http://www.amazon.com/Where-Buck-Stops-Personal-Writings/dp/0446391751/ref=pd_bbs_sr_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221386001&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Truman, Harry S. ''Memoirs'' 2 vol (1955). [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/reader.pl?call=30151&search= vol 1 online]
* Truman, Margaret. ''Harry S. Truman''. (1973). memoir by his daughter
* Truman, Harry S. ''The Autobiography of Harry S. Truman'' edited compilation of excerpts by Robert H. Ferrell (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Autobiography-Harry-S-Truman/dp/0826214452/ref=pd_bbs_sr_5/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193347436&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/ ''The Public Papers of the Presidents'' contain most of Truman's public messages, statements, speeches, and news conference remarks. Documents such as Proclamations, and Executive Orders]

==Historiography==
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''Harry S. Truman and the Cold War Revisionists.'' 2006. 142 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Harry-Truman-Cold-War-Revisionists/dp/0826216536/ref=sr_1_6/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193349212&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Geselbracht, Raymond. "Creating the Harry S. Truman Library: The First Fifty Years," ''Public Historian'', 28 (Summer 2006), 37–78.
* Hartmann, Susan M. "The 1948 Election and the Configuration of Postwar Liberalism" ''Reviews in American History'' 28.1 (2000) 105-111 in [[Project Muse]]
* Heller, Francis H., ed. ''The Korean War: A 25 Year Perspective'' (1977), essays by scholars
* Heller, Francis H., ed. ''The Truman White House: The Administration of the Presidency, 1945-1953'' (1980), essays by scholars
* Heller, Francis H., ed. ''Economics and the Truman Administration'' (1981), essays by scholars
* Kirkendall, Richard S. ed. ''Harry's Farewell: Interpreting and Teaching the Truman Presidency'' (2004) essays by scholars
* Kirkendall, Richard S., ed. ''The Truman Period as a Research Field: A Reappraisal 1972'' (1974)
* Tull, Charles J. "The State of the Art in Truman Research," in William F. Levantrosser, ed. ''Harry S. Truman: The Man from Independence'' (1986), 1-31 aides. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=23428395 online edition]
* Walker, J. Samuel "Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: a Search for Middle Ground." ''Diplomatic History'' 2005 29(2): 311-334. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

==External links==
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ht33.html Biography]
*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org Presidential Library]
*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/bomb/large/index.php The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb], Truman Library.
*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/bomb/small/mb12a.htm President Truman to Senator Richard B. Russell], August 9, 1945.
====notes====
<references/>

{{USPresidents}}
{{USVicePresidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Truman, Harry}}

[[Category:Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Democratic Party]]

Thomas Dewey

2008-10-02T15:56:33Z

BillyR:

'''Thomas Dewey''' (1902–1971) was a prominent state and [[federal]] prosecutor, the Governor of [[New York]] (1943–55), and a two-time [[Republican]] nominee for President, losing in 1944 to [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] and losing in a surprise upset in 1948 to [[Harry S Truman]].

He was a [[liberal]] Northeast [[Republican]] who lacked appeal in the South and West. His political success in [[New York]] was due to his reputation in prosecuting organized crime.

He wrote two books, the ''Journey to the Far Pacific'' (1952) a travelogue about East Asia, and ''Thomas E. Dewey on the Two Party System'' (1966).
[[Category:Political People]]

West Side Story

2008-10-02T15:54:20Z

BillyR:

'''''West Side Story''''' is a musical drama based on [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' with music by [[Leonard Bernstein]], lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and book by [[Arthur Laurents]]. The Capulets and Montagues of Shakespeare's classic play are replaced with the Sharks and Jets, rival [[street gang]]s<ref>newly-arrived Puerto Ricans and second-generation Americans from white European immigrant families [http://www.filmsite.org/wests.html (Tim Dirks)] </ref>
in [[Manhattan]].

==Notes==
<references/>

==Parody==
*[http://www.westbankstory.com/ West Bank Story] - you'll laugh till you cry!

[[Category:Musicals]]

Tacitus

2008-10-02T15:26:49Z

BillyR:

'''Tacitus''' A.D. 55-120: Was the [[Roman]] author of Histories, Annals, and Germania, describing first century Rome. Only portions of his writings have survived. his work comprises one of the earliest sources outside of the Bible to mention [[Christians]], as it chronicles [[Nero]]'s blaming of the Christians for the fire in Rome and the resulting large scale persecution of Christians. Tacitus did not think highly of Christians or [[Jews]], and painted an unflattering picture of Imperial Rome, paying careful note to corruption or scandal. His works give a detailed history of life under the Emperors from the death of [[Augustus]] to the death of [[Domitian]] covering a period from A.D. 14 A.D. 96.
[[Category:Roman Historians]]

Talk:British Broadcasting Corporation

2008-10-02T15:23:24Z

BillyR: /* "They will need to be redone" */ new section

== Redirect ==
Should [[BBC]] redirect here? Would seem logical. [[User:G7mzh|G7mzh]] 13:59, 13 April 2007 (EDT)

== Bias ==

The source used to justify the statement that the BBC has a political bias is a newspaper which itself has a political bias (of the opposite extreme). That's mad. {{unsigned|Ferret}}

By its charter, the BBC is required to be impartial (which was e.g. an issue in the Hutton Inquiry); this - of course - is difficult to achieve and often leads to the accusation of being biased. IMHO, it would be useful to add this information into the text. {{unsigned|Gux}}

: Good idea. Please go ahead and add it.--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 15:00, 15 May 2007 (EDT)

:: I agree - it gets into just as much trouble with Labour governments as with Tory ones. To say it has an inherent liberal bias is misleading I think. Successive governments have taken a soft line on this because they understand that nobody wants a state broadcaster which feels unable to be critical of the government - that's the sort of thing that happens in dictatorships not in modern democracies. [[User:Ferret|Ferret]] 09:16, 16 May 2007 (EDT)

I object to the liberal euphemism "license fee" instead of tax. The BBC gets revenues from a mandatory, govt-enforced tax on everyone with TV, regardless of whether they watch the BBC. That is a tax. Why call it a fee? [[User:RSchlafly|RSchlafly]] 18:33, 29 May 2007 (EDT)

Licence fee is the official name for it. Only people who watch television have to pay it. We have many types of licence, for which a flat fee is payable, fishing, driving, pilot. It is the generally accepted term in the UK. [[User:Gerrard|Gerrard]] 18:46, 29 May 2007 (EDT)

: In the USA and the rest of the world, it is called a tax. [[User:RSchlafly|RSchlafly]] 18:51, 29 May 2007 (EDT)

::This 'Rest of the World' obviously doesn't include Albania, Austria, one of the three regions of Belgium, Bosnia, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Macedonia, Malta, Montenegro, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Israel, Japan, Republic of Korea, Pakistan, Singapore, Ghana, Mauritius, Nambia and South Africa. Those all also have TV licenses. If you include places that used to have one, but abolished it, for one reason or another, you can add Australia, another of the three regions of Belgium, Gibraltar, Hungary, India, Malaysia, the Netherlands, New Zealand and Portugal to that list. And I'm not sure if that's the complete list. [[User:Zmidponk|Zmidponk]] 19:34, 4 January 2008 (EST)

:: I don't see the relevance of stating that Americans don't understand the funding structure of the ''British'' Broadcasting Corporation. [[User:Chrysogonus|Chrysogonus]] 19:13, 29 May 2007 (EDT)

Strictly doesn't tax go to the government? All the lecnise fee goes to the BBC. The government don't get any of it. [[User:DollarsAndSense|DollarsAndSense]] 18:52, 29 May 2007 (EDT)

: The BBC is an agency of the UK government. Yes, the government collects a tax from the UK residents with TVs, and disburses the tax money to the BBC. Some British citizens don't like to admit that they get their news from official government radio and TV, but that's the way it is. [[User:RSchlafly|RSchlafly]] 22:51, 29 May 2007 (EDT)
:: The BBC is an autonomous public corporation established by a royal charter, in a similar way to many universities and professional bodies. It's an 'emanation of the state', but not part of the government. The distinction between state and government might be hard to fathom for those more familiar with the situation in the USA where state and government are often seen as synonymous. --[[User:Jalapeno|Jalapeno]] 04:42, 30 May 2007 (EDT)

::: I don't know what "liberal euphemism" means. The television licence fee is collected by (a company under contract to) the BBC, and is used solely to finance the corporation. None of it is collected by, or given to, the government. The BBC is not a state organisation; it guards its independence staunchly.

:::To say the BBC is financed by a tax gives the incorrect impression that the money is supplied by government funds. [[User:G7mzh|G7mzh]] 10:10, 30 May 2007 (EDT)

And some Americans don't like to admit that they get their news from for-profit corporations whose mandate is to increase shareholder wealth, but that's the way it is. [[User:Sevenstring|Sevenstring]] 22:53, 29 May 2007 (EDT)

This is slightly OT, but I have issues with people who complain about taxes. RSchlafly - do you not believe in your country? If you believe in it, and want to be a member of it, you must pay taxes. Otherwise you are a non-functioning member of society. [[User:Feichineejits|Feichineejits]] 23:13, 29 May 2007 (EDT)

:That is too simplistic a view of "tax", though, surely? I don't wish to fund the BBcs tosh, and I can't recall the last time I actually watched it. I'm still expected to stump up cash for it, however - despite paying separately for Discovery Channel, National geographic etc. Similarly, I don't use the Local Education Authority, NHS, pathetic local library, live in a small village with virtually no street lighting... I could go on - you get the idea. However, I am expected to pay taxes to provide all those things for someone else. Oh, and the vast over inflated salaries and feathered-nest pensions of MPs for whom I didn't vote and whom have never represented me or my constituency. Why? [[Image:User Fox.png]] [[User:Fox|Fox]] ([[User talk:Fox|talk]]|[[Special:Contributions/Fox|contribs]]) 10:23, 30 May 2007 (EDT)

To stress the point to any Americans you do not HAVE to watch TV it is a choice therefore the TV Licence is not a tax it is more like a subscription to watch TV. However there is one section which is funded funded through taxation which is the BBC World Service which is funded through the FCO--[[User:Tracker|Tracker]] 19:51, 6 December 2007 (EST)

== Jerusalem, Israel ==

Just a little inconsistency that I saw. There's a line under the Accusations of Bias heading that says: "On June 15, 2007, BBC drew criticism for apologizing over calling Jerusalem the capital of Israel." I'm not sure that such a statement really supports the idea that the BBC is biased - the major complaint has been that the BBC leans towards being anti-US and a social-liberal perspective. As a consequence, in the context of the Israel-Palestine conflict, it has been seen to portray Israel negatively. But if you put the Jerusalem/Israel comment in, it directly contradicts the message that the rest of the article provides, which is that there is "institutional left-wing bias". I think we have to be careful between confusing errors with bias, because the BBC is obviously left-wing and to suggest otherwise (as this might indirectly do) would be descending to Wikipedia standards of information. I'm removing the comment for the moment, although if others want to put it in a new section under "errors" or something like that, go ahead. [[User:PeterS|PeterS]] 20:52, 21 November 2007 (EST)
:Calling Jerusalem the capital of Israel is ''supportive'' of Israel, but apologising for doing that is the opposite, i.e. showing an anti-Israel bias. Isn't that right? [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 21:41, 21 November 2007 (EST)
:I think that such a conclusion should be made clearer, because it was lost on me. I'll make an edit and see how it goes. [[User:PeterS|PeterS]] 21:57, 24 November 2007 (EST)
::Actually, it's my fault... I didn't read it carefully enough. Nonetheless, I've reinforced the statement to link it to the broader idea of anti-Israeli bias. [[User:PeterS|PeterS]] 22:04, 24 November 2007 (EST)

*Thank you for doing so. --[[User:TK|şyŝoρ-₮K]][[User_Talk:TK|/Ṣρёаќǃ]] 01:12, 25 November 2007 (EST)

Isn't it nice how a bit of discussion can sort out these things? :-) [[User:Philip J. Rayment|Philip J. Rayment]] 07:24, 25 November 2007 (EST)

==Source of criticism==

Deleted material:

:The BBC repeatedly says it is 'independent' but it clearly has an agenda all of its own. Furthermore, although the BBC is technically not-for-profit, it has an enormous worldwide revenue from the resale of programmes and repeat fees, from the sale of CDs, videos, DVDs, and a wide range of books and magazines. It is a major publisher in its own right.

I think this is correct, but this is an encyclopedia, not a blog. This criticism needs reference to a quotation. Who charges that BBC has an agenda? (And what evidence do they give for this charge?) --[[User:Ed Poor|Ed Poor]] [[User talk:Ed Poor|Talk]] 20:09, 6 December 2007 (EST)

== Placement bias ==

I have added a load of stuff primarily around programming, funding, channels, news and internet. However, that new sectioned content has inevitably pushed down the section and sub-sections on accusations of bias. As I don't want to be accused of placement bias, I have pointed out in the intro that the BBC is often accused of bias and I have included criticisms of, say, the licensing fee within the relevant section. If you still think that the pushing down of the bias section still constitutes placement bias, please let me know or edit as you see fit. Thanks. [[User:Ajkgordon|Ajkgordon]] 11:45, 11 January 2008 (EST)

Oh, and I apologise for the lack of cites. Please anyone feel free to add them. I haven't just made this stuff up - I just didn't have the time! [[User:Ajkgordon|Ajkgordon]] 11:47, 11 January 2008 (EST)

== "They will need to be redone" ==

I'm okay with the British spelling, given the nature of the article. However, the passive voice of the statement 'they will need to be redone" leaves open the question of who will redo them. I did them once, including a few egregious spelling mistakes. I'm not redoing them again. Whoever broke it can fix it. [[User:BillyR|BillyR]] 11:23, 2 October 2008 (EDT)

Maria Mitchell

2008-10-02T15:17:42Z

BillyR:

'''Maria Mitchell''' (1818-1889) was an American astronomer. She began her career as an amateur, making observations from her home in [[Nantucket]]. In 1847 she discovered a comet, winning an international prize, and became a minor celebrity. <ref>[http://www.massmoments.org/moment.cfm?mid=284 Mass Moments: Maria Mitchell discovers comet, October 1, 1847]</ref> This launched her on her professional career. She worked on calculations for the ''American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.'' In 1865, Matthew Vassar founded [[Vassar College]] and hired her as a professor of astronomy and director of the observatory. The observatory was the first building constructed at Vassar.<ref>[http://vcencyclopedia.vassar.edu/index.php/Maria_Mitchell_Observatory Maria Mitchell Observatory], Vassar Encyclopedia</ref> Vassar became an important center of astronomy, and Vassar graduates were in demand by the large observatories.<ref>Mack, Pamela E. (1990), "Straying From Their Orbits: Women in Astronomy in America," in Kass-Simon, G. and Patricia Farnes (eds) (1990), ''Women of Science: Righting the Record,'' Indiana University Press, ISBN 0-253-33264-8</ref>

==See also==
[[Hall of Fame]]

==References==
<references/>

[[category:astronomers]]

British Broadcasting Corporation

2008-10-02T15:16:29Z

BillyR:

[[Image:BBC Logo 1997-Present.png|right|thumb]]
The '''British Broadcasting Corporation''' (BBC) is the major national public service broadcaster of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is the leading broadcaster in the UK and is the largest broadcaster in the world by audience figures.

It was founded in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company. In 1927 it was reconstituted under its current name as a public corporation. Its headquarters are in [[London]].

The BBC is often criticized for political bias, particularly [[liberal]], and for being overly [[politically correct]].

== Broadcasting ==
The BBC operates eight national television channels[http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/] in the UK and ten national radio stations[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/]. Alongside these are its regional television services, which are variations of the national services, and separate regional radio stations.

The BBC produces many well-known television programs, including ''The Ten O'Clock News'', ''Newsnight'', ''Questiontime'', ''Eastenders'', ''Planet Earth'', ''Holby City'', ''Casualty'', ''Top Gear'', ''Match of the Day'', ''Have I Got News For You'' and ''Doctor Who''.

Its best known TV channels in the UK are BBC 1 and BBC 2. The other channels are broadcast as digital-only services and are available to owners of terrestrial digital receiving equipment. BBC 1 typically shows more mainstream programs while BBC 2 has a reputation for more diversity and special interest content.

Outside the UK the best known service is the BBC World Service radio network which transmits in 33 languages to an estimated 163 million listeners a week[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2007/05_may/21/global.shtml]. The BBC operates a number of commercially-funded international television channels including BBC World, the international news channel.

== Funding ==
The BBC is a Crown corporation supported by a licensing fee applied to television owners<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/licencefee/</ref> of £135.50 (US$270 approx) per year. All owners of TV receiving equipment are obliged to pay the fee whether they watch BBC content or not. As such it is often criticized as being a tax.

In theory, funding by the licence fee means that BBC programming is free of advertising. However, it has some obligations to transmit statements by political parties and it advertises its own programs, but BBC channels transmitted in the UK are nevertheless free of commercial advertising - with the exception of sporting events, during which it is still permitted to display commercial advertising. Cricket matches were a previous source of contention as adverts projected onto the field of play are only visible to television viewers. This results in much greater non-advertising broadcasting time and uninterrupted broadcast of feature films. However, since the funding is determined by the government, the BBC can be slow to criticize those in power. This arrangement means the government has to do very little to apply pressure on the BBC and often the BBC will self regulate in favor of the government without any formal instruction being given.<ref>http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldbbc/50/5006.htm</ref> This in turn leads to the government and the BBC being able to declare independence and neutrality officially, while in reality this is far from the case.

While there is a vocal campaign to have the BBC changed into a commercial company, this appears highly unlikely to happen.

== Ownership ==
The BBC is an independent body which is held in trust for the British people.

The BBC has a ten-year royal charter that defines its purposes and allows it to act somewhat autonomously, free from commercial and government influence. The BBC is ultimately responsible to its readers and listeners as well as to the [[BBC Trust]].

==BBC News==
BBC News and Current Affairs is the largest news organisation in the world. It has at least 2,000 journalists and 44 news-gathering bureaus, three in the UK and 41 overseas. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/] It produces some 120 hours of news broadcasts daily.

News programs are produced for both TV and radio stations. Much of the TV news programming is delivered in a few major news bulletins throughout the day, the most recognized of which is the flagship Ten O'Clock News in the evening on BBC1. On BBC radio, news is delivered in mostly smaller segments on the hour or half hour. However, the Today program on Radio 4 is broadcast from 7am to 9am and is often considered the most influential news broadcast in the UK.

News produced by the BBC is made available and archived on the BBC news website.

==Internet==
The BBC has a news and archive website, one of the top twenty most popular English language websites. Like its TV and radio broadcasting it is not allowed to show advertising if the site is viewed from within the UK. This has prompted some criticism from within the BBC as it means funds from the licensing fee used for the website are not available for TV and radio programming. However, some costs of the site are now, since late 2007, offset by advertising to non-UK based visitors to the site.

Competitors have also criticized the BBC website due to its ability to fund itself non-commercially without advertising to the detriment of its commercial competitors such as on-line versions of national newspapers and other news broadcasters such as Sky and ITN.

==Cultural Impact==
As the only TV broadcaster until the mid 1950s and only radio broadcaster until the mid 1970s, the BBC had a monopoly hold on British electronic media. As such its content was highly influential. Since then the BBC, while exposed to high volumes and variable quality of competition, has remained popular with the British public and its cultural influence is still a major force. The BBC is considered the default choice by many when viewing major events such as breaking news or state occasions, even though competitors may be broadcasting the same content.

The BBC has had enormous influence over British attitudes to not just politics but also comedy, [[multiculturalism]], travel, natural history, international culture, popular trends, fashion and even the way the British speak. Through its foreign broadcasts on the BBC World Service, it has also had significant cultural influence outside the UK.

==Accusations of Bias==

The BBC has a long history of being criticised for bias. As well as persistent criticisms of [[liberal bias]], it also receives accusations of cultural [[bias]], regional bias, [[political correctness]], bias towards multiculturalism and minority interests, as well as both pro- and anti-government bias.

The BBC is often accused of right-wing bias by those on the left and of left-wing bias by those on the right. This is sometimes attributed to UK governments of either persuasion simply objecting to negative reporting of its policies. However, it is also common for opposition to the government to be critical of the BBC. In some cases, the BBC can be subject to criticism from both sides citing bias in favour of their opposition, as in its reporting of the war in Iraq.

===Bias against the US and Israel===
Although its charter requires it to be impartial, critics often accuse it of bias against [[United States]] and [[Israel]],<ref>http://www.bbcwatch.co.uk/index.html</ref> and because of these complaints of bias, an internal investigation was conducted on the BBC's coverage of the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. However, after the investigation was completed, BBC officials decided to withhold the 20,000-word report of the investigation, compiled in 2004 by senior editorial adviser Malcolm Balen. Steven Sugar, a Jewish critic of the BBC, attempted to get access to the report under the 2000 Freedom of Information Act, but was denied by the [[United Kingdom]]'s High Court. The information commissioner, Richard Thomas, backed the BBC's decision to block access to the report, but the information tribunal ruled on appeal in August, 2006, in favor of Steven Sugar. Still, the BBC argued at the High Court in London that the tribunal did not have jurisdiction over the case, and the High Court ruled in favour of the BBC on April 28, 2007. The BBC maintains that the internal investigation found no deliberate or systematic bias. Conservative MP David Davies commented: "An organization which is funded partly to scrutinize governments and other institutions in Britain appears to be using tax-payers' money to prevent its customers from finding out how it is operating. That is absolutely indefensible" and called the BBC's actions a "shameful hypocrisy". It has been estimated that the BBC has spent around £200,000 - £300,000 on the case so far.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,2044130,00.html</ref>
<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,2067542,00.html</ref>

In 2003, Media Tenor, an independent, Bonn-based research group, conducted a study and found that the BBC’s Middle East coverage was 85 percent negative, 15 percent neutral, and 0 percent positive toward Israel.<ref>“Beeb Outdoes Itself”, Tzvi Fleischer, The Review, September 2003, p. 8.</ref>

During a 2006 internal "impartiality summit", BBC executives said they would happily broadcast an image of a [[Bible]] being thrown away, but would not do the same with a [[Koran]]. At the summit, the BBC's Washington correspondent Justin Webb also accused the executives of being anti-American, saying they treated the nation with scorn and derision and no moral weight.

On June 15, 2007, BBC drew criticism due to their apology over calling Jerusalem the capital of Israel.<ref>http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1181813036973&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull</ref> The incident is one of many examples of repeated and systematic anti-Israeli bias from the BBC over a number of years.

===Liberal bias===
Details of the BBC's alleged bias were further tabled in an official report<ref>'''Revoir, Paul''', ''BBC comes under fire for institutional Left-wing bias'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=462679&in_page_id=1770&ct=5 Daily Mail] June 18, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/06/17/nbbc217.xml BBC report finds bias within corporation], Gary Cleland,''Telegraph'', June 18, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/13530 BBC Report: Network’s Bias Due to 'The Inherent Liberal Culture of its Staff’], Noel Sheppard, [[NewsBusters]], June 17, 2007</ref> - in preparation since 2005 - which found that the BBC:
*has an "institutional Left-wing bias" (its 'Play for Today' series in the 1960s/70s was known as the '[[Trotskyist|Trot]] Slot')
*has "a tendency to 'group think' with too many staff inhabiting a shared space and comfort zone."
*promotes anti-Christian sentiment
*promotes anti-American sentiment
*allows schedules to be "hijacked by special interest groups promoting trendy issues"
*over-represents homosexuals
*over-represents ethnic minorities
*fails to reflect the views of the [[British]] public on issues such as [[capital punishment]]
*fails to reflect the broader views of British people
*fails to reflect concerns about pornography and family-unfriendly broadcasting (1960s Director General Hugh Carleton-Greene notoriously refused ever to meet broadcasting standards campaigner [[Mary Whitehouse]] and would commonly refer to her in opprobrious terms)
*allows itself to be used by "sinister" campaign groups
*finds it difficult to understand there may be alternative views of the world

[[Antony Jay]], a former producer on Tonight, a nightly BBC current affairs television programme, said the BBC News and Current Affairs are part of the "liberal media consensus". Jay also said his ex-colleagues "were anti-industry, anti-capitalism, anti-advertising, anti-selling, anti-profit, anti-patriotism, anti-monarchy, anti-Empire, anti-police, anti-armed forces, anti-bomb, anti-authority. Almost anything that made the world a freer, safer and more prosperous place, you name it, we were anti it." <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/14114 Former BBC Producer Explains Why Media Are Liberally Biased], Noel Sheppard, [[NewsBusters]], July 15, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/07/14/nbeeb314.xml&page=1 Here is the news (as we want to report it)], [[Telegraph]], July 15, 2007</ref>Paul Dacre, the editor of the British newspaper, the [[Daily Mail]], in his January 2007 Hugh Cudlipp Memorial Lecture, said that "the BBC is, in every corpuscle of its corporate body, against the values of conservatism, with a small 'c', which just happen to be the values held by millions of Britons." He also accused the BBC of being hostile to the "traditional Right, Britain's past and British values, America, Ulster Unionism, Euro-scepticism, capitalism and big business, the countryside, Christianity and family values."

A survey of BBC employees with profiles on the [[Facebook]] site showed that 11 times more of them class themselves as "[[liberal]]" than "[[conservative]]". <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/10/27/facebook-provides-fascinating-glimpse-society-media-demographics Facebook Provides Fascinating Glimpse Into Society, Media Demographics], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], October 27, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=490047&in_page_id=1770&ito=1490 Facebook reveals the BBC as a liberal hotbed], Jane Merrick and Kirsty Walker, [[Daily Mail]], October 27, 2007</ref>

===Regional bias===
The BBC is based in [[London]], in the South East of England. It often faces accusations of being London-centric, with events in the North of England, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland having a reduced profile. A perceived disproportionately private school education is often claimed to be illustrated in the output, with a disproportionate emphasis on private school events and sports.

It is also argued that the BBC also systematically discriminates against [[Scots]] speakers. Although over 1.5 million<ref>[http://www1.ku-eichstaett.de/SLF/EngluVglSW/schule25.pdf Language Policy in Scotland and Northern Ireland]</ref> people speak it there is no service in the language of those license fee payers<ref>[http://www.scotslanguage.com/article/Trust_the_BBC%3F.html/translate/english Trust the BBC?]</ref><ref>[http://www.artscouncil-ni.org/departs/all/report/research/art_of_ulster_scots.rtf BBC NI less than generous]</ref>. Supporters of the BBC and some linguists argue that the large number of regional dialects of Scots makes it no more viable to program for the language than it would be with English<ref>[http://www.eng.umu.se/city/Fredrik/city/scottish.htm Scottish Dialects and Accents]</ref>.

===Other===
BBC employees have changed [[Wikipedia]] entries, including a derogatory word in the entry for [[George W. Bush]] and changing the word “[[Terrorism|terrorists]]” to "[[freedom fighter]]s". <ref>[http://littlegreenfootballs.com/weblog/?entry=26669&only&rss Wikipedia EditGate: BBC Edits], [[LittleGreenFootballs]], August 15, 2007</ref>

The BBC canceled the commission for a 90-minute drama about Britain's youngest surviving Victoria Cross hero because it feared it would alienate members of the audience opposed to the war in Iraq.
<ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/11982 BBC Cancels TV Movie On Iraq War Hero As 'Too Positive,' Would 'Alienate' War Opponents], Lynn Davidson, [[NewsBusters]], April 11, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/04/08/wiraq308.xml Hero's tale is 'too positive' for the BBC], Chris Hastings, [[Telegraph]], July 4, 2007</ref>

The BBC funded a [[Paintball|paintballing]] trip for men later accused of [[Islamic terrorism]] and didn't pass on information about the 21/7 [[Terrorism|bombers]] to [[police]]. <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/12/06/paintball-terrorists-bbc-paid-islamic-radical Paintball for Terrorists? BBC Paid for Islamic Radicals' Amusement], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], December 6, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=499795&in_page_id=1770 BBC 'funded paintballing trip for Islamic terrorists and didn't pass on information about 21/7 bombers'], Daniel Bates, [[Daily Mail]], December 5, 2007</ref>

[[Pauline Neville Jones]], who is a member of [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] [[British_politics#Conservatives|Conservative party]], a former [[Espionage|spy]] chief and former BBC governor, accused the BBC of "parroting" [[Al Qaeda]] [[propaganda]] to [[children]]. <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/09/29/bbc-still-blaming-u-s-9-11 BBC Still Blaming U.S. for 9/11], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], September 29, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=484577&in_page_id=1770 BBC's Newsround fed youngsters Al Qaeda propaganda, claims ex-spy chief], James Chapman , [[Daily Mail]], September 29, 2007</ref>

==External Links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/ BBC official site]
*[http://www.tvlicensing.biz/ BBCresistance - Campaigns against the television licence]
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/leading_article/article1942930.ece Bias at the Beeb - official], June 17, 2007, ''UK Times Online''.
*[http://biased-bbc.blogspot.com/ Biased BBC]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Broadcasters]][[Category:Television]][[Category:Radio]]

British Broadcasting Corporation

2008-10-02T15:14:47Z

BillyR:

[[Image:BBC Logo 1997-Present.png|right|thumb]]
The '''British Broadcasting Corporation''' (BBC) is the major national public service broadcaster of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is the leading broadcaster in the UK and is the largest broadcaster in the world by audience figures.

It was founded in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company. In 1927 it was reconstituted under its current name as a public corporation. Its headquarters are in [[London]].

The BBC is often criticized for political bias, particularly [[liberal]], and for being overly [[politically correct]].

== Broadcasting ==
The BBC operates eight national television channels[http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/] in the UK and ten national radio stations[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/]. Alongside these are its regional television services, which are variations of the national services, and separate regional radio stations.

The BBC produces many well-known television programs, including ''The Ten O'Clock News'', ''Newsnight'', ''Questiontime'', ''Eastenders'', ''Planet Earth'', ''Holby City'', ''Casualty'', ''Top Gear'', ''Match of the Day'', ''Have I Got News For You'' and ''Doctor Who''.

Its best known TV channels in the UK are BBC 1 and BBC 2. The other channels are broadcast as digital-only services and are available to owners of terrestrial digital receiving equipment. BBC 1 typically shows more mainstream programs while BBC 2 has a reputation for more diversity and special interest content.

Outside the UK the best known service is the BBC World Service radio network which transmits in 33 languages to an estimated 163 million listeners a week[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2007/05_may/21/global.shtml]. The BBC operates a number of commercially-funded international television channels including BBC World, the international news channel.

== Funding ==
The BBC is a Crown corporation supported by a licensing fee applied to television owners<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/licencefee/</ref> of £135.50 (US$270 approx) per year. All owners of TV receiving equipment are obliged to pay the fee whether they watch BBC content or not. As such it is often criticized as being a tax.

In theory, funding by the licence fee means that BBC programming is free of advertising. However, it has some obligations to transmit statements by political parties and it advertises its own programs, but BBC channels transmitted in the UK are nevertheless free of commercial advertising - with the exception of sporting events, during which it is still permitted to display commercial advertising. Cricket matches were a previous source of contention as adverts projected onto the field of play are only visible to television viewers. This results in much greater non-advertising broadcasting time and uninterrupted broadcast of feature films. However, since the funding is determined by the government, the BBC can be slow to criticize those in power. This arrangement means the government has to do very little to apply pressure on the BBC and often the BBC will self regulate in favor of the government without any formal instruction being given.<ref>http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldbbc/50/5006.htm</ref> This in turn leads to the government and the BBC being able to declare independence and neutrality officially, while in reality this is far from the case.

While there is a vocal campaign to have the BBC changed into a commercial company, this appears highly unlikely to happen.

== Ownership ==
The BBC is an independent body which is held in trust for the British people.

The BBC has a ten-year royal charter that defines its purposes and allows it to act somewhat autonomously, free from commercial and government influence. The BBC is ultimately responsible to its readers and listeners as well as to the [[BBC Trust]].

==BBC News==
BBC News and Current Affairs is the largest news organisation in the world. It has at least 2,000 journalists and 44 news-gathering bureaus, three in the UK and 41 overseas. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/] It produces some 120 hours of news broadcasts daily.

News programs are produced for both TV and radio stations. Much of the TV news programming is delivered in a few major news bulletins throughout the day, the most recognized of which is the flagship Ten O'Clock News in the evening on BBC1. On BBC radio, news is delivered in mostly smaller segments on the hour or half hour. However, the Today program on Radio 4 is broadcast from 7am to 9am and is often considered the most influential news broadcast in the UK.

News produced by the BBC is made available and archived on the BBC news website.

==Internet==
The BBC has a news and archive website, one of the top twenty most popular English language websites. Like its TV and radio broadcasting it is not allowed to show advertising if the site is viewed from within the UK. This has prompted some criticism from within the BBC as it means funds from the licensing fee used for the website are not available for TV and radio programming. However, some costs of the site are now, since late 2007, offset by advertising to non-UK based visitors to the site.

Competitors have also criticised the BBC website due to its ability to fund itself non-commercially without advertising to the detriment of its commercial competitors such as on-line versions of national newspapers and other news broadcasters such as Sky and ITN.

==Cultural Impact==
As the only TV broadcaster until the mid 1950s and only radio broadcaster until the mid 1970s, the BBC had a monopoly hold on British electronic media. As such its content was highly influential. Since then the BBC, while exposed to high volumes and variable quality of competition, has remained popular with the British public and its cultural influence is still a major force. The BBC is considered the default choice by many when viewing major events such as breaking news or state occasions, even though competitors may be broadcasting the same content.

The BBC has had enormous influence over British attitudes to not just politics but also comedy, [[multiculturalism]], travel, natural history, international culture, popular trends, fashion and even the way the British speak. Through its foreign broadcasts on the BBC World Service, it has also had significant cultural influence outside the UK.

==Accusations of Bias==

The BBC has a long history of being criticised for bias. As well as persistent criticisms of [[liberal bias]], it also receives accusations of cultural [[bias]], regional bias, [[political correctness]], bias towards multiculturalism and minority interests, as well as both pro- and anti-government bias.

The BBC is often accused of right-wing bias by those on the left and of left-wing bias by those on the right. This is sometimes attributed to UK governments of either persuasion simply objecting to negative reporting of its policies. However, it is also common for opposition to the government to be critical of the BBC. In some cases, the BBC can be subject to criticism from both sides citing bias in favour of their opposition, as in its reporting of the war in Iraq.

===Bias against the US and Israel===
Although its charter requires it to be impartial, critics often accuse it of bias against [[United States]] and [[Israel]],<ref>http://www.bbcwatch.co.uk/index.html</ref> and because of these complaints of bias, an internal investigation was conducted on the BBC's coverage of the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. However, after the investigation was completed, BBC officials decided to withhold the 20,000-word report of the investigation, compiled in 2004 by senior editorial adviser Malcolm Balen. Steven Sugar, a Jewish critic of the BBC, attempted to get access to the report under the 2000 Freedom of Information Act, but was denied by the [[United Kingdom]]'s High Court. The information commissioner, Richard Thomas, backed the BBC's decision to block access to the report, but the information tribunal ruled on appeal in August, 2006, in favour of Steven Sugar. Still, the BBC argued at the High Court in London that the tribunal did not have jurisdiction over the case, and the High Court ruled in favour of the BBC on April 28, 2007. The BBC maintains that the internal investigation found no deliberate or systematic bias. Conservative MP David Davies commented: "An organisation which is funded partly to scrutinize governments and other institutions in Britain appears to be using tax-payers' money to prevent its customers from finding out how it is operating. That is absolutely indefensible" and called the BBC's actions a "shameful hypocrisy". It has been estimated that the BBC has spent around £200,000 - £300,000 on the case so far.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,2044130,00.html</ref>
<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,2067542,00.html</ref>

In 2003, Media Tenor, an independent, Bonn-based research group, conducted a study and found that the BBC’s Middle East coverage was 85 percent negative, 15 percent neutral, and 0 percent positive toward Israel.<ref>“Beeb Outdoes Itself”, Tzvi Fleischer, The Review, September 2003, p. 8.</ref>

During a 2006 internal "impartiality summit", BBC executives said they would happily broadcast an image of a [[Bible]] being thrown away, but would not do the same with a [[Koran]]. At the summit, the BBC's Washington correspondent Justin Webb also accused the executives of being anti-American, saying they treated the nation with scorn and derision and no moral weight.

On June 15, 2007, BBC drew criticism due to their apology over calling Jerusalem the capital of Israel.<ref>http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1181813036973&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull</ref> The incident is one of many examples of repeated and systematic anti-Israeli bias from the BBC over a number of years.

===Liberal bias===
Details of the BBC's alleged bias were further tabled in an official report<ref>'''Revoir, Paul''', ''BBC comes under fire for institutional Left-wing bias'' [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=462679&in_page_id=1770&ct=5 Daily Mail] June 18, 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/06/17/nbbc217.xml BBC report finds bias within corporation], Gary Cleland,''Telegraph'', June 18, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/13530 BBC Report: Network’s Bias Due to 'The Inherent Liberal Culture of its Staff’], Noel Sheppard, [[NewsBusters]], June 17, 2007</ref> - in preparation since 2005 - which found that the BBC:
*has an "institutional Left-wing bias" (its 'Play for Today' series in the 1960s/70s was known as the '[[Trotskyist|Trot]] Slot')
*has "a tendency to 'group think' with too many staff inhabiting a shared space and comfort zone."
*promotes anti-Christian sentiment
*promotes anti-American sentiment
*allows schedules to be "hijacked by special interest groups promoting trendy issues"
*over-represents homosexuals
*over-represents ethnic minorities
*fails to reflect the views of the [[British]] public on issues such as [[capital punishment]]
*fails to reflect the broader views of British people
*fails to reflect concerns about pornography and family-unfriendly broadcasting (1960s Director General Hugh Carleton-Greene notoriously refused ever to meet broadcasting standards campigner [[Mary Whitehouse]] and would commonly refer to her in opprobrious terms)
*allows itself to be used by "sinister" campaign groups
*finds it difficult to understand there may be alternative views of the world

[[Antony Jay]], a former producer on Tonight, a nightly BBC current affairs television programme, said the BBC News and Current Affairs are part of the "liberal media consensus". Jay also said his ex-colleagues "were anti-industry, anti-capitalism, anti-advertising, anti-selling, anti-profit, anti-patriotism, anti-monarchy, anti-Empire, anti-police, anti-armed forces, anti-bomb, anti-authority. Almost anything that made the world a freer, safer and more prosperous place, you name it, we were anti it." <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/14114 Former BBC Producer Explains Why Media Are Liberally Biased], Noel Sheppard, [[NewsBusters]], July 15, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/07/14/nbeeb314.xml&page=1 Here is the news (as we want to report it)], [[Telegraph]], July 15, 2007</ref>Paul Dacre, the editor of the British newspaper, the [[Daily Mail]], in his January 2007 Hugh Cudlipp Memorial Lecture, said that "the BBC is, in every corpuscle of its corporate body, against the values of conservatism, with a small 'c', which just happen to be the values held by millions of Britons." He also accused the BBC of being hostile to the "traditional Right, Britain's past and British values, America, Ulster Unionism, Euro-scepticism, capitalism and big business, the countryside, Christianity and family values."

A survey of BBC employees with profiles on the [[Facebook]] site showed that 11 times more of them class themselves as "[[liberal]]" than "[[conservative]]". <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/10/27/facebook-provides-fascinating-glimpse-society-media-demographics Facebook Provides Fascinating Glimpse Into Society, Media Demographics], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], October 27, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=490047&in_page_id=1770&ito=1490 Facebook reveals the BBC as a liberal hotbed], Jane Merrick and Kirsty Walker, [[Daily Mail]], October 27, 2007</ref>

===Regional bias===
The BBC is based in [[London]], in the South East of England. It often faces accusations of being London-centric, with events in the North of England, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland having a reduced profile. A percieved disproptionately private school education is often claimed to be illustrated in the output, with a dispropotionate emphasis on private school events and sports.

It is also argued that the BBC also systematically discriminates against [[Scots]] speakers. Although over 1.5 million<ref>[http://www1.ku-eichstaett.de/SLF/EngluVglSW/schule25.pdf Language Policy in Scotland and Northern Ireland]</ref> people speak it there is no service in the language of those licence fee payers<ref>[http://www.scotslanguage.com/article/Trust_the_BBC%3F.html/translate/english Trust the BBC?]</ref><ref>[http://www.artscouncil-ni.org/departs/all/report/research/art_of_ulster_scots.rtf BBC NI less than generous]</ref>. Supporters of the BBC and some linguists argue that the large number of regional dialects of Scots makes it no more viable to programme for the language than it would be with English<ref>[http://www.eng.umu.se/city/Fredrik/city/scottish.htm Scottish Dialects and Accents]</ref>.

===Other===
BBC employees have changed [[Wikipedia]] entries, including a derogatory word in the entry for [[George W. Bush]] and changing the word “[[Terrorism|terrorists]]” to "[[freedom fighter]]s". <ref>[http://littlegreenfootballs.com/weblog/?entry=26669&only&rss Wikipedia EditGate: BBC Edits], [[LittleGreenFootballs]], August 15, 2007</ref>

The BBC canceled the commission for a 90-minute drama about Britain's youngest surviving Victoria Cross hero because it feared it would alienate members of the audience opposed to the war in Iraq.
<ref>[http://newsbusters.org/node/11982 BBC Cancels TV Movie On Iraq War Hero As 'Too Positive,' Would 'Alienate' War Opponents], Lynn Davidson, [[NewsBusters]], April 11, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/04/08/wiraq308.xml Hero's tale is 'too positive' for the BBC], Chris Hastings, [[Telegraph]], July 4, 2007</ref>

The BBC funded a [[Paintball|paintballing]] trip for men later accused of [[Islamic terrorism]] and didn't pass on information about the 21/7 [[Terrorism|bombers]] to [[police]]. <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/12/06/paintball-terrorists-bbc-paid-islamic-radical Paintball for Terrorists? BBC Paid for Islamic Radicals' Amusement], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], December 6, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=499795&in_page_id=1770 BBC 'funded paintballing trip for Islamic terrorists and didn't pass on information about 21/7 bombers'], Daniel Bates, [[Daily Mail]], December 5, 2007</ref>

[[Pauline Neville Jones]], who is a member of [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] [[British_politics#Conservatives|Conservative party]], a former [[Espionage|spy]] chief and former BBC governor, accused the BBC of "parroting" [[Al Qaeda]] [[propaganda]] to [[children]]. <ref>[http://newsbusters.org/blogs/matthew-sheffield/2007/09/29/bbc-still-blaming-u-s-9-11 BBC Still Blaming U.S. for 9/11], Matthew Sheffield, [[NewsBusters]], September 29, 2007</ref> <ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=484577&in_page_id=1770 BBC's Newsround fed youngsters Al Qaeda propaganda, claims ex-spy chief], James Chapman , [[Daily Mail]], September 29, 2007</ref>

==External Links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/ BBC official site]
*[http://www.tvlicensing.biz/ BBCresistance - Campaigns against the television licence]
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/leading_article/article1942930.ece Bias at the Beeb - official], June 17, 2007, ''UK Times Online''.
*[http://biased-bbc.blogspot.com/ Biased BBC]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Broadcasters]][[Category:Television]][[Category:Radio]]

The Sky at Night

2008-10-02T15:09:33Z

BillyR:

'''The Sky at Night''' is the world's longest running TV series on the subject of [[astronomy]]. The monthly show has been presented by [[Sir Patrick Moore]] ever since the first episode in April 1957, and commissioned by the [[BBC]] (British Broadcasting Corporation). 

==External Links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/skyatnight Official website]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0262990/ IMDB website]

[[category:Television Shows]]
[[category:astronomy]]

F-14 Tomcat

2008-10-01T17:41:55Z

BillyR:

[[Image:DesertStormF14ATomcatburningtarget.JPG|250px||thumb|A Tomcat fies over a burning Iraqi oil complex during [[Desert Storm]].]]
The '''F-14 Tomcat''' is a supersonic, twin-engine, variable sweep wing, two-seat fighter designed to attack and destroy enemy aircraft at night or day, and in all weather conditions. Carrier-based, the Tomcat has variable geometry wings for easy storage and increased speed or manoeuvrability. Until its retirement in 2006, it was the primary air-superiority fighter for the [[U.S. Navy]]. It was the only airplane that could operate the long-range Phoenix air-to-air missile. In addition, it could carry [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] and [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles, and carried an internal Vulcan 20mm cannon.

==Design==

In the 1950s, the [[United States Navy|Navy]] was in the market for a high-tech air superiority fighter which could kill Russian "Bear" and "Badger" bombers hundreds of miles away from the carrier, before the Soviet aircraft could fire cruise missiles at the ship. The General Dynamics [[F-111]] program was cancelled by the Navy (it was continued by the Air Force). In 1969, the Navy selected Grumman's prototype. The aircraft was designed to make obsolete, in matters of electronics and armament, every other fighter in the world. The F-14 was equipped to carry up to six [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles with over a hundred-mile range. The radar was sophisticated enough to pick six targets from over 30 planes.

Because of the Tomcat's size, and the view it presented when seen from above, pilots jokingly called the plane the "Flying tennis court".

==Service==

The F-14 began replacing the [[F-4]] Phantom II in U.S. naval service in September of 1974.<ref>''Fighter'', by Jim Winchester, 2006</ref> It first saw combat over the Gulf of Sidra, off the coast of [[Libya]], in August of 1981. 2 Tomcats shot down 2 Libyan Su-22 Fitters after one of the Fitters had fired a missile at them.<ref>''Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy'', by Craig L. Symonds, 1995</ref> In January of 1989, F-14s again saw action against Libyan planes, this time 2 F-14s shot down 2 Mig-23 Floggers over the Gulf of Sidra.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,956731-2,00.html Article in Time Magazine]</ref>

==The Tomcat in popular culture==

The Tomcat had a gift for show business. Its first movie appearance was in ''[[The Final Countdown]]'' in 1980, where the USS ''Nimitz'' goes back in time to December 7, 1941. However, ''[[Top Gun]]'' made the Tomcat a star.

The movie ''Top Gun'' was supposed to star [[Tom Cruise]] and [[Kelly McGillis]]. The way it worked out, though, it was starring: F-14 Tomcat.
Co-starring: Tom Cruise and Kelly McGillis.

The F-14 performed equally well on the small screen, frequently guest-starring on the TV series, [[JAG (TV series)|JAG]].

==Retirement==

The Tomcat has been replaced by newer planes in the [[United States]] Air Force. In order to prevent spare parts reaching terrorists ([[Iran]] uses those planes based on purchases of 80 Tomcats and 633 [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles they made under the [[Shah]]), the United States government is having the planes destroyed.

Type: Two-seat carrier-borne fighter

Powerplant: Two 20,900 lb. thrust Pratt & Whitney afterburning turbojets

Performance: Mach 2.34 (1564 mph) at altitude

Weight: (empty) 39,310 lbs. (normal take-off) 58,539 lbs.

Dimensions: Wingspan(unswept) 64 ft. (Swept) 38 ft. Length- 61 ft. Height- 16 ft.

Armament: 1 General Electric M61A-1 20 millimeter multi barrel Vulcan cannon with 675 rounds, and either

6 Hughes [[AIM-54 Phoenix ]] missiles

4 Hughes [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles and 2 [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] missiles or 2 [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles

2 Hughes [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles, 2 [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] missiles, and 2 [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles

Current operators: Iran

Previous operators: US Navy, US Marine Corps

==External links==
*[http://www.topedge.com/panels/aircraft/sites/mats/combat.htm F-14 Tomcat in Combat]
*[http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-14.htm F-14 Tomcat at FAS]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category: Aircraft]]
[[Category:United States Navy]]

Peabody Award

2008-10-01T17:37:48Z

BillyR:

The '''Peabody Award''' (official known as the ''George Foster Peabody Award'') is handed out for distinguished achievement and meritorious service by [[radio]] and [[television]] networks, stations, producing organizations, cable television organizations and individuals. The Peabody Award was first awarded to a reporter Elmer Davis, in 1941.

==External Link==
*[http://www.peabody.uga.edu/ Official Website]
*[http://www.peabody.uga.edu/archives/ Winners]

[[Category:Television]]
[[Category:Awards]]

Talk:Holocaust

2008-10-01T17:23:51Z

BillyR: /* Nanking */ new section

The "Criticism" section could be a major black eye if it's not carefully watched. --[[User:John|John]] 22:52, 7 March 2007 (EST)

==Where is Darwin?==
I think we should add a section on evolution and how it caused the holocaust. A picture of Darwin should also be added.
--[[User:All4Him|All4Him]] 11:26, 16 September 2008 (EDT)

== Reverts ==

You can revert back to the biased version if you insist, but you could at least have kept the correct spelling of "occurrence". [[User:AppliedFaith|AppliedFaith]] 16:13, 13 April 2007 (EDT)

:Why were some of the following Conservative facts [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Holocaust&curid=3340&diff=357620&oldid=357619 removed]? Surely no one is of the opinion they are not true?

::Jews stood virtually alone against the Nazi war machine and those who collaborated with them, receiving no aid or assistance from outside, as well as having no access to arms with which to defend themselves because the Nazis first disarmed their victims through use of [[gun control]] they were left defenseless. "Genocide would be impossible, or nearly impossible, against an armed group of millions of victims". [http://www.conservapedia.com/index.php?title=Talk:Gun_control&diff=357551&oldid=357545].

:[[User:CillaHunt|CillaHunt]] 14:48, 24 December 2007 (EST)
::It was reverted because you're inserting today's subject of gun control into a period of time and place where that wasn't an issue. It's also speculation; it is fine for the talk and debate pages, but not for the main article. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 14:54, 24 December 2007 (EST)

:::Andy is adamant that it is true, and certainly not speculation. Surely you're not saying he got it wrong? [[User:CillaHunt|CillaHunt]] 15:32, 24 December 2007 (EST)

== Evidence ==
I think (from a pedantic view of English grammar) that there is a small contradiction between the wording that the number of those killed is an estimate because incomplete records have been recovered and the fact the holocaust denial is unjustified because the Germans kept accurate records. Perhaps someone could reword this. [[User:Erasmus|Erasmus]] 16:44, 2 May 2007 (EDT)

== Total Dead ==

I've changed the upward value for loss of life from 12 million to 14 million, the value provided by the Encyclopedia of Military History. I thought I better state this in case someone gets upset, as this whole subject can have a tendency to be more touchy than most. [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 19:30, 8 May 2007 (EDT)
:We need to decide if we are going to apply the term "Holocaust" to non-Jewish vicitms. [[User:RobS|RobS]] 20:58, 8 May 2007 (EDT)

::Traditionally it has been that way. It's only over time that the non-Jewish dead started to be, for lack of a better word, forgotten. I would say keep it to include everyone who died under Hitler for no reason other than their inconveniance to him. [[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 21:15, 8 May 2007 (EDT)

:::This may need some research on what various respected historians on the Holocaust have said. Simply because it's so-called "common usage" is no reason for us to repeat. [[User:RobS|RobS]] 21:17, 8 May 2007 (EDT)

==Expanding the article==
As you can see, I've begun expanding it today, and will be done by tomorrow. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 19:02, 24 May 2007 (EDT)
::Very nice. But why does it only mention Gypsies, Jehovas witness and homosexuals? More Slavs were victims than all these groups combined.[[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] [[User talk:Bohdan|Talk]] 19:04, 24 May 2007 (EDT)
::It isn't done yet, but it should list the groups of people who were targeted for slavery as well as those targeted for extermination. But as a rule, ''holocaust'' as a term should be restricted to the persecution of the Jews in Europe by the Nazis. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 19:22, 24 May 2007 (EDT)
::::No argument there.[[User:Bohdan|Bohdan]] [[User talk:Bohdan|Talk]] 19:25, 24 May 2007 (EDT)
::::::Glad my suggested article improvement drive is working! [[User:Conservative|Conservative]] 19:31, 24 May 2007 (EDT)
:::::::Yer welcome! Now for the rest of the articles on the list... [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 19:41, 24 May 2007 (EDT)

==Dawidowicz==
Here is the citation moved from the Adolf Hilter page. This link is from the [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] and reads,
{{Cquote|Postwar historians of the Holocaust, especially those asserting the exclusivist view that the Holocaust was a historical experience unique to the Jewish people, have taken a similar position. Thus [[Lucy S. Dawidowicz]], a leading exclusivist, has dismissed as '''not worthy of mention''' the '''"prostitutes, homosexuals, perverts, and common criminals"''' incarcerated by the Nazi.2 }}

with the footnote

{{Cquote|Lucy S. Dawidowicz, The Holocaust and the Historians (Cambridge, MA, 1981), p. 8. Ironically, this stance echoes the alibi voiced in crypto-Nazi writings of the postwar period that the inmates of the concentration camps were mainly black marketeers and other criminals who later posed as innocent victims of the regime; for example, Brigitte Pohl, Fastnacht der Damonen: Erlebnisse einer Wienerin (Leoni am Stamberger See, 1963), p. 45 [published by the Druffel-Verlag]. Pohl is a frequent contributor to the farright monthly Nation Europa, published in Coburg. }}

http://web.archive.org/web/20010121143900/http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/resources/books/annual7/chap12.html

Dawidowicz is the Author of ''A Holocaust Reader'', and ''The War Against the Jews'', two definitive works we certainly will be citing in this article. Dawidowicz's credentials are impecable. [[User:RobS|RobS]] 21:49, 24 May 2007 (EDT)
:Use that as a reference, and add material as appropriate. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 15:38, 25 May 2007 (EDT)

So far I have touched the beginnings of World War II. As it stands, what I have put in is merely an article in general terms; detail can be added as needed. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 15:41, 25 May 2007 (EDT)

==Done==
The structure is pretty basic, but ready for new material. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 11:35, 30 May 2007 (EDT)

== Bombing the railroad ==

Many historians have debated the question of why the Allies did not attempt to stop the operations at Auschwitz by bombing the railroad into the camp - or whether they could or should have. Is that relevant to this article? [[User:Sevenstring|Sevenstring]] 12:24, 30 May 2007 (EDT)
:Yes it is. Perhaps a new subsection called "Allied responses" or something similar, in which it is described what the Allies did, could have done, or didn't do during the war. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 12:41, 30 May 2007 (EDT)

Your edit of the word Nurnberg is fine, however it's spelled. What I wanted to do is to get as close as possible to the German spelling, but the mark above the letter "U" in the word is a bit of a trouble to insert. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 15:49, 30 May 2007 (EDT)
:Found the German version of the word, with the inflection. [[User:Karajou|Karajou]] 15:54, 30 May 2007 (EDT)

==This is an excellent article==

This is a very well done and researched article. [[User:DanH|DanH]] 13:33, 8 July 2007 (EDT)

Someone has posted a photograph on top of the statistics in the Aftermath section of the article. Can this be removed?[[User:Needleman|Needleman]] 12:01, 17 August 2007 (EDT)

I see once again someone has pasted a photograph on top of the statistics in the Aftermath section of the article. Can this be removed?[[User:Needleman|Needleman]] 21:08, 26 August 2007 (EDT)

I don't understand; I don't see a photograph there. [[User:DanH|DanH]] 21:14, 26 August 2007 (EDT)

It's 12:35 PM on August 31, 2007. Take a look again at the statistics box. It's partially blocked by a photograph.[[User:Needleman|Needleman]] 12:37, 31 August 2007 (EDT)

==Two changes I would like to offer==
I'd like to second the comment by DanH on the quality of this article. Well done, editors!

That said, I'd like to make two comments:

1) Purpose of article
The article begins with "The Holocaust is a word...". This suggests that the article is one discussing the word itself, rather than the event related to the victims of Nazi Germany, which is actually the main thing being discussed.

A decision seems necessary on whether the article discusses the word (under which the definition and etymology is important) or the historical event. I think the more likely reason people visit this page is the later.

I believe the etymology should be moved to its own section farther down in the article. I also think there should be a deliberate reference to the [[Genocide]] article, rather than just having a category.

2) Displaced gravity of the article
The end of the definition contains the following language: "when Jews were ... and ultimately targeted for extermination". My problem is only with the use of the word "targeted", which suggests that extermination may not have actually occurred. The actual subject should be front and center, and not left as an item to be discussed in the body of the article.

[[User:NepotisMonachus|NepotisMonachus]] 13:43, 30 November 2007 (EST)

== Nanking ==

let's be historically specific: The Holocaust was about the elimination of European Jews. Nanking/Nanjing was an atrocity, but besides a broad temporal association, it had nothing to do with the Holocaust.[[User:BillyR|BillyR]] 13:23, 1 October 2008 (EDT)

Holocaust

2008-10-01T17:22:13Z

BillyR: See talk page

[[Image:Warsaw ghetto.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Jewish families are forced from the Warsaw Ghetto in the aftermath of its destruction by the S.S. in 1943. Their final destination was the killing center at Treblinka.]]
The '''Holocaust''' was systematic destruction by the [[Nazis]] of [[Jews|Jewish culture]], society, and, in ''die Endlösung'' (the '''Final Solution'''), the lives of all Jews, 1933-1945. Before Hitler and the Nazis came to power in 1933 they demonized the Jews as subhuman and the cause of all Germany's troubles. In power, the Nazis first removed the Jews from power and prestige; from 1938-41 they imposed severe restrictions on Jews in Germany (many of whom fled). The killing started in 1941, as the [[SS]] under [[Heinrich Himmler]] systematically rounded up all the Jews the Nazis could reach, and killed them in extermination camps.

The Holocaust was known but downplayed 1945-60, but since 1960 has become one of the central memories and horrors of [[World War II]], shaping policies by and towards [[Israel]] and profoundly shaping the modern conceptions of guilt and evil.

==Origins==
After years of struggling to push their ideology into the masses through browbeatings and violence, the Nazi Party in Germany came to power in 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] as Chancellor, his ideology firmly entrenched within the party, and in the pages of his ''Mein Kampf'', a semi-biographical work containing his rambling political philosophy. In its pages Hitler expounded on the idea that the Aryan race, of which he was a part, was the so-called “master race”, and had a moral right and duty to subjugate the world; in the way stood the ''untermenschen'' (“sub-humans”), which, according to the Nazis, were meant to serve the master race as slaves. At the very bottom were the Jews, who were depicted as an evil race bent on world domination.

Hitler came to power on January 30, 1933 to lead a coalition government at the request of [[President]] [[Paul von Hindenburg]], and almost immediately he made moves to consolidate power to himself and the Nazi Party, as well as restrict or eliminate political opposition. Jewish businesses began feeling the effects of a boycott as soon as it began on April 1, followed by the dismissal of Jewish civil service workers, judges, and university professors a week later. On May 10, some ten days after laws were enacted which prevented Jewish children from attending public schools except by quota, thousands of university students and professors stormed bookstores and libraries to remove books they deemed “un-Germanic” and opposed to Nazi teachings, throwing them into public bonfires. The [[Nuremberg Laws]] were enacted in 1935, which revoked German citizenship from Jews as well as declaring the marriage between a Jew and a [[German]] illegal. By 1938, the political and economic foundations of German Jewry were completely decimated.

==Crystal Night==
On November 7, 1938, Herschel Grynszpan, a German Jew living in [[Paris]] and upset over his family’s forced deportation to [[Poland]], shot the third secretary (Ernst vom Rath) to the German ambassador in [[France]], who died two days later. His assassination touched off a wave of riots on November 9, seemingly at the behest of the Nazi minister of propaganda, [[Joseph Goebbels]], but this was expanded and organized better with the issuing of orders by the head of the S.S., [[Reinhard Heydrich]], later that evening, who specified that S.S. and S.A. units in various cities would march out with sledgehammers against Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues - but in civilian clothes only (to symbolize the “righteous” anger of the German people). Business could not be looted, as the property inside was deemed property of the state; Jewish property near German shops and homes could not be burned, but smashed; and many Jewish males, particularly the wealthy, were subject to arrest. Over 35,000 men were arrested that night, and according to figures released by Heydrich the total number of arrests exceeded 100,000; 815 Jewish businesses were destroyed, 191 Synagogues were destroyed or demolished, and over 2,000 were dead. By the end of the week local jails as well as the new [[Buchenwald]] and [[Dachau]] concentration camps were quickly filled. To further add insult to injury, the Jews were declared responsible for the damages done to their property and ordered to pay the staggering sum of one billion Reichmarks.

The sidewalks were littered with shards of the expensive storefront glass that was preferred for shops in Germany, which was called ''Kristallglas'' for its high-quality. The amount of glass left behind gave the incident its name: ''Kristallnacht'' (“Crystal Night”), or the Night of Broken Glass.

==Non-Jewish victims==
Jews were not the only victims of Nazi persecution. <ref> It is estimated that around 6 million Jews were killed during the Final Solution, along with as many as another 6 million non-Jews. [http://www.holocaust-history.org/short-essays/heinrich-himmler.shtml] </ref>
Members of unions, members of the Social Democratic Party, and political dissidents were also sent to the camps; indeed they were among the first ones incarcerated immediately following Hitler’s appointment as chancellor. Some 20,000 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] also were rounded up and sent to the camps, primarily because of refusal to register for the draft, swear allegiance to the state, or give the “Heil Hitler” greeting. [[Homosexual]]s were arrested, where they were forced to wear a pink triangle on their prison garments. [[Gypsies]] as well were rounded up and imprisoned, and like the Jews, were deliberately marked for killing.

The mentally retarded, the disabled, and the insane were selected for the T-4 Program, which was created in 1939. Dubbed “useless eaters” by S.S. general Ernst Kaltenbrunner, these people were murdered as part of a “euthanasia” campaign, usually by placing them in a special room where a vehicle’s engine provided the carbon monoxide gas that flowed in through a hose in a wall.

Following the outbreak of World War II in [[Poland]], the Nazis killed Polish intellegensia in territories under their control, politicians, priests, and anyone else deemed part of a Polish leadership; the remainder were deemed slaves to serve their new masters; many were forced to perform hard labor, while many of the children who happened to look Aryan were kidnapped and raised as Germans in German households.

==World War II==
[[Image:Goeth.jpg|right|150px|right|thumb|Amon Goeth, commandant of the Plazow concentration camp near Krakow, Poland. A sadistic man, his recreation was to target and kill individual Jews in the camp with a hunting rifle from the balcony of his villa.]]
When World War II began in the fall of 1939, Jews in Germany were completely marginalized. They could not own property, go to a park, associate with Germans, enter a library or museum, work in any professional field or engage in business, nor could their children attend public schools. Public transportation would be forbidden by 1941, and the wearing of the yellow Star of David badge on their clothing was mandatory. They were also, prior to September 1, forced to migrate from countries and territories which had come under Hitler’s wing (the Rhineland, Austria, the Sudetenland), with many being deported to Poland. By September 21, Poland was now the “General Government” protectorate under former lawyer [[Hans Frank]], and on that day Heydrich ordered the establishment of ''Judenrates'' (Jewish councils) which comprised 24 men - political leaders and rabbis – and whose personal responsibility was to carry out, to the letter, all German orders. This would include supplying people for work details, usually mundane things like digging ditches to amuse their Nazi overlords. Later, they were made to be responsible for supplying thousands of people a day for the “work” camps of [[Treblinka]], [[Sobibor]], [[Belzec]], and new one under construction near the town of Oswiecim, which the Germans called [[Auschwitz]].

Thousands, nearly thirty percent of the total population of Warsaw, were crammed into just over 2 percent of the city’s total land area, a density of 200,000 people per square mile. Naturally disease and malnutrition would take its toll, but for the German overlords this was a minor inconvenience. The ghetto was a temporary place to hold all of Europe’s Jews until a final solution was determined, and when the Nazis invaded their former ally, the Soviet Union, in June 1941, the killing began in earnest.

====The Einsatzgruppen====
[[Image:Babi Yar.jpg|right|150px|left|thumb|1943 German photo of Soviet POWs forced to dig up the thousands of Jews killed at Babi Yar two years before; the Nazis destroyed the evidence by burning the bodies.]]
Alongside the German Army were special mobile units whose job it was to locate and kill Jews, Gypsies, Soviets commissars, and others deemed unfit in the areas controlled by the army. These ''Einsatzgruppen'' (“special units”) were also aided by local populations who felt the Germans had relieved them of [[Soviet]] occupation as well as sharing a hatred for Jews and other minorities. Making no difference between young or old, male or female, the Einsatzgruppen killed 70,000 Jews at Ponary, near Vilnius, [[Lithuania]]; 33,771 Jews were machine-gunned in a ravine known as Babi Yar near [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]], between [[September]] 28-29, 1941 [http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/yevtushenko.htm]; 9,000 Jews were killed at the Ninth Fort at Kaunas, Lithuania, on October 28, of which half of the dead were children. On November 30 in the Rumbula Forest outside of Riga, Latvia, between 25,000-28,000 were killed.

The killings were done in first and second waves, with the bodies buried in mass graves. When the Soviets threatened and carried out counter-offensives to reclaim lost territory, special units made up of concentration camp inmates (''sonderkomandos'') would return to the sites, dig up the bodies, and burn them in mass pyres, destroying the evidence of their crimes. The number of individual persons killed by the Einsatzgruppen has been estimated at a bare minimum of one million.

==Endlösung==
[[Image:Heydrich.jpg|right|150px|thumb|''Obersturbanfuhrer'' Reinhard Heydrich, the man who convened the Wannsee Conference with the intention of determining a "final solution to the Jewish question".]]
:''To Gruppenführer Heydrich:''
:''Supplementing the task assigned to you by the decree of January 24, 1939, to solve the Jewish problem by means of emigration and evacuation in the best possible way according to present conditions, I hereby charge you to carry out preparations as regards organizational, financial, and material matters for a total solution (Gesamtlösung) of the Jewish question in all the territories of Europe under German occupation.''
:''Where the competency of other central organizations touches on this matter, these organizations are to collaborate.''
:''I charge you further to submit to me as soon as possible a general plan of the administrative material and financial measures necessary for carrying out the desired final solution (Endlösung) of the Jewish question.'' (Order from Hermann Göring to Reinhard Heydrich, July 31, 1941)

====Wannsee Conference====
On January 20, 1942 at a lakeside villa near Berlin named Wannsee a conference was convened by Heydrich to implement methods and ideas for a "final solution to the Jewish question" (''die Endlösung der Judenfrage''). At the conference were fifteen men, among them Heydrich’s head of Jewish affairs, [[Adolf Eichmann]], who would be instrumental in providing the logistical plans for removing the Jews to the camps. The men present were highly educated, and represented government agencies, such as the Gestapo, the Race and Resettlement Office, the S.S., as well as a representative from the General Government in Poland. As Heydrich himself explained near the beginning of the conference, ideas were bartered about as to relocating Jews:

:''“Another possible solution of the [Jewish] problem has now taken the place of emigration—i.e., evacuation of the Jews to the east…Such activities are, however, to be considered as provisional actions, but practical experience is already being collected which is of greatest importance in relation to the future final solution of the Jewish problem.”''

The minutes of the meeting were kept, but had been edited by Heydrich. The language it contains euphemisms in place of what was really said. ''Evacuation of Jews to the east'' and ''resettlement'' meant relocation to the concentration and extermination camps in Poland; ''special handling'' regarded the killing of Jews, either through slave labor in which the Jew was worked to death, or being killed immediately on arrival. The ''final solution'' was put into practice within a few months of the conference, as the bullets of the machine guns and the exhaust of carbon monoxide were replaced by the more efficient killing methods installed in the first gas chambers.

====The killing centers====
[[Image:Hgdye56.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Selektion'' of Hungarian Jews at the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp in May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the gas chambers.]]
In the early years of Nazi Germany concentration camps were built with the expressed purpose of housing political prisoners; this was quickly expanded to Jews and other people the Nazis considered undesirable. But by 1942 new camps were built in eastern Poland as killing centers; the victims, once targeted by the Einsatzgruppen coming to them, had been rounded up by units of the Army and Waffen S.S., and forced to travel to their own destruction. The victims were packed tightly into cattle cars - so tight in fact that many would die standing up – and transported by rail to the new extermination camps of Chelmno, Treblinka, Sobibor, [[Majdanek]], and Belzec. The camps were essentially factories which specialized in death, making the process from arrival to counting to shower to disposal coldly efficient.

As they arrived the victims were divided in two: those fit for work, usually young to middle aged men, or possessed a special skill needed in the camp, and the remainder sent for delousing in the showers. Deceived to the end, the “showers” was actually a sealed room in which a chemical tablet known as “[[Zyklon B]]” was dropped through a hole in the ceiling. The cyanide-based vapors would kill the entire room within minutes; within thirty, the room was emptied by the ''sonderkomandos'', cleaned, and ready for another group of victims.

Of the killing centers, the one at Osweicim, Poland - Auschwitz - was perhaps the most notorious. Auschwitz was three camps: a prisoner-of-war camp (Auschwitz I), a slave-labour camp (Auschwitz III–Buna-Monowitz) and the extermination camp (Auschwitz II–Birkenau). The arrivals would disembark the trains at Auschwitz II, where the old, handicapped, infirm, sick, and pregnant women would face a German doctor (among them the notorious [[Joseph Mengele]]) in the ''selektion'', where a flick of a thumb could mean the difference between slave labor in the nearby factory run by I.G. Farben (which took advantage of the forced labor by investing some 700 million Reichsmarks in the project), or to their immediate deaths. Those selected for labor would be worked to death by a combination of hard labor and inadequate food and medical care; a second ''selektion'' of their numbers, if they had survived, would mean a trip to the gas chambers.

The number of Jews put to death were staggering. Beginning in the summer of 1942 a bare minimum of 960,000 were believed killed at Auschwitz during its three years in operation. At Treblinka, between 750,000-900,000 Jews were killed within 17 months, considering the staff and guards there numbered 120. 600,000 Jews died at Belzac within 10 months by a staff numbering 104. In the eighteen months of its operation, Sobibor killed 250,000.

==Clandestine aid==
In territory occupied by the Germans the situation was bleak for Jews. Their allies were few and resources were meager. Despite this, many put their lives on the line to provide aid and comfort, as well as putting them in hiding or through a network of underground units to get them to safety. In Poland it was punishable by death to aid Jews, yet a “council for the aid of Jews” known as the Zegota rescued about 5,000 men, women, and children, providing hiding places and forged identity papers. A similar number was hidden by French Huguenots in the little town of Le Chamblon-sur-Lignon. Although criticized by many for his silence about the Nazi persecution of the Jews, Pope [[Pius XII]] hid several hundred inside the Vatican, away from Mussolini and German occupiers and quietly worked behind the scenes to do what they could. The Vatican estimates they were able to save upwards of 150,000 Jews during this horrible time. For those who say the Vatican should have done more to save Jews, it should be noted that they weren't even able to stop the killing of Polish Catholics, of whom more than a million lost their lives, so how could they stop the killing of Jews?

Swedish diplomat [[Raoul Wallenburg]], in an attempt to save the last remaining Jews in Hungary, arrived in Budapest on July 9, 1944, and working with neutral diplomats and the Vatican, secured the release of several thousand; his efforts at the rescue of Jews would total well over 100,000 by war’s end. A Nazi businessman who took advantage of the slave labor conditions to make a personal profit, [[Oskar Schindler]], would use that profit to bribe camp guards and Nazi officials at the Plazow camp to ensure that the workers he had grown to love and admire would survive the end of the war; among the individuals he played cat and mouse with for their lives was the camp's commandant, Amon Goeth, a sadistic man who shot Jews for target practice from his villa and tortured a captured escapee by shooting the prisoners around him. These men and women, who hid Jews out of a sense of common humanity, would not be forgotten: the state of Israel would recognize them with honorary citizenship several years later.

==Resistance==
Jews stood virtually alone against the Nazi war machine and those who collaborated with them, receiving no aid or assistance from outside, as well as having no access to arms with which to defend themselves. Further, the Nazis took great care to prevent their victims from knowing their true plans right up to the moment of their deaths; at Babi Yar many had believed they were being transported to a “family work camp” right up to the point of standing before their own mass grave. There was also the fear of reprisals against large numbers of Jews within the ghettos, which also prevented resistance. But word of the unbelievable atrocities of the death camps filtered into places like Warsaw, and as the trains were leaving packed with Jews many saw that resistance was preferable to the death that awaited them.

Nine months after the Warsaw deportations had commenced, and after confirmation that their destination was the Treblinka extermination camp, 24-year-old [[Mordecai Anielewicz]] and his Jewish Resistance began the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising on April 19, 1943, which lasted just over a month. Jews would fight alongside partisans elsewhere in France, the Balkans, and Soviet Russia during the last three years of the war. Uprisings also occurred in two of the death camps, Treblinka and Sobibor; the latter was closed as a result and the site razed to hide the evidence.

But the killing continued unabated, even to the last week of the war. As territory was regained by Soviet forces, the death camps were evacuated of survivors and destroyed as much as possible in a futile attempt to hide the evidence. The survivors were moved west into Germany, usually in hellish death marches, and interned in concentration camps where death still awaited them; such killing by the S.S. took priority over military matters at times.

==Aftermath==
{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" width="450" style="margin-left:5px"
|-
!colspan="5" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: yellow no-repeat scroll top left;"|Jewish Death Statistics during the Holocaust
|-
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Country
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Prior Jewish Population
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: red no-repeat scroll top left;"|Estimated Number Killed
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Percentage of Total
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Estimated Number of Survivors
|-
|'''Poland'''
|3,300,000
|'''3,000,000'''
|91%
|300,000
|-
|'''Germany'''
|566,000
|'''200,000'''
|36%
|366,000
|-
|'''USSR'''
|3,020,000
|'''1,100,000'''
|36%
|1,920,000
|-
|'''Hungary'''
|800,000
|'''596,000'''
|74%
|204,000
|-
|'''Lithuania'''
|168,000
|'''143,000'''
|85%
|25,000
|-
|'''Estonia'''
|4,500
|'''2,000'''
|44%
|2,500
|-
|'''Latvia'''
|95,000
|'''80,000'''
|84%
|15,000
|-
|'''France'''
|350,000
|'''77,320'''
|22%
|272,680
|-
|'''Austria'''
|185,000
|'''65,000'''
|35%
|120,000
|-
|'''Netherlands'''
|140,000
|'''100,000'''
|71%
|40,000
|-
|'''Belgium'''
|65,700
|'''28,900'''
|45%
|36,800
|-
|'''Romania'''
|342,000
|'''287,000'''
|84%
|55,000
|-
|'''Bohemia Moravia'''
|118,310
|'''71,150'''
|60%
|47,160
|-
|'''Greece'''
|77,380
|'''67,000'''
|87%
|10,380
|-
|'''Czechoslovakia'''
|88,950
|'''71,000'''
|80%
|17,950
|-
|'''Yugoslavia'''
|78,000
|'''63,300'''
|81%
|14,700
|-
|'''Italy'''
|44,500
|'''7,680'''
|17%
|36,820
|-
|'''Bulgaria'''
|50,000
|'''0'''
|0%
|50,000
|-
|'''Denmark'''
|7,800
|'''60'''
|.8%
|7,740
|-
|'''Finland'''
|2,000
|'''7'''
|.03%
|1,993
|-
|'''Norway'''
|1,700
|'''762'''
|45%
|938
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''9,508,340'''
|'''5,962,129'''
|'''63%'''
|'''3,546,211'''
|
|}
[[Image:Ike at Ordruf.jpg|left|150px|thumb|General Dwight D. Eisenhower saw for himself the carnage wrought by the Nazis when he toured the Ordruf concentration camp on April 12, 1945. These prisoners were executed prior to the camp's liberation.]]
More than nine million people were discovered by the [[Allies]] to have been displaced throughout the European Theater of the war; of these, six million were returned to their native lands. One million refused, citing either a fear of communist persecution or a fear of being discovered to have collaborated with the enemy. The remainder, more than three and a half million Jews, had nothing. For these survivors, life after the war meant searching for loved ones, as well as recovering from the severe effects of malnutrition and disease at the hands of the Nazis.

As to the future of finding homes for the surviving Jews, that was solved in part by both covert and well-publicized efforts to pressure [[Great Britain]] into relinquishing control of [[Palestine]] for the purpose of a Jewish homeland, as well as the relaxing of American immigration laws in 1948 which allowed a large influx of Jewish refugees. So shocking was the Holocaust to the Jewish mindset that it caused a determination of survivors to speed the creation of the State of [[Israel]] in May, 1948, vowing that a repeat of the Holocaust, as well as previous pogroms against the Jews in the past, would not happen again. Since 1948, Israel has fought in four major wars against their neighbors bent on eradicating it, and each time Israel has emerged victorious.

The Allies were just as shocked over the conditions which prevailed at the Nazi death camps, and set up military tribunals as a result. The most famous was the [[Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal|Nürnberg Trials]], taking place 1945-1946 near the site of the Nazi mass rallies. For the first time in history, an international tribunal would try the 22 major living Nazis for crimes against humanity; all but one would be found guilty, and more than half would suffer death by hanging.

Many Nazis would flee justice, seeking solace in many counties which sympathized with them. [[Adolf Eichmann]], a chief architect of the Holocaust, was captured while hiding in Argentina under an assumed name, brought to Israel, and put on trial in 1961. He was found guilty, and suffered the first and only death penalty carried out Israel’s history. Other Nazis would eventually be brought to trial: [[Klaus Barbie]], the “Butcher of Lyon”, was tried in France in 1987, as well as [[Maurice Papon]] a decade later for collaborating with the Nazis. These trials brought to new generations an awareness of the Holocaust.

==Etymology==
The word '''Holocaust''' comes from the Greek word ''holokaustos'' (''holos'': complete, and ''kaustos'': a sacrificial or burnt offering to a god); the [[Hebrew]] word ''hurban'' (destruction) was also used, and and survivors have used both to refer to what seemed to be the complete and utter destruction of the Jewish people at the hands of the Nazis, specifically in the crematoria of the [[concentration camps|extermination camps]] built for that purpose. In Hebrew, the Holocaust is known by the word "''Shoah''."

==Books and film==
*''[[Schindler's List]]''

==See also==
[[Image:Lovis Corinth Römische Campagna.jpg|thumb|Römische Campagna by Lovis Corinth; returned to the heirs of a Jew in 2007.]]
* [[Holocaust denial]]
*[[Holocaust Memorial Day]]
*[[Kindertransport]]

{{Clear}}

==Bibliography==
===Surveys and victims===
* Bloxham, Donald and Kushner, Tony. ''The Holocaust: Critical Historical Approaches.'' (2005). 238 pp.
* Dawidowicz, Lucy. ''The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945'' (1986)
** '' Hitler's War Against the Jews: A Young Reader's Version of the War Against the Jews, 1933-1945, by Lucy S. Dawidowicz'' (1978) [http://www.amazon.com/Hitlers-War-Against-Jews-Dawidowicz/dp/0874412226/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979155&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* ''The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life: Before and During the Holocaust'' (2001).
* Friedlander, Saul. ''The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945'' (2007), the standard scholarly history [http://www.amazon.com/Years-Extermination-Nazi-Germany-1939-1945/dp/0060190434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979435&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Friedman, Saul S. ''A History of the Holocaust.'' (2004). 494 pp.
* Gilbert, Martin. ''Never Again: The History of the Holocaust'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Never-Again-Holocaust-Martin-Gilbert/dp/0789304090/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979238&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Gilbert, Martin. ''The Holocaust: A History of the Jews of Europe During the Second World War'' (1987) [http://www.amazon.com/Holocaust-History-Europe-During-Second/dp/0805003487/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979238&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Gilbert, Martin. ''The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust'' (2002)[http://www.amazon.com/Routledge-Atlas-Holocaust-Historical-Atlases/dp/0415281466/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979238&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
* Lacqueur, Walter, ed. ''The Holocaust Encyclopedia'' (2001).
* Landau, Ronnie. ''The Nazi Holocaust'' (2002)
* Marrus, Michael A. ''The Holocaust in History'' (1989)
* Niewyk, Donald, and Francis Nicosia. ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99854126&oplinknum=4 online edition]; [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=289191002135231 online review]
* Rosen, Philip. ''Dictionary of the Holocaust: Biography, Geography and Terminology.'' (1997)
* Rothkirchen, Livia. ''The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia: Facing the Holocaust.'' (2006). 447 pp.
*Yahil, Leni. ''The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry'', (1990).

===Perpetrators===
* Browning, Christopher. ''Nazi Policy, Jewish Workers, German Killers'' (2000)
* Burleigh, Michael. ''The Third Reich: A New History.'' 2000. 864 pp., stresses central role of antisemitism.
* Dawidowicz, Lucy. ''The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945'' (1986)
* Friedlander, Henry. ''The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution.'' (1995) 445 pp. ISBN 978-0-8078-2208-1. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=2249957902770 online review]
* Friedlander, Saul. ''Nazi Germany and the Jews: Volume 1: The Years of Persecution 1933-1939'' (1998)), the standard scholarly history
* Friedlander, Saul. ''The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945'' (2007), the standard scholarly history [http://www.amazon.com/Years-Extermination-Nazi-Germany-1939-1945/dp/0060190434/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979435&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Gaunt, David; Levine, Paul A.; and Palosuo, Laura, eds. ''Collaboration and Resistance during the Holocaust: Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania.'' (2004). 519 pp.
* Goldhagen, Daniel Joseph. ''Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust'' (1997).
* Graml, Hermann. ''Antisemitism in the Third Reich'' (1992).
* Gutman, Israel, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,'' 4 vol (1989)
* Johnson, Eric A. ''Nazi Terror: The Gestapo, Jews, and Ordinary Germans'' (2000). [http://www.amazon.com/Nazi-Terror-Gestapo-Ordinary-Germans/dp/0465049087/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979435&sr=8-13 excerpt and text search]
* Lewy, Guenter. ''The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies'' (2001). [http://www.amazon.com/Nazi-Persecution-Gypsies-Guenter-Lewy/dp/0195142403/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979549&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Levy, Richard, ed. ''Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution'' (2005)
* Lower, Wendy. ''Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine.'' (2005). 307 pp.
* Wachsmann, Nikolaus. "Looking into the Abyss: Historians and the Nazi Concentration Camps," ''European History Quarterly,'' 4 2006; vol. 36: pp. 247 - 278. fulltext in Sage; historiography
* Wistrich, Robert S. ''Hitler and the Holocaust.'' (2001). 295 pp.

===Memory===
* Bartov, Omer. ''Mirrors of Destruction: War, Genocide and Modern Identity.'' (2000). 310 pp. ISBN 978-0-19-507723-0. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=23289980364228 online review]; [http://www.amazon.com/Mirrors-Destruction-Genocide-Modern-Identity/dp/0195151844/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979627&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Bloxham, Donald. ''Genocide on Trial: War Crimes Trials and the Formation of Holocaust History and Memory.'' (2001) 292pp ISBN 978-0-19-820872-3. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=122091071198412 online review]
* Carrier, Peter. ''Holocaust Monuments and National Memory Cultures in France and Germany since 1989: The Origins and Political Function of the Véd'Hiv' in Paris and the Holocaust Monument in Berlin.'' (2005) 267 pp.
* Douglas, Lawrence. ''The Memory of Judgment: The Memory of Judgment: Making Law and History in the Trials of the Holocaust'' (2000) [http://books.google.com/books?id=hiU2C0maeAMC&pg=PP1&dq=intitle:The+intitle:Memory+intitle:of+intitle:Judgment+inauthor:douglas&num=30&as_brr=0&sig=MiETAxY1KKnru9emnC0x3IXWJIE excerpt and text search]
* Greenspan, Henry. ''On Listening to Holocaust Survivors: Recounting and Life History.'' (1998) 220 pp. ISBN 978-0-275-95718-6. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=3035937424750 online review]
* Haggith, Tony and Newman, Joanna, ed. ''Holocaust and the Moving Image: Representations in Film and Television.'' 2005. 317 pp.
* Mikhman, Dan. ''Holocaust Historiography: A Jewish Perspective: Conceptualizations, Terminology, Approaches, and Fundamental Issues'' (2003)
* Roseman, Mark. ''A Past in Hiding: Memory and Survival in Nazi Germany'' (2001). [http://www.amazon.com/Past-Hiding-Memory-Survival-Germany/dp/031242065X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979685&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rosen, Philip. and Nina Apfelbaum. ''Bearing Witness: A Resource Guide to Literature, Poetry, Art, Music, and Videos by Holocaust Victims and Survivors'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Bearing-Witness-Literature-Holocaust-Survivors/dp/0313310769/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195980447&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Stone, Dan, ed. ''The Historiography of the Holocaust.'' (2004). 573 pp
* Waxman, Zoe Vania. ''Writing the Holocaust: Identity, Testimony, Representation'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Writing-Holocaust-Representation-Historical-Monographs/dp/0199206384/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195981167&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Wiesel, Elie, and Robert Franciosi. ''Elie Wiesel: Conversations'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Elie-Wiesel-Conversations-Literary/dp/1578065038/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979990&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Weisel, Elie. ''Night'' (1999).

===Reactions and memory in U.S.===
* Abzug, Robert H. ed. ''America Views the Holocaust, 1933-1945: A Brief Documentary History'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/America-Views-Holocaust-1933-1945-Documentary/dp/0312218192/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195981035&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]
* Lipstadt, Deborah E. ''Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933–1945'' (1993). [http://www.amazon.com/Beyond-Belief-American-Coming-Holocaust/dp/0029191610/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979711&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Newton, Verne W., ed. ''FDR and the Holocaust'' (1996). [http://www.amazon.com/Holocaust-Franklin-Roosevelt-Institute-Diplomatic/dp/0312122268/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979739&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Novick, Peter. ''The Holocaust in American Life'' (1999). [http://www.amazon.com/Holocaust-American-Life-Peter-Novick/dp/0618082328/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979766&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Wyman, David. ''The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941–1945.'' (1984). [http://www.amazon.com/Abandonment-Jews-America-Holocaust-1941-1945/dp/159558174X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979795&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

===Primary sources===
* Greene, Joshua M, and Shiva Kumar, eds. ''Witness: Voices from the Holocaust'' (2000). [http://www.amazon.com/WITNESS-Holocaust-Joshua-M-Greene/dp/0684865262/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979830&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Klemperer, Victor. ''I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years 1942–1945'' (2001). [http://www.amazon.com/Will-Bear-Witness-1942-1945-Diary/dp/0375756973/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979856&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 2]
* Kremer, S. Lillian, ed. ''Holocaust Literature: An Encyclopedia of Writers and Their Work'' (2002).
* Siedlecki, Janusz Nel, et als. ''We Were in Auschwitz'' (2000).
* Szpilman, Wladyslaw. ''The Pianist'' (2000). [http://www.amazon.com/Pianist-Read-Great-Movie/dp/0752864297/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195979914&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

==International Justice==

* Pritchard, R. John, “War Crimes, International Criminal Law, and the Postwar Trials in Europe and Asia.,” Iin Loyd E. Lee ed., ''World War II in Asia and the Pacific and the War’s Aftermath, with General Themes,'' edited by Loyd E. Lee (19987).

===Video===
* “Schindler’s List” (DVD and VHS) (1993).
* [http://college.usc.edu/vhi/ USC Shoah Foundation], largest video archive of testimonies of Holocaust survivors and witnesses,

==Notes==
<references/>

==External Links==
:[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/ Holocaust Encyclopedia]
:[http://www.ushmm.org/ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]
:[http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/yevtushenko.htm ''Babi Yar'', poem by Yevgeni Yevtushenko]
:[http://www.hmh.org/ Houston Holocaust Museum]
:[http://www.flholocaustmuseum.org/ Florida Holocaust Museum]
:[http://www.va-holocaust.com/ Virginia Holocaust Museum]
:[http://holocausteducationcenter.org/ Holocaust Awareness Museum & Educational Center of Philadelphia; America's First Holocaust Museum]
:[http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/Nuremberg/Nuremberg.html#search Searchable list of 2300 victims from Nuremberg]
:[http://www.holocaustcentre.net/ Beth Shalom Holocaust Centre in Newark, England]
:[http://www.mhmc.ca/ Montreal Holocaust Memorial Center Museum]
:[http://www.holocaust-mahnmal.de/en German Government's Memorial To Jews Murdered During Holocaust]
:[http://www.amcha.org/ AMCHA: Israeli Association of Holocaust Survivors]

[[category:European History]]
[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:Genocide]]
[[Category:Holocaust| ]]

Kosovo War

2008-10-01T16:32:25Z

BillyR:

'''The Kosovo War''' was fought in 1999 between [[Serbia]] and [[NATO]]. NATO forces, under the command of General [[Wesley Clark]], bombed the Serbs for 75 days to stop an alleged Serb campaign of ethnic cleansing against Kosovar [[Albania]]ns. While efforts were made to minimize civilian casualties and the Serbian military was genearlly well hidden to avoid taking much damage, the Serbs capitulated under increasing use of bombing and destroying industrial targets. Indeed, the damage to their economy continued far beyond the war's end.

NATO forces occupied [[Kosovo]] as Albanians who had fled during the conflict returned. They were generally unable to protect Serbian Christians living in Kosovo, the founding place of the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], and the majority of the Serbian Christian population has since fled. Kosovo's parliament declared independence from Serbia in 2008.
==See Also==
[[Slobodan Milosevic]]

==Links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kosovo/etc/facts.html Facts & Figures] from PBS Frontline
*[http://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm Operation Allied Force]

[[Category:European History]]
[[Category:Wars]]

Holocaust

2008-10-01T16:26:44Z

BillyR:

[[Image:Warsaw ghetto.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Jewish families are forced from the Warsaw Ghetto in the aftermath of its destruction by the S.S. in 1943. Their final destination was the killing center at Treblinka.]]
The '''Holocaust''' was systematic destruction by the [[Nazis]] of [[Jews|Jewish culture]], society, and, in ''die Endlösung'' (the '''Final Solution'''), the lives of all Jews, 1933-1945. Before Hitler and the Nazis came to power in 1933 they demonized the Jews as subhuman and the cause of all Germany's troubles. In power, the Nazis first removed the Jews from power and prestige; from 1938-41 they imposed severe restrictions on Jews in Germany (many of whom fled). The killing started in 1941, as the [[SS]] under [[Heinrich Himmler]] systematically rounded up all the Jews the Nazis could reach, and killed them in extermination camps.

The Holocaust was known but downplayed 1945-60, but since 1960 has become one of the central memories and horrors of [[World War II]], shaping policies by and towards [[Israel]] and profoundly shaping the modern conceptions of guilt and evil.

==Origins==
After years of struggling to push their ideology into the masses through browbeatings and violence, the Nazi Party in Germany came to power in 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] as Chancellor, his ideology firmly entrenched within the party, and in the pages of his ''Mein Kampf'', a semi-biographical work containing his rambling political philosophy. In its pages Hitler expounded on the idea that the Aryan race, of which he was a part, was the so-called “master race”, and had a moral right and duty to subjugate the world; in the way stood the ''untermenschen'' (“sub-humans”), which, according to the Nazis, were meant to serve the master race as slaves. At the very bottom were the Jews, who were depicted as an evil race bent on world domination.

Hitler came to power on January 30, 1933 to lead a coalition government at the request of [[President]] [[Paul von Hindenburg]], and almost immediately he made moves to consolidate power to himself and the Nazi Party, as well as restrict or eliminate political opposition. Jewish businesses began feeling the effects of a boycott as soon as it began on April 1, followed by the dismissal of Jewish civil service workers, judges, and university professors a week later. On May 10, some ten days after laws were enacted which prevented Jewish children from attending public schools except by quota, thousands of university students and professors stormed bookstores and libraries to remove books they deemed “un-Germanic” and opposed to Nazi teachings, throwing them into public bonfires. The [[Nuremberg Laws]] were enacted in 1935, which revoked German citizenship from Jews as well as declaring the marriage between a Jew and a [[German]] illegal. By 1938, the political and economic foundations of German Jewry were completely decimated.

==Crystal Night==
On November 7, 1938, Herschel Grynszpan, a German Jew living in [[Paris]] and upset over his family’s forced deportation to [[Poland]], shot the third secretary (Ernst vom Rath) to the German ambassador in [[France]], who died two days later. His assassination touched off a wave of riots on November 9, seemingly at the behest of the Nazi minister of propaganda, [[Joseph Goebbels]], but this was expanded and organized better with the issuing of orders by the head of the S.S., [[Reinhard Heydrich]], later that evening, who specified that S.S. and S.A. units in various cities would march out with sledgehammers against Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues - but in civilian clothes only (to symbolize the “righteous” anger of the German people). Business could not be looted, as the property inside was deemed property of the state; Jewish property near German shops and homes could not be burned, but smashed; and many Jewish males, particularly the wealthy, were subject to arrest. Over 35,000 men were arrested that night, and according to figures released by Heydrich the total number of arrests exceeded 100,000; 815 Jewish businesses were destroyed, 191 Synagogues were destroyed or demolished, and over 2,000 were dead. By the end of the week local jails as well as the new [[Buchenwald]] and [[Dachau]] concentration camps were quickly filled. To further add insult to injury, the Jews were declared responsible for the damages done to their property and ordered to pay the staggering sum of one billion Reichmarks.

The sidewalks were littered with shards of the expensive storefront glass that was preferred for shops in Germany, which was called ''Kristallglas'' for its high-quality. The amount of glass left behind gave the incident its name: ''Kristallnacht'' (“Crystal Night”), or the Night of Broken Glass.

==Non-Jewish victims==
Jews were not the only victims of Nazi persecution. <ref> It is estimated that around 6 million Jews were killed during the Final Solution, along with as many as another 6 million non-Jews. [http://www.holocaust-history.org/short-essays/heinrich-himmler.shtml] </ref>
Members of unions, members of the Social Democratic Party, and political dissidents were also sent to the camps; indeed they were among the first ones incarcerated immediately following Hitler’s appointment as chancellor. Some 20,000 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] also were rounded up and sent to the camps, primarily because of refusal to register for the draft, swear allegiance to the state, or give the “Heil Hitler” greeting. [[Homosexual]]s were arrested, where they were forced to wear a pink triangle on their prison garments. [[Gypsies]] as well were rounded up and imprisoned, and like the Jews, were deliberately marked for killing.

The mentally retarded, the disabled, and the insane were selected for the T-4 Program, which was created in 1939. Dubbed “useless eaters” by S.S. general Ernst Kaltenbrunner, these people were murdered as part of a “euthanasia” campaign, usually by placing them in a special room where a vehicle’s engine provided the carbon monoxide gas that flowed in through a hose in a wall.

Following the outbreak of World War II in [[Poland]], the Nazis killed Polish intellegensia in territories under their control, politicians, priests, and anyone else deemed part of a Polish leadership; the remainder were deemed slaves to serve their new masters; many were forced to perform hard labor, while many of the children who happened to look Aryan were kidnapped and raised as Germans in German households.

==World War II==
[[Image:Goeth.jpg|right|150px|right|thumb|Amon Goeth, commandant of the Plazow concentration camp near Krakow, Poland. A sadistic man, his recreation was to target and kill individual Jews in the camp with a hunting rifle from the balcony of his villa.]]
When World War II began in the fall of 1939, Jews in Germany were completely marginalized. They could not own property, go to a park, associate with Germans, enter a library or museum, work in any professional field or engage in business, nor could their children attend public schools. Public transportation would be forbidden by 1941, and the wearing of the yellow Star of David badge on their clothing was mandatory. They were also, prior to September 1, forced to migrate from countries and territories which had come under Hitler’s wing (the Rhineland, Austria, the Sudetenland), with many being deported to Poland. By September 21, Poland was now the “General Government” protectorate under former lawyer [[Hans Frank]], and on that day Heydrich ordered the establishment of ''Judenrates'' (Jewish councils) which comprised 24 men - political leaders and rabbis – and whose personal responsibility was to carry out, to the letter, all German orders. This would include supplying people for work details, usually mundane things like digging ditches to amuse their Nazi overlords. Later, they were made to be responsible for supplying thousands of people a day for the “work” camps of [[Treblinka]], [[Sobibor]], [[Belzec]], and new one under construction near the town of Oswiecim, which the Germans called [[Auschwitz]].

Thousands, nearly thirty percent of the total population of Warsaw, were crammed into just over 2 percent of the city’s total land area, a density of 200,000 people per square mile. Naturally disease and malnutrition would take its toll, but for the German overlords this was a minor inconvenience. The ghetto was a temporary place to hold all of Europe’s Jews until a final solution was determined, and when the Nazis invaded their former ally, the Soviet Union, in June 1941, the killing began in earnest.

====The Einsatzgruppen====
[[Image:Babi Yar.jpg|right|150px|left|thumb|1943 German photo of Soviet POWs forced to dig up the thousands of Jews killed at Babi Yar two years before; the Nazis destroyed the evidence by burning the bodies.]]
Alongside the German Army were special mobile units whose job it was to locate and kill Jews, Gypsies, Soviets commissars, and others deemed unfit in the areas controlled by the army. These ''Einsatzgruppen'' (“special units”) were also aided by local populations who felt the Germans had relieved them of [[Soviet]] occupation as well as sharing a hatred for Jews and other minorities. Making no difference between young or old, male or female, the Einsatzgruppen killed 70,000 Jews at Ponary, near Vilnius, [[Lithuania]]; 33,771 Jews were machine-gunned in a ravine known as Babi Yar near [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]], between [[September]] 28-29, 1941 [http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/yevtushenko.htm]; 9,000 Jews were killed at the Ninth Fort at Kaunas, Lithuania, on October 28, of which half of the dead were children. On November 30 in the Rumbula Forest outside of Riga, Latvia, between 25,000-28,000 were killed.

The killings were done in first and second waves, with the bodies buried in mass graves. When the Soviets threatened and carried out counter-offensives to reclaim lost territory, special units made up of concentration camp inmates (''sonderkomandos'') would return to the sites, dig up the bodies, and burn them in mass pyres, destroying the evidence of their crimes. The number of individual persons killed by the Einsatzgruppen has been estimated at a bare minimum of one million.

==Endlösung==
[[Image:Heydrich.jpg|right|150px|thumb|''Obersturbanfuhrer'' Reinhard Heydrich, the man who convened the Wannsee Conference with the intention of determining a "final solution to the Jewish question".]]
:''To Gruppenführer Heydrich:''
:''Supplementing the task assigned to you by the decree of January 24, 1939, to solve the Jewish problem by means of emigration and evacuation in the best possible way according to present conditions, I hereby charge you to carry out preparations as regards organizational, financial, and material matters for a total solution (Gesamtlösung) of the Jewish question in all the territories of Europe under German occupation.''
:''Where the competency of other central organizations touches on this matter, these organizations are to collaborate.''
:''I charge you further to submit to me as soon as possible a general plan of the administrative material and financial measures necessary for carrying out the desired final solution (Endlösung) of the Jewish question.'' (Order from Hermann Göring to Reinhard Heydrich, July 31, 1941)

====Wannsee Conference====
On January 20, 1942 at a lakeside villa near Berlin named Wannsee a conference was convened by Heydrich to implement methods and ideas for a "final solution to the Jewish question" (''die Endlösung der Judenfrage''). At the conference were fifteen men, among them Heydrich’s head of Jewish affairs, [[Adolf Eichmann]], who would be instrumental in providing the logistical plans for removing the Jews to the camps. The men present were highly educated, and represented government agencies, such as the Gestapo, the Race and Resettlement Office, the S.S., as well as a representative from the General Government in Poland. As Heydrich himself explained near the beginning of the conference, ideas were bartered about as to relocating Jews:

:''“Another possible solution of the [Jewish] problem has now taken the place of emigration—i.e., evacuation of the Jews to the east…Such activities are, however, to be considered as provisional actions, but practical experience is already being collected which is of greatest importance in relation to the future final solution of the Jewish problem.”''

The minutes of the meeting were kept, but had been edited by Heydrich. The language it contains euphemisms in place of what was really said. ''Evacuation of Jews to the east'' and ''resettlement'' meant relocation to the concentration and extermination camps in Poland; ''special handling'' regarded the killing of Jews, either through slave labor in which the Jew was worked to death, or being killed immediately on arrival. The ''final solution'' was put into practice within a few months of the conference, as the bullets of the machine guns and the exhaust of carbon monoxide were replaced by the more efficient killing methods installed in the first gas chambers.

====The killing centers====
[[Image:Hgdye56.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Selektion'' of Hungarian Jews at the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp in May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the gas chambers.]]
In the early years of Nazi Germany concentration camps were built with the expressed purpose of housing political prisoners; this was quickly expanded to Jews and other people the Nazis considered undesirable. But by 1942 new camps were built in eastern Poland as killing centers; the victims, once targeted by the Einsatzgruppen coming to them, had been rounded up by units of the Army and Waffen S.S., and forced to travel to their own destruction. The victims were packed tightly into cattle cars - so tight in fact that many would die standing up – and transported by rail to the new extermination camps of Chelmno, Treblinka, Sobibor, [[Majdanek]], and Belzec. The camps were essentially factories which specialized in death, making the process from arrival to counting to shower to disposal coldly efficient.

As they arrived the victims were divided in two: those fit for work, usually young to middle aged men, or possessed a special skill needed in the camp, and the remainder sent for delousing in the showers. Deceived to the end, the “showers” was actually a sealed room in which a chemical tablet known as “[[Zyklon B]]” was dropped through a hole in the ceiling. The cyanide-based vapors would kill the entire room within minutes; within thirty, the room was emptied by the ''sonderkomandos'', cleaned, and ready for another group of victims.

Of the killing centers, the one at Osweicim, Poland - Auschwitz - was perhaps the most notorious. Auschwitz was three camps: a prisoner-of-war camp (Auschwitz I), a slave-labour camp (Auschwitz III–Buna-Monowitz) and the extermination camp (Auschwitz II–Birkenau). The arrivals would disembark the trains at Auschwitz II, where the old, handicapped, infirm, sick, and pregnant women would face a German doctor (among them the notorious [[Joseph Mengele]]) in the ''selektion'', where a flick of a thumb could mean the difference between slave labor in the nearby factory run by I.G. Farben (which took advantage of the forced labor by investing some 700 million Reichsmarks in the project), or to their immediate deaths. Those selected for labor would be worked to death by a combination of hard labor and inadequate food and medical care; a second ''selektion'' of their numbers, if they had survived, would mean a trip to the gas chambers.

The number of Jews put to death were staggering. Beginning in the summer of 1942 a bare minimum of 960,000 were believed killed at Auschwitz during its three years in operation. At Treblinka, between 750,000-900,000 Jews were killed within 17 months, considering the staff and guards there numbered 120. 600,000 Jews died at Belzac within 10 months by a staff numbering 104. In the eighteen months of its operation, Sobibor killed 250,000.

==Clandestine aid==
In territory occupied by the Germans the situation was bleak for Jews. Their allies were few and resources were meager. Despite this, many put their lives on the line to provide aid and comfort, as well as putting them in hiding or through a network of underground units to get them to safety. In Poland it was punishable by death to aid Jews, yet a “council for the aid of Jews” known as the Zegota rescued about 5,000 men, women, and children, providing hiding places and forged identity papers. A similar number was hidden by French Huguenots in the little town of Le Chamblon-sur-Lignon. Although criticized by many for his silence about the Nazi persecution of the Jews, Pope [[Pius XII]] hid several hundred inside the Vatican, away from Mussolini and German occupiers and quietly worked behind the scenes to do what they could. The Vatican estimates they were able to save upwards of 150,000 Jews during this horrible time. For those who say the Vatican should have done more to save Jews, it should be noted that they weren't even able to stop the killing of Polish Catholics, of whom more than a million lost their lives, so how could they stop the killing of Jews?

Swedish diplomat [[Raoul Wallenburg]], in an attempt to save the last remaining Jews in Hungary, arrived in Budapest on July 9, 1944, and working with neutral diplomats and the Vatican, secured the release of several thousand; his efforts at the rescue of Jews would total well over 100,000 by war’s end. A Nazi businessman who took advantage of the slave labor conditions to make a personal profit, [[Oskar Schindler]], would use that profit to bribe camp guards and Nazi officials at the Plazow camp to ensure that the workers he had grown to love and admire would survive the end of the war; among the individuals he played cat and mouse with for their lives was the camp's commandant, Amon Goeth, a sadistic man who shot Jews for target practice from his villa and tortured a captured escapee by shooting the prisoners around him. These men and women, who hid Jews out of a sense of common humanity, would not be forgotten: the state of Israel would recognize them with honorary citizenship several years later.

==Resistance==
Jews stood virtually alone against the Nazi war machine and those who collaborated with them, receiving no aid or assistance from outside, as well as having no access to arms with which to defend themselves. Further, the Nazis took great care to prevent their victims from knowing their true plans right up to the moment of their deaths; at Babi Yar many had believed they were being transported to a “family work camp” right up to the point of standing before their own mass grave. There was also the fear of reprisals against large numbers of Jews within the ghettos, which also prevented resistance. But word of the unbelievable atrocities of the death camps filtered into places like Warsaw, and as the trains were leaving packed with Jews many saw that resistance was preferable to the death that awaited them.

Nine months after the Warsaw deportations had commenced, and after confirmation that their destination was the Treblinka extermination camp, 24-year-old [[Mordecai Anielewicz]] and his Jewish Resistance began the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising on April 19, 1943, which lasted just over a month. Jews would fight alongside partisans elsewhere in France, the Balkans, and Soviet Russia during the last three years of the war. Uprisings also occurred in two of the death camps, Treblinka and Sobibor; the latter was closed as a result and the site razed to hide the evidence.

But the killing continued unabated, even to the last week of the war. As territory was regained by Soviet forces, the death camps were evacuated of survivors and destroyed as much as possible in a futile attempt to hide the evidence. The survivors were moved west into Germany, usually in hellish death marches, and interned in concentration camps where death still awaited them; such killing by the S.S. took priority over military matters at times.

==Aftermath==
{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" width="450" style="margin-left:5px"
|-
!colspan="5" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: yellow no-repeat scroll top left;"|Jewish Death Statistics during the Holocaust
|-
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Country
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Prior Jewish Population
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: red no-repeat scroll top left;"|Estimated Number Killed
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Percentage of Total
!align ="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Estimated Number of Survivors
|-
|'''Poland'''
|3,300,000
|'''3,000,000'''
|91%
|300,000
|-
|'''Germany'''
|566,000
|'''200,000'''
|36%
|366,000
|-
|'''USSR'''
|3,020,000
|'''1,100,000'''
|36%
|1,920,000
|-
|'''Hungary'''
|800,000
|'''596,000'''
|74%
|204,000
|-
|'''Lithuania'''
|168,000
|'''143,000'''
|85%
|25,000
|-
|'''Estonia'''
|4,500
|'''2,000'''
|44%
|2,500
|-
|'''Latvia'''
|95,000
|'''80,000'''
|84%
|15,000
|-
|'''France'''
|350,000
|'''77,320'''
|22%
|272,680
|-
|'''Austria'''
|185,000
|'''65,000'''
|35%
|120,000
|-
|'''Netherlands'''
|140,000
|'''100,000'''
|71%
|40,000
|-
|'''Belgium'''
|65,700
|'''28,900'''
|45%
|36,800
|-
|'''Romania'''
|342,000
|'''287,000'''
|84%
|55,000
|-
|'''Bohemia Moravia'''
|118,310
|'''71,150'''
|60%
|47,160
|-
|'''Greece'''
|77,380
|'''67,000'''
|87%
|10,380
|-
|'''Czechoslovakia'''
|88,950
|'''71,000'''
|80%
|17,950
|-
|'''Yugoslavia'''
|78,000
|'''63,300'''
|81%
|14,700
|-
|'''Italy'''
|44,500
|'''7,680'''
|17%
|36,820
|-
|'''Bulgaria'''
|50,000
|'''0'''
|0%
|50,000
|-
|'''Denmark'''
|7,800
|'''60'''
|.8%
|7,740
|-
|'''Finland'''
|2,000
|'''7'''
|.03%
|1,993
|-
|'''Norway'''
|1,700
|'''762'''
|45%
|938
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''9,508,340'''
|'''5,962,129'''
|'''63%'''
|'''3,546,211'''
|
|}
[[Image:Ike at Ordruf.jpg|left|150px|thumb|General Dwight D. Eisenhower saw for himself the carnage wrought by the Nazis when he toured the Ordruf concentration camp on April 12, 1945. These prisoners were executed prior to the camp's liberation.]]
More than nine million people were discovered by the [[Allies]] to have been displaced throughout the European Theater of the war; of these, six million were returned to their native lands. One million refused, citing either a fear of communist persecution or a fear of being discovered to have collaborated with the enemy. The remainder, more than three and a half million Jews, had nothing. For these survivors, life after the war meant searching for loved ones, as well as recovering from the severe effects of malnutrition and disease at the hands of the Nazis.

As to the future of finding homes for the surviving Jews, that was solved in part by both covert and well-publicized efforts to pressure [[Great Britain]] into relinquishing control of [[Palestine]] for the purpose of a Jewish homeland, as well as the relaxing of American immigration laws in 1948 which allowed a large influx of Jewish refugees. So shocking was the Holocaust to the Jewish mindset that it caused a determination of survivors to speed the creation of the State of [[Israel]] in May, 1948, vowing that a repeat of the Holocaust, as well as previous pogroms against the Jews in the past, would not happen again. Since 1948, Israel has fought in four major wars against their neighbors bent on eradicating it, and each time Israel has emerged victorious.

The Allies were just as shocked over the conditions which prevailed at the Nazi death camps, and set up military tribunals as a result. The most famous was the [[Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal|Nürnberg Trials]], taking place 1945-1946 near the site of the Nazi mass rallies. For the first time in history, an international tribunal would try the 22 major living Nazis for crimes against humanity; all but one would be found guilty, and more than half would suffer death by hanging.

Many Nazis would flee justice, seeking solace in many counties which sympathized with them. [[Adolf Eichmann]], a chief architect of the Holocaust, was captured while hiding in Argentina under an assumed name, brought to Israel, and put on trial in 1961. He was found guilty, and suffered the first and only death penalty carried out Israel’s history. Other Nazis would eventually be brought to trial: [[Klaus Barbie]], the “Butcher of Lyon”, was tried in France in 1987, as well as [[Maurice Papon]] a decade later for collaborating with the Nazis. These trials brought to new generations an awareness of the Holocaust.

==Etymology==
The word '''Holocaust''' comes from the Greek word ''holokaustos'' (''holos'': complete, and ''kaustos'': a sacrificial or burnt offering to a god); the [[Hebrew]] word ''hurban'' (destruction) was also used, and and survivors have used both to refer to what seemed to be the complete and utter destruction of the Jewish people at the hands of the Nazis, specifically in the crematoria of the [[concentration camps|extermination camps]] built for that purpose. In Hebrew, the Holocaust is known by the word "''Shoah''."

==Books and film==
*''[[Schindler's List]]''

==See also==
[[Image:Lovis Corinth Römische Campagna.jpg|thumb|Römische Campagna by Lovis Corinth; returned to the heirs of a Jew in 2007.]]
* [[Holocaust denial]]
*[[Holocaust Memorial Day]]
*[[Kindertransport]]

{{Clear}}

==References==
*Shirer, William L. ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'', Simon and Schuster, New York (1960).
*Yahil, Leni. ''The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry'', Schocken Publishing House, Ltd, Tel Aviv, Israel (1987). English edition by Oxford University Press, New York (1990).
*[http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/yevtushenko.htm ''Babi Yar'', poem by Yevgeni Yevtushenko]

==Notes==
<references/>

==External Links==
:[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/ Holocaust Encyclopedia]
:[http://www.ushmm.org/ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]
:[http://www.hmh.org/ Houston Holocaust Museum]
:[http://www.flholocaustmuseum.org/ Florida Holocaust Museum]
:[http://www.va-holocaust.com/ Virginia Holocaust Museum]
:[http://holocausteducationcenter.org/ Holocaust Awareness Museum & Educational Center of Philadelphia; America's First Holocaust Museum]
:[http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/Nuremberg/Nuremberg.html#search Searchable list of 2300 victims from Nuremberg]
:[http://www.holocaustcentre.net/ Beth Shalom Holocaust Centre in Newark, England]
:[http://www.mhmc.ca/ Montreal Holocaust Memorial Center Museum]
:[http://www.holocaust-mahnmal.de/en German Government's Memorial To Jews Murdered During Holocaust]
:[http://www.amcha.org/ AMCHA: Israeli Association of Holocaust Survivors]

[[category:European History]]
[[Category:World War II]]
[[Category:Genocide]]
[[Category:Holocaust| ]]

James David Manning

2008-10-01T16:22:47Z

BillyR:

[[Image:Pastor2 default.jpg|Right]]

'''The Honorable James David Manning, Ph.D.''', is a New York [[pastor]] of ATLAH World Ministries, and has preached there since 1981. He has founded and organized several highly successful ministries.

==About the Pastor==
Manning graduated from the College of New Rochelle, and continued his education at Union Theological Seminary in New York where he received a Master of Divinity degree. He earned a Ph.D. from The Atlah Theological Seminary. Pastor Manning is the husband of Elizabeth Sarah Manning, as well as a father and grandfather.

==Obama's Mamma==
In defense of Bristol Palin, Pastor Manning created a video critical of [[Barack Obama]]'s family.

==External Links==
*[http://www.atlah.org/ Official ATLAH Web site]

==Video==
*[http://www.atlah.org/broadcast/ndnr09-03-08.html Manning; Fierce Prayer for Bristol Palin]

[[Category:politics]]

James David Manning

2008-10-01T16:20:55Z

BillyR: Is this what the editor meant? There was not even a complete sentence. Also--more info on the video? Maybe a link?

[[Image:Pastor2 default.jpg|Right]]

'''The Honorable James David Manning, PhD''', has been a New York [[pastor]] of ATLAH World Ministries since 1981. He has founded and organized several highly successful ministries.

==About the PhD Pastor==
Graduated at the College of New Rochelle. Continued his education at Union Theological Seminary in N.Y.C. where he received a Master of Divinity Degree. Also, he received a Doctor of Philosophy degree from The Atlah Theological Seminary. Pastor Manning is the husband of the wonderful Elizabeth Sarah Manning, as well as a father and grandfather.

==Obama's Mamma==
In defense of Bristol Palin, Pastor Manning created a video critical of [[Barack Obama]]'s family.

==External Links==
*[http://www.atlah.org/ Official ATLAH Web site]

==Video==
*[http://www.atlah.org/broadcast/ndnr09-03-08.html Manning; Fierce Prayer for Bristol Palin]

[[Category:politics]]