[[Image:800px-Crop Book of Isaiah 2006-06-06.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Holy Bible, opened to the Book of Isaiah.]]
{{Bible}}
The '''Bible''', or the '''Holy Scriptures''', is the collection of texts sacred to [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], and consists of two parts: the thirty-nine books of the Jewish faith known as the '''Tanakh''', or the [[Old Testament]], to which additional books are recognized by [[Christians]]; and the twenty-seven books and letters of the [[New Testament]] of the Christian faith. Originally written in [[Hebrew]], Aramaic, and Greek, the Bible has been translated in more than two thousand languages; in terms of sales and distribution the Bible is the most-widely distributed, largest-selling book in history;<ref> The Bible continues to be the best-selling book ever. Americans alone buy 25 million Bibles a year, according to Publisher's Weekly. Bible sales are now reaching $609 million a year, with specialty Bibles available for myriad "niche" audiences, from motorcycle riders to campers, brides and archaeologists. "Immerse," a water-resistant Bible for troops overseas, is now available from publisher Bardin & Marsee. [http://www.washtimes.com/national/20070529-111815-7952r.htm Polls: Most believe Bible as God's word] - Jennifer Harper, ''The Washington Times'' - May 30, 2007] </ref>
the over-all influence and impact the Bible has had on literature, culture, and history is beyond calculation. Most [[Christians]], Protestant and Catholic, agree on the books of the [[New Testament]], but the Protestant Bible includes 66 books of the [[Old Testament]] while the Catholic Bible includes an extra 7 books, for a total of 73.<ref>The Catholic Bible includes these books that are not included in the Protestant Bible:
# The Wisdom of Solomon
# Tobit
# Sirach
# Judith
# 1st Maccabees
# 2nd Maccabees
# Baruch [http://www.catholicbible101.com/theholybible.htm]</ref> The Protestant Bible has 593,493 words in the Old Testament and 181,253 words in the New Testament.<ref>http://www.christiananswers.net/bible/about.html</ref>

==Name==
The word "Bible" had its origins in an ancient [[Phoenicia]]n seaport called [[Byblos]], which was so-named as a result of the trade and manufacture of writing material based on the [[papyrus]] or byblos reed, used extensively in antiquity for making [[scroll]]s and [[book]]s. The [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''biblos'' was based upon this, and it came to be the word for ''book'' (a small book was termed ''biblion''), and by the 2nd century A.D. Greek [[Christianity|Christians]] had called the Scriptures ''ta Biblia'' ('''τα βιβλία''' ''the books''), which was transferred to [[Latin]] by dropping the ''ta''; the word made its way to [[Old French]] where the plural was dropped in favor of the singular, hence becoming the [[English]] word ''Bible''. (Unger, pg 143; Moulton; Blass)

==Books of the Bible==
===The Old Testament===
{| border="1" align="right" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="360" style="margin-left:5px" class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Old Testament layout
|-
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"|Jewish
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"|Christian
|-
|Genesis
|Genesis
|-
|Exodus
|Exodus
|-
|Leviticus
|Leviticus
|-
|Numbers
|Numbers
|-
|Deuteronomy
|Deuteronomy
|-
|Joshua
|Joshua
|-
|Samuel
|Judges
|-
|Kings
|Ruth
|-
|Isaiah
|1st Samuel
|-
|Jeremiah
|2nd Samuel
|-
|Ezekiel
|1st Kings
|-
|The Minor Prophets
|2nd Kings
|-
|Psalms
|1st Chronicles
|-
|Proverbs
|2nd Chronicles
|-
|Job
|Ezra
|-
|Song of Songs
|Nehemiah
|-
|Ruth
|Esther
|-
|Lamentations
|Job
|-
|Ecclesiastes
|Psalms
|-
|Ester
|Proverbs
|-
|Daniel
|Ecclesiastes
|-
|Ezra
|Song of Solomon
|-
|Chronicles
|Isaiah
|-
|
|Jeremiah
|-
|
|Lamentations
|-
|
|Ezekiel
|-
|
|Daniel
|-
|
|The Minor Prophets
|-
!colspan="2" align="center" style="color: black; height: 30px; background: tan no-repeat scroll top left;"|Dates of each Book
|-
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"|Old Testament
!align ="center" style="color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;"|New Testament
|-
|Genesis, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Matthew, A.D. 60-65
|-
|Exodus, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Mark, A.D. 60-65
|-
|Leviticus, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Luke, A.D. 58-65
|-
|Numbers, 1440-1400 B.C.
|John, A.D. 95
|-
|Deuteronomy, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Acts, A.D. 58-65
|-
|Joshua, 1400-1360 B.C.
|Romans, A.D. 58
|-
|Judges, c. 1020 B.C.
|1st Corinthians, A.D. 57
|-
|Ruth, c. 1090 B.C.
|2nd Corinthians, A.D. 57
|-
|1st Samuel
|Galatians, A.D. 56
|-
|2nd Samuel
|Ephesians, A.D. 62-63
|-
|1st Kings, 609-600 B.C.
|Philippians, A.D. 58-60
|-
|2nd Kings, 609-600 B.C.
|Colosians, A.D. 61-63
|-
|1st Chronicles, c. 400 B.C.
|1st Thessalonians, A.D. 52
|-
|2nd Chronicles, c. 400 B.C.
|2nd Thessalonians, A.D. 53
|-
|Ezra, c. 400 B.C.
|1st Timothy, A.D. 62-65
|-
|Nehemiah, c. 400 B.C.
|2nd Timothy, A.D. 65-66
|-
|Esther, 464-425 B.C.
|Titus, A.D. 65
|-
|Job, 1440-1400 B.C.
|Philemon, A.D. 65
|-
|Psalms, 1004-965 B.C.
|Hebrews, A.D. 63-64
|-
|Proverbs, 965-925 B.C.
|James, A.D. 63-64
|-
|Eccleisiastes, 965-925 B.C.
|1st Peter, A.D. 64
|-
|Song of Solomon, 965-925 B.C.
|2nd Peter, A.D. 65
|-
|Isaiah, 785-697 B.C.
|1st John, A.D. 90-100
|-
|Jeremiah, 587-538 B.C.
|2nd John, A.D. 90-100
|-
|Lamentations, 587-538 B.C.
|3rd John, A.D. 90-100
|-
|Ezekiel, 592-572 B.C.
|Jude, c. A.D. 70-75
|-
|Daniel, 539-520 B.C.
|Revelation, A.D. 96-98
|-
|Hosea, 753-731 B.C.
|
|-
|Joel, 835-796 B.C.
|
|-
|Amos, 787-747 B.C.
|
|-
|Obadiah, 848-841 B.C.
|
|-
|Jonah, 771-754 B.C.
|
|-
|Micah, 715-687 B.C.
|
|-
|Nahum, 661-612 B.C.
|
|-
|Habbakuk, 625-608 B.C.
|
|-
|Zephaniah, 621-608 B.C.
|
|-
|Haggai, 520 B.C.
|
|-
|Zechariah, 520 B.C.
|
|-
|Malachi, 455 B.C.
|
|}
The [[Old Testament]], also called the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, consists of thirty-nine books. The books themselves were originally written in [[Hebrew]], and later on in the [[Aramaic]] language of Palestine; the Greek language version written after the conquest of [[Alexander the Great]] is known as the [[Septuagint]]. [[Melito]], a bishop of [[Sardis]] in [[Lydia]] (in what is now [[Turkey]]), is said to have coined the phrase ''Old Testament'' about A.D. 170. The Old Testament is divided in three parts (hence, "Tanakh") within the Jewish community: the [[Torah]] ("Law"), or [[Pentateuch]], the five books of [[Moses]]; [[Nevi'im]] ("Prophets"), and [[Ketuvim]] ("Writings,” or [[Hagiographa]]). Here the arrangement of the books differs somewhat from the Old Testament as used by Christians, however the actual writing of each book remains the same. The Christian order of the the books of the Bible follow the Chronology of the events and the personages being related, while in the Jewish order, though there is a chronological framework, the order follows more the importance, influence, "weight of usage" within Judaism. Thus, for orthodox Judaism, The Torah of Moses (the 5 books of Moses) come first, and are the most authoritative of all Scripture. Under the Pharasaic theory that the Moses was given the Oral law explicating how the written law was to be applied, at the same time as he was given the written law contained in the Bible, and that oral law passed on through the generations, the Mishna and the Gemara composing the Talmud is equally authoritative with the Torah of Moses. Then the Prophets come next in authority. But the Prophets are broader than considered by the Christian ordering. The Prophets do include what Christians call the Former and the Latter, or the Major and the Minor prophets, but it also includes what Christinns consider History - such as the books of the Kings. The last in authority for every day life of the Jew in terms of "regulation", actually form a great influence in the Synagogue worship - the Writings, with a heavy emphasis on the Psalms.

====Torah====
The Five books of Moses, in their Hebrew and English names:
*Bereisheet ("in the beginning"), or [[Genesis]]
*Shemot (“names”), or [[Exodus]]
*Vayikra (“and God called”), or [[Leviticus]]
*Bemidbar (“in the Wilderness”), or [[Numbers]]
*Devarim (“words”), or [[Deuteronomy]]

The first eleven chapters of ''Genesis'' provide the account of the [[Creation]], the history of God's early relationship with humanity, and the [[Deluge]] of [[Noah]]. The remaining thirty-nine chapters detail the account of God's covenant with the early Hebrew nation, led by the patriarchs [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]] (or Israel), and one of Jacob's children, [[Joseph]]. It tells the beginnings of God's chosen people, of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home to settle in the land of [[Canaan]], and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remainder of the Torah, beginning with ''Exodus'', tells the story of the great Hebrew leader [[Moses]], and of the Hebrews through their sojourn and slavery in Egypt, their escape from bondage, and their wanderings in the desert until they finally enter the Promised Land.

====Nevi'im====
The [[Nevi'im]] ("Prophets") is the story of the rise toward, and ultimately reaching, the Hebrew monarchy; the sad period of anarchy and revolt leading to the division into the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel; and the prophets who judged the kings of both in God's name. It ends with the conquest of both kingdoms and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. The Minor Prophets are considered a single book in the Nevi'um; in Christianity they have been split into twelve separate books and named for their authors.
* [[Joshua (Biblical book)|Joshua]]
* [[Judges (Biblical book)|Judges]]
* [[I Samuel]]
* [[II Samuel]]
* [[I Kings]]
* [[II Kings]]
* [[Isaiah (Biblical book)|Isaiah]]
* [[Jeremiah (Biblical book)|Jeremiah]]
* [[Ezekiel (Biblical book)|Ezekiel]]
* [[The Minor Prophets]]
**[[Hosea (Biblical book)|Hosea]]
** [[Joel (Biblical book)|Joel]]
** [[Amos (Biblical book)|Amos]]
** [[Obadiah (Biblical book)|Obadiah]]
** [[Jonah (Biblical book)|Jonah]]
** [[Micah (Biblical book)|Micah]]
** [[Nahum (Biblical book)|Nahum]]
** [[Habakkuk (Biblical book)|Habakkuk]]
** [[Zephaniah (Biblical book)|Zephaniah]]
** [[Haggai (Biblical book)|Haggai]]
** [[Zechariah (Biblical book)|Zechariah]]
** [[Malachi (Biblical book)|Malachi]]

====Ketuvim====
The [[Ketuvim]], or "Writings," contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the writings of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the exile in [[Babylon]].
* [[Psalms]]
* [[Proverbs]]
* [[Book of Job]]
* [[Song of Songs]], also called [[Song of Solomon]] in the Christian Bible.
* [[Book of Ruth]]
* [[Lamentations]]
* [[Ecclesiastes]]
* [[Esther]]
* [[Daniel (Biblical book)|Daniel]]
* [[Ezra]], divided into the two books of Ezra and [[Nehemiah]] in the Christian Bible.
* [[Books of Chronicles]]

[[David]] has been named as the author of the ''Psalms''; [[Solomon]] is believed to have written ''Song of Songs'' in his youth, the ''Proverbs'' in his prime, and ''Ecclesiastes'' during his old age. The prophet [[Jeremiah]] is thought to have written the aptly-named ''Lamentations'' at the beginning of the exile in Babylon. The ''Book of Ruth'' is the only biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew, a [[Moabite]] who married a Jew and became an ancestor of both David and [[Jesus Christ]]. ''Esther'' is unique as it is the only book in the Bible not to mention God. [[Moses]] is considered to be the author of ''Job''.

===Old Testament Apocrypha===
The [[Apocrypha]] was written during the four hundred years between the last book of the Old Testament and the birth of Christ. The term itself comes from the Greek word ''apokruphos'' ("hidden" or "concealed"), and although they have an actual history and literary value, the fourteen books which make up the Apocrypha have been rejected as canonical by both the Jewish faith and most denominations of the Christian church due to historical, geographical, or literal inaccuracies; the teaching of doctrines which contradict inspired Scripture; and a lack of elements and structure which give genuine Scripture its unique characteristic (Unger, pg. 70). The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, among others, include the Apocrypha in their versions of the Bible, considering them to be canonical.

The Apocryphal books had been used in both Israel and Egypt and are part of the Old Testament in the Greek language used by Jews all over the Greek speaking world - particularly Alexandria, Egypt. This version is called the Septuaginta. The Septuaginta fell into disuse among Jews for two reasons - 1. Greek speaking Christians were using the Septuaginta in their efforts to bring Jews to faith in Jesus Christ 2. A number of the Apocryphal books were also apocalyptic, that is, focusing on the last days, the KIngdom of God in battle against the kingdoms of this world and the downfall of this world's empires. This was considered dangerous and liable to provoke Rome against the Jews. Alternative Greek translations to the Septuaginta, which was considered "loose", were adopted by the Rabbis. These were the translations of three proselytes to Judaism, Theodosious, Aquillas, and Symmachus. The Jewish Rabbinic "Council" of Jamnia (Yavneh on the Mediterraenian coast of Israel) in 90 A.D., under the leadership of Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai, effectively excluded the Apocraphal books (along with the Septuaginta) from the Jewish Canon by requiring, for a book to be considered canonical, that it have been written in Hebrew (and Aramaic). Actually, a number of the apocryphal books, or portions thereof, had been written originally in Hebrew, most notably, the Book of Ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) found in Hebrew at Qumran with the rest of the Dead Sea Scrolls, but this was unknown to Yohanan Ben Zakkai and the Council of Jamnia in the first century. Under the impetus of Renaissance learning, Protestant scholars, now able to translate the Bible directly from the original languages of Hebrew and Greek, instead of having to go through the Latin Vulgate, went directly to the Hebrew text. But this was the Hebrew text (eventually to be called the "Massoretic text") of the canon of books that had been authorized by the Council of Jamnia. In this way, most Protestant churches came to not include the Apocryphal books in their Canon of Scripture.

The following are the books which are most frequently referred to by the title ''Apocrypha'':
*[[1 Esdras]]
*[[2 Esdras]]
*[[1 Maccabees]]
*[[2 Maccabees]]
*[[Book of Tobit]]
*[[Book of Judith]]
*[[Book of Wisdom]]
*[[Ecclesiasticus]], also known as Sirach
*[[Book of Baruch]]
:*[[Epistle of Jeremiah]] is sometimes listed as separate book or the last chapter of Baruch
*[[Prayer of Manasseh]]
*Greek language additions to the [[Book of Esther]]

Additions to the book of Daniel
*[[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]]
*[[Story of Susanna]]
*[[Bel and the Dragon]]

Between 90-95 A.D. the Jewish [[Council of Jamnia]] revised the canon of the Old Testament, ensuring that the books involved conformed to the Torah, were written in the Hebrew language, written in Palestine, and written before 400 B.C. As a result, the Apocrypha was removed from the canon. <ref>http://agards-bible-timeline.com/q2_bible_english.html</ref>

===The New Testament===
The [[New Testament]] is a collection of twenty-seven books and letters, written by the early Christian community, and written primarily in [[Greek]]. The emphasis of the New Testament is the life, teachings, and gift of salvation from the central figure of the whole work, Jesus of Nazareth. These books are grouped into the following:

====[[Gospels|The Gospels]]====
The ''Gospels'' contain the history of Jesus. The ''Acts of the Apostles'' are a continuance of the Gospels, documenting the history of the early church, beginning immediately following Jesus' death and resurrection. Of the authors, only Matthew and John had met Jesus; they were among His disciples during His earthly ministry. Mark was a companion of Peter, and his gospel was the first to be written down, about A.D. 50. Luke is considered the author of both his gospel and the ''Acts''.
*[[Gospel of Matthew]]
*[[Gospel of Mark]]
*[[Gospel of Luke]]
*[[Gospel of John]]
*[[Acts of the Apostles]]

====[[Pauline Epistles]]====
These are letters written to various early Christian communities by the [[Apostle Paul]].
*[[Epistle to the Romans]]
*[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Epistle to the Galatians]]
*[[Epistle to the Philippians]]
*[[Epistle to Philemon]]
*[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
*[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]
*[[Epistle to the Colossians]]
*[[First Epistle to Timothy]]
*[[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
*[[Epistle to Titus]]
*[[Epistle to the Hebrews]]

Paul has been attributed by many as the author of ''Epistle to the Hebrews'', but several others, such as [[Barnabas]], [[Silas]], [[Stephen]], [[Apollos]] and [[Priscilla]] are also claimed to be the author. The controversy, however, does not affect the genuiness of the epistle. (Unger, pg. 748)

====[[General Epistles]]====
*[[Epistle of James]]
*[[First Epistle of Peter]]
*[[Second Epistle of Peter]]
*[[First Epistle of John]]
*[[Second Epistle of John]]
*[[Third Epistle of John]]
*[[Epistle of Jude]]

====Revelation====
The [[Book of Revelation]] is the last work in the New Testament as well as the whole Bible, written close to A.D. 100 by the [[Apostle John]] during his exile on the Greek island of [[Patmos]]. Revelation is concerned with the condition of the [[Seven Churches of Asia]] before going deeply into a description of the [[Last Days]] prior to the beginning of the [[Millennial Age]].

Most [[Fundamentalism|Fundamentalists]] hold to "[[Dispensationalism]]", a theory of the meaning of Revelations and other prophecies that was developed in the 19th century and is summarized in the ''Scofield Reference Bible'' (1909, 1917).

==Non-uniformity of language and style of original Scriptures==
Both the Old Testament and the New Testament, in the original languages of Hebrew (and Aramaic) and Greek, exhibit a non uniformity of style and language. This is in sharp contrast to most modern translations which treat the Scriptures throughout as if it was one book instead the many books they are. Modern translations can be erudite, dignified, folksy and common, clear and geared for the "common man", or replete with language resonant with literary associations for the "accomplished" reader. But they are that way througout. The Biblical originals, on the other hand, for example in the Hebrew, have imbedded within narrative of one period, as the narrative of the deeds of the prophets Debora, a similar poetic recounting in a much more ancient and even archaic Hebrew, probably emanating from a chant from the time of Deborah herself. The same with the narrative and poetic portions concerning Moses. There are even different Hebrew languages from the same period but different authors, having come from different origins and cultural levels.

For the New Testament, an example of non-uniformity can be found in the stark differences of languages in the Gospel of Luke, written by Luke the physician. The early accounts, those concerning the birth of Jesus and early life, are written in a stilted and often crude Greek while the rest of the Gospel is written in fine Greek befitting of the background and ability of a learned physician. But when the stilted and crude Greek is retranslated, word for word and phrase for phrase, into the Hebrew current in the first century in most parts of Israel, it becomes excellent Hebrew - Mishnaic Hebrew. This is because of the intent and fastidiousness of Luke, who derived his material, as he says, from people that had been "on the scene" , and his success in transmitting it faithfully as he had received it. Both the Old and New Testaments, for various reasons, exhibit little or no concern to "level through" or override the content of what they are saying by stylistic considerations.

===Inspiration===
Although the Old Testament is written by many [[homo sapiens|human]] authors, New Testament authors claim that these men were writing under the inspiration of God.

The apostle [[Paul]] wrote that "All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness" (2 Timothy 3:16).
Similarly the apostle [[Saint Peter|Peter]] wrote, "Above all, you must understand that no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet's own interpretation. For prophecy never had its origin in the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit" (2 Peter 1:20-21).

'''Formation of New Testament and Jewish technical transmission:''' In the first century and prior, the ear was more important than the eye, as far as retaining in memory. Jews would receive orally, that is, from hearing, the laws that they believed originated with Moses and then passed them on to others, down through the generations.It was important to link the present rabbis by names who taught it with the rabbis by name who had passed it on to them, on back as far as possible to Moses on Mt. Sinai. This was the startling difference of Jesus. By saying "You have heard it said, but I say unto you..." , He was by-passing Moses and the others after and getting His teaching direct from the Father.

This Jewish way of receiving (QBL) and handing on (MSR) is summed up in the lead saying of the "Ethics of the Fathers" tractate of the [[Mishna]], "Moses received Torah from God at Sinai. He transmitted it to Joshua, Joshua to the elders, the elders to the prophets, the prophets to the members of the Great Assembly [Sanhedrin] (1:1)." The teaching thus transmitted was memorized word for word by groups of disciples (Talmidim) together, thereby minimizing, by the common knowledge and plublic repetitions, all innovations and errors, though there might well have been "stylizing" for ease of retention and recall. receiving and handing on (transmission), receiving and handing on.

This methodology, with its technical Hebrew terminology appears in the New Testament with the same technical meaning and purpose, for how the earliest Christian teaching was carried on prior to the formation of the New Testament and during the time of its formation. This ensured the validity of the teaching and its authenticity going back, not to Moses, but to the time of Jesus Himself. "For I handed over (Gk. pare'doka, Heb. MSR) to you at the first what I also received (Gk. pare'labon, Heb. QBL) that Christ died for our sins, according to the Scriptures, and that He was raised on the third day, according to the Scriptures..." l Cor. 15:3. Paul knew all of the "deposit of faith" three ways, in the usual "collaborative" way of God - from Scriptures (the Old Testament), from experience (seeing the living Christ on the road to Damascas), and from authenticated oral tradition/transmission involving "receiving" and "handing on".

,

==Authority of Bible in religious communities==
The role of the Bible in the life of differing communities varies widely by both the inner tenents of the community and the outer influences bearing on the community.
===Judaism===
Orthodox Judaism through the centuries, while it was only marginally affected bygrowing secularization and modern learning, held to a "differing level of level of authority" understanding of the authority of the Hebrew Bible. This did not imply a different level of inspiration, but rather that importance to the regulation of life was prime for the Torah of Moses, the 5 books of the Law. But the Pharasaic teaching also posited an Oral Law given to Moses by God that was passed on throught the centuries through Joshua, the prophets, pairs of Rabbis, until this day. The Oral law is found in the Talmud (Mishna and the Gemara together) The oral law became the decisive interpreter, teacher and regulator of the Written Law and determined the course of Jewish Orthodox life. The second section of the Old Testament, the Prophets, is known to the Jewish Community primarily through the synagogue readings of the prophets. the Haftorah, that are assigned to conclude the weekly reading of the Law. The Psalms, the most formative of all the Writings, besides being common throughout the synagogue services, are used in various devotional prayer contexts. Orthodox Judaism has little been affected by modern Higher Criticism of the Bible. Reformed Judaism, originally developed in Germany, and Conservative Judaism, to a lesser extent, has been greatly affected.

===Mainline Protestants===
Mainline Protestantism, represented in the major churches and their seminaries, has greatly been affected by "modernism" based on advanced scholarly research, especially from Germany in the 19th century. The "Higher Criticism" ignored God's participation in the production of Scripture. Prime among these theories is the Documentary theory of Penteteuch origins (Wellhausen- Graff) that posit that Moses wrote little or nothing, Instead the Bible originated in four sources coming from various periods. These are sources are termed J (for the use of "Jehovah" for the name of God), E (for the use of "Elohim"), P (priestly), and D (Deutoronomic). The spirit of the New Testament is far more important than the text of either Testament for modern Protestant theology.

'''Orthodox Jewish ctritique of Documentary theory:''' Jewish Orthodox scholars have pointed to flaws of the Documentary hypothesis. For instance, Orthodox Jewish Scholar Cassuto has pointed out that rather than the names for God varying according to author and period, they vary according to emphasis from the same period, that of Moses - "Jehovah" being used for the God in his dealing with His covenental people Israel, and "Elohim" being use when His dealing with mankind are emphasis. Likewise the two terms usually translated "making a covenant", lkhrot brit (to "cut" a covenant) and lehaqim brit (to "raise" a covenenat) are not from two sources but mean different things - to initiate a covenant and to fulfill a covenant.

===Evangelical Protestants===
Evangelical Protestantism belives strongly in the divine inspiration and inerrancy of the whole Bible and has been the most receptive of Biblical Authority. Believing in full inspiration of the all Scripture does not mean to evangelicalism equal importance of all Scriptures for the healthy growth of the Christian community. This is because Evangelicalism, following Scripture's own understanding, believes in progressive revelation throughout Biblical time, culminating in Jesus Christ, and no further (thus obviating the role of Tradition). Thus Evangelicalism, does not hold to the application of Mosaic Legislation, and other biblical elements that Orthodox Judaism holds to. This applies to faith and to morals. The Mosaic regulation on executing a rebellious child does not present a problem to evangelical thought as, according to Paul and Hebrews, the Law has been rendered obsolete by the New Covenant. The Destruction of the Temple and the place for sacrifice of all kinds, present no problem for evangelicalism, as they did for Judasim, as Christ's sacrifice on the cross has now "fulfilled" the proscriptions of the Law and the ceremonials attached. Thus there is a sort of Levels of Authority understanding for evangelicalism similar (but for different reasons) to the levels of authority of Judaism.

Evangelical Churches vigorously promote the reading of Scripture through Sunday sermons and Bible study programs. Emphasis is placed on "each one understanding". Coupled with American individualism, and lack of tradional vehicles of authority, this sometimes leads to spinterring and each man's interpretation "is as good as any other". Nevertheless, the "Fiundamentals" defined in 1910 are strongly retained by the Evangelical Churches - the divinity of Christ, His death for sins and Resurrection from the dead, His second coming.

===Eastern Orthodox===
The Orthodox Churches througout the world, whether of Greek, Russian, Rumanian, the various middle eastern varieties, emphasis the synod (Council) of Bishops, basis on the example of the "Council" of Jerusalem in the book of Acts, as the God authorized agent of interpretation and application of the Scriptures. Understanding that Jesus' words, " He (the Holy Spirit) wil lead you into all truth", Orthodoxy believes that the synod of bishops, none of whom are individually infallible, are given guidance from the Holy Spirit so that the Scriptures are rightly applied to the Christian Community enabling the Church to never stray from Christ. That is, the Church is given "indefectability". A minority Orthodox Church thought holds to "infallibility" in synodal decision rather than or instead of "indefectability". Scripture in the Orthodox churches are butressed by creedal formulations, the decisions of belief of past synods, and are less susceptible to the modern Higher Criticism. The Resurrection of Christ, virgin birth, return of Christ from Heaven to Earth, are all part and parcel of these churches. Individual interpretation of Scripture and manner of life are limited then by the teaching authority (the magisterium) granted to the Epsicopate - the Synod of bishops.

===Roman Catholic===
The Roman Catholic Church, like the Orthodox Churches have a strong sense of the Authority given to the Bishops by Christ to teach, interpret, defend the Faith and therefore to exercise the responsibility to interprete Scripture to the Faithful. But since Vatican ll, there has been an increased effort to bring Scripture knowledge to the laity and now there has been an increase of Scripture reading and study programs throughout most sections of the Church. This as been abetted by the Catholic Charismatic movement which has had the effect of promoting individual appropriation of the gifts and graces of the Holy Spirit and with that, the devotional and intellectual use of Holy Scriptures. However, the role of "Majesterium", that is the Teaching Authority, strongly sets limits to individual interpretation. The Roman Catholic church understands that though the Majesterium is given to all the bishops, the definitive exercise is limited to one bishop - the bishop ov Rome, the Pope. Further, it is believed that the Pope, when declaring dogma (teaching) ex-Cathedra (from the chair) speaks infaillibly (on matters of faith and morals). The first time the Pope has promulgated dogma ex-cathedra was to promulgate the doctrine itself of Papal Infallibility. The Pope , through the Vatican prelates and all the bishops can regulate much of Catholic community life, and some of the regualtion based on the interpretation of Scripture or the application of interporetation of Scripture. An example of this is the prohibition of abortion. The Church has accepted most of the modern Higher Critical methodology of Scripture, including the Documentary theory of origins first developed within German Protestantism. But the effects of this on the tenents of the Christian Faith are much mitigated due to the creedal affirmations of the Church developed centuries ago and Papal authority. This the Roman Catholic Church does not waver on the Deity of Christ, the Trinity, the death and resurrection of Christ, and the second comming.

==Evangelical Understanding of the History of the Bible==
Rejecting the "Higher Criticism" accepted by the mainline Protestant denominations, Evangelicals and many Catholics hold to a more traditional history of the Bible. This section summarizes their views.

[[Image:Gospel of Luke in Arab.gif|thumb|This tenth-century Egyptian codex was donated to Pope Eugenius IV by the Coptic delegates at the Council of Ferrara-Florence. Translated from a Coptic original, it is one of the earliest Arabic versions of any part of the New Testament, none of which can be dated before the late eighth or ninth centuries.]]

The oldest books of the Bible are certainly the five books of the Torah and ''Job''. In ''1st Kings'' 6:1, Solomon is stated to have begun building the Temple "''in the 480th year after the children of Israel were come up out of the land of Egypt''". It had been established by scholars and historians that Solomon had begun building the Temple in the fourth year of his reign, or 961 B.C., making the [[date of the Exodus]] under Moses to have been 1441 B.C. During the following forty years Moses wrote the Torah and ''Job'', completing them before his death at [[Mt. Nebo]] about 1400 B.C. According to Biblical scholar and historian Robert D. Wilson the Torah as it stands dates from the time of Moses, the five books constitute one continuous work, and was written by a single individual, Moses himself (Wilson, pg 11).

The remaining books of the Old Testament were written at various times since the death of Moses, with ''Malachi'', the last Old Testament book, being written about 455 B.C. During this period each of the books was written and re-written on parchment or papyrus, with the editors taking great care in their work; a single Biblical book hand-written today can take weeks to complete. The older scrolls were disposed of by burial or systematic destruction when worn from normal usage; as a result, the oldest surviving examples of Biblical manuscripts are those which have been carefully preserved either by direct actions of people (such as monasteries), or by removal from forces of decay. Currently, the oldest surviving manuscripts are those found within the caves of Qumran in 1948 and known as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], dating between 250 B.C. to A.D. 70; the complete ''Isaiah'' scroll of this collection dates to 150 B.C.

Around 200 B.C. the [[Septuagint]], a Greek-language version of the Old Testament, was completed. This was due to the Hellenization of large areas of the Middle East after the conquest of Alexander the Great, making Greek the de-facto language for everyday communications and business. The Septuagint marks the first time in history that the Bible was translated into a foreign language.

===Early New Testament history===
In 1st Timothy 5:8, Paul quoted as scripture ''"the laborer is worthy of his hire."'' This line is found nowhere else in the Bible except Matthew 10:10 and Luke 5:7. In 2nd Peter 3:15-16, Peter classes Paul's letters with "other scriptures". Both lines are indicative of the writing down and general use of the New Testament prior to A.D. 60 (Halley, pg. 741-742). Spurious "gospels" which are known to have appeared by A.D. 100, make references to the New Testament. [[Clement of Rome]], writing in his own letter to the Corinthians in A.D. 95, refers to ''Matthew'', ''Luke'', ''Corinthians'', ''Hebrews'', ''1st Timothy'', and ''1st Peter'' (Halley, pg. 743).

The oldest surviving New Testament fragment of which there is a reliable date is the [[John Rylands Fragment]] (P52) of the ''Gospel of John'', dating from 117-138 A.D., just decades from when the Gospel was first written. <ref>[http://www.biblefacts.org/history/oldtext.html N.T. Ancient Manuscripts]</ref> The time span between the writing of the New Testament and the oldest surviving fragments are well under two hundred years. By comparison, Greek classics such as [[Herodotus]], [[Plato]], [[Euripides]], and [[Homer]] have a time span well over a thousand years each between the date of the oldest known fragment of writing and the time period they were first written.

==Translations==
===The Peshitta===
The second translated version of the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament (after the Greek Septuaginta) was the Aramaic language Peshitta. In 36 A.D., both the Queen of Adiabene (the last existing Province of the hated and feared by the Jews Assyrian Empire), known in Greek as Queen Helena (not the mother of Constantine) and known to the Jews as Queen ShlomZion ("Peace of Zion"), and her son King Ezad were converted to Judaism. Queen Helena's conversion, as wiell as others of the Kingdom, furthered the already developing translation of the Hebrew Scriptures in her Kingdom's language -Aramaic. That developing translation came to be known as the Peshitta - meaning simple or common speech, in much the same way as the Hebrew Bible would be translated into Latin by Jerome, with extensive help from a Rabbi,and the resultant translation would be called the Vulgate - meaning simple or common speech. The Peshitta, retaining elements of the then Jewish "[[Targum]]ic" (interpretive) and other Jewish understandings of the Hebrew Bible (see[[Midrash]]), is primarily based on the Pre-Masoretic Hebrew Scriptures - though certain books, such as the Prophet Isaiah,are translations primarily from the Septuagint The development of the Old Testament Peshitta translation is held by some to have taken place alternatively in Adiabene's nearby neighbor Edessa.

As Thomas and his followers went to India, others (possibly Adai (Thaddeus), the Galilean from Caesarea Phillipi among them) arrived in [[Adiabene]], and having gone probaly to the synagogues first, as did the Apostle Paul), they found already, if not a populous, then an elite governmental element, conversant with the Biblical message in Aramaic. From these people, hearing the preaching of the messengers from Israel ,came believers in Jesus Christ, and soon after, came the translation of the Greek New Testament Scriptures into Aramaic, and so the Peshitta was added to by inclusion of the New Testament in Aramaic. Unlike the Greek canon of the New Testament Scriptures, the Peshitta originally did not include the following books: the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second Epistle of John, the Third Epistle of John, the Epistle of Jude and the Book of Revelation. But these books translated into the Syriac (as Christian Aramaic is known) are part of the Peshitta now and used by the Aramaic based churches, primarily in India and the Middle East - the Syrian Catholic Church, the Assyrian Church of the East (Holy Apostolic and Catholic Church of the East), the Indian Orthodox Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, the Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church, the Syro-Malabar Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church.

Adiabene and its surroundings then became the sending center for a mission to the East that would eventually, taking advantage of the newly rediscovered monsoon winds blowing for months across the Arabian sea, making it possible for ships to no longer hug the coasts, and taking advantage of the "Silk Road" all the way from Antioch in Syria to China, take the message of Jesus Christ to India (bringing about the Aramaic (Syriac) language churches of Kerala) and even to China itself. And so, the Peshitta, written in the Middle East, become the Scriptures, for a while, of the Far East Churches of Jesus Christ, particularly in India.

===The Vulgate===
[[Jerome]], a Latin scholar deeply interested in the study of the Scriptures, completed the second edition of the Bible in the Latin language. The ''[[Vulgate]]'' was meant to replace the inaccuracies of the earlier ''[[Vetus Latina]]'', the standard Bible of the early Catholic Church. Jerome had moved to [[Jerusalem]] in 382, and set to work on what eventually became a fresh translation of the Bible from the Greek of the ''Septuagint'' to translating the New Testament into Latin; from 390-405 he decided to re-translate his Old Testament directly from the Hebrew then in use by the Jewish community. The ''Vulgate'' had a marked influence in church history, and remained the standard Latin Bible in the Roman Catholic Church for centuries; such was the length of time in use that it was finally replaced by the ''[[Nova Vulgata]]'' in 1979.
==Printing==
[[Image:Gutenburg1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Printers copy of a page from a Gutenberg Bible, printed in Germany about 1469.]]
[[Johannes Gutenberg]] of [[Mainz]], [[Germany]] invented the first mechanical printing press in 1448. His machine consisted of a large press which when cranked down, pressed a sheet of paper upon a platform in which were set thousands of inked metal letter typefaces (called "movable type"), set in place to read for a particular page. The first book in history printed by this method was the [[Gutenberg Bible]], in the ''Vulgate'' Latin version, of which 180 were printed, and approximately 50 survive today in varying conditions around the world.

The Gutenberg Bible marked another first: printed Bibles could be mass produced to get into the hands of many people at a low cost. They first had to be translated out of Latin into a common language, and [[Martin Luther]] made the great German translation, 1522-1534. The Protestant Reformers emphasized that laymen should study the Bible, and printing made it possible to go beyond the interpretationsd shown in stained glass windows to the actual text.

==English language versions of the Bible==

===Wycliff's Bible===
The first translation of the Bible into English was made under the supervision of the English cleric [[John Wyclif]] in the 1380's, with the assistance of Nicholas Hereford and John Purvey. Wyclif held that the Bible should be placed directly in the hands of the people, but was this was opposed by the English Church hierarchy of his day; indeed, one of Wyclif's opponents, Henry Knighton, compared giving the Bible to the people in English to "casting pearls before swine". Archbishop Arundel of Canterbury promulgated a ban on all English Bibles in 1407, and possession of one was considered evidence of [[heresy]].

Wyclif's was a scholarly translation, based on the [[Latin]], [[Greek]], and [[Hebrew]] texts, but was found to be unweildy due to its adherence to Latin grammar (in which, for instance, verbs tend to be at the end of sentences). A second Wycliffite translation was prepared late in this period, which avoided this problem, but due to the fact that it could only be distributed in manuscript form, it was an expensive volume. Outside of the nobility and gentry, it was more common to see only a single [[The Gospels|Gospel]], or a copy of the Psalms, than an entire Bible, which cost more than the average working person could earn in a year.

Over the next century, its form of English gradually became antiquated, leading English Protestants such as [[William Tyndale]] to feel that an entirely new translation was needed.

===Tyndale===
During the middle of the 16th century there was a renewed sense of the need to get the Bible directly into the hands of the common man; prior to that the Bible was restricted to readings in the Church alone. The Reformers were a group of people who were shocked at the differences between what the Roman Catholic Church was practicing as opposed to what the Bible stated can or cannot be done (this was one of the causes of the [[Reformation]]). At great cost to themselves, the Reformers began the work of translating the Bible in the various languages of Europe; the printing press would ensure the newly-translated Bibles would be mass-produced.

[[William Tyndale]] was committed to getting the Bible in the hands of his English countrymen. Expressing open defiance of the Pope, Tyndale declared that if God would spare his life he would make it possible for even an ordinary farmer to know more about the Scriptures than the Pope. <ref>http://www.tbaptist.com/aab/tyndale.htm</ref> Tyndale's translation of the New Testament was completed by 1525. By April, 1526, 6,000 copies were printed and delivered to England. Official opposition led to the destruction of most of them. Nevertheless, the printing press rendered it impossible to completely suppress such a book, and new copies were printed and smuggled into [[England]] Tyndale was arrested and charged with heresy for his efforts on May 21, 1536, and was executed the following year. His efforts at translating the Bible led to the Matthews and Bishop's Bibles, then finally to the [[King James Version]], where ninety percent of the text closely follows Tyndale's translation.

===Authorised or King James Version===
[[Image:E-sword.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The internet has increased the availability of the Bible world-wide. Shown here is a screenshot to [[E-Sword]], a freely-downloadable Bible study program. [http://www.e-sword.net] (Rick Meyers, 2007)]]
In 1601 King [[James I]] selected forty-seven of the ablest scholars in [[England]] to undertake the creation of a standard Bible in English, based upon careful translations of the [[Masoretic Text]] used by the Jewish community, and the best Greek translations (especially the ''[[Textus Receptus]]'') then available. The scholars were divided into six committees in [[Oxford]], [[Westminster]], and [[Cambridge]], with each scholar had dedicating himself to doing a portion of the Bible, often consulting each other to check the flow and harmony of the work in progress. The result was the 1611 Authorised Version, known in [[United States of America|America]] as the [[King James Bible|King James Version]].

The effects of the Authorised Version were profound. Using less than 2,500 different words in its vocabulary, this Bible was written in a poetic style matched by few. The work influenced the writings of [[Shakespeare]]. [[John Milton]] has numerous images taken from this Bible in his ''[[Paradise Lost]]''. The direct style of writing caused it to be easily available to the common man. Poets and writers, such as [[Herman Melville]], [[Walt Whitman]], [[Emily Dickinson]] and many others were deeply inspired by it. It altered the course of English history, with England growing to a world power since the book's publication; when asked by a visiting dignitary what made England great, [[Queen Victoria]] pulled out her copy of the Bible and declared "This is the secret of England's greatness." [http://www.mindspring.com/~je_cobb/presidentindex.html]

=== Other versions ===

Today, the Bible is available in many versions across the English-speaking world, and has been translated into languages spoken by the vast majority of people on Earth, and even portions into a recently-created language from the fictional world of [[Star Trek]], [[Klingon]]. <ref>[http://www.kli.org/wiki/index.php?Klingon%20Bible%20Translation%20Project Klingon Bible Translation Project]</ref> The past two decades saw the emergence of [[Internet]] use; the creation of the Bible as a software program was inevitable, and several, such as [[E-Sword]] and Theophilos, are available at no cost with a wealth of Bible-study material as well.

==Bible Scientific Foreknowledge==
[[Bible scientific foreknowledge]] holds that the Bible shows an understanding of scientific knowledge beyond that believed to exist at the time the Bible was composed. Many Christian scientists and apologists such as the Christian scientists and apologists at [[Creation Ministries International]], [[Answers in Genesis]], and [[CreationWiki]] assert that the [http://creationwiki.org/index.php/Bible_scientific_foreknowledge Bible contains knowledge that shows an understanding of scientific knowledge beyond that believed to exist at the time the Bible was composed].<ref>[http://creationwiki.org/index.php/Bible_scientific_foreknowledge Bible Scientific Foreknowledge]</ref><ref>http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1718/</ref><ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v17/i1/medicine.asp</ref>

==Humor in the Bible==

{{main|Humor in the Bible}}

The Bible, especially the Old Testament, contains irony, puns, sarcasm, etc. It may be noted that the sense of what is humorous varies from people to people and from nation to nation, as well as varying from age to age. What caused a chuckle, smile, or laughter in the biblical "genre" was more connected with ''satisfaction'' at the vindication of righteousness among men. Thus to our day and age, and the commonality of people, for believers and non believers, the meaning of the spewing up of Jonah on the shores (even the great fish could not stomach him!) might be viewed as God working out His original will in history, Jonah flight from responsiblity being aborted, for the "days and ages" of the Bible, there was the added satisfaction derived from the understanding that God was not mocked by the rebellion of Jonah. Likewise that the "many cattle" also found repentence and acceptance by God, would not have brought the smile of glee, mingled with doubt, but the smile of satisfaction that God's wide heart found its exultant victory over the measly, narrow perspective of the renagade prophet. There was no shame to stifle the Biblical chuckle at the "hows" of the vindication of God's justice. Yet, what we consider humorous also appears:

For example:

:After noticing that his father-in-law Laban was not treating him as in the past, Jacob decided to flee with his family. Rachel, one of Jacob’s wives, stole her father Laban’s teraphim (statues used for idolatry and/or divination). Laban pursued them and intercepted them in the Gilead mountains (Genesis 31:30): "Why have you stolen my gods?" Laban said to Jacob. The Midrash comments that it cannot be much of a god if it can be stolen (Midrash Genesis Rabbah 74:8). Jonsson (1985, 44-45) suggests that there is humor (albeit "rough" humor) in the fact that, not only was Laban deceived, but his idols were actually underneath his daughter Rachel’s posterior while she claimed that the "manner of women" was upon her. This idol did not get much respect. [http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/economic/friedman/bibhumor.htm]

==Bible Versions==
*[[King James Version]]
*[[American Standard Version]]
*[[Revised Version]]
*[[English Standard Version]]
*[[New American Standard Version]]
*[[New King James Version]]
*[[Douey-Rheims]]
*[[Good News Version]]
*[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]]
*[[Septuagint]]
*[[Latin Vulgate]]
*[[Revised Standard Version]]
*[[Amplified Bible]]
*[[New English Bible]]
*[[New International Version]]
*[[Living Bible]]

== See also ==
*[[Bible exegesis]]
*[[Bible prophecy]]
*[[Biblical accuracy]]
*[[Famous Bible paintings]]
*[[Midrash]]
*[[Targum]]
*[[Aramaic Church]]

==External links==
===Bible societies ===
*[http://www.americanbible.org/ American Bible Society]
*[http://www.biblesociety.org/ United Bible Society]
*[http://www.ibs.org/ The International Bible Society (New York/Colorado Springs)]
*[http://www.wbtc.com/site/PageServer World Bible Translation Center]
*[http://www.wycliffe.org/home.htm Wycliffe Bible Translators]
*[http://www.labibliaweb.com/ La Biblia] In Spanish.

===Online, internet, and downloadable Bibles===
====Hebrew====
* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0.htm Hebrew-English Bible] ([[Jewish Publication Society of America|JPS]] 1917 translation; includes Hebrew audio)
* [http://tanakhml2.alacartejava.net/cocoon/tanakhml/d13.php2xml?sfr=1&prq=1&pnt=tru&acc=tru&dia=tru&enc=heb XML Hebrew-English (KJV) Bible]
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/Hebrew_OT/ Old Testament in Hebrew]

====Latin====
* [http://www.LatinVulgate.com/ Latin Vulgate] — Latin Vulgate with parallel Douay-Rheims and King James English translations
* [http://www.sacredbible.org/ SacredBible.org] — Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/Vulgate/ Jerome's Latin Vulgate (405 A.D.)]

====English====
* [http://www.audio-bible.com/bible/bible.html AudioBible] — Audio version of the King James Version.
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org/ Blue Letter Bible] — On-line interactive reference library continuously updated from the teachings and commentaries of selected pastors and teachers who hold to the conservative, historical Christian faith.
* [http://www.e-sword.net E-sword] — Downloadable Bible for Windows.
* [http://www.onlinebible.net/ The Online Bible North America] — Downloadable Bible for Windows.
* [http://www.theophilos.sk/ Theophilos Bible program]
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/ASB/ American Standard Version].
* [http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/ English Standard Version] from Good News/Crossway (the publisher).
* [http://www.verselink.org/ King James Version with dictionary].
* [http://www.spcm.org/english/KJV/ King James Version].
* [http://www.newlivingtranslation.com New Living Translation]
* [http://bible.oremus.org/ New Revised Standard Version].
* [http://www.europepourchrist.org/biblesite/WEB/ World English Bible].
* [http://www.dynamicbible.com/ King James Version built using AJAX technologies], with Strongs and Greek Morphological Codes by Robinson.
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/index.htm#index The Hypertext Bible] with side-by-side translations in English, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew at the [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]]
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/ Bible Gateway at GospelCom.net] text search in any one of many translations in numerous languages.
* [http://www.biblereadthrough.com/ Bible Read-Through] — read through the Bible in a year aid.
* [http://www.TheFreeBible.com/ TheFreeBible.com] Bible software downloads
* [http://www.scripture4all.org/ Interlinear (word-by-word) translation of the Christian Bible] Hebrew and Koine Greek
* http://www.aramaicpeshitta.com/aramaic_nt_resources.htm - Aramaic New Testament resources
* [http://www.spcm.org/en/versions.php Over 40 versions of the Bible]
* [http://www.armenianchurchlibrary.com/Bibletranslationsandstudies.html Eastern and Western Armenian Bible]
* [http://www.bible9.com/ Online Bible (King James Version & Old Testament)]
* [http://www.spcm.org/LSG_FR/ Bible — Louis Segond de 1910]
* [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx Complete Sayings of Christ]
* [http://bible.crosswalk.com/ParallelBible/ Crosswalk.com Parallel Bible]
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org/search.html#verse Blue Letter Bible]
* [http://recoveryversion.org/ Recovery Version Bible]

====Spanish====

* [http://www.wbtc.com/site/PageServer?pagename=downloads_spanish Spanish Bible] PDT version
* [http://www.labibliaweb.com/cid/1 Versiones de la Biblia] In Spanish.

====Turkish====
* [http://www.incil.info Turkish Bible] (Turkish Old and New Testament)

====Finnish====
* [http://www.raamattu-kirja.com Finnish Bible] (Finnish Old and New Testament)
* [http://vastaus.net Raamattu] (Study Finnish Bible)

====Japanese====
*[http://www.ibsstl.org/bibles/japanese/index.php On-line version hosted by the International Bible Society]
*[http://www.bible.or.jp/e/index.html Japan Bible Society]

====Others====
* [http://agards-bible-timeline.com/q2_bible_english.html Bible Timeline]
* [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/bible/TO_Torah_880.htm?OVRAW=Torah&OVKEY=torah&OVMTC=standard My Jewish Learning.com]
* [http://search.americanbible.org/ American Bible Society] to search NASB, KJV, CEV, ASV and others.
* [http://etext.virginia.edu/kjv.browse.html University of Virginia Library] KJV word proximity search.
* [http://www.1enormousidea.com/Default.aspx?tabid=42 Many translations in English, verse by verse]
* [http://www.bible-marathi.com Nava Karar] NT Translation from Greek to Marathi
* [http://www.bible-researcher.com/links12.html Gender-neutral Bible translations].
* [http://www.evangelicalbible.com/why.htm Word-for-Word vs.Thought-for-Thought translation] Outlines the difference between formal and dynamic equivalent translation philosopy.
* [http://www.kli.org/wiki/index.php?Klingon%20Bible%20Translation%20Project Klingon Bible].

===Commentaries and analysis===
* [http://www.ldolphin.org/icc-am.html Biblical chronology] by Alan Montgomery, B.Sc.(Hon)
* [http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryID=411&rsid=478 Biblical History], The Jewish History Resource Center — Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=63255 Judaica Press Translation] — online Jewish translation of the Tanakh.
* [http://www.angdatingdaan.org/biblicaltopics/bib_bible_1.htm Reading and Understanding the Bible].
* [http://en.bibleinfo.com/ Source for Bible Answers].
* [http://www.amazingfacts.org/school/af_logon.asp Amazing Facts Bible Studies].
* [http://www.iishj.org/images/Bible.pdf Learning Bible Today] — a historical approach the Bible.
* [http://eword.gospelcom.net/comments/gill/ John Gill's Exposition of the Bible] — verse by verse commentary.
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/henry/mhc.i.html/ Matthew Henry's Commentary on the Whole Bible] — unabridged.
*[http://www.verselink.org/ Topical References]
*[http://www.verselink.org/ Bible Dictionaries and Encyclopedia]

===Wikis===
* [http://bible.tmtm.com BibleWiki]
* [http://wikible.org Wikible]

==Bibliography==
* Achtemeier, Paul J., ed. ''Harper's Bible Dictionary'' (1985), 1190pp; mainstream scholarship
* Ackroyd, P.R., ed. ''The Cambridge History of the Bible: From the Beginnings to Jerome; the West from the Fathers to the Reformation; the West from the Reformation to the Present Day'' (3 vol 1978), standard summary of scholarship; [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-Bible-Beginnings-Jerome/dp/0521099730/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243248143&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search vol 1]; [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-Bible-Fathers-Reformation/dp/0521290171/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243248143&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search vol 2]; [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-Bible-Reformation-Present/dp/0521290163/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1243248143&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search vol 3]
* Coggins, R.J. ''Introducing the Old Testament'' (Oxford University Press: 1990), 172pp. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=22765464 online edition]
* Morgan, Robert, and John Barton. ''Biblical Interpretation'' (Oxford University Press: 1988), 342 pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=74356941 online edition]
* Sakenfeld, Katharine Doob, ed. ''The New Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible'' ('''NIDB''') (5 vol 2009), the latest mainstream scholarship
*Unger, Merril F. ''Unger's Bible Dictionary'', Moody Press, Chicago, IL (1966; new edition 2006); Evangelical
**Unger, Merril F. ''The New Unger's Bible Dictionary'', (2006); 1416pp; Evangelical
*Unger, Merril F. ''Unger's Bible Handbook'', Moody Press, Chicago, IL (1967); Evangelical.
*Halley, Henry H. ''Halley's Bible Handbook'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, MI (1965); Evangelical
* Sandys-Wunsch, John. ''What Have They Done to the Bible: A History of Modern Biblical Interpretation'' 2005) Scholarly history of transations and interpretations to 1900; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0814650287 excerpt and text search]
* Williamspn, Peter. ''Catholic principles for interpreting scripture: a study of the Pontifical Biblical Commission's The interpretation of the Bible in the Church'' (2001); Catholic; [http://books.google.com/books?id=kooFtFGQsfsC&dq=intitle:bible+intitle:interpretation&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2000&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES excerpts and text search]
*Wilson, Robert D. ''A Scientific Investigation of the Old Testament'', Sunday School Times, Inc, Philadelphia, PA (1926).

===Language===
*Blass, Frederich, and others. ''A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and other early Christian literature,'' translated by Robert W. Funk; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL (1961); German edition ''Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Griechisch'' Friedrich Rehkopf, editor, 14th edition. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1976.
*Moulton, James H., and others. ''A Grammar of New Testament Greek'' (two volumes), edited by Wilbert Francis Howard, T&T Clark Publishers, Harrisburg, PA (1985); originally published 1920, Edinburgh, Scotland.
*Bauer, Walter. ''Griechisch-Deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Scriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Litteratur''. Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, editors; 6th edition. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany (1988). Heading βιβλίον, columns 281-82.

==References==

<references/>

[[Category:Bible| ]]
[[Category:Religion]]
[[Category:Book of Worship]]

2009-04-29T20:53:47Z

BethanyS: /* D. Israel */

[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

The middle of the 20th century, after World War II, saw many regional conflicts resulting from the Cold War between freedom in the United States and communism and the Soviet Union. Eventually freedom prevailed, but there is much history to be learned about how it prevailed. Also, there were many independence movements in the 20th century, some of which had nothing to do with the global struggle between freedom and communism.

But the news is not all good. America triumphed in many ways in the world, but she has many enemies outside of her borders, and quite a few within. In this second-to-last lecture, ask yourself in which direction you think the world is headed: towards a better place, or a worse one?

== II. Regional Conflicts during the Cold War ==

=== A. Vietnam ===

Americans feared a “domino effect” of communism, for good reason. Imagine a row of dominoes, and what happens when one falls into another, and then into another, and so one. Each falling domino can knock over the one next to it. Americans starting with President Dwight Eisenhower feared that effect when communism took over a nation: all nearby nations could next fall to the same communism.

Southeast Asia has a large population, and after World War II the region was vulnerable to a spread of communism from the Soviet Union and China. An independence movement beginning in the 1930s caused the French to leave, and Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh was a nationalist who received aid from the communists. The French imposed a death sentence on Ho Chi Minh, but he fled to avoid it. When he returned in 1941, he founded “Vietminh”, with the name reflecting that he intended to rule as a dictator. Japan interrupted his plan by taking control of the region during World War II, but in 1945 the Vietminh defeated the Japanese. That demonstrated how tough the Vietnamese fighters were, as not even China could beat the Japanese. Ho Chi Minh then declared the independence of a new Democratic Republic of Vietnam, a huge communist country that has 84 million people today.

The French tried unsuccessfully to regain control of Vietnam after World War II. In 1954 the communist Vietnamese nationalists defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu, and the French surrendered to Ho Chi Minh. The French then agreed to divide Vietnam at the 17th parallel<ref>The term “parallel” in the context of geography means the same as “degrees of latitude.”</ref> as part of the Geneva Conference. North Vietnam would be communist under Ho Chi Minh, while South Vietnam would be free under Ngo Dinh Diem.

Ho Chi Minh was popular in both North and South Vietnam, and gave away land to people to boost his popularity. Ngo Dinh Diem was unpopular, and the United States feared that an election in the South might choose Ho Chi Minh’s communists. So elections were postponed, but the conditions worsened. The Vietcong, who were communist guerrillas in the South, formed and began causing problems in the early 1960s. In 1963, South Vietnamese generals who enjoyed United States support took over South Vietnam and assassinated Ngo Dinh Diem.

The United States began sending military advisers and weapons to prevent a takeover of the South by the Vietcong. In August 1964, when President Lyndon Johnson faced reelection, there were mysterious gunshots fired at an American ship in the Gulf of Tonkin near North Vietnam. It was later disputed whether this was an actual attack on Americans. Johnson, wanting a war to boost his popularity and reelection chances, pushed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution through Congress to authorize sending troops. A formal declaration of war never occurred, but this Resolution served as a substitute. Within a year, thousands of American 19-year-olds were sent to fight the communists in Vietnam.

The Soviet Union, China and North Vietnam responded by sending their own troops and weapons to help the Vietcong. The United States bombed North Vietnam, and also bombed targets in South Vietnam to target Vietcong hideouts. But the Vietcong were hard to find, and knew the jungle much better than the Americans did. The Vietcong planted land mines throughout the country, causing thousands of American soldiers to die or lose their limbs simply by taking a wrong step.

The conflict in Vietnam helped President Johnson win reelection in 1964, but by 1968 Americans (particularly Democrats in Johnson's own political party) had tired of the tens of thousands of American deaths. President Johnson did embarrassingly poorly in the first presidential primary (New Hampsire), and had to withdraw from the race for reelection. As with many wars, including the war in Iraq from 2003 to the present, public support for the war starts very high but tends to decline over time.

When President Nixon arrived at the White House after the 1968 elections, he embraced “Vietnamization” as a policy for slowly withdrawing American troops from South Vietnam, hoping that the South Vietnamese would do more themselves in fighting communism. Nixon also increased bombing of North Vietnam and Vietcong strongholds in Cambodia and Laos.

Nixon was heavily influenced by his adviser Henry Kissinger. Kissinger’s approach towards Vietnam was to launch bombing attacks and then look like a hero in declaring cease-fires. He did this repeatedly and received much praise by newspapers for it. But the communists would simply re-supply their guerrilla fighters during the cease-fires, and so the cease-fires actually helped the communists continue the war. By 1973, the United States gave up and pulled the last American soldiers out. A million Vietnamese then fled South Vietnam to escape the communists, who took over by 1975. The United States imposed a trade embargo on the newly unified Vietnam that lasted until 1994. President Bush visited Vietnam in 2006.

Things worsened further in next-door Cambodia after the Americans left Vietnam. Pol Pot took over Cambodia in 1975, and he abolished private property, money and religion and converted everything back to an agricultural society. He emptied the cities. His ruthless policies supposedly resulted in the death of 1-2 million Cambodians in the late 1970s. The Hollywood movie about his dictatorship, ''The Killing Fields'', exposed his atrocities and perhaps exaggerated them as a way of blaming the United States, which once supported Pol Pot as a counterweight to Vietnam. Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge government fell in 1979 when Vietnam invaded Cambodia after a series of violent border confrontations, and Pol Pot fled to the northern jungle with his forces. He died from illness in 1998. Today there are United Nations peacekeeping forces in Cambodia.

===B. Latin America ===

In connection with the “Third World”<ref>Today the term “developing world” is preferred by some to the term of “Third World.” Traditionally, the “First World” was the highly industrialized capitalistic societies of Europe, Japan, and the United States, and the “Second World” was the less developed nations under communism.</ref> of Latin America, Africa and many parts of Asia, the Cold War became a battle for influence over the system of government adopted by any and every small country. It seemed like there were only two choices: communist or free (capitalist). Both the United States and Soviet Union would compete with each other to provide to developing nations aid, military advisers, social workers (e.g., the Peace Corps from the United States), educational programs and technology.

This drama has been playing out in Latin America ever since World War II, and remains an issue even now. In the 1950s, the United States supported Fulgencio Batista as dictator of Cuba, but Fidel Castro overthrew him in 1959. Liberals in the United States promoted Castro as a hero, and he was welcomed to talk at American colleges. But just as conservatives predicted, Castro became a ruthless communist dictator who brutally suppressed all opposition and ended free speech and free enterprise on the island of Cuba. Castro seized private industries, such as the thriving sugar refineries, and predictably the economy collapsed. Cuba fell from being one of the most prosperous nations to one of the poorest. Today most Cubans cannot even afford to own an automobile.

The United States imposed a trade embargo on Cuba and the Soviet Union provided it with aid, which was a typical pattern in this Cold War between the two superpowers. Cubans who had fled to Florida from the island arranged for an invasion of Cuba in April 1961 to overthrow Castro. President John F. Kennedy withheld support at the last minute and someone in his Administration probably leaked the plans to Castro, who was then waiting for it and slaughtered the invaders at the Bay of Pigs. President Kennedy allowed the United States to be humiliated by this.

Strengthened, Castro became more aggressive and in 1962 began to install Soviet missiles to point them directly at the United States. President Kennedy ordered a blockade of Cuba to prevent installation of additional missiles, and a top American general put his bombers into combat mode. This demonstrated a readiness to go to war (“brinkmanship”) and the Soviet leader Khrushchev then backed down. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles when the United States agreed not to invade Cuba.

But Cuba continued to grow closer to the Soviet Union, which funded its failing economy. In the 1970s Cuba sent 50,000 soldiers to help communism in Angola, and Cuba remained there until 1988. When communism itself fell in the Soviet Union in 1991 and it broke up, Cuba lost its funding. It became even poorer then.

Communism in Latin America was not limited to Cuba. In Nicaragua, communist rebels named the Sandinistas overthrew an American-backed ruler named Anastasio Somoza. The United States then supported the anti-communist Contras in the 1980s. In 1990, the Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega finally agreed to hold free elections in order to end the civil war, and he was defeated by the pro-American Violeta Chamorro. But in 1997 Jose Lacayo was elected as the Nicaraguan leader, and near the end of 2006 Daniel Ortega completed a successful comeback by being elected as president based on his claim that he is not a communist anymore. He won with only about 38% of the vote, benefiting from a change in rules that no longer requires at least 45% of the vote to win.

The poverty in many countries in Latin America may help explain why communism is more popular there. In Nicaragua, one of the poorest nations in Latin America, 46% of the population lived on less than $386 in income for the entire year of 2001. Not only is a job hard to find, but electricity and drinking water are not always available either.

Poverty alone cannot explain the popularity of communism. In oil-rich Venezuela, the people reelected the communist Hugo Chavez in December 2006, and he is exporting communism to other nations there. Young and intimidating, Chavez is described as a Castro with money. In April 2009, he and President Barack Obama shook hands with enthusiasm for the cameras.

=== C. Middle East (Southwest Asia) ===

The Cold War did not explain every conflict in the 20th century. For example, the Cold War did not explain the conflicts in the Middle East (Southwest Asia), where Islam is the dominant force. The United States helped build oil wells in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries, but the Shiite Muslims disapprove of the American presence.

In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew King Farouk of Egypt. Nasser modernized Egypt’s economy and military, seeking to build a nation that could assert its power in the Middle East.

In 1956, Nasser seized the Suez Canal from the French and British companies that controlled it. His plan was to nationalize the canal to raise money to build the Aswan Dam, and needed cash after the Americans and British withdrew a pledge to help fund it. Nasser’s seizure of the Suez Canal created the “Suez Crisis” for a week because many nations, including Israel, relied on the Canal for shipping. The British and French provided air support for an invasion by Israeli troops, which easily overcame Egyptian resistance. But then the Soviet Union threatened to intervene on behalf of Egypt, creating a risk of a world war. Nasser was allowed to keep the canal, and international pressure by the United States caused Britain, France and Israel to back off.

In Iran, the United States supported the pro-West Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (“Shah of Iran”) against a revolt in 1953. For 25 years the Shiite Muslim leaders in Iran, also known as “ayatollahs”, opposed the Shah. In 1978, the Shiites revolted and caused the Shah to flee, and in 1979 he sought admission to the United States for medical treatment. The [[Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini]] took control of Iran.

Henry Kissinger, whose friends and business clients probably included supporters of the Shah, persuaded President Jimmy Carter to admit the Shah to the United States to treat his illness. Carter granted the Shah admission, and student Shiites in Iran angrily responded by taking 69 hostages at the U.S. embassy in Tehran. They demanded that the Shah be returned to Iran, but Carter refused. The Shiites held 55 of the hostages until Carter was replaced by Ronald Reagan as president on Jan. 20, 1981.

In 1980, the Sunni Iraq leader Saddam Hussein sought to conquer Iran. Iraq and Iran fought a fierce battle for nearly a decade without a victory by either side.

In 1979, Muslims in Afghanistan (in Southwest Asia) revolted against the Soviet-friendly communist government there. The Soviets responded by invading Afghanistan and attempting to suppress the revolution. The United States reacted to this Soviet invasion by boycotting the summer Olympic Games in Moscow and providing arms to the Afghan rebels. The Soviets struggled for a decade in Afghanistan, much as the United States had struggled in Vietnam, and the Soviets eventually withdrew from the country. In many ways Islam is a more powerful ideology than communism, and in this case Islam did defeat communism in Afghanistan. But just as there are people who communist (or socialist) Christians, there are also communist (or socialist) Muslims.

=== D. Eastern Europe ===

Stalin died in 1953, and Nikita Khrushchev replaced him as the dictator over the Soviet Union. Khrushchev was an aggressive leader who had brutally carried out Stalin’s policies while Stalin was alive, but then denounced Stalin as soon as he died and tried to purge all memory of Stalin (“destalinization”). However, Khrushchev was nearly as evil as Stalin was. Khrushchev viciously repressed a freedom movement in Hungary in October 1956. He ordered an invasion with Soviet tanks and arranged for the execution of the Hungarian leader Imre Nagy, who sought to hold free elections. Khrushchev replaced him with a pro-Soviet puppet. Thousands of Hungarian “freedom fighters” were slaughtered by the Soviets, and the Hungarian religious leader Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty (a high-ranking clergyman in the Catholic Church) had to flee to the United States embassy to survive. The communist dictatorship installed by the Soviets prevented him from stepping foot outside of the embassy building for the next 15 years. Imagine never once leaving your home for 15 years!

Khrushchev also ordered the building of the Berlin Wall and the placement of missiles in Cuba, which led to the Cuban Missile Crisis. But Khrushchev’s confrontational personality was too much even for his fellow communists, as he would often interrupt speeches by others and act in other unpredictable ways. Khrushchev could not get along with China, even though both were communist countries. In 1960 Khrushchev stopped sharing atomic bomb secrets with China, and later there was even a little violence along their long border.

While Khrushchev was on vacation in 1964 a group led by Leonid Brezhnev arranged to strip him of power. The group persuaded the Politburo, which governed the Communist Party, to replace Khrushchev with Brezhnev. Khrushchev then lived out the remainder of life under the watch of the Soviet KGB, but he did manage to smuggle out his memoirs for publication in the West.

Brezhnev ruled as brutally as Khrushchev had, though with less personal confrontation. When Czechoslovakian leader Alexander Dubcek allowed greater freedom of speech in his country in 1968, the Soviets responded by invading with tanks just as they had in Hungary over a decade earlier.

=== E. Détente ===

President Nixon sought to take advantage of the icy relationship between the Soviet Union and China, and also to open up China to American businessmen. Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai began to end China’s isolation from the rest of the world by inviting a U.S. table tennis team to tour China in 1971. President Nixon then stunned the world and his conservative supporters, who opposed communism, by supporting membership in the United Nations for Communist China (the “People’s Republic of China”).

In 1972, President Nixon became the first American president to travel to Communist China. By 1979 there were diplomatic relations between the United States and China.

Also in 1972, Nixon traveled to the Soviet Union and signed an arms agreement with the Soviet Union to reduce the numbers of nuclear weapons. This agreement was “SALT I,” representing the “Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty.” These apparently friendly dealings between the arch-enemies United States and the Soviet Union were described with the French word of “détente” (relaxation in tension between nations). For centuries French was the language of diplomacy in Europe and its vocabulary offered the best terms.

SALT I limited the United States and Soviet Union to their 1972 levels of intercontinental ballistic missiles. In 1975, the two nations signed another arms reduction agreement known as the Helsinki Accords, and this was joined by 35 other nations. The American presidency had changed from Nixon to Ford by 1975, but in practice the Administration was still being run by Henry Kissinger and his view of world government and relations. Conservatives criticized both treaties as merely hurting the United States, noting that there was no way to enforce the treaty against the Soviet Union.

President Jimmy Carter continued the trend by signing SALT II in 1979, which would have provided for further reductions. In a victory for conservatives, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify that treaty. At one point, President Carter told the American people that his 12-year-old daughter was upset about the growing problem of nuclear proliferation, by which many other nations such as India and Pakistan acquired atomic bombs. This over-reliance by Carter on the atypical preoccupation of his young daughter seemed ridiculous to many Americans, as much of Carter’s presidency did.

=== F. SDI ===

In November 1980, the first modern conservative was elected president of the United States: Ronald Reagan. For the next 30 years the influence of him and those who supported him is still being felt. President Reagan cut taxes and defeated communism. He also had the most original and influential idea of any president in American history: the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), known by its critics as “Star Wars.”

Reagan’s life included many personal failures. He was a struggling Hollywood actor who spent some time running the union of actors, or Actors Guild. When he was in charge of that union the communists attempted, with some success, to infiltrate Hollywood. Reagan resisted this infiltration, and the communists threatened and attempted to intimidate him. He would receive frightening phone calls in the middle of the night. For the rest of his life Reagan devoted his time to defending freedom and opposing communism. As governor of California he surprised scientists by personally visiting the Lawrence Livermore Lab, which was and is a premier military research center. When Reagan became president, he gave a speech on national television in 1983 to announce his plan for America to build a new missile defense system to shoot down any nuclear attack.

His critics, including most scientists, ridiculed SDI as impossible and dangerous. But those criticisms were somewhat contradictory with each other; it was precisely because SDI might be possible that it was so influential. The Soviet Union, then led by Mikhail Gorbachev, panicked. Gorbachev met with Reagan at a summit in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 in which Gorbachev promised almost anything if Reagan would agree to drop SDI. The media pressure was intense for Reagan to agree. But Reagan stood up for America, and he said “no deal.” The next year Reagan made a trip to the Berlin Wall, against the recommendation of his advisers, and declared to the world, “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!” Two years later the Germans did exactly that, and tore down the Berlin Wall built by the communists. Although Reagan and Gorbachev did sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, which banned missiles with ranges of 300 to 3,400 miles, the historic decision was Reagan’s refusal to sign a treaty at Reykjavik giving up SDI. Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union would soon be vanquished.

== III. Independence Movements in the 20th Century ==

For most of the population in the world, the history of the 20th century can be summed up in one word: '''independence'''. That is true for India (about 1 billion people), Indonesia (215 million), much of Africa (890 million), Israel, and Eastern Europe. China (1 billion) and Latin America (523 million) already had independence before the 20th century, but still had nationalistic movements during the 20th century.

=== A. South Asia ===

Both Hindus and Muslims sought independence in South Asia, which now consists of India and the surrounding countries of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Afghanistan. Many of those countries did not exist at the time of World War II. The “Indian subcontinent” consists primarily of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh today.

The Hindu group pushing for independence was the Congress Party, while the Muslim League was the pro-independence Islamic group led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. In 1946 the [[Great Calcutta Killing]] occurred, which was a riot between Hindus and Muslims resulting in the deaths of 6,000 people.

On both sides of India, East and West, were regions dominated by Islam. In 1947, they achieved independence as East and West Pakistan based on a partition by the British House of Commons. Religious conflict continued. Gandhi went to Delhi in January 1948 to urge fair treatment for Muslims, and was then assassinated by a Hindu.

India received its independence from Great Britain on August 15, 1947, and instantly became the world’s most populous democracy. Jawaharial Nehru was its first prime minister. He began the long process of modernization and sought to de-emphasize the caste system. Two years later, in 1949, a war broke out between India and Pakistan over Kashmir, and this dispute continues today even though China seized part of Kashmir in 1962. Both India and Pakistan joined the British Commonwealth as Dominion members and adopted English as their official languages. India sought assistance from the Soviet Union, while Pakistan became more closely aligned with the United States.

Nehru ruled India for nearly two decades, and his daughter Indira Gandhi became prime minister upon his death. Her rule saw an increase in agricultural production known as the “green revolution,” but she attempted to limit population growth with strict birth control. She also suspended parts of the democratic process. The people responded by defeating her in 1977, and she left office. In 1980 she regained power, but violence was breaking out with Sikhs who wanted an independent state. She ordered an attack on a Sikh temple, and two of her bodyguards retaliated by assassinating her in June 1984. The news reached America in the middle of the night, but President Reagan’s advisers chose not to awaken him to tell him. Critics ridiculed allowing President Reagan to sleep through this news, and one liberal wrote a book about the Reagan Administration entitled, “While Reagan Slept.”

Rajiv Gandhi succeeded his mother as the leader of India. He lost power in 1989 based on accusations of corruption. A group of Tamil terrorists from Sri Lanka killed him with a bomb in 1991. Sri Lanka is the pear-shaped island off of the southern coast of India, which obtained its independence in 1948. Sri Lanka has a Buddhist majority, and the Tamils are in a Hindu minority and have been fighting for their own independence. Rajiv Gandhi had sent troops into Sri Lanka under a 1983 agreement to disarm the rebellious Hindus, which was unsuccessful.

Shifting over to the history of the eastern portion of Pakistan, in 1971 Indian-backed forces overthrew the government of East Pakistan and established the new country of Bangladesh. The eastern and western parts of Pakistan had different ethnicities and languages and were separated by over a thousand miles, and were unable to remain united despite both parts being Muslim.

West Pakistan then became Pakistan. In 1999, General Pervez Musharraf seized power by overthrowing Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. Before him, Benazir Bhutto was the woman prime minister who ran the country, even though it is Muslim. Pakistan is one of the few Islamic nations possessing the atomic bomb, which it developed in the 21st century, much to the consternation of the rest of the world.

=== B. Southeast Asia ===

When India and Pakistan sought and obtained independence from the British, other British and Dutch colonies in Asia attained similar independence. In Southeast Asia, Burma gained independence in 1948 and chose not to be a member of the British Commonwealth. It then suffered from some internal conflicts between communists and military dictators. In 1989, Burma renamed itself Myanmar.

Ethnic conflict hurt British efforts to create a single nation of Malaysia after World War II. Large groups of Chinese and Malay peoples fought each other in Southeast Asia. In 1957, a Federation of Malaya brought together Singapore, Malaya, Sarawak and Sabah. But in 1965, Singapore slipped from the federation to become a separate nation composed of only one successful city. Today Singapore is one of the few city-states in the world, and is very prosperous. After Singapore split off, the other three regions (Malaya, Sarawak and Sabah) formed the Federation of Malaysia.

Indonesia had been a Dutch colony until the Japanese conquered it early in World War II. After the war, Sukarno led a successful rebellion against the Dutch and established the independence of Indonesia in 1949. But Sukarno was unable to establish a democracy, perhaps because Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in the world.

In 1965 there was a coup (rebellion) attempt in Indonesia, and General Suharto brutally suppressed it, killing perhaps a million people including many communists. In this striking battle between Islam and communism, Islam won. In 1967, Suharto appointed himself president and created a police state. He persecuted the Chinese and Christians, and in 1976 he seized East Timor and annexed it to Indonesia.

In addition to the British and Dutch, the United States also granted independence to its Asian colony: the Philippines (on July 4, 1946). The United States kept military bases on the Philippines under 99-year leases, but later gave up those leases under criticism of being imperialistic. America left her bases there in 1991.

The Philippines has a history of communist insurgency, and President Ferdinand Marcos suppressed the communists during his rule from 1966 to 1986. For ten years during that period he even imposed martial law. But when Benigno Aquino, a political opponent of Marcos, was immediately assassinated upon his return to the country from the United States, American newspapers blamed Marcos for the killing and demanded his resignation. He would not resign, but Aquino’s widow Corazon Aquino defeated Marcos in the election of 1986. Time magazine named her Woman of the Year, and Marcos fled to Hawaii, where he eventually died. Marcos’ wife, Imelda Marcos, was then put on trial by the United States prosecutor in New York City for allegedly stealing from the Philippines people. She was acquitted.

Corazon Aquino was succeeded in office in the Philippines by Fidel Ramos in 1992. Term limits of one term only prevented him from serving beyond a single six-year term.

=== C. Africa ===

Five European powers – Great Britain, Belgium, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands – had divided Africa into colonies during the Imperialism Era. Their divisions showed no regard for ethnic groups and local culture. Europeans created huge farms that could be more profitable for the mother country, such as cash-crop plantations. When it came time for the Europeans to leave, the African economy lacked self-sufficiency.

There was a middle class in Africa. Many Africans were educated in the Western world, and they led a pro-African or pan-African movement called “Negritude”. This built pride in African culture and accomplishments.

==== British Colonies – Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana ====

Great Britain had three large African colonies: Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana. Nigeria was most populous colony in Africa and one of the most prosperous, and it won its independence in 1960. But its ethnic diversity led to civil war between the Muslim Hausa-Fulani and the Christian (and animist) Igbo and Yoruba. There was tension even within the Christian groups, as Igbo preferred a democratic society while the Yoruba preferred a monarchy.

Millions of Igbo died during a war over an attempt by non-Yoruba minorities to secede. Secession occurred in 1967 to establish a new country of Biafra, but reunification occurred in 1970.

Oil was discovered in Nigeria and it joined OPEC. But the Muslim Hausa-Fulani seized power in 1983 and ruled for 16 years, discriminating against the Christians. In 1999, a civilian government was reestablished pursuant to a new constitution.

A Kenyan nationalist Jomo Kenyatta, who had been educated in Britain, combined with a secret organization known as Mau Mau to drive the British out and establish independence in 1963. The United States, fearing infiltration by communists, sided with Britain in opposing this. Kenyatta established Nairobi as a business center in East Africa. Daniel arap Moi succeeded Kenyatta upon his death in 1978. Ethnic strife and protests for greater democracy plagued Kenya at the end of the 20th century.

The British Colony of the Gold Coast (Ghana) was the first of all these to achieve independence. Kwame Nkrumah was helped by the communists and by his education in the United States. He spent money on improving roads and education and health care, but the economy failed as a result. He was also a leader establishing the Pan-African Congress in 1945 with the help of Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey. The goal of this organization, along with the Organization of African Unity (OAU) (founded in 1963), was to establish an Africa ruled by Africans. But in 1966 the Ghana military revolted against Nkrumah while he was away in China, presumably on a mission to obtain more communist aid. Power has frequently changed hands in Ghana ever since, and at two points (1979 and 1981) a Ghana Air Force pilot named Jerry Rawlings served as president.

==== French colony – Algeria ====

France had many small colonies in Africa, including Morocco and Tunisia, to which France granted independence in 1956. But France’s primary colony was Algeria, a Muslim country in North Africa. Instead of granting it independence, France offered citizenship to all the Algerians, which partly explains why the Muslim population in France is larger than in other European countries today.

The Algerians wanted independence despite the presence of thousands of French citizens in Algeria. In 1945 there was a bloody demonstration for independence, and in 1954 the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) demanded full independence. The French responded by sending troops to suppress the FLN.

In 1958, Charles de Gaulle successfully returned to power in France, after having led France during World War II. He feared an Algerian rebellion, and favored granting independence to it and others. France officially granted Algeria independence in 1962, and Ahmed Ben Bella became its first prime minister. In 1965, Ben Bella was deposed (overthrown). A fully Islamic government took control in 1985 due in part to a drop in the price of oil, which caused a crisis in the Algerian economy.

==== Belgium colony - Congo ====

Belgium held the Congo as an African colony for mining copper and producing rubber. When Belgium granted Congo its independence in 1960 and Patrice Lumumba was sworn in its its first prime minister, the young nation was unprepared. Moise Tshombe, a leader of southeast region that had the copper mines, announced its separate independence. Tshombe was backed by Belgians interested in the copper, while Lumumba was supported by the communist Soviet Union. Joseph Mobutu, with sympathy by the West, then overthrew Lumumba, who was then murdered. Tshombe ruled for a short period until he, too, was overthrown by Mobutu.

Mobutu renamed the nation Zaire, and ruled it for 32 years. He personally accumulated enormous wealth from the nation, until he was deposed (overthrown) by Laurent Kabila in 1997. Kabila then changed the nation's name to the Democratic Republic of Congo. The neighboring countries of Rwanda and Uganda supported an insurrection in 1998, and a civil war resulted between the pro-Kabila Hutu tribe and the anti-Kabila Tutsi tribe. As more African nations became involved in this conflict in Central Africa, it began to look like the first all-African war. The United Nations sent peacekeeping troops in February 2000 and a cease-fire was declared later that year.

==== Portuguese colony - Angola ====

Portugal suppressed independence movements in its colony of Angola until 1975, when opposition to the continuing expenses caused an overthrow of the government in the mother country of Portugal itself. Once free, three different revolutionary groups fought each other for control of Angola: (1) the communist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which grabbed the Angolan capital city of Luanda, (2) the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which was supported by Zaire and the United States, and (3) the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) which was aided by South Africa and the United States. Peace was not achieved until 1988 and only then did the communist Cuban troops leave. All three groups continue to seek representation in the Angolan government.

==== Dutch and British colony – South Africa ====

South Africa was the most complex, and the most prosperous, of the African colonies. As early as the 1600s the Dutch established Cape Town as a city at the southern tip of Africa. But during the Napoleonic Wars the British captured Cape Town (in 1815) and drove the Dutch (the “Boers”) inland. The Dutch favored continuation of slavery; the British abolished slavery in its empire in 1833.

The Boers fought the native Africans (Bantu tribes such as the Zulus) during the Great Trek of the Boers. The Boers founded two inland republics, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. But the British were more powerful, and controlled wealthy diamond mines. The Brit Cecil Rhodes acquired great wealth through his monopoly of the diamond production in 1889, and he served as prime minister of the British Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896.

A Boer War ensued from 1899 to 1902, and afterward it was the Boers (the Dutch) who established “apartheid”. Apartheid segregated the majority blacks from the minority whites in South Africa, with the white minority controlling the country.

The British granted South Africa independence in 1910, and it became a member of the British Commonwealth in 1931 with its constitution allowing white rule over the blacks. But the country was prosperous, and all enjoyed a higher standard of living than the remainder of Africa.

The Dutch South Africans (Afrikaner) gained control in 1948 when their National Party rose to power and enforced apartheid throughout South Africa. Homelands (segregated areas) were even established for the rival African tribes, and the whites reserved the best property for themselves. Ever since 1912 the all-black African National Congress (ANC) objected, but it was suppressed. Demonstrations, such as the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre, occasionally broke out but were violently put down. An ANC leader named Nelson Mandela was imprisoned for his role in that demonstration. Riots over school segregation occurred in Soweto in 1976, and in 1977 the government beat an outspoken critic, Steve Biko, to death.

There was increasing pressure worldwide for South Africa to end its racism. Its athletes were banned from the Olympics since the 1960s, and trade restrictions were imposed by other nations. A black South African bishop, Desmond Tutu, called for boycotts of his own nation.

Finally, in 1989, a new South African president named F.W. de Klerk was elected who would change the country. With international approval, de Klerk legalized the ANC, released Nelson Mandela from jail, and obtained repeal of apartheid laws, and agreed to fully democratic elections in 1994. Nelson Mandela then won those elections and the ANC won a majority in the National Assembly, the bigger house in the South African Parliament. A new constitution containing a bill of rights like that in the United States was adopted in 1996, though it also included entitlement and social rights. The world fully accepts South Africa now, and it will host the World Cup (soccer) in 2010. But while the outside world accepts South Africa, the country has been hurt by a mass exodus based on a fear of crime and opposition to race-based hiring rules. "We as a nation cannot afford to lose skilled and hard-working citizens of whatever hue," declared one South African candidate for high office in 2006. <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5412892.stm</ref>

==== British, French and Italian colony - Somalia ====

Somalia is a Muslim country that is a combination of former colonies known as British Somaliland, French Somaliland and Italian Somaliland. Somalia has been Muslim since A.D. 900 and today is considered one of the bases for the terrorist group al-Qaida. Roughly the size of New Jersey in area and population, Somalia is located on the coast of East Africa (the Indian Ocean) and borders both Ethiopia and Kenya. Somalia obtained its independence in 1960. The violence is so bad in Somalia today that it has no central government at all. In 1993, 18 American soldiers were killed in Somalia, and on Jan. 9, 2007 the United States bombed parts of the country where al-Qaida terrorists were believed to be hiding.

=== D. Israel ===

[[Image:Israel.gif|left]]
“Zionism” began in the late 1800s to reestablish a Jewish state in Palestine in and around Jerusalem, which the ancient Hebrews had built. Theodor Herzl led the movement in the 1890s to establish a modern state of Israel. Jewish people were motivated partly by the religious faith that Jerusalem and Palestine were the Promised Land, and partly motivated by a desire to live together again after many centuries of dispersion in other lands, where they endured persecution. The Russian pogroms of violence against Jewish settlements reinforced the desire for a new Jewish homeland. The “Dreyfus Affair” in France in 1894, whereby a French captain was persecuted based on a false accusation of selling military secrets to Germany, added to the desire for a Jewish nation that could defend against persecution.

The Turks controlled Palestine for centuries leading up to World War I, but the defeat of the Ottoman Turks in that war allowed Great Britain to assume control of the territory. Its Balfour Declaration (1917) favored a Jewish homeland while protecting rights of Arabs living there. Between the world wars many Jewish settlers from Europe migrated to Palestine and set up communal agricultural settlements known as kibbutzim, in anticipation of a new Jewish state. The Jewish population in Palestine increased from about 84,000 in 1922 to 554,000 in 1945, but the Muslim population also increased by almost an identical amount from 589,000 to about 1,036,000. Today there are about 5 million people of Jewish origin living in Israel. Relatively few Jewish citizens of the United States have moved to Palestine, but they have generously lent financial and political support for the Zionist cause.

The Balfour Declaration called for the creation of Palestinian state in addition to Israel. Lawrence of Arabia then helped create Jordan (originally Transjordan) as a semi-autonomous Palestinian state in 1921. Jordan attained its full independence in 1946. But later there were demands for another Palestinian state. Lawrence of Arabia favored promotion of the British Empire in the Middle East, and resisted creation of a Jewish state as a threat to British influence in the region. Others opposed the creation of a Jewish state based on the argument that it would be imperialistic, with migrating Russian Jews being accused of imperialism.

World War II changed many things, and after the war Great Britain asked the United Nations to partition Palestine. The United Nations carved out a small parcel of property, slightly smaller than the state of New Jersey, for a new Jewish state to be named “Israel” (see attached map). This new nation was born on May 14, 1948, with David Ben-Gurion as its first prime minister and renowned scientist Chaim Weizmann as its first president.

The Muslim Arabs refused to accept the existence of Israel. The surrounding Arab states invaded Israel the next day, and started additional wars in 1956, 1967 and 1973. The conflicts prevented the United Nations plan for a separate Palestinian state from happening.

The 1967 “Six-Day War” resulted when the Egyptian ruler Gamal Abdel Nasser closed off the Gulf of Aqaba, which was the only access Israel had to the Red Sea. Israel responded with massive air strikes against several Arab nations, including Egypt, killing many Arabs and destroying their militaries. Israel conquered Jerusalem, the West Bank, the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights. Palestinians in Jerusalem were offered the opportunity to become Israeli citizens, but many declined, leaving them without a country.

Anwar Sadat succeeded Nasser as ruler of Egypt, and in October 1973, Sadat launched a surprise attack on Israel on its holy day, Yom Kippur. After suffering massive initial losses, the Israeli prime minister, Golda Meir, regained much of the lost territory. Golda Meir was the third women in history to run a nation, and David Ben-Gurion once described her as “the only man in the Cabinet” of Israel. However, she was forced to resign the following year based on criticism of how she handled the war. Winston Churchill also lost power as soon as World War II was over. Maybe voters simply wanted to replace someone who reminded them of the bad memories of war.

In 1979 President Jimmy Carter brokered a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel, then led by Menachem Begin, and this deal is known as the Camp David Accords. Egypt agreed to recognize Israel in exchange for receiving return of the Sinai Peninsula. The United States promised both countries a massive amount of foreign aid, about $10 billion each year in gifts to each nation, to complete the deal. Though Sadat was assassinated by Muslims in 1981, his successor (Hosni Mubarak) promised to continue to honor the deal.

Yasir Arafat, a former construction engineer, founded the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964, and it demanded a Palestinian state in the area of Jerusalem and rejected the right of Israel to exist. In the 1972 Olympics in Munich, Germany, PLO terrorists kidnapped and murdered Israeli athletes in front of the entire world watching those games. In 1987, the PLO instituted a campaign of persistent violence called “intifada”, where common citizens and even children would throw stones at Israelis and commit other forms of violence. Meanwhile, Arab nations boycotted Israeli goods and even attempted to boycott any company that did business with Israel.

Secret talks between Israeli leaders and the PLO in Oslo, Norway culminated with the Declaration of Principles in 1993, whereby Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin agreed to allow Palestinian self-rule over two strips of land known as the Gaza Strip and West Bank, and Arafat and Rabin signed the agreement in front of President Clinton at the White House in 1993. This angered orthodox Jewish Israelis who had been building settlements in both regions, and one assassinated Rabin in 1995. A more conservative leader emerged in Israel named Benjamin Netanyahu, who negotiated a partial withdrawal by Israeli settlers from Hebron, which is on the West Bank, in 1997. In 2005, Israel removed its settlements from the Gaza Strip, and there is a quasi-Palestinian state called the Palestinian National Authority that functions under Arafat’s successor, Mahmoud Abbas.

In the early 21st century, Israel endured a series of horrific suicide bombings, often targeting Jewish weddings, buses, caregivers and even children. Weekly and sometimes daily there would be new reports of a half-dozen Jews murdered by a Muslim suicide bomber, and sometimes a second bomb would detonate to murder those who came to the aid of the initial victims. Israel finally stopped the bombings by building a wall to end the flow of weapons and terrorists from hostile neighbors.

=== E. Russia ===

Russia and other nations in the Soviet Union regained their independence when the Union broke up.

Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union and in 1985 he promoted a new policy called “glasnost” or openness. This ended decades of censorship by the communist dictators, and free speech began to work wonders. Books could be published and churches could preach the Gospel. He released some political prisoners. Faced with a failing economy, Gorbachev adopted “perestroika”, which was a restructuring of the Soviet economy. He permitted some ownership of private property, such as small businesses, farms and factories.

In 1987, Gorbachev introduced democratization that allowed fairer, more competitive elections. Gorbachev remained a dedicated communist, but he wanted voters to be able to choose between rival candidates rather than simply electing those candidates presented only by the Communist Party. He also encouraged Eastern European countries adopt reforms.

As explained in more detail below, Eastern Europe took advantage of Gorbachev’s reforms to the point where they broke away from strict communism. This led Lithuania, which had been annexed to the Soviet Union in 1940, to declare its independence in March 1990. Gorbachev responded as his communist predecessors would have: he blockaded the rebellious country and, when that did not work, in January 1991 he ordered the Soviet troops to attack the capital of Lithuania. Civilians were slaughtered.

But perhaps Providence intervened this time. Boris Yeltsin, a charismatic Russian, emerged to challenge Gorbachev’s leadership. Yeltsin had been a popular mayor of Moscow and was a powerful member of the parliament. In June 1991 the voters elected Yeltsin as president of a new Russian Republic.

Communists were angry and determined to stop Yeltsin’s challenge. In August 1991, they ordered the soldiers to kill Yeltsin. Providence must have intervened, because the troops refused the order. Rarely, if ever, do troops refuse orders like this. In a communist country such refusal was unheard of. Gorbachev promptly resigned as head of the Communist Party, and then Latvia, Estonia and other Soviet republics declared their independence as Lithuania had. On Christmas Day, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the Soviet Union.

By then Russia and the other newly independent republics had formed a federation to replace the Soviet Union, known as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). All joined except for the Baltic republics and Georgia, a large former Soviet state not to be confused with the American state of Georgia.

After Gorbachev resigned, Yeltsin brought free enterprise to Russia. He ended price controls, cut taxes, stopped subsidizing government-controlled industries and reduced trade barriers. Churches opened and flourished. The people of Leningrad changed the name of their city back to St. Petersburg. Critics of Yeltsin complained about inflation and the loss of jobs, and organized crime became a problem without the KGB controlling everything. But the people were certainly not going to return to communism. Today Russia has lower taxes than the United States.

Muslim-dominated Chechnya in southwest Russia became a difficult issue for Yeltsin. In 1991, it declared its independence from Russia, but Yeltsin suppressed that by sending troops to Grozny, its capital city. Resistance by the Chechens was intense, and the troops were initially withdrawn. But a bloody civil war has ensued for over a decade, including hostage-takings and, in 2004, the Chechen rebels seized a large school near Chechnya and killed over 300 of the children and teachers. In 2006, Russia claimed to have killed the leader in charge of the seizure of the school. The trouble continues.

=== F. Eastern Europe ===

The defeat of communism in the Soviet Union really began in the Eastern European “satellite” countries of communism, initially in Poland and Hungary. In 1978, the Roman Catholic Church elected the first non-Italian pope in many centuries, elevating a Polish cardinal who had been active in the anticommunist movement in his homeland of Poland. Pope John Paul II then became a leader and hero to his countrymen in Poland, which is nearly 100% Catholic. Another Polish leader, Lech Walesa, led a strike against a shipyard in Gdansk in 1980, demanding government recognition for his labor union called Solidarity. The Polish communist government was weak at this time and vacillated in its response, but in 1981 it cracked down on Solidarity and imposed marital law throughout the country. A popular anticommunist priest was then murdered. An assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II, also thought to have been organized by communists, injured but did not kill him.

As conflict worsened in Poland, Pope John Paul II visited the country and attracted literally millions of supporters. At one point he stood on the podium with the communist-installed leader and lectured him about respecting the dignity and freedom of the Polish people. The communist leader trembled in front of the huge crowd. When the Soviet Union threatened to crack down on the Polish people, the Pope declared that he would respond by returning to Poland to fight on the front lines against the communists.

In April 1989 the Polish government allowed free elections for the first time World War II, and the people elected Lech Walesa as president and his group Solidarity swept into office. Communism was defeated. Walesa remained in power until 1995 and may have been a bit overwhelmed by all the political issues. He was then replaced by a former communist, Aleksander Kwasniewski, who favored some free enterprise. The fall of communism in Poland enabled passage of laws prohibiting abortion. Abortion rates in the communist Soviet Union had been several times higher than the rest of the world.

Hungary, the same country that attempted to overthrow communism in 1956, immediately followed Poland’s lead. In October 1989, opponents of the Communist Party took it over and dissolved it. A new constitution allowed for national elections in 1990, and the people defeated the communists in power. Hungary embraced some free enterprise and started a stock market. But like much of Eastern Europe, socialists remained powerful and in 1994 they crept back into power and raised taxes. Today Hungary is a mixture of socialism and free enterprise.

Hungary helped end communism in East Germany, which was the most brutal of the communist regimes. Hungary opened its border to allow East Germans to emigrate into Austria, from where they could escape entire. As East Germans began to leave in droves, the communist leader Erich Honecker closed the border. But demonstrations broke out in October 1989, which not even the ruthless Honecker could control. He resigned and his successor, Egon Krenz, reacted by opening the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989. East Germans then poured into West Berlin and tore down the wall entirely. By the end of the year communist was defeated in East Germany, and within a year it was reunited with West Germany to form one nation of Germany under West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. Germans expect that it will take an entire generation (30-40 years) to bring the formerly communist section up to the level of the free West Germany.

Other Eastern European countries then wanted the same freedom from communism. In Czechoslovakia, demonstrations forced the Communist Party leader Milos Jakes to resign in November 1989, and he was replaced by Vaclav Havel. In 1993, the country split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic, caused in part by economic difficulties in the conversion from communism to free enterprise.

Next came Romania, which had been ruled for decades by the communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu. Massive demonstrations against his rule in December 1989 caused the army to join the people and they captured Ceausescu as he attempted to flee with his wife. They were executed on Christmas Day. Free elections were beginning in 1990.

Not all the changes in these countries were for the better. Ceausescu, for example, prohibited abortion for decades in Romania. As a result, Romanians had the lowest incidence of breast cancer in the Western world, far lower than the United States. But after he was overthrown, Romania began promoting abortion and breast cancer subsequently skyrocketed. In 1990, American families rushed to Romania to adopt babies while they were still available.

The collapse of the communist dictatorship exposed underlying ethnic and religious conflict, particularly in Yugoslavia. Its dictator Marshall Tito (real name Josip Broz) ruled with an iron fist from 1945 to 1980, and the different ethnic groups could not fight each other as he suppressed all conflict. He also insisted on some independence from the Soviet Union, and Stalin expelled him from the Soviet bloc in 1948. Tito was succeeded in power by the Serb Slobodan Milosevic, which caused Slovenia and Croatia to seek independence due to their different ethnicity. In June 1991 the Yugoslavian army attempted to suppress these independence movements. It succeeded with Croatia, which has a large Serbian minority, but the Slovenians ousted the Serbs and achieved independence.

Bloodshed continued in Croatia as the Serbs battled the Croats. Eventually the United States and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened in 1999 in what is known as the Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict, driving Milosevic from power and forcing his trial by an international tribunal. He died of natural causes during a lengthy war crimes trial.

Ethnic conflict was even worse in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which consists of Muslims, Croats and Serbs, who are Christian. Bosnia-Herzegovina first declared its independence from Serbia, but the Christian Bosnian Serbs did not want to live under Muslim rule and a civil war began in March 1992 over whether Bosnia would split from Serbia. Anti-Christian press accused the Serbs of “ethnic cleansing,” or racially motivated mass murders, as the Serbs were allegedly killing off Bosnian Muslims. A peacekeeping army was sent by the United Nations, and in December 1995 the Muslims, Croats and Serbs signed a peace treaty. In 1996 a three-person presidency including a leader from each group was elected.

=== G. Controversy of the United Nations Troops ===

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995. Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force. Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N. When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution and no recruiter or officer mentioned serving under U.N. command.

But on May 3, 1994, President Bill Clinton signed Presidential Decision Directive 25 (PDD-25). This ordered submission of American troops to multilateral peace operations. In July, Michael New was assigned to Germany, 3rd Infantry Division, and his company was told it would be sent to Macedonia as part of a "peacekeeping" mission. In August 1995 Michael New was informed that his unit must wear part of the U.N. uniform.

This new uniform included a blue U.N. cap and a U.N. armband or patch sewn on one shoulder and a blue U.N. beret, in addition to an ordinary United States army outfit. New reported for his formation without these U.N. uniform features, and he was removed by his superiors and eventually court-martialed for disobedience under 10 U.S.C. § 892(2) (any person who, “having knowledge of any ... lawful order issued by a member of the armed forces, which it is his duty to obey, fails to obey the order ... shall be punished as a court-martial may direct”). Soldier New argued in his defense that the order was unlawful and unconstitutional. Specifically, U.S. Constitution Article I, Section 9 prohibits any person’s acceptance of any emolument from a foreign state without congressional consent. New also argued that the entire deployment as part of a United Nations force was unlawful.

The military judge and American courts all rejected New’s arguments and held that the legality of the deployment was a "non-justiciable" political question that could not be handled by a judge, and which should be better handled by a political branch of government. Soldier New received a bad-conduct discharge. New has continued to challenge this in the court system.

=== H. China ===

In 1978, Deng Xiaoping succeeded Mao and Zhou as dictator in China. He was more friendly to capitalism and the West, and began a program called the Four Modernizations. He abolished communes and began leasing land to farmers who could work the land for personal profit. He permitted private businesses and some foreign investment in special economic zones (SEZs). He promoted tourism and sent many Chinese teenagers to the West to be educated in Western colleges. But when Chinese students sought greater freedoms and democracy, Deng brutally suppressed them by sending tanks to Tiananmen Square to massacre hundreds of demonstrators on June 4, 1989.

Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng when he died in 1997. He refused to improve China’s record on human rights, and Christianity and democracy remain suppressed there. Moreover, China has armed itself in preparation for a war with the United States, pointing many nuclear missiles at California.

On July 1, 1997, Great Britain’s lease on Hong Kong expired and it returned its former colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalistic for another 50 years.

=== I. Latin America ===

"Latin America" is Spanish America and Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken. Put another way, Latin America is all of America south of the United States. Latin America is thus Mexico, Central and South America. It has 523 million people, far more than the U.S. population of about 300 million.

The nations of Latin America had won their political independence from European powers long before the 20th century. But they have struggled in becoming economically independent. It was not until the middle of the 20th century that Latin American nations began to export manufactured goods in addition to minerals and food. In the 1970s and 1980s, huge debts to foreign powers combined with a depression caused severe economic problems. Some blame lending policies of developed nations and their organizations, such as the World Bank, for causing this debt crisis. After much loan forgiveness and an improved worldwide economy, Latin American nations had stronger economies and less dependence on foreign powers by the end of the 20th century.

In one of the largest Latin American countries, Mexico, the rule by President Lazaro Cardenas from 1934 to 1940 ended the land monopoly enjoyed by a small number of wealthy Mexicans by redistributing the land to peasants. He also forced foreign investors to give up control over Mexican oil wells.

The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI for its Spanish initials) controlled Mexico from 1929 to 2000, when Vicente Fox of PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) was elected president. The PRI was known for corruption and acting on behalf of wealthy Mexicans.

In another large Latin American nation, Argentina, the military has long controlled the government. The most popular military ruler was Colonel Juan Peron, who was elected in 1946. He became known for his “popular dictatorship.” His wife, Eva Peron, was even more popular for her tremendous charisma. Peron ruled for over a decade, and brought industrialization and working class values to the nation. He limited foreign ownership. But critics felt Peron infringed too much on civil liberties. He was deposed in 1955 but came back briefly in the 1970s. In 1982, the military rulers of Argentina attempted to take the Falkland Islands, which are located off its shores in the Atlantic Ocean, from the British. The British fought back with the help of American intelligence and regained control of the islands.

== References ==

<references/>

[[Category:History]]
[[Category:World History lectures]]

User:BethanyS

2009-04-29T18:14:18Z

BethanyS:

Essay:The Coming Fifth Great Awakening in America

2009-04-03T14:22:22Z

BethanyS: /* Entertainment */

{{Essay By|AddisonDM}}
I believe that in the near future, there will be another Christian revival, like the [[Great Awakening]]s of the Past, or failing that, the [[Jesus Movement]]. Here I set forth some of my ideas about why I think this will happen and how it will happen.

==Introduction==

Historically, the passing of every few decades has seen what has been called a Great Awakening. These were lively Christian revivals which were lead by charismatic preachers and fueled by an intangible source of spiritual fervor and renewal. It has been at least 30 years since we have experienced a Great Awakening. To some, the Jesus Movement was the Fourth Great Awakening, but this is not conventional.

The major point is that there is nothing preposterous about suggesting that another Awakening is coming. It is in keeping with history, and, in my view, the current social climate.

==The Awakenings of the past==

*[[First Great Awakening]]: The First Great Awakening was a [[religious]] revival lasting from the 1730s to the 1740s and lead by [[Jonathan Edwards]] and [[George Whitefield]]. Its focus was on [[man]]’s [[sin]]fulness and need for redemption, and its preaching employed “fire and brimstone.” It also focused on the emotional and personal element of [[spiritual]]ity instead of the traditional, [[Doctrine|doctrinal]] elements. It was primarily in the [[American]] Northeast and affected the [[colonies]].

*[[Second Great Awakening]]: Lasting from the about 1800 to 1830, the Second Great Awakening was a religious revival movement largely concerned with reaching out to the unchurched. It also encompassed many pre-[[Civil War]] [[reform]] movements, such as [[temperance]] and [[abolition]]ism. Its leaders are not as iconic as those of the First Great Awakening. The famous tent revivals on the [[American frontier]] were part of the Second Great Awakening.

*[[Third Great Awakening]]: The Third Great Awakening, from about 1850 to 1900, focused more on social reforms and outreach work than the past Awakenings. It was largely categorized by political activism. It gave birth to the [[Social Gospel]] and several new Christian movements, most notably [[Pentecostal]] and [[Holiness Movement|Holiness]].

*[[Jesus Movement]] (Fourth Great Awakening): The Jesus Movement lasted from the 1960s to the 1980s. It focused on personal conversion, and the outreach ministry that categorized it was largely untraditional. Most of its converts, often referred to as “Jesus Freaks,” were former [[hippies]], [[rock and roll]]ers, [[occult]]ists, and eastern religion practitioners. The well-known [[Protestant]] denomination [[Calvary Chapel]] was formed during the Jesus Movement, and the Movement gave rise to the now popular [[Christian Rock]] and [[Contemporary Christian Music]] genres.

==How do I know an Awakening is in the works?==
This is perhaps the most important question you can ask me, or that I can ask myself. Let me say it again- how do I know there is an Awakening in the works? Well, [[history]] can help determine the future and explain the present, so for starters we’ll go back to the 1990s and early 2000s.

===Entertainment===

Let’s look at the [[entertainment]] landscape. [[Britney Spears]], Mandy Moore, NSync, LizzieMcGuire (Hilary Duff), and That’s So Raven (Raven-Symone). By 2005, these stars were largely either gone or no longer associated with their childhood roles.

Now, why do I mention them, and what is their significance? As far as the music stars were concerned, the [[music]] in this period was highly [[materialistic]] and sexualized. The stars began as little innocent children and as they got older, became more sexualized. None was especially associated with [[Christianity]] or [[faith]]; Britney Spears’ life collapsed, Mandy Moore left Christianity, the [[Disney]] stars were not vocal about faith (Hilary Duff once denied speaking a statement favorable to virginity).

Taken as a whole, these stars and their styles represent a period, which is now gone and over. So, two important points: 1) These stars were not very vocal about Christian faith, and 2) the style they represented is largely replaced.

The next important set of facts is what and who these stars and this period were replaced by. From 2005-2007, the present stars came in. The [[television]] and music landscape is characterized by [[Miley Cyrus]]/Hannah Montana, the [[Jonas Brothers]], [[Selena Gomez]], [[Taylor Swift]], and the High School Musical series. All in all, Disney dominates the children’s and adolescents’ entertainment sector.

But that’s not important. What’s important is that the Jonas Brothers are the children of a [[Minister|clergyman]], that Miley Cyrus has publicly spoken of the importance of faith- its her "main thing and reason she works in Hollywood"- and that Selena Gomez and the Jonas Brothers wear [[purity ring]]s. Billy Ray Cyrus, the father of Miley Cyrus, even joined the [[conservative]] [[radio]] talk show host [[Sean Hannity]] on his Freedom Tour.

What’s important is that this new generation of teen stars- some of the most popular role models for pre-teens- is not hostile to Christianity or afraid to express their Christian beliefs. And it is my opinion that this is not just a generational or social difference, or a marketing ploy, but an evidence and a symbol that a change is coming.

===[[Internet]]===

Three Christian-themed [[website]]s rose up during my proposed '''period of transition''' (2005-2007): [[GodTube]], [[MyChurch]], and [[Conservapedia]]. GodTube, a Christian version of YouTube, is the most successful of the three, and in July 2008 became one of the top 500 online websites. Conservapedia, a Christian-friendly online encyclopedia created as an alternative to [[Wikipedia]], is growing, and in all likelihood will continue to grow.

===[[Politics]]===

Most importantly, [[Barack Obama]] won the [[President|Presidency]] based on some of the most forward-looking, inspirational, and sometimes even vaguely [[religious]] (leading to his being mocked as the “[[Messiah]]”) [[rhetoric]] ever. He commanded what was almost faith in a promise of a better future. While his policies were in my view completely wrong, his style was extremely important and will be mentioned again.

Of course, there are other events and occurrences of Christian value, but for this chapter I have chosen to discuss only the greatest examples.

==The epicenter: the concepts, styles, and organizations that will be at the forefront of the Awakening==

Unlike the old Awakenings, which were begun and fueled by an intangible source of fervor, or by individual preachers, this Awakening will be fueled by a more centralized source. An organization or umbrella of organizations will be the center, from which the most important and influential elements of the Awakening will proceed.

===Concepts===

====The [[Gospel]] and how it must be preached====
The [[First Great Awakening]]’s [[Jonathan Edwards]] was a famous fire and brimstone preacher, and his most famous sermon, “[[Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God]],” is one of the best examples of fire and brimstone preaching.

Most importantly among concepts, the future Awakening is ''not'', is not, and once again is not going to be fire and brimstone. Like the Jesus Movement, the driving force, the “mission statement,” if there must be one, is going to be [[salvation]] and [[conversion]], from a positive view. The mission statement that comes to mind is “Out of the darkness.”

As children’s educations suffer in [[public schools]], as teenage [[girl]]s choose [[abortion]] out of fear, as teens and adults alike turn away from traditional Christian values in an effort to be “accepting” and “tolerant,” as too many girls- and guys- go to bed hurt and unsure of [[love]], the last message anyone needs is fear. Some will be shocked into faith, but more will feel disenfranchised.

We don’t need the vision of [[Hell]] that [[Mary|our Lady]] revealed to the children of [[Fatima]]; we need to hear the words of Christ, “I have called you each by name,” “Be not afraid,” “Come to me, ye heavy-burdened, and I will give you rest.”

We need to see [[Christ]] extending His arms in love and blessing, we need to see His suffering on the Cross, which brought darkness over the land but opened to us the everlasting light of [[Heaven]]. We need to visualize, and hope towards, and help build, the future when nations will be at peace, when animals will not kill each other, when there will be no more pain or suffering, when the [[Earth]] and the heavens shall be transformed.

We need to go out into the [[world]] and preach the Gospel to all creation. The Gospel is uplifting and enlightening- and more importantly than its own intrinsic characteristics, the Gospel, compared to “false prophet” means of enlightenment, is the real thing, and its own [[light]] will shine even brighter when surrounded by darkness. Simple enough, right? A Christian revival preaching the Gospel.

But it’s not the Gospel alone. It’s a combination of Gospel verbatim along with soaring rhetoric, like that of Barack Obama. To put it succinctly, '''style of Barack Obama, the substance of the Gospel'''. Combining these two, we can attract record crowds like Obama, yet we can effect real and true change in hearts and minds with the truly transformative message of Christ.

====Specific ministries and issues====
I also see social ministry work being at the center of the Awakening. Obviously, not abortion and [[Contraception|contraceptive]] services and gay rights, but social ministry of other, orthodox Christian sorts. We need to apply faith to everyday life. Too often, faith is seen as a parallel life that takes place on [[Sunday]] morning and is then forgotten. Exactly the opposite must be true. Faith must be the center of life- but this faith must not seem depressing, anti-fun, highfalutin, or carry with it any sentiment that makes one afraid that life is all sin, or that life cannot be enjoyable. Faith must first be adapted to life- ''not by watering it down but by making it relevant''- and then we can make it the center of our life.

The actual social ministries I see are help to the poor and homeless (the image of a tall man in a coat in a big city, with a pocket [[New Testament]] in his hand, bringing a homeless man out to lunch and reading him John 3:16, is a powerful and recurring one), Christian messages about relationships for teens, help for the divorced, and more generally active participation projects like letter campaigns.

Related to concepts is the list of actual issues that we work with, when it comes to activism. Definitely traditional [[marriage]], pro-[[family]], and [[pro-life]] messages will be at the forefront. [[Religion]] in the public square, and [[education]]al methods such as public school vs. [[homeschooling]] are almost definitely going to be important too. Christian unity is going to be a focus. A very contentious issue I am not sure about is [[creationism]] vs. [[evolution]]. I do not see this issue coming up, and I do not want to take a side here.

====“Inclusivism” vs. “exclusivism”====
Inclusivism and exclusivism are two terms I have come up with to refer to two different strategies. Inclusivism is the tendency to make an enclave of similar people, to stay inside it, to refuse to go into the world or cross denominational lines, and the like. In sum, I define it in the phrase, “If it isn’t explicitly (Catholic, Christian, etc) it’s bad.”

Inclusivism is the tendency to include everything unless it is explicitly opposed to Christianity, [[Catholic]]ism, etc. Thus, exclusivism is “anything not explicitly Christian is bad,” while inclusivism is “anything not explicitly anti-Christian is good.” Scriptural basis is found in Christ's words, "Whoever is not against us is for us" (Mark 9:40).

I believe that inclusivism must govern the Awakening. In order to form our broad coalition (discussed below), we must include everyone and everything we possibly can without violating our Christian beliefs. We should expand Christianity and its influence and we should make even what is not explicitly Christian work for our goals.

There is too much anti-Christian sentiment and [[bias]] in entertainment and the media for us to condemn anything with Christian morals and values, even if it is not ''outwardly'' or ''explicitly'' Christian. What we want is anything that is ''substantially '' Christian. It’s truly the message that counts- but where the message is not quite as Christian as we'd like, we must step in and add our own message.

In order to safeguard our faith, we must also clearly distance ourselves from anything which is anti-Christian. We need a broad line, but as soon as that line is crossed, we need to be vigilant.

===Styles===

Some will view the phrase “style of Barack Obama” with understandable skepticism. This section is a more in-depth explanation of what I mean by it. Barack Obama made himself the subject of [[faith]] and [[hope]], and he did it with very inspiring rhetoric. To make legitimate, Christian use of his style, the subject of faith and hope must, of course, be God and [[Christ]].

What I really mean by “Style of Barack Obama, substance of the Gospel,” is that our preaching and speaking must be just as emotionally appealing and exciting as Obama’s speaking; it must (in homage to [[Chris Matthews]]) give us tingly legs. But in an Obama speech, for that matter in most any political speech, as soon as the emotion is gone and you wake up the next day, there’s nothing left. The excitement is over. In the end, after all the talk about how we can all change things, after all the rhetoric of a new time dawning upon us, the only thing you really take away is “Vote for me.”

We must deliver that emotional appeal contained in a good political speech, but we must knock it home with some Gospel. We’ve got to say to people, “You can change the world,” but we’ve got to give a real gameplan, some real Christian advice on how an average person really can. We’ve got to add to the wish and the resolve that comes from hearing the speech the ability to really do, to really want to do, what we feel like doing as we are listening. We must join together the emotional desire in hearing a good speech with the mission that comes with faith- not only will we make change possible, we will make it enjoyable and uplifting. Ultimately, the goal would be to have such a combination of substance and style that the substance (Gospel) reinforces the style (emotion). That is, to make real, orthodox Christianity very uplifiting and emotionally appealing.

For concrete examples, let’s look at this quote from Obama’s June 3rd speech in [[Denver]], and compare it with an example of the kind of speaking I’m talking about:

*Obama- “Because if we are willing to work for it, and fight for it, and believe in it, then I am absolutely certain that generations from now, we will be able to look back and tell our children that this was the moment when we began to provide care for the sick and good jobs to the jobless; this was the moment when the rise of the oceans began to slow and our planet began to heal; this was the moment when we ended a war and secured our nation and restored our image as the last, best hope on earth. This was the moment — this was the time — when we came together to remake this great nation so that it may always reflect our very best selves and our highest ideals.”

*My style: At this defining moment, at this hour of decision which weighs upon us and upon our world, we must decide who we are going to work for, we must decide, whose side we are on, and we must dedicate our lives on this day and every day for the Kingdom and the Glory of God. And that done, we cannot allow ourselves to spend one day, one hour, one minute of our lives, without doing something for God or neighbor. For though many, we are one. Though different and individual, we are united. Though we possess each our own gifts, we dedicate them all to the common purpose of building the Kingdom of God. We have been called a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people unto God, and so it will be we who the future looks back on, it will be we who those in need look up to, and most of all it will be we who God looks down upon, making sure that we remember Him; for our work, our memory, and our legacy, are ultimately His.

These two passages are very different, in both content and form, but the underlying style is similar. The greatest similarities are the use of repetition in phrasing (“This was the moment” vs. “It will be we”) and conjuring a sense of urgency, of importance. That is, a focus on the importance of the present moment, a here and now. And yet at the same time, a focus on the better [[future]] that awaits if we actually work in the present for it.

===Organizations===
====Coalition====
The nature of the foremost organizations, as I said in concepts, is going to be centralized. There will one or two organizations which specifically ally with others to form one united Christian body. They will not necessarily work together in terms of projects or ad campaigns, but they will work together on a high level.

There must also be a broad coalition. There must be some diversity of less important views. The focus cannot be on a partisan liberal vs. conservative divide. For example, “liberal” ideas like vegetarianism and environmental responsibility are going to be accepted and promoted, along with pro-life and pro-family views. The average person does not think liberal vs. conservative. They have their views, and they must not feel pushed away or disenfranchised, or hit with claims of “liberal bias,” "fascism," or the like. The coalition must have principles, but I do not think it can be rigidly identified with political conservatism.

====Political arrangement of the central organization====
Let’s go back once again to Barack Obama, or more broadly any political campaign. (Here’s where it gets interesting!) Political campaigns are both top-down and bottom-up. They have a central office, a central logo, a central statement, and of course a central candidate. But they also have offices in every small town in [[America]], where volunteers from [[school]] electioneer and teach passer-by about the political climate and why their specific candidate must be elected. Of course, there is no true political component to the Awakening, at least in terms of a presidential election.

But there is an extremely valuable lesson to be learned from a presidential campaign, and Barack Obama’s especially. Barack Obama compiled huge [[email]] lists and was able to send alerts to millions of people. He was able not just to get the votes of half the nation, but to mobilize it behind him. To be effective, we have to learn from this. The Awakening may feature both a central office and multiple local ministries and coalitions affiliated directly, indirectly, or nominally with the central organization.

====Importance of the media====
Another extremely important aspect is the [[media]]. There must be a professional ad campaign behind the Awakening. We must also learn how to get media attention. There is already a substantial Christian media, which we can mobilize and utilize, but we must bill ourselves as mainstream. In order to be truly sweeping, the [[newspapers]] and news shows are going to have to feature the Awakening.

But when it fails to garner media attention, that’s where the ad campaign comes in. If you can’t get the attention, make it. Internet ads, radio ads, “salvation phonelines”, bill boards, and cable television ads are all going to play an indispensable part. There is one more kind of ad which is relatively rare, which I also see being a substantial part of the ad campaign: “bulletin board” ads. These are inexpensive ads created on graphic designing software that can be printed out and placed in churches, on bulletin boards, and in public places. This is an inexpensive way to get a message out, or to advertise for a specific cause or website.

====Specific functions of the centralized organization====
What are the functions of this centralized organization? Will it bill itself as a force in a Great Awakening, will it even be founded by those who believe in a coming Awakening? For the last two questions, no, yes. For the first, let’s investigate.

The organization will act as a sponsor and headquarters for local ministries, like work for Christian unity among individual congregations and the social ministries I mentioned above. But the actual execution of these ministries will be on a more local level.

The major function of the centralized organization is going to be sponsoring what I call “projects” instead of ministries. These are larger, high-profile activities such as large scale boycotts, nationwide tours, and the like. Their focus will be to gain media coverage and to reach large amounts of people. An example is something I have thought of that I call the Faith Tour: a nationwide tour of large buses presenting evidence for Christianity and the existence of [[God]]. So let’s add a new line to our slogan: '''The style of Barack Obama, the substance of the Gospel, and the media genius of Disney.''' With all that, there can be a well-publicized, sweeping Christian revival in our nation.

==Keeping the Awakening going: The challenge we will face==

So we have our rough plan:

*An organization or set of organizations operating both top-down and bottom-up
*An ad campaign and other means of garnering media attention
*Preaching the Gospel in a relevant, modern, appealing, uplifting way, without watering it down
*A focus on ministry and outreach

But how long can this revival last, and how can it be kept going? Will it even be great enough to identify a time when it began and ended?

The great challenge we face is not getting the Awakening started- history and the current leanings of society are behind us. The challenge is keeping the movement going once it begins- that is, to make it timeless- more a permanment change in society than a passing revival of fervor. In order to find out how to do this, let’s investigate similar movements that have already ended.

===Old movements and why they didn't last===

====Obama Campaign====
Since we have drawn from the Obama Campaign, we should investigate it. Its styles and means of mobilizing supporters were very effective, and we will need to make use of them. It got going because of that. It ended because it had to end. It was put up against a deadline, like all political campaigns. Every four years people come together and get excited, and then on [[November]] 5th (this year) it's all forgotten.

The lesson to carry away here is to not base the Awakening on time limits, make specific predictions, or put a fixed duration on the most succesful activities. We must let the Gospel do its job, and not place artificial time barriers of any kind on it. We cannot bar in or limit the Gospel.

====The Fifties====
The Nineteen-Fifties are renowned as a time when traditional values and morals were practiced. Political policies aside, the moral character of society was probably more conservative, while the backlash of the Sixties which is still with us today is more [[liberal]].

Why did the Fifties give way to such completely opposite and harmful ideas? Why are these ideas still popular today? The Fifties were (this is important) not based enough on Christian values- the behavioral standards were set by unwritten societal rules, which, if transgressed, gave someone a bad name. The actual standards were largely right, but they were based on the wrong foundation. The Fifties were a house of rock built on a cliff of sand.

The backlash of the Sixties and Seventies carried with it the [[Sexual revolution]], [[feminism]], legalized abortion, and in general a message of liberation and freedom. Of course the backlash was not right either. The liberation and [[freedom]] it offered were in [[sin]], and sin is [[slavery]], not freedom.

The point is this: we must clearly convey that the Gospel provides true freedom, and we must judge all conduct by the Gospel, not by other standards. The Gospel is timeless. Before the foundation of the world was the Word, and He shall remain when the heavens and the earth have passed away. Our substantive foundation must be the Gospel alone, not societal whims which will be replaced with opposite societal whims.

===Other aspects===
The focus on the Gospel is so important because it is the message that truly fills us. One trend gets boring, and contains in itself the opposing backlash. But the Gospel is not a trend; it is the objective and eternal code of behavior and message of salvation. When properly preached, it will satisfy much of the need for something new.

In short, the Awakening must be more than a movement. It must be a centralized, unified effort to continually preach the Gospel in an appealing, relevent, and absolutely faithful manner. It will be an impetus and an occasion for an effort towards Christian unity never before seen. It will bring Christianity proudly into the public square once again. It will satisfy the wants and the needs of those who are overlooked and forgotten by the government and society, and of those who cry out for help and recieve no answer. It shall once again make heard the voice of Jesus, "Behold, I am coming soon," to which His faithful shall reply, "Come, Lord Jesus."

===So...===
The Awakening must also:

*Not focus on durations, or use time limits very much at all
*Focus on the Gospel and always base its message clearly and solidly in the Gospel alone, which is alone unchanging
*Bill itself as the true answer to our desires and need, and the true object of our faith. Our love is hurt, our trust is broken, our faith runs out. Yet we still hope. The Awakening, through the Gospel, must once again claim our faith and hope, but truly deliver.

==The specific purpose and vision of the Awakening: what exactly will it do?==

In discussing other elements of the Awakening, I have already mentioned several goals and objectives. Here, however, I list them cohesively, and also add some not previously mentioned.

*Christian unity: A new Great Awakening will both require and be an impetus to a renewed effort of Christian unity. By this I mean more than holding hands and singing Kumbaya. I mean inter-denominational discussions, and opportunities for all Christians to work together, inspire each other’s faith, and ultimately reduce and eliminate the unfortunate barriers that exist in the Body of Christ.

*National renewal: Not only will we borrow rhetoric and organization from politics, but we should also work towards realizing the vision of an election year. What with the promises of change and betterment and the eradication of poverty, the American people feel empowered, if only between [[August]] and [[November]]. We feel that these goals really might be reached. I think a Christian revival should work towards these goals, and through the Gospel, truly empower the average person, and let them know that they can contribute to a better future- even if they do so little as eat or drink for the glory of God. One day, I hope that the media, that our political [[system]], that our schools, and that Americans- and people in all the ends of the earth- will be transformed.

*Legitimization and mainstreaming of Christianity: Of course Christianity is legitimate already- in fact, most Americans are Christians- but we must make Christianity legitimate and mainstream in the general public eye and in the media. Christianity must become in the public eye something like a corporation. You think “[[Wal-Mart]],” you think “Always low prices.” When someone thinks “Christianity” they should think something like “Forgiveness” or “Kindness” or some other positive idea. Thus the ad campaign discussed above will advertise not only a single Christian organization, not only a handful of Christian ministries or projects, but it must advertise Christianity itself.

==Mission statements, slogans and examples==
===Mission statements and slogans===

*'''The style of Barack Obama, the substance of the Gospel, and the media genius of Disney'''

*'''Devoutly Christian, thoroughly modern''' (In reference to being both Christian and mainstream)

*'''How can we preach from the rooftops if we don’t enter the city? How can we be the leaven if we are not part of the bread?''' (In reference to the tendency to form a Christian enclave to the point of not going out into the world and preaching the Gospel)

*'''Those whom we would first criticize, are those whom we must first help''' (In reference to the focus on love and forgiveness as opposed to condemnation)

*'''Change is not static. It is an ongoing process through which we conform ourselves to God, and so transform the world''' (Speaking of the process of conversion and spiritual change)

===More examples of our style===
====On beginning a new phase of the Christian mission====
...And when all this seems too great to achieve, let us remember, that it has been done before. In the beginning, 12 men, inspired by having known our Savior personally, embarked on a mission to spread the Gospel to the ends of the earth, and it was not 200 years before this tiny sect began to become influential. When a new world was discovered, missionaries sailed with haste and fervor to distant, foreign lands to preach the truth, and all too often to shed their blood for it- and their sacrifice and blood have not gone to waste! And many times throughout our history, there has been a priest or preacher who challenges the status quo, an elderly man who gives a little more in the basket than he thinks he can afford, a street preacher who changes the mind of a criminal or a sinful man. And whether we know it or not, all of these contribute to a better future. And so can we.

Let us remember what has been done in the past through Him, let us know that we may do the same. Let us remember that one drop of martyrs’ blood has converted nations, the prayers, and tears, and works, the faith, the hope, and the love, of countless individuals, have effected change, and conversion in the lives of countless others...and so can ours! Because when we join ourselves with God, and with each other, there is no limit to the worth and efficacy of every single word of kindness or caring gesture. There is no limit to what we can do through, with, and in Christ our Lord.

Don’t let anybody’s detractions or criticisms limit your abilities, or dampen your ambitions. Don’t let them tell you, that there is anything you can’t do, through Christ who strengthens us. Don’t let them tell you, that you can’t stand up, and put aside the doldrums of everyday life, and change the world! We know that God will not let our works and hopes amount to nothing, we know that if we follow the Christian example, if we take control of our lives instead of our lives controlling us, if we dedicate every day, every work, every breath and heartbeat to the glory of God- that He will use us to do unimaginable things.

====On Prayer====
Prayer is a very important thing- indeed, a gift. Prayer, is the tool which God has given us, to connect with Him, and talk with Him, and help us to realize that while He is the supreme and most splendorous being in the universe, He is merciful and caring enough to listen to our voices, and hear our requests. When in pain, we may receive some comfort; when we are down, just a little assurance. A feeling, a sense, perhaps even a voice, so intangible that we can’t pinpoint it, yet so real we could never deny it.

Prayer, indeed, is one of the great means we have at our disposal to bring about change and conversion in our society. Prayer is the gift which has opened the hardest hearts, the blessing which has softened the blindest anger. It is the instrument by which some indescribable sense of protection and love has alighted upon some person in need, the tool used by missionaries and evangelists to help every soul they meet to be better disposed to the Truth. And while we can’t trace its path or measure its efficacy, we believe, we know- indeed we have been promised- that prayer is indeed all these.

==In conclusion==

From the record crowds of millions drawn by [[Pope John Paul II]], to the simple, timeless testimony of [[Christine Cloud]], we must shout our message and declare our heroes and saints from the rooftops. Change is coming.

From a [[stadium]] of [[youth]] shouting out [[song]]s, to the old lady in the back of the church praying the [[rosary]], holiness is growing.

From Christ’s declaration of [[Saint Peter]] as the Rock of the Church, to the writing of the Gospels, to the missionary effort in the New World; and from the man who holds open a door, from the child who gives a dime or a quarter to the homeless man, to the boy who listens to and comforts a girl in pain, to the everyday person who says to another everyday person “God bless you”- the Church is growing, the influence of Christ in the world is growing, and the time for a renewal of evangelism and outreach is at hand.

Jesus is coming again. He will come some day in glory [[Last Judgement|to judge the living and the dead]], but in the meantime, He comes everyday through us- He visits the prisoner through a prayer or [[prison]] ministry associate; He clothes the naked and feeds the hungry and gives drink to the thirsty through soup kitchens and consignment shops and charities; He shelters the homeless and buries the dead and visits the sick through good Christians all across our nation every day- and as often as these good Christians have done these works- through Christ- they have, indeed, done them unto Him.

And so let us [[Prayer|pray]], let us [[hope]], let us [[Faith|believe]], let us [[love]], let us be absolutely certain that the power to renew the faith and transform our world lies in us, through Christ. Let us pray that He will guide us and unite us and employ us in building and renewing His Church. And let us say, let us pray, with confidence and faith and absolute and loving submission to our Lord and Savior, “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus!”

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with all of God’s people. Amen.

==Resources, Similar Projects, Websites==
*[[Red Envelope Project]]: http://www.redenvelopeproject.org/ (Grassroots pro-life effort)

*Catholic Bridge: http://www.davidmacd.com/catholic/index2.htm (Explanations of Catholic teaching, with an eye towards reconciling Catholicism and Evangelicalism)

*http://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0310/p09s01-coop.html (Article containing a premise opposite to this essay, but containing some similar insights)

*http://www.the912project.com/ ([[Glenn Beck]]'s 9/12 Project. The idea and organization behind this is very similar to the Fifth Great Awakening)

[[Category:Essays]][[Category:Religion Essays]]

User talk:AddisonDM

2009-02-12T20:14:51Z

BethanyS:

{{Welcome}}
Hey!! Welcome to Conservapedia. [[User:BethanyS|~Beth]][[User talk:BethanyS|Talk2'''ME''']] 13:40, 15 October 2008 (EDT)

== Edits to [[1984]] ==

Thanks for your superb edits to 1984. You might be interested in this discussion we've had about Orwell:[[Mystery:Did George Orwell Become a Conservative?]]--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 16:45, 29 October 2008 (EDT)

Hey, thanks! I added a new section also, called Governmental Structure. I also revamped the plot a bit.

== The Message ==

I really enjoyed your new entry [[The Message]] and your quote from Psalm 23!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 20:40, 20 December 2008 (EST)

Hey thanks! You gave me the idea to create articles about Bibles. I'd even like to make a table of all the translations and put it at the bottom of the pages, you know.

: I bet there's more good stuff to find in Bible translations, and it's extremely educational to study these issues. I find it fascinating.--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 22:19, 20 December 2008 (EST)

== Second model answer ==

I just added a second model answer from your homework. Well done!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 11:16, 21 December 2008 (EST)

Thanks so much! Hey, I did a real good job! :)

== Block reversed ==

I'm surprised that you were able even to edit my talk page. In any event, the block has been removed.--[[User:TerryH|TerryH]][[User talk:TerryH|Talk]] 23:04, 29 December 2008 (EST)

Thanks. Interestingly, it disappeared a few minutes later so that in fact I have been editing all day. Who knows. But thanks. [[User:AddisonDM]] 29 December 2008

== Please feel free to create a [[Creation]] article and then put the pics you wanted in the article. ==

Please feel free to create a [[Creation]] article and then put the pics you wanted in the article. [[User:Conservative|conservative]] 21:06, 31 December 2008 (EST)

== Congratulations! ==

Congratulations on your promotion to Sysop (Admin) status! This gives you many new privileges. Well deserved!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 23:45, 31 December 2008 (EST)

Wow! That is honoring. Haha now I can edit at night! Thanks so much. Happy New Year all! [[User:AddisonDM]] 1 January 2009

: Very well deserved indeed!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 00:54, 1 January 2009 (EST)
Congrats Addison. I hope we can work together on the news project, etc. this year. --[[User:DeanS|DeanStalk]] 01:21, 1 January 2009 (EST)
::and many congratulations (and happy new year!) from me too. I look forward to working even closer with you this year.--[[User:JessicaT|KotomiT]][[User talk:JessicaT|''ohayougozaimasu'']] 06:27, 1 January 2009 (EST)

:::: Congratulations! --[[User:Joaquín Martínez]], [[User talk:Joaquín Martínez|talk]] 09:08, 1 January 2009 (EST)

::::: You did good kid, go team and Happy New Year. --Jpatt 23:02, 1 January 2009 (EST)

Thank you all so much. Happy and BLESSED New Year. [[User:AddisonDM]] 1 January 2009

Congratulations on your promotion! --[[User:DinsdaleP|DinsdaleP]] 13:16, 4 January 2009 (EST)

==Move requests==

Thank you for taking care of all these move requests. Some of them had been bugging me for quite some time, but unfortunately there was nothing I could do about them. -[[User:Foxtrot|Foxtrot]] 12:06, 3 January 2009 (EST)

Thanks! [[User:AddisonDM]] 3 January 2009

== Some help? ==

Would you like some help with all those moves? Problem is I can not remember where to find the list of pages! --[[User:JessicaT|KotomiT]][[User talk:JessicaT|''ohayougozaimasu'']] 13:13, 3 January 2009 (EST)

You made a good decision on using "Debate" for debates, Addison, rather than putting them in the "Conservapedia" namespace.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 14:19, 3 January 2009 (EST)

Thanks.

Terrific cleaning up with your deletions!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 15:11, 3 January 2009 (EST)

Thank you!

:Thanks for the [[Edmund Ironside]] fix. I had asked for that to be done months ago but was ignored. [[User:AlanE|AlanE]] 15:56, 3 January 2009 (EST)
::I think I have finished the debates clean up. --[[User:JessicaT|KotomiT]][[User talk:JessicaT|''ohayougozaimasu'']] 04:29, 4 January 2009 (EST)

== Please block ==

I see that you are an administrator. Could you please block [[User:NumaL]], he is making a mess. [[User:Kuyper|Daniel_Kuyper]] 11:46, 4 January 2009 (EST)

==Oklahoma City Thunder==
Thanks for moving that page! [[User:WesleyS|WesleyS]][[User Talk:WesleyS|Hello!]] 12:19, 4 January 2009 (EST)

== Essay:Examples of Moronic Vandalism by the "tolerant" ==

Addison, I'm sorry, but I had to delete your essay for inappropriate content. Even though you substituted symbols for the vowels, it was still inappropriate. --[[User:DeanS|DeanStalk]] 18:48, 4 January 2009 (EST)

Alright. That will stand unless and until Andy himself agrees. In fact, he likes it. I am going to ask him what he thinks. As he says, he has the last word.

== Could you re-name an article??? ==

Hello AddisonDM!!! I was wondering if you could change the title of the [[Why do people choose homosexuality?]] article to "Mystery:Why do people choose homosexuality?". It is in the category mystery but is not titled like the others (i.e. does not have "Mystery" on the beginning of the title). If you could fix that I would appreciate that very much. Hope you had a merry Christmas and a happy new year!!! --[[User:AmeliaJ|AmeliaJ]] 17:56, 5 January 2009 (EST)

Your welcome!!! --[[User:AmeliaJ|AmeliaJ]] 18:05, 5 January 2009 (EST)
#
==Urgent==
Please see Michaelds' edits and do whatever necessary [[User:Bradlaugh|Bradlaugh]] 18:07, 5 January 2009 (EST)

I believe he is already gone.

== Templates ==

Addison, all templates are to be locked, sysop only, all the time. No exceptions. Per Andy. Thanks! --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Administrator[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 02:07, 6 January 2009 (EST)

:This wasn't acknowledged....did you see it? --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Administrator[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 14:18, 6 January 2009 (EST)

== Hans Christian Andersen ==

Hi, I noticed you added an edit to the page [[Hans Christian Anderson]]. I added a merge template to this page back in September 2008, noting that the name of the article is '''mis-spelled''' and should be [[Hans Christian Andersen]] for which we also have a page. Somehow the suggestion to merge must have been overlooked, and edits continued to be made to the page with the incorrect name. Now that you are a Sysop, I think you should be able to correct the name of the page, otherwise I would urge you to merge the two pages, and not to keep the page that is mis-spelled. Thanks! [[User:Taj|Taj]] 19:27, 6 January 2009 (EST)
:That was fast - you must have fixed this 30 seconds before I hit save on this edit, lol. Thanks! [[User:Taj|Taj]] 19:30, 6 January 2009 (EST)

:Hi AddmisonDM,

:It's best to just redirect the pages instead of deleting them first. That way it saves a step and also saves the history.

:Thanks

:[[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 12:55, 7 January 2009 (EST)

== Answer to question Re. Favicon ==

Addison, I just created a "mini-logo" (referred to as a favicon). Thanks for the suggestion! [[User:CPWebmaster|CPWebmaster]] 22:44, 7 January 2009 (EST)

==HEYYYYYYYY==
How's your studying going??!!!! Got any tips to give me?? ;-P JK... [[User:BethanyS|~Beth]][[User talk:BethanyS|Talk2'''ME''']] 18:54, 8 January 2009 (EST)

== Requests for adminship ==

The 'Conservapedia : Requests for Adminship' page is on the wanted page list even though you deleted it, should i recreate it, or should i leave the space empty?---- [[Image:50 star flag.png|14px]] [[User:PhilipV|PhilipV]][[User talk:PhilipV|'' I Support our Troops!'']] 21:08, 9 January 2009 (EST)

== Christmas Campaign ==
Thank you for participating in the Christmas Campaign. Here is the Campaign medal. God bless, [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 01:54, 10 January 2009 (EST)

Thank you!

== FYI, Oxford ==

Oxford’s IP range is: 129.67.0.0 - 129.67.255.255 and isn’t involved in any range blocks. This is just another example of the liberal trolls and vandals ''at certain sites'' use of the "big lie technique", which they spam out to everyone with block rights, to raise a false flag issue. --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 18:04, 12 January 2009 (EST)

== Template:Liberalism ==

Addison, please stop adding articles to the template. It appears like a navigation template, but it was for information, and just a few pertinent articles were intended to be on it, to help our users understand what it means to be a liberal, is all. Thanks! --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 21:29, 12 January 2009 (EST)

==Template categorization==
There seems to be a problem with your recent categorizing of templates. All pages that use the templates that you categorized are now in [[:Category:Navigation box]]. I hope this doesn't cause much extra work for you, but I had to let you know. [[User:WesleyS|WesleyS]][[User Talk:WesleyS|Hello!]] 20:04, 14 January 2009 (EST)

== Edit disputes with senior administrators...... ==

Please work it out via email, but refrain from adding back in liberal bias, or removing parts added by other senior administrators, per the article talk page. Thanks. --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 22:33, 17 January 2009 (EST)

==Move of GSP==
I had noticed that you removed my move request for Georges St. Pierre. The current article title is misspelled. Could you please look into that? The current article title is [[Georges St-Pierre]]. Thanks! [[User:JY23|JY23]] 15:42, 18 January 2009 (EST)

== Essay:Greatest achievements of human history ==

You do realise that this was copied from a site whose name must not be mentioned, and that is why it was deleted? [[User:BrianCo|BrianCo]] 18:31, 18 January 2009 (EST)
:Normally it is good form to reply on the same page as where a comment was made to avoid what is known as "ping-ponging". Conversations get very difficult to follow otherwise. Also please note that my user page is currently locked and so I cannot reply on it. Thanks. [[User:BrianCo|BrianCo]] 18:37, 18 January 2009 (EST)
::Sorry. I didn't know it was locked! Anyway, I will remember your advice, and I deleted the article. [[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]] 18:39, 18 January 2009 (EST)

Record shows Philip Rayment unlocked that page at 15:03, 17 January 2009. Yesterday, in other words. I had locked it a week ago when the user said he would be away "on an extended wiki vacation". --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 20:59, 18 January 2009 (EST)

== World History edit ==

[[MediaWiki:Sidebar|Here.]]

==BethanyS Contribs==
Here are my major contributions:

#[[Emiliano Zapato]]
#[[Sacagawea]]
#[[Annie Oakley]]
#[[Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.]]
#[[Carol Moseley-Braun]]‎
#[[Catherine Ferguson]]
#[[John Glenn]]‎
#[[Virginia Dare]]‎
#[[Nathan Hale]]
#[[John Hancock]]‎
#[[John Paul Jones]]‎
#[[Francis Scott Key]]‎
#[[Sandra Day O'Connor]]
#[[Harriet Tubman]]
#[[Veterans Day]]‎
#[[Ethan Allen]]‎
#[[Mary McLeod Bethune]]‎
#[[George Calvert]]
#[[John Eliot]]
#[[Townsend Harris]]
#[[Robert H. Goddard]]‎
#[[Eragon]]‎
#[[Elves]]‎
#[[Dwarf (mythology)‎]]
#[[Orc (Middle-earth)]]
#[[Alagaesia]]‎
#[[Lemuel Haynes]]‎
#[[Thomas Jackson]]
#[[Meriwether Lewis]]
#[[Inheritance Trilogy]]‎
#[[Christopher Paolini]]‎
#[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]
#[[Abolitionist]]‎
#[[Levi Strauss]]
#[[Hummingbird]]
#[[Allen's Hummingbird]]
#[[Amazilia Hummingbird]]
#[[Amethyst Woodstar]]‎
#[[Forget-Me-Not]]‎
#[[USS Abraham (1858)]]‎
#[[Absaroka]]‎
#[[USS Absegami (SP-317)]]
#[[USS Acacia (1863)]]
#[[USS Absecon (AVP-23)]]
#[[Accelerate]]
#[[USS Accentor (AMc-36)]]
#[[USS Accentor (AMCU-15)]]
#[[USS Accohanoc (YTM-545)]]‎
#[[USS Accokeek (ATA-181)]]
#[[USS Accomac (YTL-18)]]‎
#[[USS Accomac (APB-49)]]
#[[USS Accomac (YTB-812)]]‎
#[[Acedia]]
#[[USS Achelous (ARL-1)]]‎
#[[USS Achernar (AKA-53)]]
#[[USS Achigan (YTB-219)]]‎
#[[The Achilles]]‎
#[[USS Achomawi (ATF-148)]]
#[[USS Acme (MSO-508)]]‎
#[[USS Acoma (SP-1228)]]‎
#[[USS Acoma (YTB-701)]]‎
#[[USS Acontius (AGP-12)]]‎
#[[Acoupa]]‎
#[[USS Acree (DE-167)]]
#[[USS Action (PG-86)]]‎
#[[USS Active (1779)]]‎
#[[USS Active (1837)]]
#[[USS Active (1888)]]‎
#[[USS Active (1917)]]
#[[USS Active (YT-112)]]
#[[USS Actus (SP-516)]]
#[[USS Adelheid (1903)]]
#[[USS Adelphi (T-AG-181)]]
#[[USS Adept (AFD-23)]]‎
#[[USS Adhara (AK-71)]]‎
#[[USS Adirondack (1860)]]‎
#[[USS Adirondack (1917)]]
#[[USS Adirondack (AGC-15)]]
#[[USS Adjutant (AM-351)]]
#[[USS Admirable (AM-136)]]‎
#[[Admiral C. F. Hughes]]
#[[USS Admiral D. W. Taylor (AP-128)]]
#[[USS Admiral E. W. Eberle (AP-123)]]
#[[USS Admiral Glass (YFB-2)‎ ]]
#[[USS Admiral H. T. Mayo (AP-125)]]
#[[USS Admiral Hugh Rodman (AP-126)]]
#[[USS Admiral R. E. Coontz (AP-122)]]
#[[USS Admiral W. L. Capps (AP-121)]]
#[[USS Admiral W. S. Benson (AP-120)]]
#[[USS Admiral W. S. Sims (AP-127)‎ ]]
#[[USS Admiral (1863)]]
#[[USS Admiral (SP-541)]]
#[[USS Admiral (SP-967)‎ ]]
#[[USS Admiralty Islands (CVE-99)]]
#[[USS Admittance (1847)]]
#[[USS Adolph Hugel (1860)]]
#[[USS Admiral F. B. Upham (AP-129)]]
#[[USS Adonis (LST-83)]]
#[[Adopt‎ ]]
#[[Adria]]
#[[Adrian‎ ]]
#[[Adriana‎ ]]
#[[Adroit-2‎ ]]
#[[Advance‎ ]]
#[[Advance-2‎ ]]
#[[Advance-3‎ ]]
#[[Eldest]]
#[[Orik]]
#[[King Hrothgar]]
#[[Three-Fifths Compromise‎ ]]
#[[Escobedo v. Illinois‎ ]]
#[[Agenda Setting]]
#[[Appellate jurisdiction‎ ]]
#[[Bill of Attainder]]
#[[Blanket Primary]]
#[[Block grants]]
#[[Capital-gains Tax‎ ]]
#[[Jim Elliot‎ ]]
#[[Casework‎ ]]
#[[Closed Convention]]
#[[Closed Rule]]
#[[Committee Report]]
#[[Comparable worth‎ ]]
#[[Concurring Opinion]]
#[[Congressional Review]]
#[[Congressional-executive Agreement‎ ]]
#[[Constitutional Courts]]
#[[Cost-benefit Analysis]]
#[[Cross-ownership]]
#[[De Facto Segregation]]
#[[De Jure Segregation]]
#[[Discount Rate]]
#[[Entitlements]]
#[[Discretionary Spending]]
#[[Exclusionary Rule]]
#[[Executive Agreement]]
#[[Executive Order‎ ]]
#[[Fast Track Authority]]
#[[Federal Budget Deficit‎ ]]
#[[Fiscal Federalism]]
#[[Flat tax]]
#[[Front-loading]]
#[[Gender Gap]]
#[[General Agreement on Tariff and Trade]]
#[[Good-faith Exception‎ ]]
#[[Incorporation Doctrine‎ ]]
#[[Independent Executive Agency]]
#[[Independent Regulatory Agency]]
#[[Interest Group]]
#[[Issue Network‎ ]]
#[[Judicial Restraint]]
#[[Keynesian Economics]]
#[[Unemployment Rate]]
#[[LAPS Test‎ ]]
#[[Legislative Courts]]
#[[Legislative veto]]
#[[Lobbying]]
#[[Margin of Error]]
#[[Means Test]]
#[[Midterm elections‎ ]]
#[[Minimum-rationality standard‎ ]]
#[[New Deal Coalition]]
#[[Plurality opinion]]
#[[Policy formulation]]
#[[Proportional representation]]
#[[Random sampling]]
#[[Reserved powers]]
#[[Reverse discrimination]]
#[[Inheritance Cycle]]
#[[Beor Mountains‎ ]]
#[[Stem‎ ]]
#[[Amethyst-throated Hummingbird‎ ]]
#[[Advance-4]]
#[[Advance-5]]
#[[Advance-6‎ ]]
#[[Active judge‎ ]]
#[[Senior judge]]
#[[Administrative Office of the United States Courts (AO)]]
#[[Alternate Juror]]
#[[Appellant]]
#[[Article III Judge]]
#[[Assets]]
#[[Assume]]
#[[Automatic stay‎ ]]
#[[Bankruptcy administrator‎ ]]
#[[Bankruptcy Code]]
#[[Bankruptcy court‎ ]]
#[[Bankruptcy estate]]
#[[Bankruptcy petition‎ ]]
#[[Bankruptcy trustee]]
#[[Case file]]
#[[Caseload]]
#[[Chapter 7]]
#[[Chapter 7 trustee]]
#[[Chapter 9‎ ]]
#[[Chapter 11]]
#[[Chapter 12‎ ]]
#[[Chapter 13‎ ]]
#[[Chapter 13 trustee]]
#[[Chapter 15]]
#[[Hercule Poirot]]
#[[Brisngr]]
#[[Eragon (character)]]
#[[Teaching English Abroad‎ ]]
#[[Brisingr (word)]]
#[[John William Waterhouse]]
#[[The Lady of Shalott]]
#[[Elaine of Astolat‎ ]]
#[[King Hrothgar (character)]]
#[[Arya (character)]]
#[[Samwise Gamgee]]
#[[User:BethanyS/Abraham Lincoln]]

I think that's it!! Have fun!! [[User:BethanyS|~Beth]][[User talk:BethanyS|Talk2'''ME''']] 15:11, 12 February 2009 (EST)

User talk:AddisonDM

2009-02-12T20:11:30Z

BethanyS:

{{Welcome}}
Hey!! Welcome to Conservapedia. [[User:BethanyS|~Beth]][[User talk:BethanyS|Talk2'''ME''']] 13:40, 15 October 2008 (EDT)

== Edits to [[1984]] ==

Thanks for your superb edits to 1984. You might be interested in this discussion we've had about Orwell:[[Mystery:Did George Orwell Become a Conservative?]]--[[User:Aschlafly|Aschlafly]] 16:45, 29 October 2008 (EDT)

Hey, thanks! I added a new section also, called Governmental Structure. I also revamped the plot a bit.

== The Message ==

I really enjoyed your new entry [[The Message]] and your quote from Psalm 23!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 20:40, 20 December 2008 (EST)

Hey thanks! You gave me the idea to create articles about Bibles. I'd even like to make a table of all the translations and put it at the bottom of the pages, you know.

: I bet there's more good stuff to find in Bible translations, and it's extremely educational to study these issues. I find it fascinating.--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 22:19, 20 December 2008 (EST)

== Second model answer ==

I just added a second model answer from your homework. Well done!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 11:16, 21 December 2008 (EST)

Thanks so much! Hey, I did a real good job! :)

== Block reversed ==

I'm surprised that you were able even to edit my talk page. In any event, the block has been removed.--[[User:TerryH|TerryH]][[User talk:TerryH|Talk]] 23:04, 29 December 2008 (EST)

Thanks. Interestingly, it disappeared a few minutes later so that in fact I have been editing all day. Who knows. But thanks. [[User:AddisonDM]] 29 December 2008

== Please feel free to create a [[Creation]] article and then put the pics you wanted in the article. ==

Please feel free to create a [[Creation]] article and then put the pics you wanted in the article. [[User:Conservative|conservative]] 21:06, 31 December 2008 (EST)

== Congratulations! ==

Congratulations on your promotion to Sysop (Admin) status! This gives you many new privileges. Well deserved!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 23:45, 31 December 2008 (EST)

Wow! That is honoring. Haha now I can edit at night! Thanks so much. Happy New Year all! [[User:AddisonDM]] 1 January 2009

: Very well deserved indeed!--[[User:Aschlafly|aschlafly]] 00:54, 1 January 2009 (EST)
Congrats Addison. I hope we can work together on the news project, etc. this year. --[[User:DeanS|DeanStalk]] 01:21, 1 January 2009 (EST)
::and many congratulations (and happy new year!) from me too. I look forward to working even closer with you this year.--[[User:JessicaT|KotomiT]][[User talk:JessicaT|''ohayougozaimasu'']] 06:27, 1 January 2009 (EST)

:::: Congratulations! --[[User:Joaquín Martínez]], [[User talk:Joaquín Martínez|talk]] 09:08, 1 January 2009 (EST)

::::: You did good kid, go team and Happy New Year. --Jpatt 23:02, 1 January 2009 (EST)

Thank you all so much. Happy and BLESSED New Year. [[User:AddisonDM]] 1 January 2009

Congratulations on your promotion! --[[User:DinsdaleP|DinsdaleP]] 13:16, 4 January 2009 (EST)

==Move requests==

Thank you for taking care of all these move requests. Some of them had been bugging me for quite some time, but unfortunately there was nothing I could do about them. -[[User:Foxtrot|Foxtrot]] 12:06, 3 January 2009 (EST)

Thanks! [[User:AddisonDM]] 3 January 2009

== Some help? ==

Would you like some help with all those moves? Problem is I can not remember where to find the list of pages! --[[User:JessicaT|KotomiT]][[User talk:JessicaT|''ohayougozaimasu'']] 13:13, 3 January 2009 (EST)

You made a good decision on using "Debate" for debates, Addison, rather than putting them in the "Conservapedia" namespace.--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 14:19, 3 January 2009 (EST)

Thanks.

Terrific cleaning up with your deletions!--[[User:Aschlafly|Andy Schlafly]] 15:11, 3 January 2009 (EST)

Thank you!

:Thanks for the [[Edmund Ironside]] fix. I had asked for that to be done months ago but was ignored. [[User:AlanE|AlanE]] 15:56, 3 January 2009 (EST)
::I think I have finished the debates clean up. --[[User:JessicaT|KotomiT]][[User talk:JessicaT|''ohayougozaimasu'']] 04:29, 4 January 2009 (EST)

== Please block ==

I see that you are an administrator. Could you please block [[User:NumaL]], he is making a mess. [[User:Kuyper|Daniel_Kuyper]] 11:46, 4 January 2009 (EST)

==Oklahoma City Thunder==
Thanks for moving that page! [[User:WesleyS|WesleyS]][[User Talk:WesleyS|Hello!]] 12:19, 4 January 2009 (EST)

== Essay:Examples of Moronic Vandalism by the "tolerant" ==

Addison, I'm sorry, but I had to delete your essay for inappropriate content. Even though you substituted symbols for the vowels, it was still inappropriate. --[[User:DeanS|DeanStalk]] 18:48, 4 January 2009 (EST)

Alright. That will stand unless and until Andy himself agrees. In fact, he likes it. I am going to ask him what he thinks. As he says, he has the last word.

== Could you re-name an article??? ==

Hello AddisonDM!!! I was wondering if you could change the title of the [[Why do people choose homosexuality?]] article to "Mystery:Why do people choose homosexuality?". It is in the category mystery but is not titled like the others (i.e. does not have "Mystery" on the beginning of the title). If you could fix that I would appreciate that very much. Hope you had a merry Christmas and a happy new year!!! --[[User:AmeliaJ|AmeliaJ]] 17:56, 5 January 2009 (EST)

Your welcome!!! --[[User:AmeliaJ|AmeliaJ]] 18:05, 5 January 2009 (EST)
#
==Urgent==
Please see Michaelds' edits and do whatever necessary [[User:Bradlaugh|Bradlaugh]] 18:07, 5 January 2009 (EST)

I believe he is already gone.

== Templates ==

Addison, all templates are to be locked, sysop only, all the time. No exceptions. Per Andy. Thanks! --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Administrator[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 02:07, 6 January 2009 (EST)

:This wasn't acknowledged....did you see it? --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Administrator[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 14:18, 6 January 2009 (EST)

== Hans Christian Andersen ==

Hi, I noticed you added an edit to the page [[Hans Christian Anderson]]. I added a merge template to this page back in September 2008, noting that the name of the article is '''mis-spelled''' and should be [[Hans Christian Andersen]] for which we also have a page. Somehow the suggestion to merge must have been overlooked, and edits continued to be made to the page with the incorrect name. Now that you are a Sysop, I think you should be able to correct the name of the page, otherwise I would urge you to merge the two pages, and not to keep the page that is mis-spelled. Thanks! [[User:Taj|Taj]] 19:27, 6 January 2009 (EST)
:That was fast - you must have fixed this 30 seconds before I hit save on this edit, lol. Thanks! [[User:Taj|Taj]] 19:30, 6 January 2009 (EST)

:Hi AddmisonDM,

:It's best to just redirect the pages instead of deleting them first. That way it saves a step and also saves the history.

:Thanks

:[[User:Learn together|Learn together]] 12:55, 7 January 2009 (EST)

== Answer to question Re. Favicon ==

Addison, I just created a "mini-logo" (referred to as a favicon). Thanks for the suggestion! [[User:CPWebmaster|CPWebmaster]] 22:44, 7 January 2009 (EST)

==HEYYYYYYYY==
How's your studying going??!!!! Got any tips to give me?? ;-P JK... [[User:BethanyS|~Beth]][[User talk:BethanyS|Talk2'''ME''']] 18:54, 8 January 2009 (EST)

== Requests for adminship ==

The 'Conservapedia : Requests for Adminship' page is on the wanted page list even though you deleted it, should i recreate it, or should i leave the space empty?---- [[Image:50 star flag.png|14px]] [[User:PhilipV|PhilipV]][[User talk:PhilipV|'' I Support our Troops!'']] 21:08, 9 January 2009 (EST)

== Christmas Campaign ==
Thank you for participating in the Christmas Campaign. Here is the Campaign medal. God bless, [[User:Geo.plrd|Geoff Plourde]][[User_talk:Geo.plrd|Complain!]] 01:54, 10 January 2009 (EST)

Thank you!

== FYI, Oxford ==

Oxford’s IP range is: 129.67.0.0 - 129.67.255.255 and isn’t involved in any range blocks. This is just another example of the liberal trolls and vandals ''at certain sites'' use of the "big lie technique", which they spam out to everyone with block rights, to raise a false flag issue. --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 18:04, 12 January 2009 (EST)

== Template:Liberalism ==

Addison, please stop adding articles to the template. It appears like a navigation template, but it was for information, and just a few pertinent articles were intended to be on it, to help our users understand what it means to be a liberal, is all. Thanks! --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 21:29, 12 January 2009 (EST)

==Template categorization==
There seems to be a problem with your recent categorizing of templates. All pages that use the templates that you categorized are now in [[:Category:Navigation box]]. I hope this doesn't cause much extra work for you, but I had to let you know. [[User:WesleyS|WesleyS]][[User Talk:WesleyS|Hello!]] 20:04, 14 January 2009 (EST)

== Edit disputes with senior administrators...... ==

Please work it out via email, but refrain from adding back in liberal bias, or removing parts added by other senior administrators, per the article talk page. Thanks. --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 22:33, 17 January 2009 (EST)

==Move of GSP==
I had noticed that you removed my move request for Georges St. Pierre. The current article title is misspelled. Could you please look into that? The current article title is [[Georges St-Pierre]]. Thanks! [[User:JY23|JY23]] 15:42, 18 January 2009 (EST)

== Essay:Greatest achievements of human history ==

You do realise that this was copied from a site whose name must not be mentioned, and that is why it was deleted? [[User:BrianCo|BrianCo]] 18:31, 18 January 2009 (EST)
:Normally it is good form to reply on the same page as where a comment was made to avoid what is known as "ping-ponging". Conversations get very difficult to follow otherwise. Also please note that my user page is currently locked and so I cannot reply on it. Thanks. [[User:BrianCo|BrianCo]] 18:37, 18 January 2009 (EST)
::Sorry. I didn't know it was locked! Anyway, I will remember your advice, and I deleted the article. [[User:AddisonDM|AddisonDM]] 18:39, 18 January 2009 (EST)

Record shows Philip Rayment unlocked that page at 15:03, 17 January 2009. Yesterday, in other words. I had locked it a week ago when the user said he would be away "on an extended wiki vacation". --[[User:TK|'''₮K''']]/Admin[[User_Talk:TK|/Talk]] 20:59, 18 January 2009 (EST)

== World History edit ==

[[MediaWiki:Sidebar|Here.]]

==BethanyS Contribs==
Here are my major contributions:

#[[Emiliano Zapato]]
#[[Sacagawea]]
#[[Annie Oakley]]
#[[Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.]]
#[[Carol Moseley-Braun]]‎
#[[Catherine Ferguson]]
#[[John Glenn]]‎
#[[Virginia Dare]]‎
#[[Nathan Hale]]
#[[John Hancock]]‎
#[[John Paul Jones]]‎
#[[Francis Scott Key]]‎
#[[Sandra Day O'Connor]]
#[[Harriet Tubman]]
#[[Veterans Day]]‎
#[[Ethan Allen]]‎
#[[Mary McLeod Bethune]]‎
#[[George Calvert]]
#[[John Eliot]]
#[[Townsend Harris]]
#[[Robert H. Goddard]]‎
#[[Eragon]]‎
#[[Elves]]‎
#[[Dwarf (mythology)‎]]
#[[Orc (Middle-earth)]]
#[[Alagaesia]]‎
#[[Lemuel Haynes]]‎
#[[Thomas Jackson]]
#[[Meriwether Lewis]]
#[[Inheritance Trilogy]]‎
#[[Christopher Paolini]]‎
#[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]
#[[Abolitionist]]‎
#[[Levi Strauss]]
#[[Hummingbird]]
#[[Allen's Hummingbird]]
#[[Amazilia Hummingbird]]
#[[Amethyst Woodstar]]‎
#[[Forget-Me-Not]]‎
#[[USS Abraham (1858)]]‎
#[[Absaroka]]‎
#[[USS Absegami (SP-317)]]
#[[USS Acacia (1863)]]
#[[USS Absecon (AVP-23)]]
#[[Accelerate]]
#[[USS Accentor(AMc-36)]]
#[[USS Accentor (AMCU-15)]]
#[[USS Accohanoc(YTM-545)]]‎
#[[USS Accokeek (ATA-181)]]
#[[USS Accomac (YTL-18)]]‎
#[[USS Accomac (APB-49)]]
#[[USS Accomac (YTB-812)]]‎
#[[Acedia]]
#[[USS Achelous (ARL-1)]]‎
#[[USS Achernar (AKA-53)]]
#[[USS Achigan (YTB-219)]]‎
#[[The Achilles]]‎
#[[USS Achomawi (ATF-148)]]
#[[USS Acme (MSO-508)]]‎
#[[USS Acoma (SP-1228)]]‎
#[[USS Acoma (YTB-701)]]‎
#[[USS Acontius (AGP-12)]]‎
#[[Acoupa]]‎
#[[USS Acree (DE-167)]]
#[[USS Action (PG-86)]]‎
#[[USS Active (1779)]]‎
#[[USS Active (1837)]]
#[[USS Active (1888)]]‎
#[[USS Active (1917)]]
#[[USS Active (YT-112)]]
#[[USS Actus (SP-516)]]
#[[USS Adelheid (1903)]]
#[[USS Adelphi (T-AG-181)]]
#[[USS Adept (AFD-23)]]‎
#[[USS Adhara (AK-71)]]‎
#[[USS Adirondack (1860)]]‎
#[[USS Adirondack (1917)]]
#[[USS Adirondack (AGC-15)]]
#[[USS Adjutant (AM-351)]]
#[[USS Admirable (AM-136)]]‎
#[[Admiral C. F. Hughes]]
#[[USS Admiral D. W. Taylor (AP-128)]]
#[[USS Admiral E. W. Eberle (AP-123)]]
#[[USS Admiral Glass (YFB-2)‎ ]]
#[[USS Admiral H. T. Mayo (AP-125)]]
#[[USS Admiral Hugh Rodman (AP-126)]]
#[[USS Admiral R. E. Coontz (AP-122)]]
#[[USS Admiral W. L. Capps (AP-121)]]
#[[USS Admiral W. S. Benson (AP-120)]]
#[[USS Admiral W. S. Sims (AP-127)‎ ]]
#[[USS Admiral (1863)]]
#[[USS Admiral (SP-541)]]
#[[USS Admiral (SP-967)‎ ]]
#[[USS Admiralty Islands (CVE-99)]]
#[[USS Admittance (1847)]]
#[[USS Adolph Hugel (1860)]]
#[[USS Admiral F. B. Upham (AP-129)]]
#[[USS Adonis (LST-83)]]
#[[Adopt‎ ]]
#[[Adria]]
#[[Adrian‎ ]]
#[[Adriana‎ ]]
#[[Adroit-2‎ ]]
#[[Advance‎ ]]
#[[Advance-2‎ ]]
#[[Advance-3‎ ]]
#[[Eldest]]
#[[Orik]]
#[[King Hrothgar]]
#[[Three-Fifths Compromise‎ ]]
#[[Escobedo v. Illinois‎ ]]
#[[Agenda Setting]]
#[[Appellate jurisdiction‎ ]]
#[[Bill of Attainder]]
#[[Blanket Primary]]
#[[Block grants]]
#[[Capital-gains Tax‎ ]]
#[[Jim Elliot‎ ]]
#[[Casework‎ ]]
#[[Closed Convention]]
#[[Closed Rule]]
#[[Committee Report]]
#[[Comparable worth‎ ]]
#[[Concurring Opinion]]
#[[Congressional Review]]
#[[Congressional-executive Agreement‎ ]]
#[[Constitutional Courts]]
#[[Cost-benefit Analysis]]
#[[Cross-ownership]]
#[[De Facto Segregation]]
#[[De Jure Segregation]]
#[[Discount Rate]]
#[[Entitlements]]
#[[Discretionary Spending]]
#[[Exclusionary Rule]]
#[[Executive Agreement]]
#[[Executive Order‎ ]]
#[[Fast Track Authority]]
#[[Federal Budget Deficit‎ ]]
#[[Fiscal Federalism]]
#[[Flat tax]]
#[[Front-loading]]
#[[Gender Gap]]
#[[General Agreement on Tariff and Trade]]
#[[Good-faith Exception‎ ]]
#[[Incorporation Doctrine‎ ]]
#[[Independent Executive Agency]]
#[[Independent Regulatory Agency]]
#[[Interest Group]]
#[[Issue Network‎ ]]
#[[Judicial Restraint]]
#[[Keynesian Economics]]
#[[Unemployment Rate]]
#[[LAPS Test‎ ]]
#[[Legislative Courts]]
#[[Legislative veto]]
#[[Lobbying]]
#[[Margin of Error]]
#[[Means Test]]
#[[Midterm elections‎ ]]
#[[Minimum-rationality standard‎ ]]
#[[New Deal Coalition]]
#[[Plurality opinion]]
#[[Policy formulation]]
#[[Proportional representation]]
#[[Random sampling]]
#[[Reserved powers]]
#[[Reverse discrimination]]
#[[Inheritance Cycle]]
#[[Beor Mountains‎ ]]
#[[Stem‎ ]]
#[[Amethyst-throated Hummingbird‎ ]]
#[[Advance-4]]
#[[Advance-5]]
#[[Advance-6‎ ]]
#[[Active judge‎ ]]
#[[Senior judge]]
#[[Administrative Office of the United States Courts (AO)]]
#[[Alternate Juror]]
#[[Appellant]]
#[[Article III Judge]]
#[[Assets]]
#[[Assume]]
#[[Automatic stay‎ ]]
#[[Bankruptcy administrator‎ ]]
#[[Bankruptcy Code]]
#[[Bankruptcy court‎ ]]
#[[Bankruptcy estate]]
#[[Bankruptcy petition‎ ]]
#[[Bankruptcy trustee]]
#[[Case file]]
#[[Caseload]]
#[[Chapter 7]]
#[[Chapter 7 trustee]]
#[[Chapter 9‎ ]]
#[[Chapter 11]]
#[[Chapter 12‎ ]]
#[[Chapter 13‎ ]]
#[[Chapter 13 trustee]]
#[[Chapter 15]]
#[[Hercule Poirot]]
#[[Brisngr]]
#[[Eragon (character)]]
#[[Teaching English Abroad‎ ]]
#[[Brisingr (word)]]
#[[John William Waterhouse]]
#[[The Lady of Shalott]]
#[[Elaine of Astolat‎ ]]
#[[King Hrothgar (character)]]
#[[Arya (character)]]
#[[Samwise Gamgee]]
#[[User:BethanyS/Abraham Lincoln]]

I think that's it!! Have fun!! [[User:BethanyS|~Beth]][[User talk:BethanyS|Talk2'''ME''']] 15:11, 12 February 2009 (EST)

Conservapedia:Userboxes/Dance

2009-02-12T19:49:16Z

BethanyS:

2008-12-17T16:18:30Z

BethanyS:

User:BethanyS

2008-12-17T16:01:10Z

BethanyS:

User:BethanyS

2008-12-17T16:00:57Z

BethanyS:

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*[[User:BethanyS/Abraham Lincoln]]
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[[Category: Christian Conservapedians]]

American History Homework Thirteen Answers - Student Two

2008-12-17T15:59:26Z

BethanyS: